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Slavery, Emancipation, and the Making of Freedom in Howard County, Missouri, 1860 to 1865

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Slavery, Emancipation, and the Making of Freedom in Howard County, Missouri, 1860 to 1865 “UP TO FREEDOM”: SLAVERY, EMANCIPATION, AND THE MAKING OF FREEDOM IN HOWARD COUNTY, MISSOURI, 1860 TO 1865 A Thesis presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School University of Missouri-Columbia In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts by STANLEY D. MAXSON Dr. LeeAnn Whites, Thesis Supervisor MAY 2015 The undersigned, appointed by the dean of the Graduate School, have examined the thesis entitled “UP TO FREEDOM”: SLAVERY, EMANCIPATION, AND THE MAKING OF FREEDOM IN HOWARD COUNTY, MISSOURI, 1860 TO 1865 Presented by Stanley D. Maxson a candidate for the degree of master of arts, and hereby certify that, in their opinion, it is worthy of acceptance. Professor LeeAnn Whites Professor Keona Ervin Professor Mary Jo Neitz ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the assistance, support, and generosity of many. I would like to thank Dr. LeeAnn Whites for helping this project get on its feet from the start. Her guidance, knowledge, and seemingly tireless assistance over the past two years have been invaluable. The generous support of the University of Missouri Women’s and Gender Department and the Kinder Forum on Constitutional Democracy made possible the research at the National Archives and Records Administration in Washington D.C. that this thesis stands upon. Megan Boccardi deserves special thanks for sharing her research and for introducing me to the value of the Civil War Pensions applications as a historical source. My colleagues have also provided indispensable help every step of the way. Thanks to Sarah Lirely McCune for her guidance through the master’s program, Emma Walcott-Wilson for being a map- maker extraordinaire, and J Matthew Ward for being a true compatriot in courses, conference presentations, and throughout the thesis writing process. None of this would be possible without the assistance of my wife and research partner Ann, who I wish to thank most sincerely for her encouragement, support, and editorial eye. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................ii List of Tables and Maps .........................................................................................................iv Introduction: “Our own peculiar system” ..............................................................................1 Chapter One: “I knew about all of them”: Slavery and the ‘Neighborhood’ in Howard County, c. 1860 ...............................................20 Chapter Two: “At the time of freedom, and when Martin went into the Army”: Gendered Emancipation in Howard County, 1863-1865 .......................................................54 Chapter Three: “That was my right name”: Slavery and Surnames in Howard County, 1860-1865 .........................................................85 Conclusion: Kin and Communities in the Civil War Era .....................................................110 Bibliography .........................................................................................................................114 iii LIST OF TABLES AND MAPS Map 1: Free Black Population by Township .........................................................................29 Table 1: Anatomy of an Abroad Marriage .............................................................................34 Map 2: Percent of Total Enslaved Persons by Township .....................................................40 Table 2: Slave-Dense: White, Slave, and Free Black Populations .......................................43 Table 3: Slave-Sparse: White, Slave, and Free Black Populations ......................................43 Map 3: Enslaved Population by Township ...........................................................................44 Map 4: Enslaved Population by Township (detailed) ...........................................................45 Map 5: White Population by Township ................................................................................46 Map 6: Population by Township: Free and Enslaved ...........................................................47 Table 4: Slave-Dense: Ages of Enslaved by Township ........................................................50 Table 5: Slave-Sparse: Ages of Enslaved by Township .......................................................51 Table 6: Slave-Dense: Gender Composition of Enslaved Population .................................52 Table 7: Slave-Sparse: Gender Composition of Enslaved Population .................................52 Table 8: U.S.C.T. Surnames at the Time of Enlistment .......................................................89 iv INTRODUCTION “Our own peculiar system”1 Life under slavery and the work of making freedom in Howard County were experienced and developed relationally. The social and kinship connections of the enslaved, so crucial in surviving slavery, were essential in navigating a wartime freedom movement, and foundational in making freedom meaningful in the aftermath of Civil War. The mobility allowed Howard County slaves through hiring out and abroad marriage connected farms and towns in ways that cannot be reduced to the economic calculus of slavery as a system of labor. Slaves themselves linked small farms into a network of social and kinship relationships over and above the intentions and imaginations of their masters. In the chaos of the Civil War routes to freedom were decidedly gendered. In Howard County a strong majority of able-bodied male slaves were recruited into the military and taken to Benton Barracks, St. Louis, while those who could not enlist—the majority women—remained enslaved. Nearly two-thirds of all service eligible males in Howard County enlisted into the military in the spring and summer of 1863. By 1864, nearly one-third of the men in the United States Colored Troops from Missouri had died.2 Most of those remaining were in poor health, nearly two hundred suffered from disease and malnutrition that, for many, caused permanent bodily damage. This thesis is an investigation into the social history of slavery and freedom in 1 Quote from a Joint Resolution from the Missouri State Legislature in support of the state’s right to legislate on issues pertaining to slavery. Printed in Laws of the State of Missouri, 1860. 2 Berlin et al., The Black Military Experience, ser. 2 of Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861-1867 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 487. 1 Howard County, Missouri with an eye toward the social and familial relationships of the enslaved, their existence in slavery and their role in making freedom. Located in Central Missouri with Chariton County to the West and Boone County to the East, Howard County enjoyed access to the Missouri River below providing rich alluvial soil and access to statewide commerce. With two sizeable towns, Fayette and Glasgow, serving as the urban centers of Howard County, most of the land was rural and devoted to agricultural production of tobacco and hemp. Additionally, Howard County lay at the heart of a string of seven Missouri River counties that held slave populations of at least twenty four percent.3 Historians have often found it convenient to refer to these counties as Little Dixie for the cultural, economic, agricultural, political, and slaveholding similarities they shared with states in the upper and lower south.4 Fundamentally, it was the slave-based antebellum “commercial production of hemp and tobacco that defined Little Dixie as a distinctive region.”5 By 1860 Howard County had the highest percent of slaves of any county in the state, thirty seven percent.6 Slavery marked the culture and economy of Howard County from the moment migrants from the Upper South first began 3 R. Douglas Hurt, Agriculture, and Slavery in Missouri’s Little Dixie (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1992), xi. Hurt refers to this slave owning region also as Missouri’s “black belt” in reference to the large population of slaves held in theses seven counties, not in reference to the rich, dark soil of the region. 4 Aaron Astor identifies Little Dixie as a region defined economically by slave driven agriculture, as well as politically defending the rights of the slaveholder. The region of Little Dixie was “composed of the Missouri Counties of Callaway, Boone, Howard, Cooper, Chariton, Saline, and Lafayette [that] traversed the Missouri River and formed the backbone of the state’s slave-based hemp and tobacco culture.” Astor, Rebels on the Border: Civil War, Emancipation, and the Reconstruction of Kentucky and Missouri, (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2012), 13. The region of Little Dixie varies depending on interpretation but the most common, and that used by Astor, comes from Douglas Hurt, Agriculture, and Slavery in Missouri’s Little Dixie, ix-xi. Most recently it has been used by Diane Mutti Burke in On Slavery’s Border: Missouri’s Small-Slaveholding Households, 1815-1865 (Athens: The University of Georgia Press), 12. Additionally however, Burke alternatively uses the term “Missouri River counties,” the term that I prefer. 5 Robert W. Frizzell, “Southern Identity in Nineteenth-Century Missouri: Little Dixie’s Slave- Majority Areas and the Transition to Midwestern Farming,” Missouri Historical Review, vol. 99, no. 3, (April, 2005), 238-60. 6 Burke, On Slavery’s Border, 310. 2 to settle in the region in droves throughout the early 1820s.7 The importance of the social and kinship relations of
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