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Master's Thesis Charles University in Prague Faculty of Arts Master’s Thesis Ha Mingzong Labour Migration of the Hawan Ha Clan Mongghul to Aksu in Xinjiang Institute of South and Central Asia MA Thesis Supervisor: PhDr. Veronika Zikmundová, Ph.D. 2012 I would like to thank PhDr. Veronice Zikmundové, Ph.D. and PhDr. Aleně Oberfalzerové, Ph.D. for their advice and support in helping me complete this thesis. I affirm that I wrote my master’s thesis independently and used only the sources cited. I agree that this work can be borrowed publicly. In Prague Ha Mingzong 1 Contents 0 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 6 0.1 Aim and motivation ............................................................................................ 6 0.2 Outline................................................................................................................. 7 0.3 Literature review ................................................................................................. 8 0.4 Contemporary migration in China .................................................................... 10 0.5 Contemporary minority mobility in China ........................................................ 12 0.6 Migration and movement ................................................................................. 13 0.7 Research methods and sources ........................................................................ 13 1. Historical overview of the Mongghul Ha Clan migration .......................................... 15 1.1 The Tu and their history .................................................................................... 15 1.2 The Mongghul Ha Clan and their historical migration ...................................... 16 1.3 Mongghul Ha Clan origin .................................................................................. 17 1.4 Migration from Huzhu to Tianzhu .................................................................... 19 2 Labour migration of the Mongghul Ha Clan from Tianzhu........................................ 22 2.1 Living condition in Tianzhu and motivation for migration ............................... 22 2.1.1 Education ...................................................................................................... 24 2.1.2 Reasons for migration ................................................................................... 25 2.2 Early migration of Ha Clan members and their relatives to Aksu..................... 27 2.3 Migrants early life ............................................................................................. 29 2.4 Intensification of mobility ................................................................................. 31 2.4.1 Sengzhang ..................................................................................................... 32 3 Migrant life in Aksu ................................................................................................... 35 3.1 Type of work ..................................................................................................... 35 3.2 Material/Income conditions after migration .................................................... 41 4 Culture change ........................................................................................................... 43 4.1 Farming ............................................................................................................ 43 4.2 Langauge .......................................................................................................... 44 2 4.2.1 Mongghul .................................................................................................. 45 4.2.2 Chinese dialect .......................................................................................... 48 4.2.3 Uyghur ....................................................................................................... 50 4.3 Customs ............................................................................................................ 52 4.3.1 Food and clothing .................................................................................... 52 4.3.2 Weddings .................................................................................................. 54 4.3.3 Funerals ..................................................................................................... 56 4.3.4 Festivals ..................................................................................................... 57 4.3.5 Religious beliefs ........................................................................................ 59 5 Migrant impact on local Uyghur ................................................................................ 61 6 Generalization on labour migration to Xinjiang and in China .................................. 65 7 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 69 8 References ................................................................................................................ 71 9 Appendix .................................................................................................................... 75 9.1 Interviews ......................................................................................................... 75 3 Thesis title: Labour Migration of the Hawan Ha Clan Mongghul to Aksu in Xinjiang Author: Ha Mingzong Supervisor: Veronika Zikmundová Abstract: The current work focuses on the ongoing labour migration of the Mongghul Ha Clan from Hawan, Gansu Province to Aksu in southern Xinjiang. It presents the motivation for the migration, and examines the social, economic and cultural changes the migration has catalyzed. Impacts on local Uyghur engendered by in-migrants are discussed. The work also features an overview and a generalization of the contemporary labour migration in China and Xinjiang in particular. Interviews with migrants are transcribed in Mongghul and translated to English and serve as an important source for the work. Keywords: Bingtuan, 1 enclaves, genealogy, Ha Clan, 2 Hawan, labour migration, Mongghul, Monguor, oral history, Tu, social transformation, cultural change Název práce: Pracovní migrace mongghulského rodu Ha z Hawanu do Aksu, Xinjiang Autor: Ha Mingzong Vedoucí: Veronika Zikmundová Abstrakt: Tato práce se soustředí na probíhající pracovní migraci Mongghulského rodu Ha z Hawanu v provincii Gansu do Aksu v jižním Xinjiangu. Práce představuje důvody k migraci, zároveň zkoumá sociální, ekonomické a kulturní změny, které způsobila migrace. Vyvolané vlivy na místní Uyghury jsou probírány. Práce také obsahuje přehled a zobecnění současné pracovní migrace v Číně, zejména v Xinjiangu. Rozhovory s migranty jsou přepsány v mongghulštině a přeloženy do angličtiny a slouží jako důležitý zdroj pro tuto práci. 1 Bingtuan 兵团: military turned agricultural settlements, built by the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC). 2 Clan: a group of people sharing a common surname and a common genealogy. 4 Klíčová slova: Bingtuan, Hawan, kulturní změna, rod Ha, rodinná kronika, pracovní migrace, Mongghul, Monguor, oralní historie, Tu, sociální transformace 5 0 Introduction 0.1 Aim and motivation This work continues the author’s bachelor’s thesis dealing with the historical migration of Hawan Ha Clan Mongghul, currently residing in Hawan 哈湾 Village, Tiantang 天堂 Township, Tianzhu Tibetan Autonomous County 天祝藏族自治县, Gansu 甘肃 Province, China. The present work focuses on the ongoing labour migration of clan members to other regions, especially to Aksu Prefecture 阿克苏地区, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region 新疆维吾尔自治区. This work is largely based on interviews conducted with clan migrants, their family members, including those left behind, and government officials. General facts and trends of the migration are also elicited from literature. This topic is of significance because it deals with an important moment in the history of the author’s family and clan - his immediate family members and closest relatives have all left Hawan, where they have lived for nearly a century, for new, unfamiliar places like Aksu that they believe would provide better economic and social opportunities. In the early twentieth century, an important part of the focus clan left the main body of Mongghul in Huzhu Mongghul Autonomous County 互助土族自治县 in Qinghai 青海 Province for a new location in Hawan in Gansu Province, which was in many aspects similar to Huzhu, and continued a traditional life preserving Mongghul language and culture. This time, in the twenty-first century, a large portion of Hawan Mongghul are moving to a place far from their cultural centre and language environment, where they are an insignificant minority among various ethnic groups. Among other impacts, the rapid loss of native language and traditional culture is the most prominent. This study of the resettlement of non-Han ethnic group from the Gansu-Qinghai area in Xinjiang serves as a case study and contributes to the broader study of various ethnic peoples immigrating to Xinjiang in recent years. Aksu, the destination of Ha Clan 6 migrants, is especially intriguing because of Aksu’s dramatic transformation from an arid Gobi desert to ‘the home of China’s fruits’, and partly also because of social instability that worries many. This work attempts to achieve these following goals: 1) to present the economic, social, environmental and political factors
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