Bushmeat Hunting Around Lomami National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo

Bushmeat hunting around Lomami National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo

R ODRIGUE B ATUMIKE,GERARD I MANI,CHRISTIAN U ROM and A IDA C UNI-SANCHEZ

Abstract For most of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Introduction quantitative data on bushmeat exploitation are scarce. We conducted focus group discussions on preferred species n tropical forests, where wildlife biomass is lower than in for household consumption and income generation in  Imore open habitats such as savannahs, overhunting of villages around Lomami National Park, created in . wild animals for their meat, often referred to as bushmeat, We also carried out a bushmeat market survey in Kindu, a may lead to the depletion of local populations and can con- major town in the study area, to estimate annual sales vo- tribute to the extinction of some species (Abernethy et al.,  lumes and retail values. Villagers reported household con- ). In Africa rising demand for bushmeat, related to sumption of  mammal species, with the most important human population growth and increased affluence, has led being the African brush-tailed porcupine, Peters’s duiker, to a dramatic increase in bushmeat commercialization and bay duiker and red river hog. The latter three were also the hunting rates, threatening the populations of many targeted  most important for income generation. A greater number species (Bennett et al., ). Overhunting can have cascad- of smaller species were consumed at the household level, ing effects in an ecosystem, affecting species not targeted for compared with those traded. A total of  mammal and one bushmeat (e.g. large carnivores) and altering forest structure reptile species were traded in Kindu. Those traded in greater and composition because large mammals and birds are im- numbers were the African brush-tailed porcupine, blue portant dispersers of trees with large seeds (Wright et al.,   and bay duiker, red river hog, red-tailed monkey and the ; Maisels et al., ). Because of these cascading sitatunga. We estimated . , carcasses were traded in effects, overhunting can also affect forest carbon stocks  Kindu annually, with a retail value of USD ,.Sev- (Brodie & Gibbs, ). In Africa unsustainable hunting eral species of conservation concern, such as the bonobo, of wild animals has been identified as the greatest threat  were mentioned or observed. Few rodents and numerous to protected areas (Schulze et al., ). large animals were traded in Kindu, suggesting resources In all Central African countries bushmeat is a significant have not yet been depleted. However, both villagers and source of animal protein and is important for food security  urban vendors perceived a decline of many species and (Fa et al., ). It is also often the only source of iron and fat   reported an increase in the use of firearms and the number (Siren & Machoa, ; Golden et al., ). A recent study of foreign hunters in the area. Among other interventions, from Kisangani in the Democratic Republic of the Congo we discuss how local communities could be encouraged to (DRC) showed that both wealthy and impoverished urban help preserve wildlife in the Park’s buffer zone. households consume bushmeat for a variety of reasons, including low cost and taste preference (van Vliet et al., ). Keywords Bushmeat consumption, bushmeat trade, com- Apart from being a crucial source of food and nutrients, munities, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Lomami bushmeat can also be an important source of income for National Park, rainforest, wildlife conservation rural communities (Fa et al., ; Mbete et al., ). Un- Supplementary material for this article is available at sustainable hunting of wild animals can thus negatively doi.org/./S affect the nutrition, food security and livelihoods of the people that depend on them. Two approaches are often used to indirectly infer the sustainability of bushmeat hunting in a given area: hunt- RODRIGUE BATUMIKE Département de Sciences de l’Environnement, Université ing profiles (e.g. distance travelled on hunting trips), and du Cinquantenaire Lwiro, Kabare, Suk-Kivu, Democratic Republic of the Congo market profiles (e.g. the range of species traded and price GERARD IMANI (Corresponding author) Biology Department, Université changes; Fa et al., ). In West and Central Africa the Officielle de Bukavu, Bukavu, Democratic Republic of the Congo E-mail [email protected] latter approach has gained attention because markets are

CHRISTIAN UROM Biology Department, Université de Kisangani, Kisangani, highly visible (sale of most bushmeat is not illegal) and it Democratic Republic of the Congo is relatively easy to collect data on the animals for sale

AIDA CUNI-SANCHEZ (Corresponding author, orcid.org/0000-0001-8619-1095) (Fa, ; Taylor et al., ). In areas with higher hunting York Institute for Tropical Ecosystems, Department of Environment and pressures fewer large-bodied animals are sold at markets, Geography, University of York, York, UK E-mail [email protected] and generally there is greater species diversity of the bush-   Received  March . Revision requested  June . meat on offer (Cowlishaw et al., ; Fa, ). This is be- Accepted  August . First published online  March . cause smaller-bodied species such as large rodents and small

This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted re-use, Downloadeddistribution, from https://www.cambridge.org/core and reproduction in any medium,. IP address: provided 170.106.35.234 the original work, on is 25 properly Sep 2021 cited. at 02:40:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/termsOryx, 2021, 55(3), 421–431 ©. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605319001017The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605319001017 422 R. Batumike et al.

duikers possess higher reproductive potentials and are thus more resilient to heavy hunting pressure (Dupain et al., ; Fa et al., ). Large rodents and small duikers also survive in more degraded habitats (Kümpel et al., ). Despite their advantages, market surveys have limitations: what reaches a market is often only a subset of the species hunted (Cowlishaw et al., ). Although large-bodied animals are generally sold at urban markets, smaller and less valuable animals are more likely to be consumed by the hunters (Allebone-Webb et al., ). Hunters may also consume animals that are in too poor a condition to be sold and may trade some animals at the village level. Therefore, understanding hunters’ household consumption is required to obtain a comprehensive view of bushmeat hunting in a given area. Lomami National Park was created in July , following a new law promulgated in DRC that considered sustainable development of protected area edge communities. This new Park has a large buffer zone in which local communities are allowed to carry out certain extractive activities (including hunting) to satisfy their needs (Mushagalusa, ). To provide insights into current hunting patterns in this Park, we combined village surveys and a market survey in Kindu (the largest urban centre near this Park), aiming to answer the following three questions: () Which species are used for household consumption and trade? () What are the economic values and annual volumes traded in Kindu? ()Do local hunters or vendors perceive a decline of some spe- FIG. 1 Lomami National Park, major rivers, roads and towns, cies? Our relatively rapid assessment method can be of and villages sampled. Some villages are located next to each practical value to support conservation and sustainable use other and appear as one point on the map (we carried out of wildlife in Lomami National Park and other reserves in surveys in a total of  villages). the Congo Basin. Methods

Study area Village surveys

 The , km Lomami National Park has a buffer zone of We organized focus group discussions in  villages located  c. , km (Fig. ). Most of the area is covered by lowland around the southern part of the Park, which has more vil- semi-evergreen rainforests, evergreen rainforests dominated lages and is more easily accessible by road than the northern by limbali Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, swamp forests and part (Fig. ). Inhabitants belonged to six ethnic groups: savannahs. The climate is equatorial, with a mean annual Kusu, Kuti, Ngengele, Silwamba, Tetela and Mbote, each re- rainfall of c. , mm and mean monthly temperature of presented by four villages. Each focus group discussion – °C (ICCN, ). The dry season (June–July) lasts involved – village elders including the village chief, as is ,  months. The Park provides habitat for threatened customary in the area. After we explained the aim of the iconic species including the forest elephant Loxodonta study to the village chief, he explained it to the elders and africana cyclotis, bonobo Pan paniscus, okapi Okapia some decided to participate on a voluntary basis. All elders, johnstoni, Congo peafowl Afropavo congensis, the recently including the chiefs, were active hunters, as this is the major discovered dryas monkey Cercopithecus dryas, only previ- livelihood activity in the study area, and is culturally impor- ously known from Salonga National Park, and the newly tant. None of the villages studied have access to electricity, described lesula monkey Cercopithecus lomamiensis. The running water or the mobile phone network. There are main inhabitants of the region are farmers practicing small- few primary schools and health centres in the region (often scale subsistence agriculture (cassava, maize and rice), .  km apart). All inhabitants are extremely poor, includ- hunting and fishing. Inhabitants also include Mbote (Pygmy) ing the chiefs and the elders. Only men are hunters in the hunter-gatherers. study area.

Focus group discussions were organized in the same way and if any species commonly sold were not in her/his mar- in all villages, and were facilitated and translated by a person ket stall that day). We multiplied vendor recall estimate on of the same ethnicity as the inhabitants of the village stud- weekly volumes by the number of weeks during the open ied. Discussions focused on: () preferred wildlife species season ( weeks/year) to estimate annual trading volumes. used for household consumption (i.e. those eaten more Although vendors mentioned that they also traded dur- often) at the village level (not at the participants’ own house- ing the closed season, we did not ask them about volumes holds), () preferred species used for income generation at sold during that period and thus did not include those in the village level, and () observed changes in species’ popu- our analysis. During the closed season bushmeat is not lations and potential explanations for these changes. We sold openly, but customers ask vendors in the vegetable specifically asked participants to identify (and agree upon) market for it, and vendors retrieve the bushmeat from hid- the three most important species for household consump- den places. Direct observation (counting numbers of species tion or income generation. We also discussed hunting tech- and individuals per day and vendor) was not possible during niques. During discussions we clarified that by species for the closed season as vendors would suspect that we may income generation we specifically asked about those killed work for the National Parks Authority (see Discussion for for bushmeat. Some primates may be traded as pets and limitations of the study). some pangolins for medicinal purposes, but we did not discuss these uses as they are not widespread in the study area Data analysis (RB, pers. obs., ). We used photos from available literature (e.g. Kingdon, Species’ scientific names and conservation status followed  ) to confirm which species the vernacular names used the IUCN Red List (IUCN, ). during the focus group discussions referred to. We also took To determine the effects of ethnicity on villagers’ re- photos of carcasses and showed them to Park staff to con- sponses, the four villages of each ethnic group were pooled firm species identity in some cases. (villages of the same ethnic group were in close vicinity to each other). Estimated travel times by motorbike (these vil- Kindu market survey lages are not accessible by four-wheeled motor vehicles) to Kindu are as follows: Kusu . h, Kuti . h, Ngengele  h, Our market survey took place in Kindu (c. , inhabi- Silwamba  h, Tetela . h and Mbote  h, with the latter tants; Population Data, ), the largest urban centre near two inaccessible by motorbike during most of the rainy Lomami National Park (Fig. ) and a major trading centre season. We observed no differences between ethnic groups, for timber, bushmeat, agricultural products and minerals. nor by distance to Kindu. We therefore combined all  The bushmeat market is open every day during the open focus group discussions and report responses as per cent season (October–June), during which it is legal to hunt and of the total. trade non-threatened species. We conducted the survey For Kindu market data, we extrapolated volumes in in October , after the closed season (July–September). number of carcasses, biomass and monetary value of the We conducted interviews with  vendors, which was c. % annual harvest from the mean number of carcasses traded of the vendors in the market during our study period. per week per vendor (from vendor recall), multiplied by These  vendors participated in our survey on a voluntary number of vendors, similar to Gonedelé et al. (). We basis, and their responses were kept anonymous. Although extracted mean biomass for each species from Kingdon this is a relatively small number of vendors, the species ac- (), assuming equal distribution of male and female cumulation curve (Supplementary Fig. ) indicates that we individuals amongst the carcasses. A large proportion of captured the majority of species for sale. We gathered data carcasses were smoked and therefore our prices per kg on the number of species traded, their price and format (compared with beef or chicken) and annual retail values (fresh/smoked), their origin (i.e. village), the volumes sold are approximate. We report price per smoked rather than per week, and perceived changes over time in species’ fresh carcass, because we only found a few fresh carcasses availability. Carcasses offered for sale were identified using of some species. Our estimates represent a minimum vol- photos and vernacular names, as in the village surveys. ume and retail value of bushmeat trade in Kindu because We also recorded age, gender, and socio-ethnic group of we calculated annual volumes excluding the closed season all vendors. (although most vendors mentioned trading during that We gathered market data with a mixed approach: obser- season), and we only surveyed c. % of the vendors in the vation of market stall (which species a vendor had on her/his market and computed annual volumes using this number stall, and how many individuals of each) and vendor recall of vendors. Because study participants did not mention any (we asked her/him to estimate how many carcasses of each change in species’ presence or abundance related to the cre- species she/he usually sold per week during the open season, ation of the Park in , we do not discuss this further.

Results respect for traditional regulations that do not allow hunting certain species (e.g. bonobos, pangolins, tortoises). An in- Village surveys creased use of firearms, particularly by wealthier foreign hunters, was attributed to the fact that it makes hunting gre-  A total of species (all mammals) were mentioned as im- garious animals easier and because prey caught in traps can  portant for bushmeat in our village surveys (Table ). Fif- be stolen. The Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation teen were considered important for household consumption (Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature) is re-  (consumed most often) whereas were considered impor- sponsible for enforcing the bushmeat hunting and trading  tant for income generation (Table ). The most important ban during the closed season. However, the financial and .  species for household consumption (mentioned in % human resources needed to patrol the Park and buffer of the villages sampled) were the African brush-tailed por- zone are lacking, and enforcement is ineffective. ’ cupine Atherurus africanus, Peters sduikerCephalophus At least five species hunted for bushmeat are of conser- callipygus, bay duiker Cephalophus dorsalis and red river vation concern (i.e. categorized as threatened on the IUCN hog Potamochoerus porcus. The most important species Red List; Table ). A sixth species could be the newly .  for income generation (mentioned in % of the villages described, Vulnerable lesula Cercopithecus lomamiensis, sampled) were the same, except for the porcupine, which which is endemic to Lomami National Park. Guenons Cer- was considered less important for income generation copithecus spp. are used for bushmeat in Kindu, but we  (Table ). In general, a greater number of smaller species could not always confirm the species because of the poor ,  ( kg) were mentioned for household consumption quality of smoked carcasses. During the focus group discus- (e.g. rodents such as the Gambian pouched rat Cricetomys sions we realized there was a misconception about hunt- gambianus and African giant squirrel Protoxerus stangeri) ing threatened species: because all species inside the Park’s .  whereas a greater number of large species ( kg) were core zone were protected (hunting is forbidden), villagers mentioned for income generation (e.g large ungulates in- thought they were allowed to hunt any species in the cluding the common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia, harnessed Park’s buffer zone (e.g. including the bonobo). bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus and sitatunga Tragelaphus spekii; Table ). Participants reported selling large ungu- ‘ lates because most people in Kindu prefer them as they Market survey are tastier’. Bushmeat, small fish and caterpillars (the latter only available in September–December) were reported to be A total of  species were commercialized during our study the main sources of protein in all villages studied (animal period,  of which had been mentioned as important for rearing is limited in this area). income generation during the village surveys (Table ). There were no major differences in the species mentioned Almost all were mammals, including nine artiodactyls, six by the different ethnic groups, but Mbote sometimes ex- primates, one rodent and one carnivore. There was one spe- changed carcasses for objects (e.g. shoes or clothes) rather cies of crocodile and no birds (Table ). Six species were than money. Respondents mentioned that they mostly sold traded by . % of the vendors: the African brush-tailed their carcasses in the towns of Dikanjo, Lokando, Bafundo porcupine, blue duiker Cephalophus monticola, bay duiker, and Kindu (Fig. ). Respondents in all villages reported hunt- red river hog, red-tailed monkey Cercopithecus ascanius,and ing to be their main income generating activity, with the mon- the sitatunga. Most species were sold as whole carcasses ey being used to pay for school fees, medicines or clothes. (except the porcupine and sitatunga, which were sometimes In many villages, participants mentioned declines of sold by quarters), and in smoked form (Table ). The cheap- some species (African brush-tailed porcupine, Peters’s and est species (per individual) was an unidentified guenon and bay duiker, and guenons Cercopithecus sp.; Table ). Hunters the most expensive was the red river hog. In general, smaller reported they had to travel greater distances, to locations species were cheaper than larger ones (Table ), but prices closer to or inside the Park’s core zone, to find these species. also depended on the size of individual carcasses, with larger They also mentioned that certain species had nearly disap- ones being more expensive. Vendors mentioned that they peared, notably the forest elephant, African buffalo Syncerus mostly traded smoked carcasses because they were easier caffer and bongo Tragelaphus eurycerus (,  and %of to transport. The roads around Lomami National Park are the villages sampled, respectively). According to the villa- impassable by four-wheeled motor vehicles, and some are gers, wildlife population declines were related to overhunt- inaccessible even by motorbike during the rainy season. Only ing, which they attributed to four factors: () an increased nine (of ) vendors mentioned they did not trade certain number of foreigners (Congolese from other ethnic groups species during the closed season, but still traded others who are not local to the study area) hunting in the area, during that period. () increased use of firearms, primarily by foreign hunters, Most vendors in Kindu buy carcasses from major retail- () lack of respect for the closed season, and ()lackof ers. Retailers travel to towns (mostly Dikanjo, Katopa and

Oryx, 2021, 55(3), 421–431 © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of Fauna & Flora International doi:10.1017/S0030605319001017 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.35.234, on 25 Sep 2021 at 02:40:11, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605319001017 https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms Downloaded from Oryx TABLE 1 Species reported during the village surveys as being important for household consumption or income generation, perceived as having declining populations or having become rare, 01 53,421 55(3), 2021, ,

https://www.cambridge.org/core and observed in Kindu bushmeat market.

Village surveys1 Kindu market2 Size Price per Vendors per- –

431 class Household Income Perceived Perceived Mean body Carcasses sold smoked carcass ceive decline 3 4

© Species (by Order) (kg) Status consumption generation decline as rare weight (kg) (smoked or fresh) (USD) (%) . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605319001017 h uhrs,22.Pbihdb abig nvriyPeso eafo an lr nentoa doi:10.1017/S0030605319001017 International Flora & Fauna of behalf on Press University Cambridge by Published 2020. Author(s), The Rodentia African brush-tailed porcupine , 10 LC 13 3 18 0 1.5–4 (F/M) Smoked/fresh 7 75

. IPaddress: Atherurus africanus Gambian pouched rat , 10 LC 1 0 1 0 Cricetomys gambianus African giant squirrel , 10 LC 2 0 0 0 170.106.35.234 Protoxerus stangeri Lesser cane rat , 10 LC 1 0 1 0 Thryonomys gregorianus Artiodactyla , on Peters’s duiker 10–50 LC 10 10 20 1 16–23 (F/M) Smoked 27 100 25 Sep2021 at02:40:11 Cephalophus callipygus Bay duiker 10–50 NT 10 13 17 0 15–24 (F/M) Smoked 30 80 Cephalophus dorsalis Blue duiker , 10 LC 4 3 9 0 3.5–9 (F/M) Smoked/fresh 8 80 Cephalophus monticola Black-fronted duiker 10–50 LC 1 1 4 0 14–18 (F/M) Smoked 17 75 , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available at Cephalophus nigrifrons Water chevrotain 10–50 LC 4 1 2 0 12 (F), 9.7 (M) Smoked 20 75 Hyemoschus aquaticus Red river hog . 50 LC 13 13 5 1 45–115 (F/M) Smoked/fresh 54 77 425 Park National Lomami around hunting Bushmeat Potamochoerus porcus Common duiker 10–50 LC 0 2 1 0 12–25.5 (F), Smoked 43 100 Sylvicapra grimmia 11–21.5 (M) African buffalo . 50 NT 0 2 0 12 Syncerus caffer Harnessed bushbuck/kéwel . 50 LC 0 3 0 1 24–60 (F), Smoked 20 30 Tragelaphus scriptus 30–80 (M) Sitatunga 10–50 LC 2 7 5 1 40–85 (F), Smoked/fresh 45 85 Tragelaphus spekii 80–130 (M) Primates Bonobo Pan paniscus . 50 EN 0 1 0 1 Cercopithecus spp.5 , 10 Unknown 4 3 18 0 Unknown Smoked 6 60 Angola colobus 10–50 LC 2 0 1 2 9–20 (F/M) Smoked 20 100 Colobus angolensis Red-tailed monkey , 10 LC 1.8–4 (F), 3–6 Smoked/fresh 9 50 Cercopithecus ascanius (M) https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms Downloaded from 2 .Btmk tal. et Batumike R. 426 https://www.cambridge.org/core Oryx 01 53,421 55(3), 2021, , . https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605319001017 Table 1 (Cont.) – 431 1 2 . IPaddress: Village surveys Kindu market © h uhrs,22.Pbihdb abig nvriyPeso eafo an lr nentoa doi:10.1017/S0030605319001017 International Flora & Fauna of behalf on Press University Cambridge by Published 2020. Author(s), The Size Price per Vendors per- class Household Income Perceived Perceived Mean body Carcasses sold smoked carcass ceive decline

170.106.35.234 Species (by Order) (kg) Status3 consumption generation decline as rare weight (kg)4 (smoked or fresh) (USD) (%) Dent’s mona monkey , 10 LC 3–6 (F/M) Smoked/fresh 12 30 Cercopithecus denti Black crested mangabey , 10 VU 4–7 (F), 6–11 Smoked 11 75 , on Lophocebus aterrimus (M) 25 Sep2021 at02:40:11 Thollon’s red colobus , 10 VU 3 0 1 0 7–9 (F), 9–13 Smoked 11 50 Piliocolobus tholloni (M) Carnivora Servaline genet , 10 LC 1–2 (F/M) Smoked 13 100 Genetta servalina Tubulidentata , subjectto theCambridgeCore termsofuse,available at Aardvark Orycteropus afer . 50 LC 0 4 4 1 Pholidota Black-bellied pangolin/ , 10 VU 2 1 0 0 long-tailed pangolin Uromanis tetradactyla Crocodilia Dwarf crocodile 10–50 VU 13.6–31.8 (F), Smoked 10 100 Osteolaemus tetraspis 18–45.4 (M)  Values refer to number of villages (total n = ) in which the species was mentioned. Blank cells denote species that were not mentioned in village surveys.  Blank cells denote species that were not observed on the market.  Conservation status according to IUCN, . LC, Least Concern; NT, Near Threatened; VU, Vulnerable; EN, Endangered.  From Kingdon (), except the dwarf crocodile from San Diego Zoo Global (). F, female; M, male.  Cercopithecus spp. could be the newly described Vulnerable Cercopithecus lomamiensis endemic to Lomami National Park, but the species could not be confirmed because of the poor quality of the smoked carcasses. Bushmeat hunting around Lomami National Park 427

FIG. 2 Estimated price of bushmeat of the different species traded in Kindu market. Guenons Cercopithecus spp. could not be determined to species level because of the poor quality of smoked carcasses.

FIG. 3 Estimated number of carcasses of the different species traded annually during the open season in Kindu market. Guenons Cercopithecus spp. could not be determined to species level because of the poor quality of smoked carcasses.

Oluo; Fig. ) to purchase carcasses directly from hunters, mean weight of adults (and some individuals sold may who are either their established business partners or oppor- have been juveniles). We also used the mean of female tunistic hunters present in the town that day. A small num- and male weights for our calculations (which can differ sig- ber of vendors in Kindu reported their husband or other nificantly in some species), without attempting to determine male family member hunted regularly and provided them the sex of individual carcasses. The use of the servaline genet with carcasses to sell. Many hunters who partner with retai- in rituals may explain its high price even when traded for lers are not from the ethnic groups living in the area, but are bushmeat. Compared with available alternative protein, what local people in the focus group discussions referred to bushmeat was much cheaper than beef (c. USD . per kg) as foreign hunters. or chicken (c. USD . per kg), although direct comparison Per weight, the servaline genet Genetta servalina was is difficult because beef is usually traded as pieces of meat the most expensive species, whereas the dwarf crocodile rather than as whole carcasses. Osteolaemus tetraspis was the cheapest, and most species We estimated that the  vendors surveyed traded a total cost USD .–. per kg (Fig. ). However, the crocodile of . , carcasses during the open season annually, with prices were probably underestimated because we only found an annual retail value of USD ,. We estimated that two very small individuals in the market during our one-third of the traded carcasses were of two species, the survey, which were unlikely to have the mean weight re- blue duiker and red-tailed monkey (Fig. ). The species ported in the literature. For most species, our estimated traded in greatest numbers were also those traded by most price per kg is probably an underestimate as we used the vendors, together with guenons and Peters’s duiker (Table ,

Fig. ). All species observed in the market were traded to be Urban market sales consumed as food, but some may also be used for medicinal or ritual purposes (e.g. the dwarf crocodile and servaline Species traded in Kindu included nine artiodactyls, six pri- genet; RB, pers. obs., ). mates, one rodent, one carnivore and one crocodile. Several For  species, . % (and sometimes %) of the ven- studies reported mammals to be the most hunted group, dors trading them reported declines (Table ). Vendors with reptiles, birds and amphibians being less important  mentioned these species were becoming difficult to find (see Petrozzi et al., for a review). However, most market (lower numbers offered for sale in villages or brought in by surveys focus on bushmeat and may overlook other markets family members), and that their price at the market had in- (e.g. of tortoises mostly used for medicine or rituals; Petrozzi  creased in previous years. Four species commercialized in et al., ). Preliminary observations in the medicinal mar- Kindu are categorized as threatened on the IUCN Red List ket of Kindu indicate that no wildlife is traded there (RB, pers.  (Table ). All vendors were small-scale retailers (i.e. they obs., ).  had not hunted the animals themselves). They were mostly We documented a total of species in Kindu. Greater women aged – years, from the Kusu or Ngengele ethnic numbers were reported from Kisangani and Brazzaville in   groups. Bushmeat trade was their main livelihood activity. the Republic of the Congo ( and species, respectively; Mbete et al., ; van Vliet et al., ). Some authors have argued that with higher anthropogenic pressures, Discussion fewer large-bodied animals but a higher number of species are sold at markets (Cowlishaw et al., ;Fa,). Village-level consumption Therefore, the lower species diversity observed in Kindu, together with the presence of large-bodied animals and In the villages around Lomami National Park smaller spe- low number of rodents, suggests a moderate anthropogenic cies (,  kg) were mostly used for household consumption pressure in our study area. whereas larger ones (.  kg) were mostly sold to generate In Kindu, the species most commonly traded were the income, as has been reported from other areas in DRC African brush-tailed porcupine, blue and bay duikers, red (e.g. Kisangani; van Vliet et al., ). However, the fact river hog, red-tailed monkey and the sitatunga. In Basan- that some large species such as the red river hog were con- kusu, a town in north-western DRC, the red-tailed mon- sumed at the household level suggests that they are relatively key and red river hog were two of the four most com- abundant in the study area. Local hunters check their traps monly traded species (Dupain et al., ). In Kisangani often to avoid theft, so large animals are not eaten in house- and in Brazzaville, the blue and bay duiker and the holds because carcasses were left unattended for an extended African brush-tailed porcupine were the most commonly period and are rotten. traded species (Mbete et al., ; van Vliet et al., ). In There were no major differences between ethnic groups the Cross-Sanaga region of Nigeria and Cameroon the in the species important for household consumption, which porcupine was also one of the most commonly traded spe- indicates similar taste preferences. This is at variance with cies (Macdonald et al., ). In Kindu most carcasses were studies elsewhere (e.g. Bioko Island, Equatorial Guinea; Fa smoked, as has been reported elsewhere (Mbete et al., ; et al., ). Macdonald et al., ; van Vliet et al., ). The proportion Villagers reported declines of certain species and an in- of smoked meat is often interpreted as an indication of the creased use of firearms. In the northern Republic of the size of the hunting catchment area. However, the high pro- Congo hunters also mentioned declines in the abundance portion of smoked meat in Kindu market could also indi- of most species targeted for bushmeat (Mavah et al., ). cate poor transport conditions or lack of facilities to conserve Increased use of firearms has been reported in numerous meat, as reported for Kisangani (van Vliet et al., ). locations in Africa, including Kisangani, northern Gabon, Overall, our findings suggest that in Kindu smoked bush- Equatorial Guinea and around Dja Biosphere Reserve in meat is not a luxury product, but rather a common product Cameroon (Kümpel et al., ; van Vliet & Nasi, ; sold at a low price year-round. This was in accordance with van Vliet et al., ; Avila et al., ). In Kisangani, an in- observations made in Kisangani and Bangui (van Vliet et al., crease in small diurnal monkeys in the bushmeat market ; Fargeot et al., ). In contrast, in urban Ghana, over time was related to increased use of firearms (van Gabon and Nigeria bushmeat is a luxury product (Ladele Vliet et al., ). In our study area the relatively wide- et al., ; Starkey, ; Cowlishaw et al., ). spread use of firearms could explain the numerous primates Our study approach has some limitations. Firstly, vendor observed in Kindu market. Increased use of firearms can recall accuracy may have been limited, as we asked vendors lead to a decrease in the abundance of small diurnal mon- to estimate weekly volumes just after the closed season. Also, keys and the local depletion of some species (e.g. in Equa- vendors reported they sold the same selection of species torial Guinea; Kümpel et al., ). throughout the year, which we were unable to verify.

Prices per kg are likely to be underestimated, as carcasses could also help reinforce traditional rules forbidding hunt- sold could have been juvenile, or mostly females. Secondly, ing of certain species, such as pangolins. Drawing on the our estimates represent a minimum volume of bushmeat capacity of such authorities to restrict access to markets traded in Kindu as we calculated annual volumes exclud- and firearms has provided encouraging results in other ing the closed season, and we only surveyed c. % of the areas of DRC (de Merode et al., ). Furthermore, greater vendors in the market. Another methodological caveat is control of bushmeat trade is needed in Kindu and other that we used only focus group discussions at the village level. towns near Lomami (e.g. Dikanjo, Lokando, Bafundo). Given Such focus groups may not be representative of the whole the limited number of roads accessible by motor vehicles population in a region, and results should not be gener- in the study area, road checkpoints could be useful for moni- alized (Cruz-Garcia et al., ). In any future research, fo- toring bushmeat trade and enforcing restrictions. cus group discussions could be combined with other com- Beyond the species of conservation concern, several plementary methods such as individual interviews and indi- other species were perceived as declining by vendors in vidual ranking exercises. Further insights could be gained Kindu, but not by villagers. It is possible that villagers from interviewing major retailers and foreign hunters. only highlighted the species they thought were close to extinction (elephant, bongo, buffalo), and not those whose Implications populations had declined to a lesser extent. It has been sug- gested that hunting of resilient species such as the blue dui- Our findings indicate that bushmeat household consump- ker and African brush-tailed porcupine could be allowed, tion and trade include several species of conservation con- but that other species such as the red river hog and small cern, a matter that requires intervention. The first issue to diurnal monkeys require more conservation attention (van address is the misconception about which species can be Vliet & Nasi, ). Future biodiversity surveys in the Park legally hunted in the Park’s buffer zone. Lomami National should focus on the species mentioned as declining in Kindu Park was created relatively recently (in July ) and local but not in the villages, to clarify population trends. communities appear to be ignorant of hunting restrictions Our results indicate that around Lomami National Park in the buffer zone. Before the Park was created, several bushmeat is used as food and as a source of income. Access awareness raising campaigns discussed the Endangered sta- to protein from domestic animals is limited: goats, sheep, tus of the bonobo and the fact that it should not be hunted, pigs and poultry are rare, and there is no formal livestock which seems to have reduced the numbers of specimens husbandry or veterinary provision. The lack of cattle rearing openly traded in Kindu (we did not observe this species in in the region is attributed to the presence of the tsetse fly, Kindu during our market survey, but it was reported there which transmits trypanosomiasis. For preferences to de- in ; Hart, ). It is possible that the bonobo is still velop (e.g. for domestic meat), a product must first be rea- traded secretly, but we were unable to confirm this. New sonably familiar (Turrell, ). Although the consumption awareness campaigns are needed to clarify which species of domestic meat is currently rare in the study area, most can legally be hunted in the buffer zone. villagers reported an interest in rearing goats, pigs and The widespread use of firearms enables hunters to target poultry, if funds and training could be provided to facilitate specific species and individuals, whereas traditional hunting this. In Kahuzi-Biega National Park the rearing of cavies has with snares is opportunistic and less targeted. This opens been successfully promoted to meet household demands opportunities for awareness raising and education amongst for protein and to generate income (Thierry et al., ). hunters, particularly with respect to primates. Because The need to support domestic meat production is included they are diurnal, primates are mostly hunted during the day in the National Bushmeat Strategy for DRC (ICCN, ) (Macdonald et al., ), whereas other animals such as dui- and the technical expertise is available, but access to loans kers are often hunted at night. During daylight hours, pri- to help people start rearing animals, and support such as mate species can easily be identified by sight, and hunters veterinary care, are needed (van Vliet et al., ). Cater- could avoid targeting threatened species. Awareness cam- pillar rearing could also be considered as an alternative paigns should be linked with the development and enforce- source of protein. For example, the caterpillars of the African ment of hunting regulations that benefit local, not foreign moth Bunaeopsis aurantiaca are highly nutritious ( kcal/ hunters. If licensed local hunters could be given a quota  g; Muvundja et al., ). They occur naturally on the that they are responsible for, it would be in their interest sugar plum tree Uapaca guineensis, which is abundant in to not exceed the quota and to report unlicensed hunters, Lomami National Park. Caterpillars can be smoked and to help secure the long-term persistence of the wildlife po- dried, facilitating storage and transport. pulations on which their livelihoods depend (Macdonald Bushmeat trade around Lomami National Park current- et al., ). ly appears to be limited to adjacent towns and the city of Increased collaboration with traditional authorities, who Kindu. But the situation is likely to change if roads around have considerable influence and command local respect, Kindu and Lomami National Park are upgraded and Kindu

airport opens to international flights, as currently planned Conflicts of interest None. by the government. Improved infrastructure will probably increase not only economic prosperity but also the human Ethical standards This research abided by the Oryx guidelines on ethical standards. Because it was conducted outside a protected area, population of Kindu, and therefore the demand for meat no official research permit was required, but Park managers were in- protein. Although some authors have argued that so-called formed and were supportive of the research. We informed local au- westernization of taste preferences in Africa’s urban areas thorities before starting our research and obtained prior informed could decrease the demand for bushmeat, which may be consent from all study participants, who participated on a voluntary ’ considered ‘dirty meat’ or a sign of cultural primitivity by basis. Interviewees responses were kept anonymous. After we com-  pleted the study, we shared a non-academic report with both commu- urban communities (Luiselli et al., ), recent studies from nities and Park managers. DRC suggest urban populations consume bushmeat not only because they lack access to cheap alternatives but also because they prefer the taste (van Vliet et al., ). The References same study from Kisangani showed new areas being ex- ABERNETHY, K.A., COAD, L., TAYLOR, G., LEE, M.E. & MAISELS,F. ploited for bushmeat after road infrastructure improved   ( ) Extent and ecological consequences of hunting in Central (van Vliet et al., ). African rainforests in the twenty-first century. Philosophical Our survey captures the situation at a specific point in Transactions of the Royal Society B, , . time, and research for Kisangani demonstrated that species ALLEBONE-WEBB, S.M., KÜMPEL, N.F., RIST, J., COWLISHAW, G., commercialized, total biomass and prices of bushmeat ROWCLIFFE, J.M. & MILNER-GULLAND, E.J. () Use of market vary over time, with changes related to overhunting in some data to assess bushmeat hunting sustainability in Equatorial Guinea. Conservation Biology, , –. areas, conflict, and alternative sources of protein becoming AVILA, E., TAGG, N., WILLIE, J., MBOHLI, D., FARFAN, M.A., VARGAS, more affordable (van Vliet et al., ). Nevertheless, our J.M. et al. () Interpreting long-term trends in bushmeat harvest survey provides an important baseline for future monitor- in southeast Cameroon. Acta Oecologica, , –. ing and can help inform management interventions for BENNETT, E., EVES, H., ROBINSON,J.&WILKIE,D.() Why is Lomami National Park and its surroundings. eating bushmeat a biodiversity crisis? Conservation in Practice, , –. BRODIE, J.F. & GIBBS,H.() Bushmeat hunting as climate threat.  – Conclusions Science, , . COWLISHAW, G., MENDELSON,S.&ROWCLIFFE, J.M. () Evidence This study confirms the importance of bushmeat for local for post-depletion sustainability in a mature bushmeat market. Journal of Applied Ecology, , –. populations around Lomami National Park and in Kindu CRUZ-GARCIA, G.S., CUBILLOS, M.V., TORRES-VITOLAS, C., HARVEY .    city, where we estimated , carcasses of species, C.A., SHACKLETON, C.M., SCHRECKENBERG, K. et al. () He says, with a retail value of USD ,, are traded annually. she says: ecosystem services and gender among Indigenous Such case studies are important for designing management communities in the Colombian Amazon. Ecosystem Services,   interventions at the local and regional levels, and can be , . DE MERODE, E., HOMEWOOD,K.&COWLISHAW,G.() The value used to assess change over time and promote future re- of bushmeat and other wild foods to rural households living in search. Lomami National Park was created to safeguard the extreme poverty in Democratic Republic of Congo. Biological outstanding biodiversity of the study area (e.g. the lesula Conservation, , –. Cercopithecus lomamiensis, endemic to this Park) and to DUPAIN, J., NACKONEY, J., VARGAS, J.M., JOHNSON, P.J., FARFAN,  facilitate sustainable development for communities living M.A., BOFASO, M. et al. ( ) Bushmeat characteristics vary with catchment conditions in a Congo market. Biological Conservation, near the protected area. Our findings, recently shared with , –. study participants and conservation organizations working FA, J.E. () Bushmeat markets – white elephants or red herrings? in the area, will help inform the management interventions In Bushmeat and Livelihoods: Wildlife Management and Poverty needed to achieve these goals. Reduction (eds G. Davies & D. Brown), pp. –. Conservation Science and Practice, Volume . Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, UK. Acknowledgements We thank all study participants, especially FA, J.E., GARCIA YUSTE, J.E. & CASTELO,R.() Bushmeat markets the village chiefs, who helped organize the focus group discussions, on Bioko Island as a measure of hunting pressure. Conservation our field assistants and translators P. Kinyama and E. Bushiri, the Biology, , –. managers of Lomami National Park, the Deutsche Gesellschaft für FA, J.E., PERES, C.A. & MEEUWIG,J.() Bushmeat exploitation in Internationale Zusammenarbeit office and Deutsche Forstservice tropical forests: an intercontinental comparison. Conservation GmbH team in Kindu, and two anonymous reviewers for their cri- Biology, , –. tiques. This research was funded by The Rufford Foundation, UK. FA, J.E., CURRIE,D.&MEEUWIG, J.J. () Bushmeat and food GI was supported by the Percy Sladen Memorial Fund. security in the Congo Basin: linkages between wildlife and people’s future. Environmental Conservation, , –. Author contributions Conception and design: BR, GI, ACS; data FA, J.E., OLIVERO, J., FARFÁN, M.Á., MÁRQUEZ, A.L., DUARTE, J., collection: BR, CU; data analysis: all authors; writing: GI, ACS; revi- NACKONEY, J. et al. () Correlates of bushmeat in markets and sion: all authors. depletion of wildlife. 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