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Italian Architects and Restorers in Istanbul from the 19Th Century To

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21. Raimondo D’Aronco, letnia rezydencja Ambasady W och w Therapia, 1905; za: M. Nicoletti, Raimondo D’Aronco , Mediolan 1955 21. Raimondo D’Aronco, Summer residence of Italian Embassy in Therapia, 1905; from M. Nicoletti, Raimondo D’Aronco , Milan 1955 BETWEEN WESTERNIZATION AND ORIENTALISM: ITALIAN ARCHITECTS AND RESTORERS IN ISTANBUL FROM THE 19 TH CENTURY TO THE BEGINNING OF THE 20 TH MAURIZIO BORIANI When Constantinople was conquered by the Ot- central feature, the Galata Tower, it is evident that tomans in 1453 it seemed for a while that everything the ‘Magni [ ca Comunità di Pera’ possessed the sta- had been lost and that relations between Western tus of an autonomous colony in full, with its own Europe and the capital of the new empire would be laws and its own language, religion and culture 1. dramatically curtailed. The new Ottoman rulers had found in Constanti- In reality diplomatic, cultural and commercial ex- nople a multi-ethnic and multicultural city: Greeks, changes soon resumed, facilitated in part by the fact Armenians, Italians, Bulgars, etc. constituted impor- that, just four days after entering the city, the con- tant communities, in terms not just of numbers but quering sultan, Mehmed II, con [ rmed all the privi- also of the commercial and professional activities in leges that the Genoese community resident at Galata which they were engaged. The need to establish last- had obtained in 1204, at the time of the Fourth Cru- ing modes of coexistence with them was inescapa- sade: freedom of entry into the city, transit, property ble. Mehmed II also adopted the title of ‘Emperor of ownership and residence; freedom of religion and the Romans and Protector of Orthodox Christianity’, trade; autonomous jurisdiction of civil and penal and had himself crowned as such by the Patriarch of cases among non-Muslims and the right to be assist- Constantinople in person. ed by an interpreter in those that involved Muslims. So while they were often at war with the West If we think that as early as 1303 it had been possible (and Venice in particular), the sultans permitted and to fortify the settlement and in 1348 to construct its facilitated the development not only of trade but also 1 A. Pannuti, Istanbul’s Italian Levantines among the Other Non- Italiani di Istanbul: [ gure, comunità e istituzioni dalla Riforma Muslims: A community’s fortune and dissolution despite identity alla Repubblica (1839-1923) , Fondazione Agnelli, Turin/Centro preservation , PhD in Italian Studies, Sorbonne Nouvelle, Paris 3 Altreitalie, Istituto Italiano di Cultura, Istanbul 2007. University, 2004, pp. 4-5; see too: A. De Gasperis, R. Terrazza, 26 of cultural relations. It was not uncommon for them history in the city. On the site of the second courtyard to request the services of artists and architects from (demolished) of the neighbouring Beyazid Mosque Europe and in particular Italy, aware of their repu- he laid out a new square, the [ rst in the whole of Ot- tation and appreciative of their worth and skill: we toman Stamboul, to be used for military parades and know that in 1479 Gentile Bellini was summoned to the empire’s principal civil celebrations. Finally he court to paint the portrait of Mehmed II the Conquer- had the [ rst bridge built over the Golden Horn – a or; he was followed by Agostino Veneziano, engrav- bridge of boats – and carried out the [ rst improve- er of two portraits of Suleiman the Magni [ cent. In ments of the road system, making it possible for the 1475 Aristotele Fioravante was paid a sum of mon- sultan to go by carriage from his new residence at ey for the design of a bridge between Istanbul and Dolmabahçe Palace to the Serasker Gate, the mon- Pera and Leonardo da Vinci designed a bridge over umental entrance to the military district located on the Golden Horn, presenting his proposal to Sultan the new square – the Beyaz t Meydan – which from Beyazid II in a letter of 1503. Even Michelangelo that moment on became the civil and political centre was asked to design a bridge, again between Istanbul of the city 3. and Pera 2. Mahmud II was succeeded in 1839 by his son Thus the status of Italian architects and artists at Abdülmecid. After consolidating his military power, the Ottoman court remained high: they were always he issued the Gülhane Edict (1839), launching a well received and often entrusted with prestigious series of administrative reforms (the Tanzimât): these tasks. declared that all subjects of the sultan were equal Over the years the community of Italians (known before the law, independently of their religion or any as Levantines) grew in size, reaching a peak of other distinction; conscription was also introduced 12/14,000 inhabitants at the beginning of the 20th and the tax regime was made more equitable. century, partly as a consequence of the numerous ex- Every sector of the administration of the state and iles who took refuge in Galata and then Pera during the economy had to be involved in the programme of the years of the Carbonari insurrections of 1820/21 modernization: roads and railways, urban infrastruc- and the revolutions of 1848. Among them, it suf [ ces tures, the army, public buildings and spaces, banks to recall Giuseppe Garibaldi, who lived in Istanbul and insurance companies, commercial activities; to from 1828 to 1831. achieve this the contribution of Europeans would In fact it was in the early decades of the 19th cen- be indispensable: engineers, architects, physicians, tury that job opportunities for Europeans and Levan- technicians and workers with expertise in these new tines grew even more substantial: conscious of the sectors, as well as craftsmen and artists, were offered need to reform the administration and political con- great opportunities for employment. They were tak- duct of the empire, clearly in decline when compared en up not only by the community of European origin with the military, technological and economic suc- – a great many of them Italian – settled in Galata cesses of the European powers, the sultans embarked (the Levantines), but also by a new wave of immi- on a crash course of reforms. Mahmud II turned his grants, lured by the revival of the economy and the attention [ rst to the army. In 1826 he bloodily sup- demand for new skills. pressed the Janissary corps, which since the end of The young sultan Abdülmecid had got to know the 18th century had on several occasions put up Gaspare Fossati, an architect from Ticino but trained violent resistance to the early attempts at reform. in Italy, [ rst in Venice and then at the Accademia He then transferred the imperial residence from the di Brera in Milan, when, in 1837, in his capacity Topkapi Palace to the [ rst Dolmabahçe Palace (later as of [ cial architect of the Imperial Court of St renamed Be 2ikta 2), on the European side of the Bos- Petersburg, he had been given the job of building phorus. He installed a new army, commanded by of- the new Russian embassy in Constantinople, which [ cers loyal to him, in the old military district of the would be opened in 1845. The imposing neoclassical Janissaries, destroying every physical trace of their building soon assumed the character of modernity 2 I.N. Asanloglu, The Italian contribution to 20th-century 3 G. Ye 2hilkaya, From a Courtyard to a Square: Transformation Turkish Architecture , in Presence of Italy in the Architecture of of the Beyazit Meydani in early nineteenth-century Istanbul , in the Islamic Mediterranean , Environmental Design: Journal of “Middle East Technical University Journal of the Faculty of the Islamic Environmental Design Research Centre ’, 1990, p. Architecture” (METU JFA), 2007, no. 1, pp. 71-91. 154. 27 and its architect, Gaspare Fossati, became, in the a great deal of attention had begun to be focused on eyes of the sultan and his ministers, its [ rst and most the study of ancient monuments and their restoration. re [ ned exponent. The training of an Italian architect of the time could At the Accademia di Brera in Milan Fossati had not fail to include a good grounding in the [ eld of received a thorough multidisciplinary education that the survey and drawing of monuments, as well had made him an exponent of the neoclassical style. as a long stay in Rome, in contact with the city’s He had re [ ned this in St Petersburg, in contact with cosmopolitan milieu of artists and travellers on the the work of Luigi Rusca and above all Karl Rossi 4. Grand Tour. Fossati lived in Rome from 1827 and While awaiting approval of the design and the 1832 (with visits to Naples and the archaeological subsequent construction of the building, he had sites of Pompeii, Herculaneum, Capua and Paestum). been engaged in several other works, including the These were the years of Raffaele Stern and Giuseppe church of San Pietro for the Dominicans in Galata Valadier’s restoration work on the Arch of Titus and and several designs for churches in the Theme of the Colosseum, of the reconstruction of San Paolo Cherson and on Corfu and Malta. fuori le Mura by Pasquale Belli and the emergence During the early years of his stay in Constantinople of an archaeological culture (Luigi Canina and Gaspare had obviously had an opportunity to observe Antonio Nibby in Rome, Pietro Bianchi in Naples). and study both Byzantine and Ottoman architecture. Fossati did not fail to visit the construction sites He painted a view of the interior of Hagia Sophia in and excavations underway, as is documented by watercolour that very [ rst year of 1837.
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    Tears of the Great Church: The Lamentation of Santa Sophia Marios Philippides URING THE PERIOD of the Ottoman occupation, the so- called Tourkokratia, the Greeks expressed their concerns D in folk songs, whose numerous variants were gradually collected and published in the nineteenth century to form an impressive corpus. Some songs reach back all the way to the last years of Byzantine Greece before its fall to the Ottoman Turks. One song in particular achieved a great deal of pop- ularity and perhaps qualifies as the most popular demotic song among Greek-speakers of the nineteenth century and the first decades of the twentieth. The poem is well known, but it has not received the scholarly attention it deserves. Entitled [The Song] of Santa Sophia, it is thought to describe the situation shortly before the fall of Constantinople to Sultan Mehmed II Fatih on May 29, 1453. This song survived orally and was finally recorded in the nineteenth century. Numerous versions existed in the eighteenth century; its nucleus dates to the period of the fall of Constantinople. I will attempt to demonstrate that at least one form of this poem dates to a specific event in 1452, six months before the conquest of Constantinople. Numerous variations of this poem have been collected.1 Fau- riel, in the first edition, presented a short version.2 Pouqueville 1 Variants from numerous regions are collected in A. Kriares, Πλήρηϛ Συλλογὴ Κρητικῶν Δηµωδῶν Ἀσµάτων (Athens 1920). A version was pub- lished in C. A. Trypanis, The Penguin Book of Greek Verse (Harmondsworth 1971) 469–470, no.
  • Masterarbeit / Master's Thesis

    Masterarbeit / Master's Thesis

    MASTERARBEIT / MASTER’S THESIS Titel der Masterarbeit / Title of the Master‘s Thesis „Istanbul im 19. Jahrhundert. Die Modernisierungsbestrebungen in der osmanischen Hauptstadt – lokale Faktoren und globale Einflüsse“ verfasst von / submitted by Frederic Leon Johannes Strohm angestrebter akademischer Grad / in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts (MA) Wien, 2016 / Vienna 2016 Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt / A 066 805 degree programme code as it appears on the student record sheet: Studienrichtung lt. Studienblatt / Masterstudium Globalgeschichte und Global Studies degree programme as it appears on the student record sheet: Betreut von / Supervisor: Dr. Gottfried Liedl Meinen Eltern Elke und Georg für ihre Unterstützung شك ًرا لصديقي أكثم ﻹلها ِم ِهِ لي ii Inhaltsverzeichnis Hinweise des Autors .................................................................................................................. vi I. Einleitung und Motivation ................................................................................................. 8 II. Methodik .......................................................................................................................... 10 II.1 Fragestellungen – was wird untersucht? ........................................................................ 10 II.2 Vorgehen – wie und womit wird untersucht? ................................................................ 11 II.2.1 Methode .................................................................................................................
  • Table of Contents

    Table of Contents

    U L A Ş D U Y G U A Y ELECTRIFICATION OF ISTANBUL (1878-1923) S A L C İ N A Ph.D. Dissertation E L E C T R I F I C A T I O N O F by I S T ULAŞ DUYGU AYSAL Cİ N A N B U L ( 1 8 7 8 - 1 9 2 3 ) B i l k e n t U n i v e r s Department of History i t y 2 İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University 0 1 9 Ankara January 2019 ELECTRIFICATION OF ISTANBUL (1878-1923) The Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences of İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University by ULAŞ DUYGU AYSAL C İN In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN HISTORY THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY İHSAN DOĞRAMACI BİLKENT UNIVERSITY ANKARA January 2019 ABSTRACT ELECTRIFICATION OF ISTANBUL (1878-1923) Aysal Cin , Ulaş Duygu Ph.D., Department of History Supervisor: Asst. Prof. Dr. Mehmet Akif K ireçci January 2019 This dissertation focuses on the history of introduction and development of electrical technology in Ottoman Istanbul with a special focus on the 1910 concession, and its implementation, which was held to construct the first power plant in Istanbul, the Si lahtarağa Power Plant. The concession became the arena for international competition, and revealed the critical roles of multinational companies, consortiums, and the international banking in the electrification business of Istanbul, along with the various diplomatic maneuvers of European and American states, which depicted the diffusion of foreign capital into the Ottoman lands.