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Temel Biyoloji Canlıların Akrabalığı Ve Türlerin Sınıflandırılması İçindekiler

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Temel Biyoloji Canlıların Akrabalığı Ve Türlerin Sınıflandırılması İçindekiler Temel Biyoloji Canlıların Akrabalığı ve Türlerin sınıflandırılması İçindekiler 1 Canlı 1 1.1 Köken bilimi ............................................. 1 1.2 Canlıların sınıflandırılması ...................................... 1 1.3 Canlıların ortak özellikleri ...................................... 1 1.4 Ayrıca bakınız ............................................ 2 1.5 Dış bağlantılar ............................................ 2 1.6 Kaynakça ............................................... 2 2 Monera 3 2.1 Dış bağlantılar ............................................ 3 3 Arkea 4 3.1 Tarihçe ................................................ 4 3.2 Habitatları ............................................... 5 3.3 Şekil ................................................. 5 3.4 Metabolizma ............................................. 5 3.5 Evrim ve sınıflandırma ........................................ 5 3.6 Özellikleri ............................................... 6 3.7 Arkeler üzerinde çalışmış biyologlar ................................. 6 3.8 Kaynaklar ............................................... 6 3.9 Dış bağlantılar ............................................ 6 4 Protistler 7 4.1 Geleneksel sınıflandırma ....................................... 7 4.1.1 Protozoa: hayvan benzeri protistler .............................. 7 4.1.2 Algler: bitki benzeri protistler ................................ 7 4.1.3 Mantar benzeri protistler ................................... 7 4.2 Güncel sınıflandırma ......................................... 8 4.3 Ayrıca bakınız ............................................ 8 4.4 Kaynaklar ............................................... 8 5 Mantarlar 9 5.1 Tarihçe ................................................ 9 5.2 Üremeleri ............................................... 9 i ii İÇİNDEKİLER 5.3 Önemleri ............................................... 10 5.4 Yetiştiriciliği ............................................. 10 5.5 Zararları ve zehirlenme ........................................ 11 5.6 Su Mantarları ............................................. 11 5.7 Sınıflandırılmaları ........................................... 11 5.8 Yenilebilen mantarlar ......................................... 12 5.8.1 Yenilebilen mantar türleri .................................. 12 5.9 Kaynakça ............................................... 14 5.10 Ayrıca bakınız ............................................ 14 5.11 Dış bağlantılar ............................................ 14 6 Bitki 15 6.1 Tohumsuz/Çiçeksiz bitkiler ...................................... 15 6.2 Tohumlu/Çiçekli Bitkiler ....................................... 15 6.3 Ayrıca bakınız ............................................ 15 6.4 Dış bağlantılar ............................................ 16 7 Hayvanlar 17 7.1 Karakteristikleri ........................................... 17 7.2 Üreme ve gelişme ........................................... 17 7.3 Basit sınıflandırma .......................................... 18 7.4 Ayrıca bakınız ............................................ 18 7.5 Dış bağlantılar ............................................ 18 7.6 Metin ve görüntü kaynakları, yazarlar ve lisans ............................ 19 7.6.1 Metin ............................................. 19 7.6.2 Resimler ........................................... 20 7.6.3 İçerik lisans .......................................... 23 Bölüm 1 Canlı Yunanca "ὄργανον (organon)" sözcüğünden gelir.[2] 1.2 Canlıların sınıflandırılması Evrende birçok canlı vardır ve bilim insanlarının bun- ların her birini tek tek incelemesi mümkün değildir. Bu yüzden, canlılar sınıflara ayrılırlar. Canlıların belir- li özellikleri göz önüne alınarak yapılan gruplandırmaya taksonomi (sınıflandırma) veya biyosistematik denir. Sı- nıflandırmayı inceleyen bilim dalına sistematik (taksono- mi) denir. Canlılar temel olarak 6 grupta sınıflandırılır. • Monera Alemi • Arkeler Alemi • Protista Alemi • Fungi Alemi • Bitkiler Alemi • Deniz süngeri çok hücreli canlılara çok basit bir örnektir. Hayvanlar Alemi Canlı ya da Organizma; biyoloji ve ekolojide, fonksi- yonlarını yaşama mümkün olduğunca uyum sağlayarak 1.3 Canlıların ortak özellikleri sürdüren basit yapı moleküllerinin veya karmaşık organ sistemlerinin bir araya gelmesiyle oluşan varlıklar için • Hücresel yapı kullanılan bir kavramdır. • Metabolizma Canlılar; çevreye uyum sağlama, üreme ve kalıtım gibi ortak özelliklere sahip doğal varlıklar grubunun ve “ya- • Homeostazi (iç denge) şam"ın temel öğeleridir. • Beslenme • Solunum 1.1 Köken bilimi • Sindirim • Canlı sözcüğü Farsça'dan Türkçe'ye geçmiş olan[1] Boşaltım “can” sözcüğünden türemiştir. “Can” yaşama, yaşam • Dolaşım anlamındadır. Buna sahip olanlar ise canlıdır, yani “yaşayan"dır.[1] Organizma ise araç/alet anlamındaki • Büyüme 1 2 BÖLÜM 1. CANLI • Gelişme • Çoğalma (Üreme) • Hareket • Çevresel uyarılara tepki • Ölüm Bütün canlılarda bu özelliklerin hepsi görülmektedir. 1.4 Ayrıca bakınız • Canlılar alemi • Canlılarda beslenme • Canlılarda davranış • Canlılarda çoğalma • Adaptasyon • Yaşam 1.5 Dış bağlantılar • BBCNews • Yaşam ağacı 1.6 Kaynakça [1] TDK Güncel Türkçe Sözlük [2] İngilizce Vikipedi Bölüm 2 Monera Monera (daha önce prokaryot hücreye sahip olan canlılar monera alemi olarak kabul edilmekteydi. Prokaryotae), diğer alemlerden ayrılarak, Prokaryot (Prokaryotae) de- nilen bir üst alemde toplanmıştır. Monera alemi olarak isimlendirildiği dönemde Siyanobakteriler (mavi - yeşil algler) ve bakteriler olmak üzere iki alt alemi içermektey- di. Bu dönemde Arkeler Monera içinde ayrı bir yere yer- leştirilmemiştir. Halen Türkiye'de bazı özel dershaneler- de bu eski taksonomik yaklaşım devam etmektedir. Zarla çevrili bir çekirdeği ve organelleri olan gelişmiş tekhüc- reliler üst alemine Eukaryot denilmiştir. Prokayotlar, ge- nellikle bir hücrelidir, ancak bazen dış görünüşleri bakı- mından çok hücreliymiş gibi görünenleri de bulunmak- tadır. Emilim (absorbisyon) ile ardıbeslek; fotosentez ile kendibeslek ve kemosentetik beslenen grupları içerirler. Çoğalmaları bölünme ya da tomurcuklanma ile eşeysiz olarak gerçekleşir. Kalıtsal materyallerini konjugasyon, transformasyon, transdüksiyon ve plazmit değişimi ile de- ğiştirebilirler. Hareketleri, kamçılarla, süzülme ya da ya- vaş kayma şeklinde olur. Binlerce türü bilinmekte olup, sınıflandırılmaları tam olarak yapılamayan bir gruptur, üç domain (saha) canlı grubu kabul görmektedir. 1- Eubacteria 2- Archea 3- Eucaryota. Daha önceki yıllarda ise Monera aleminin alt alemleri; • Altalem : Eubacteria • Altalem : Archaebacteria olmak üzere gruplandırıl- mıştır. Eubacteria; kükürt (S) kullanan ya da kullanmayan yeşil bakterileri, mor bakterileri, spiroketleri, cyanobakterileri ve gram pozitif bakterileri kapsar. Archaebacteria; metanojen, termoasidofil ve halofil bakterileri kapsar. 2.1 Dış bağlantılar • Bacterial evolution 3 Bölüm 3 Arkea Arkeler, Arkea (Yunanca αρχαία, “eskiler” 'den türet- Phylogenetic Tree of Life me; tekil olarak Arkaeum, Arkaean, veya Arkaeon), veya Arkebakteriler, canlı organizmaların bir ana bölü- Bacteria Archaea Eukaryota müdür. Green Filamentous bacteria Entamoebae Slime Animals Spirochetes molds Fungi Yabancı literatürde bu gruptaki canlılar Archaea veya Gram Methanosarcina positives Methanobacterium Halophiles Proteobacteria Plants Methanococcus Archaebacteria, grubun tek bir üyesi ise tekil olarak Cyanobacteria Ciliates T. celer Archaeum, Archaean, veya Archaeon olarak adlandı- Planctomyces Thermoproteus Flagellates Pyrodicticum Bacteroides Trichomonads rılır Cytophaga Microsporidia Thermotoga Arkeler, Ökaryotlar ve Bakteriler, üç-saha sisteminin Diplomonads Aquifex (İngilizce three domain system) temel gruplarıdır. Bakte- riler gibi arkaeler de çekirdeği olmayan tek hücreli can- lılardır, yani prokaryotlardır (prokaryotlar altı-alemli sı- nıflandırmada Monera olarak adlandırılırlar). İlk tanım- Bakteri, arkea ve ökaryotlar arasındaki ayrışmayı gösteren, lanan arkaeler aşırı ortamlarda bulunmuş olmalarına rağ- rRNA verilerine dayandırılmış bir filogenetik ağaç. men sonradan hemen her habitatta raslanmışlardır. Bu üst krallığa ait tek bir organizma “arkeli” (Arkea'ye transkripsiyon ve translasyon mekanizmaları bakte- ait anlamında; İngilizce archaean) olarak adlandırılır, bu rilere pek benzemeyip, çoğu bakımdan ökaryotlara sözcük sıfat olarak da kullanılır. benzemektedir. Örneğin arke translasyonu ökaryotik- benzeri başlatma (initiation) ve uzatma (elongasyon) faktörleri kullanır, trankripsiyonda ökaryotlardaki 3.1 Tarihçe gibi TATA-bağlanma proteinleri ve TFIIB rol oynar. Çoğu arke tRNA ve rRNA genlerinde arkelere has intronlar bulunur ki bunlar ve ökaryotik intronlara, ne 1977'de Carl Woese ve George Fox, prokaryotları 16S de bakteryel intronlara benz farklı kılan çeşitli başka rRNA dizinlerine göre sınıflandırdıkları filojenetik ağaç- özellikler vardır. Bakteri ve ökaryotlarda olduğu gibi daki diğer bakterilerden ayrı kümelenmelerinden dolayı arkaelerde de gliserollu fosfolipitlere sahiptirler. Ancak arkaeleri tanımlanmışlardır. Bu iki canlı grubu başlangıç- arke lipitlerinin üç özelliği değişiktir: ta birer âlem veya alt âlem olarak görülmüş, Arkaebak- teriler ve Öbakteriler olarak adlandırılmışlardır. Woese • Arke lipitlerindeki gliserolun stereokimyası bakteri bu grupların canlıların temel düzeyde birbirinden farklı ve ökaryotlardakinin tersidir. Bu, farklı bir biyosen- birer kolu sayılması gerektiğini savunmuştur. Daha son- tetik yol olduğuna işarettir. ra bu kavramı daha belirginleştirmek için grupları Arke- ler ve Bakteriler
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