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Towards a culture of peace in Sri Lanka
Disanayaka, J. B.
2000 https://hdl.handle.net/10356/93553
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Paper No. 13 ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library
TOWARDS A CULTURE OF PEACE IN SRI LANKA
J.B. Disanayaka
Professor of Sinhala, Coordinator of Journalism University of Colombo, Sri Lanka
A. THE BACKGROUND
The culture of Sri Lanka may be best described as an 'Island Culture', a culture that is open to all directions, not only geographically but also culturally. Winds from all directions have blown into the Island to produce a unique culture spanning over two and a half millennia. Ethnicity, religion, language and other variables have made this culture a blend of several subcultures, each with its unique identity.
a. Ethnicity On the basis of ethnicity, Sri Lankans fall into four major groups: the Sinhalese, who constitute the majority (74%), the Tamils, who form the largest minority, (18%), the Muslims who constitute a religio-ethnic group (7%) and the rest the Burghers, who are the descendants of the Portuguese and the Dutch who ruled the Western maritime provinces in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The term 'Sri Lankan Tamil' needs some comment because not all Tamils living in Sri Lanka are called 'Sri Lankan Tamils'. Comments Sivathamby, in his Sri Lankan Tamil Society and Politics ... in all the government records and even at the level of group consciousness there is a distinction between the 'Indian Tamils' (IT) of the tea and rubber plantation areas , and the 'Sri Lankan Tamils' (SLT) who are the traditional inhabitants of Sri Lanka largely confined to the northern and eastern parts of the island (p.l).
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The 'Sri Lankan Tamils' who form the majority of Tamils living in the island have also been called 'Ceylon Tamils' or 'Jaffna Tamils' after the city of Jaffna, the capital of the Northern Province. Indian Tamils have also been referred to as 'Tamils of recent Indian origin' (in Sri Lanka: Serendipity under Siege). Sri Lankan Tamils constitute 12.5 % and the Indian Tamils 5.6% of the island's population. Muslim identity is unique in that they form a religio-ethnic group, in which all Muslims are followers of Islam. "In Sri Lanka" writes Sivathamby, "the term Tamil will not include the Muslims even though their mother tongue, except in the case of the few Malays of Sri Lanka, is Tamil. The Muslims of Sri Lanka consider themselves as belonging to an independent ethnic group" (p. 1). The Burghers are becoming today a dwindling minority. Owing to the escalating violence in Sri Lanka most of the Burghers have migrated to other countries, such as Australia and Canada. Their numbers have become so small that some writers tend to disregard them as a distinct minority, along with other smaller groups, such as the Veddhas (the aboriginals) and the Ahikuntakayas (the gypsies).
b. Religion In Sri Lanka are found all the major religions of the world: Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism and Islam. On the basis of religion, the Sinhalese get divided into two as Sinhalese Buddhists and Sinhalese Christians and the Tamils get divided into two as Tamil Hindus and Tamil Christians. Buddhists constitute 69.3%, Hindus 25.5%, Christians 7.5% of the population. Almost all Muslims (7.5%) are followers of Islam, and almost all Burghers are Christian. The school of Buddhism that is prevalent in Sri Lanka is that known as the Theravada school, the School of the Elders. It is also called the Hinayana school (the Small Vehicle) in contrast to the Mahayana school (the Great Vehicle) as found in Buddhist countries such as Japan and Korea. Buddhists in Sri Lanka claim that their school is the closest to the original teachings of the Buddha. ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library
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Hinduism in Sri Lanka is based on Saivaism in contrast to Vaisnavaism. Sivathamby commenting on the supremacy of the Saiva ideology says that It is important to state unambiguously the fact that this ideology considers Saivaism as the characteristic religion of the Tamils and that neither Vaisnavaism nor the innumerable rituals of the Little Tradition, which are part of the socio-religious life of the various caste groups, as constituting the foundations of Tamil social and religious life (p.64).
c. Language Sri Lanka is a multi-linguistic nation, using three languages in daily communication: Sinhala, Tamil and English. Sinhala, a language of the Indo-Aryan sub-family of the larger Indo-European family, is spoken by the Sinhalese; Tamil, a language of the Dravidian family, is spoken by the Tamils and the Muslims. In addition to these two national languages, English is also spoken in Sri Lanka as a second language. In the new Constitution, all three languages have official status. There are Muslims, living among the Sinhalese, who use Sinhala for their daily communication and Tamil for their religious discourse. Muslims of Malay origin use the Malay language to communicate among themselves. There are three classical languages used in daily religious ritual:Pali , Sanskrit and Arabic. Pali, the vehicle of Buddhist literature, is used by Sinhalese Buddhists, Sanskrit, the vehicle of Vedic literature, is used by the Hindus, and Arabic, the language of the sacred 'Koran', by the Muslims.
d. Caste Among the other factors that divide the Sri Lankans into groups is caste, a social phenomenon that affects both the Sinhalese and the Tamils. It is a system that is different from its Indian model. Caste among the Sri Lankan Tamils, particularly in Jaffna, seems to be more rigid than its counterpart in Sinhalese
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society. "The dominant caste among SLT is the Vellalas, and except in rare cases they have the social control" (Sivathamby, p.4).
e. Political History The island culture that is Sri Lanka has a history that goes as far back as the seventh century before Christ. It was essentially a culture of a kingdom, which lasted until 1815, when the British took over the whole island, thus converting the kingdom, first into a British crown colony and then into a dominion. In 1948, Sri Lanka gained independence and it is now a republic in the Commonwealth. Today, Sri Lanka is facing one of the gravest crises in her history, marked by two main features: communal violence, described by critics as "one of the world's nastier and more intractable ethnic conflicts" (William McGowan, Only Man is Vile, p.4) and the erosion of democracy and the rule of the law. Efforts are being taken by the government, religious and other non-governmental organizations to create a culture of peace in Sri Lanka where all, irrespective of their race, religion, language, caste, and so on, can live in peace, harmony and dignity. In the process of creating a new culture of peace, the media have an important role to play. This paper attempts to study the role of Sri Lankan media in promoting knowledge and practice of the culture of peace and also determine perceptions of people regarding this role.
B. A CULTURE OF PEACE
The ideal culture of any nation is what may be described as 'a culture of peace'. A culture of peace may be defined, in the broadest terms, as one in which an individual enjoys peace at three distinct but interrelated levels: a) at the primary level, one is at peace with oneself, where one enjoys 'peace of mind' b) at the secondary level, one is at peace with nature
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c) at the final level, one is at peace with one's fellow beings, bringing about 'peaceful coexistence'. The ideal role of the media, then, is to create the necessary background to bring about peace at these three levels of interaction. Peace can be brought about only by those advocates of peace, media personnel, and opinion leaders who really understand the nature of the grievances perceived by the different communities in relation to each other.
a. Peace of Mind The foundation of a culture of peace is the individual who has peace of mind. This is considered a sine qua non because an individual who is disturbed within is unable to extend peace to the external world: nature and fellow beings. Peace within oneself implies, at least, two things: that there is no divergence between one's words and deeds, and that there are no emotionally discordant notes. There are several factors that obstruct or disturb an individual's peace of mind. Some of these factors relate to external forces over which one has little or no control and some of them are the results of one's own creation. Factors over which an individual has little or no control relate to national problems such as poverty, economic inflation, chronic underdevelopment, political instability, violence and military aggression. On the other hand, the tensions that stem from the discordance between words and deeds of an individual are the result of one's own patterns of behavior, over which one does have control. The wider the discordance between one's words and deeds, the bigger the emotional crisis that disturbs one's peace of mind. The absence of aesthetic sensibilities has a negative impact on an individual's emotional composition. Literature, music, painting, sculpture, dance and drama, have always been the finest expressions of aesthetic experience and the individual who has no access to such forms of artistic creation and enjoyment leaves his mind open to emotional disturbances from without. The lack of religious sentiment also deprives an individual of his peace of mind. Personal religion, in contrast to organized religion, with its church, rites and
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rituals, and other paraphernalia, tends to bring about mental peace and tranquility of mind. The philosophies embedded in religious teachings inculcate moral and ethical values that foster human understanding, which forms the basis of humanity. The forefathers of the UNESCO constitution of Britain were among those who understood the role of the individual in promoting a culture of peace. For they had declared that "since wars begin the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that defenses of peace must be constructed"ft . Thus the minds of men who are at peace with themselves are the foundations on which cultures of peace can be permanently established.
b. In peace with Nature The one who is at peace with oneself is able, on that account, to respond positively towards one's environment. Nature has showered on this island bountiful resources and it is up to man to utilize them, enjoy them, and preserve them for the generations yet to come. The one who disturbs the ecological balance in Nature ruins not only Nature but also one's chances of survival.
c. Peaceful Coexistence Finally, the one who has peace of mind and loves nature extends one's peace towards one's fellow beings. Peaceful coexistence is the basis on which society's divergent and heterogeneous elements are bound together into a functioning whole. However, peaceful coexistence is, in today's context, a luxury that Sri Lanka finds more and more difficult to possess. Hence the need to find out ways by which a new culture of peace can be recreated in Sri Lanka for its national development.
d. Cultural Planning The creation of a new culture of peace certainly involves many changes, relating to perceptions, attitudes, methods and strategy. This takes us into a new field of inquiry, which may be termed 'Cultural Planning'. Cultural planning covers several areas of study:
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(a) the study of factors that militate against the birth of such a culture (b) attitudinal changes that are necessary to implement this program (c) the role of the media in facilitating the process of change that will ultimately bring about the desired culture of peace. Many factors militate against the birth of a culture of peace in Sri Lanka today. It is thus necessary to understand precisely what these factors are so that they could be eliminated and a new culture of peace created. Two of the more important factors are discussed here: (i) Ethno-centric views of Reality (ii) Erosion of Democracy
(i) Ethno-centric views of Reality 'Views of reality', in the present context, refer to the ways in which ethnic groups see themselves. They constitute a bundle of perceptions. For example, the Sinhalese view of reality tells us how the Sinhalese see themselves vis-a-vis the other ethnic groups in the island. These views of reality are moulded by history, legends, myths, traditions and folklore. Each ethnic group believes that its view of reality is the 'right' one embodying nothing but the absolute truth. These views of reality relate to three main issues: land, religion and language. Ethnic groups, the Sinhalese and the Tamils in particular, have perceptions of a 'homeland', that is, their claim to land as their own. Lands have intrinsic links with religion, as repositories of their Teachings. Ethnic groups have a strong sense of identity with their languages. The ethno-centric views of reality have led, naturally, to misunderstanding, conflict, terrorism and finally to a civil war in the North. Many volumes have been written on the nature of this conflict, discussing extensively the questions of ethnicity and nationalism, brutalities of political violence etc. and thus no attempt will be made here to present them again. What is important to note is that, as Neelan Tiruchelvam remarks, "the emotional and psychological scars that remain after such outbreaks are in fact even more
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destructive than the physical damage" ("Civil Society and Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka" in History and Politics: Millennial Perspectives, p. 95)
(a) The Sinhalese view of Reality Firstly, the Sinhalese believe that they are the 'original settlers' of this island and therefore, the legitimate 'sons of the soil'. This is based on their myth of origin as recorded in their chronicles, 'Dipavamsa' (The Island Chronicle) and 'Mahavamsd (The Great Chronicle) composed in Pali verse, in the fifth century AD, two books held in high esteem by the Sinhalese Buddhists. According to the Mahavamsa, the founder of the Sinhalese race, the prince named Vijaya, the grandson of a lion, arrived from the country of the Vangas in North India in the sixth century BC. Then did king cause Vijaya and his followers, seven hundred men to be shaven over half the head and put them on a ship and sent them forth upon the sea, and their wives and children also. The men, women and children sent forth separately landed separately, each (company) upon an island, and they dwelt even there. The island where the children landed was called Naggadipa and the island where the women landed in Mahiladipaka. . . The prince named Vijaya, the valiant, landed in Lanka, in the region called Tambapanni. . . (MV, Ch. VI, v.42-47). The chronicles do record that there were other peoples in the island when Vijaya arrived but they were all assimilated into a single group that came to be known as the 'Sinhala' people, a name that retains their original links with the lion, 'sinha'. The symbol of the lion in the national flag of Sri Lanka is a graphic reminder of the myth of origin of the Sinhala race. This myth of origin, upheld by the Sinhalese, gives legitimacy to their claim that they are the original settlers of this island, and therefore, Sri Lanka is their one and only homeland. Later historians have also accepted the arrival of Vijaya as the first wave of the process of 'Aryanization' of the island. K.M. de Silva says that "Beneath this charming exercise in myth-making lurks a kernel of
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historical truth - the colonization of the island by Indo-Aryan tribes from Northern India" (A Short History of Sri Lanka,p.3) This claim continues to have important political implications. There are' today two political parties that assert that the Sinhalese are the 'sons of the soil': The 'Maha Sammata Bhumiputra Paksaya' and the 'Sihala Urumaya". The name 'bhumi-putra' means, literally, the son (putra) of the soil (bhumi). The name 'Sihala Urumaya' means the Heritage of the Sinhalese' Secondly, the Sinhalese also believe that they are the 'chosen people of Buddhism' and that it is their bounden duty to foster and protect Buddhism at all costs. This is also based on the myth cherished by the Sinhalese that the Buddha himself declared this land, the 'Dhamma dipa', the 'Land of the Dhamma', where the Pali word 'dhamma' signifies the teachings of the Buddha. The link between the Sinhalese and Buddhism finds expression in three events recorded in the Mahavamsa: First, prince Vijaya arrived in the island on the very day that the Buddha (Tathagata) passed away in India. Records the Mahavamsa: "The prince named Vijaya, the valiant, landed in Lanka, in the region called Tambapanni on the day that the Tathagata lay down between the two twin like sala trees to pass into nibbana " (MV,Ch. VI,v.47) The second event records that the Buddha himself, lying on his death bed, spoke to the Lord of the gods, Sakka, to protect Vijaya, who was destined to be the founder of the new race that would protect His teachings. The Mahavamsa, records the words of the Buddha thus: Vijaya, son of king Sihabahu, is come to Lanka from the country ofLala, together with seven hundred followers. In Lanka, O lord of gods, will my religion be established, therefore carefully protect him with his followers and Lanka. ( MV, Ch. VII, v. 3-4). Thus the Sinhalese believe that they have an historical mission to perform: to foster and preserve Buddhism in this land, known as the 'Dhamma dipa', the repository of the Buddha's teachings. The third event relates to the visits of the Buddha to the island. Mahavamsa and other chronicles record that the Buddha visited this island three ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library
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times and made sixteen places worthy of veneration. These sixteen holy places, known as ' solosmasthana' are found scattered across the length and breadth of the island, thus making the entire land a place sanctified by the Buddha. The British Government also recognized this claim when they signed in 1815 the Kandyan Convention with the Sinhalese chiefs, bringing the Sinhalese kingdom to a close. "The Kandyan Convention" writes de Silva, preserved intact the powers and privileges of the chiefs, the laws, the customs and institutions of the country, and what in the eyes of the Kandyans was more important than all else - the Buddhist religion. The fifth clause of the Convention. . . declared that 'the religion of the Buddhoo, its rites, ministers and places of worship are to be maintained and protected' (p.230). Although Buddhism was not declared the 'state religion' as such, the British, though Christians themselves, undertook to give their patronage to Buddhism. Today, the Sri Lankan government has established a separate Ministry known as the Ministry of Buddha Sasana to look after the affairs of Buddhism, The Sinhalese maintain that their language, Sinhala, deserve a special place in Sri Lanka because it is spoken in the island only, whereas Tamil is spoken outside this Island. Sinhala has an unbroken tradition of writing and literature, the history of writing going as far back as the third century BC, and the earliest extant literary works dating from the ninth century. The Sinhalese believe that if Sinhala suffers a set back in the only land where it is spoken, it will soon be among the endangered languages of the world. Hence the demand to make it the state language of independent Sri Lanka. The 'Sinhala Only' policy of 1956 fostered the aspirations of the Sinhalese, even though at the expense of Tamil, the other national language of Sri Lanka. The Sinhala-only language policy compelled the other ethnic groups to learn Sinhala for prospects of employment for administration was conducted through the medium of Sinhala only. The national anthem was composed and sung in Sinhala. However, the medium of education was expanded to include
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Tamil, so that parents were free to chose the medium of education of their children.
(b) The Tamil view of Reality The Tamil view of reality, moulded by their histories, legends, myths and folklore, also relate to their 'homeland', their religion and language. Tamils claim that two of the nine provinces into which Sri Lanka is divided, the Northern Province and the Eastern Province, constitute their 'traditional homeland'. They view attempts by the Government to colonize areas in the North as attempts to undermine this claim. Some Tamil historians claim that the Tamils were the original settlers of this island. Since Mahavamsa admits that there were people in this island at the time of the arrival of Vijaya, the founder of the Sinhalese race, it may be conjectured that there were Tamils among these aboriginal people. It is maintained that the 'Nagas' mentioned in the Mahavamsa, had ethnic links with the Tamils. The Tamils also have a strong sense of affiliation towards Saiva Hinduism. Writes Sivathamby Saiva-Tamil ideology is that social concept that is rooted in the intellectual and cultural conviction that Saivism and Tamil are essential to each other in determining each others basic characteristic, and that it would be impossible to have one existence (either as a Tamil or a Saivite) without also being the other (Saivite Tamil). This view is taken as explanatory of the entire history of the Tamils and of Saivaism (Sri Lankan Tamil Society and Politics p. 64 ) Sivathamby observes that the implications of this view and the actions that flow from it are very far reaching. This argues that no other religion has had any formative influence on the Tamil man, his language and culture. It rejects completely out of hand the contributions of the Jains, the
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Buddhists, the Ajivakas, the Mulims and the Christians to Tamil. It also rejects the place of the Vaisnavaites in the Tamil tradition (p. 64) Language is perhaps the most crucial factor on which the Tamil view of reality and identity rests. Sivathamby maintains that "It is one, if not the major, aspect of ethno-centrism because it determines the cultural identity of a group" (p. 92). The word Tamil' refers both to the people and the language they speak, and as Sivathamby observes, "when it refers to the speakers , it does not denote them as speakers of a language but refers to them as also an 'ethnic' group, with an identifiable culture, and a consciousness among them that they belong to one group" (p. 1) Tamil is considered a member of Dravidian family of languages, spoken in India and it is the state language of Tamil Nadu. However, Tamil linguists maintain that Tamil spoken in Sri Lanka is not only different from the local dialects of Tamil Nadu but is more 'archaic' and thus 'purer' than Indian Tamil. In Sri Lanka, the language spoken in the Northern peninsula is considered the 'better' variety in contrast to the dialects spoken in the Eastern province and Colombo. Today Tamil has been given the status of an official language on par with Sinhala but this is the result of many years of agitation and political conflict. The 'Sinhala Only' language policy of post-Independent Sri Lanka was the immediate cause that triggered off the ethnic conflict between the Sinhalese and the Tamils. As Sivathamby puts it, it is clear that the language problem in the sense of the efforts to make the language of a particular group residing within a territory the language of all official communications, thus pushing off the other language into the background becomes an acute one in the process of transition from feudalism to capitalism (p.92). It is important is to stress that this ethnic struggle will continue into the future unless steps are taken to prevent it and recreate a world in which all Sri Lankans can live in peace, harmony and dignity. "It may still be possible" wrote Patricia Hyndman in 1988
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for dialogue between the Sinhalese and the Tamils to be established and to work, but the longer the current hostilities, violence and destruction continue, the more difficult it must invariably become to bridge the widening gaps and the growing resentments between the two groups (p.2).
(ii) Erosion of Democracy A second important factor that disturbs peace in Sri Lanka is political violence that has resulted from the erosion of democracy. In the recent past, democratic principles suffered a severe set back due to insurrections, nepotism and corruption, violation of human rights, and so on. Talking of "civilian violence not directed at the Tamils as such", Stanley Tambiah maintains that "the most important of these was the insurrection in 1971 of Sinhalese youth... against the Sinhalese majority government..."(Buddhism Betreyed? p. 45) This youth unrest surfaced again in the recent past and will continue into the future because its cause has yet to be properly understood and rationally resolved. The main reasons for the discontent of the youth are economic and political. The youth are dissatisfied with the rate of economic progress of the country. Unemployment is high and development is slow. The political dissatisfaction of the youth is related to the way in which power is distributed. This misuse of political power by the government, leading to nepotism, corruption, discrimination and violence is another source of this unrest. The rule of the law of the land is undermined in many ways than one, and international observes have reported that this violence continues to escalate. 'Sri Lanka: Serendipity under Siege' by Patricia Hyndman,(1988) and 'Only Man is Vile: The Tragedy of Sri Lanka' by William McGowan (1992) are two significant analyses of this phenomena.
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C. NATIONAL IDEOLOGY AND UNITY
The creation of a culture of peace assumes that there is a national ideology that will promote national unity and harmony. Ethno-centric perceptions and communal prejudices have to be replaced by an ideology based on rationality, mutual understanding and tolerance. The task of promoting this ideology falls on several groups: (a) the government (b) non-governmental organizations (c) religious organizations, (d) the media and (e) the people.
(a) The Government The responsibility of the government is to create the necessary constitutional and legal framework to bring about national integration and the machinery to implement it. Citizens must have faith and confidence in the government in power that it will work in the larger interests of the nation rather than that of a political party or a particular group
(b) Non-governmental Organizations (NGOs) There are a number of NGOs that are deeply concerned with the current crisis. They include LAWASIA, (the Association of Lawyers for Asia and the Pacific), the International Centre for Ethnic Studies, the Civil Rights Movement, the Centre for Society and Religion, The Centre for Policy Alternatives, the National Peace Council of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka Foundation, Law and Society Trust, the Sarvodaya Movement and Vibhavi Cultural Centre. These organizations have been engaged in different kinds of activities, ranging from fact-finding to promotion of mutual understanding, friendship and cooperation. Most of them are non-profit organizations, manned by professionals such as academics, lawyers, media men and women. Their findings are available in the form of reports and analyses that can be used by all advocates of peace.
(c) Religious Organizations Religious organizations are of two kinds: those affiliated to places of religious worship, and bent on educating their membership on the need for a ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library
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culture of peace and those affiliated to organizations bent on conversion. The latter has, however, caused concern among the followers of other religions because of their policy of conversion. It is said that their concern with the ethnic crisis or poverty is just a pretext to have access to rural areas to carry on their policy to proselytize Buddhists and Hindus to Christianity. This has led some advocates of peace to look at some of these religious organizations with suspicion. For they seem to think that they have a hidden agenda. In fact, there is a new Buddhist organization which has come into being purely as a reaction to such organizations that follow a policy of religious conversion.
(d) Media Media is another important instrument of nation building. The manner and the extent to which media can promote knowledge and culture of peace is a matter to be determined by the countries concerned. Media specialists in Asia feel that Western-style media freedom does not suit Asian countries. As Vijay Menon observes in his 'Foreword' to Walking the Tightrope: Press Freedom and Professional Standards in Asia The differing perceptions of the role of the media as between the West and Asia are not confined to officials. Senior journalists in ASEAN have proposed an Asian model of journalism in which the press works with the government to build a national consensus. The national press, it is felt, as an instrument of nation building, should support development efforts (p.ix).
D. ROLE OF SRI LANKAN MEDIA IN FACILITATING A CULTURE OF PEACE Sri Lanka has a wide network of media services covering both print and electronic media, and using all three languages. Some of the more important media institutions are owned by the state, such as the Associated ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library
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Newspapers of Ceylon (Lake House), the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (SLBC ) and the Sri Lanka Rupavahini Corporation (SLRC), the main national television station. The Independent Television Network (ITN), the first television station to be opened in Sri Lanka, is partially under state control. The oldest is the print media, which publishes in Sinhala, Tamil and English. The number of newspapers that appear daily in the three languages are as follows: Sinhala Tamil English Morning Dinamina Thinakaran Daily News Lankadipa Veerakesari Island Divaina Lak Bima Afternoon Janata Daily Mirror Observer The Sinhala newspaper selected for the content analysis is 'Divaina' (Island) published by Upali Newspapers Ltd, a private institution. On Sunday, it is published as 'Irida Divaina' (Sunday Island). Its English counterparts are called 'Island' and 'Sunday Island' respectively. The English newspaper selected for the content analysis is 'Daily News' published by the state owned ANCL. It is one of the oldest newspapers of the island. On Sundays it is replaced by 'The Sunday Observer'. In addition to the state owned media institutions there are today many media organizations run by the private sector. These stations have been given the freedom to present news without government control. The main radio channel of the state owned SLBC is the 'National Service' which commences at 4.55 a.m. and goes on till 11.15 p.m. 'Lak Handa* (Voioe of Lanka) is a radio channel which is partially under state control. There are 11 private radio channels, 6 in Sinhala and 5 in English.: Sinhala: Sirasa Isira Taru Hiru Sri FM Veritas ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library
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English: E FM YES FM GOLD FM SUN FM TNL
The news broadcast selected for the content analysis is the English news of the National Service at 8.00 pm. The main television channel of the state owned SLRC is 'Rupavahini' which commences at 6.55 a.m. and goes on till midnight. 'Channel EYE' is also a television channel managed by the SLRC and its programmes are in English. 'Svadina Rupavahini' (ITN) is a channel which is partially under state control. There are six private television channels: ETV MTV TNL Dynavision Sirasa Swarnavahini The television news presentation selected for content analysis is the English news of the ITN at 9.00 p.m. It will be useful to study the conceptual interpretations relating to the role of the media in a democratic society. What G.HLPeiris says of the core functions of the press in a democratic society, in his Preface to Studies on the Press in Sri Lanka and South Asia holds true of all media: the press should serve as a forum for the exercise of the fundamental right of freedom of expression, and as a medium for disseminating 'news' and related comment for the purpose of facilitating informed popular participation in decision-making at all levels in the community (p. 1). Other functions deal with, as Peiris states, "educating the public, safe guarding the interests of the weaker segments of society, and promoting value systems of intrinsic worth including the art of creative expression" (p. 1) The effectiveness of the media in achieving these objectives is a matter to be studied in the context of different countries with changing variables. Among such variables are, as Peiris points out,
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the prevalence of democratic norms in the affairs of governance, distribution of wealth and income in society, the prevailing levels of literacy and education, the quality of technology and manpower skills available to the media, and, above all, the extent to which the media represents the interests and aspirations of the people (p.ii) A survey of the role of Asian media in facilitating a culture of peace, covering seven countries (India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia, Philippines and Sri Lanka) is the theme of the present survey sponsored by The Asian Media Information and Communication Centre (AMIC). The present survey has two objectives: (1) to examine how often and to what extent media in Sri Lanka promote knowledge and practice of the culture of peace (2) to determine perceptions of people vis-a-vis the role of media in promoting a culture of peace.
1. The Content Analysis of Media reports To examine how often and to what extent Sri Lankan media promote knowledge and practice of the culture of peace a content analysis of three media was undertaken, covering the press, radio and television.
(a) The Press The sample consisted of two mainstream newspapers, one in English and the other in Sinhala, covering a three-day period, i.e. 10th" (Friday), 11th (Saturday) and 12th (Sunday) November 2000. The English newspaper selected was 'Daily News', published by the state owned ANCL. Since this newspaper does not appear on Sundays, its sister newspaper, 'Sunday Observer' was selected in stead. The Sinhala newspaper selected was 'Divayina' (Island), published by a well established private organization, Upali Newspapers Ltd. On Sunday, it appears as 'Irida Divayina' (Sunday Island)
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An analysis of data pertaining to newspapers are given in the following tables:
Table 1
NUMBER OF REPORTS BY TYPE OF REPORTING AND NEWSPAPER Number Percent Type of reporting English- Sinhala- Total English- Sinhala Total Daily News, Divaina Daily Divaina Observer News, Observer News reports 20 50 70 60.61 87.72 77.78 Editorial 2 2 4 6.06 3.51 4.44 Opinion/Letters to editor 1 1 3.03 0.00 1.11 Feature article 6 6 18.18 0.00 6.67 Photo/cartoon 1 1 3.03 0.00 1.11 Interviews 1 3 4 3.03 5.26 4.44 Commentary 1 2 3 3.03 3.51 3.33 Speeches 1 1 3.03 0.00 1.11 Total 33 57 90 100.00 100.00 100.00 % 36.7 63.3 100
Table 2
NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF EVENTS BY SUBJECT AND NEWSPAPER Number Percent Subject English Sinhala Total English Sinhala Total Daily News Divaina Daily Divaina Observer News Observer 1. Ethnic related violence 3 7 10 9.09 12.28 11.11 2. Middle East 3 3 9.09 0.00 3.33 3. Violence 11 19 30 33.33 33.33 33.33 4. Paedophiles 1 1 3.03 0.00 1.11 5. Election related violence 1 2 3 3.03 3.51 3.33 6. Peace talks 13 7 20 39.39 12.28 22.22 7. Drugs and Alcohol 1 3 4 3.03 5.26 4.44 8 Robbery 12 12 0.00 21.05 13.33 9. Suicide 7 7 0.00 12.28 7.78 Total 33 57 90 100.00 100.00 100.00 % 36.7 63.3 100 ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library
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Table 3
NEWS ITEMS BY NEWSPAPER (ENGLISH AND SINHALA) AND SUBJECTS
No. Newspaper Subject News Items 1 English Ethnic Batticaloa MP had final tryst with LTTE 2 War Widows follow self-employment Course Most widows don't know what counseling means 3 LTTE suffers serious setbacks 4 Middle East Mid-east death toll goes past 200 after new 'day of rage" 5 J'pura University to be reopened next week 6 Arafat says Clinton, Barak will talk of peace force 7 Violence Sri Lankan Gang Violence hits London 8 Race Bookie Employee Stabbed to Death 9 Rescued from a Lion's Jaws 10 People flee from LTTE held areas 11 Heavy penalties for accused in child abuse 12 Bindunuwewa massacre condemned 13 Bindunuwewa & the need for national reconciliation 14 Do you know them (Unknown dead bodies) 15 Both accused in Deraniyagala bus stand murder case acquitted 16 Retired Judge to inquire into J'pura clashes 17 Youth clubbed to death 18 Paedophiles Galle High Court Judgement Deterrent to Paedophiles 19 Election Florida-the Wayamba of the US Violence 20 Peace talks Prabhakaran's Heroes' Day Speech Keenly Awaited 21 International Community not for Separation 22 ARSMA in hull support of Norway as mediator 23 No more fooling around about peace talks-President to LTTE 24 Mediators trusted by all Bandaranaike-Kunaratunga thought a la Giddens 25 - Peace talks 26 Ranil Welcomes President's Address to Parliament A good bridge building exercise 27 Peace considerations 28 Making a difference( welfare programmes) 29 LTTE's peace overture 30 President at ceremonial opening of Parliament 31 President & LTTE talks) 32 The basis for a United Lanka (President's Address to Parliament) 33 Drugs Fighting Colombo's Mafia Gang
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Table 3 (Continued)
NEWS ITEMS BY NEWSPAPER (ENGLISH AND SINHALA) AND SUBJECTS
No. Newspaper Subject News Items
1 Sinhala Ethnic Two Tamil suspects arrested 2 LTTE decision on war soon Whether to continue or not 3 Bomb explored & Policeman injured 4 LTTE attack & kill civilians 5 Tamil with False ID taken to custody 6 LTTE not democratic but terrorist organization -PM 7 Presidents address to Parliament & war 8 Violence Murder case 9 Two suspects taken to custody 10 Youth murdered 11 Two suspects of murder remanded 12 University Students' violence 13 Police inquire on fpura student clash . 14 CID inquiry on Police assault 15 LTTE shots policeman 16 Two gunmen shot Tamil MP 17 Two remand prisoners dead 18 Wife attacks husband & burned & set herself on fire 19 Brother killed suspecting affair with wife 20 Man remanded for attacking wife 21 Father & daughter charged with poisoning 22 Son set fire to house 23 Fined for drunk & misbehaving 24 Remand prisoner murdered 25 -. 9 Students rape a girl 26 LTTE kill a civilian 27 Election Commission to look into election violence Violence 28 Election violence case filed 29 Peace talks Norway Peace talks 30 LTTE want peace when it get defeated 31 Defeat Britain, Norway & LTTE 32 Soldhiem a cat's paw 33 LTTE is benefited through our disunity 34 No solution without peace talks 35 Those who depend on dollars support false peace 36 Drugs Foreigner find for giving drugs to students 37 Brothers in drug trafficking imprisoned 38 Rs. 1 lak fined for possessing illegal liquor ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library
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Table 3 (Continued)
NEWS ITEMS BY NEWSPAPER (ENGLISH AND SINHALA) AND SUBJECTS
No. Newspaper Subject News Items
39 Robery 12 suspects on van robbery arrested 40 Armed gang robbed shop 41 Rs.4 laks robbed 42 Rs. 3.7mil waylaid 43 Man arrested with Rs. 5 mil. robbed items 44 Cooperative robbed 45 Rs. 3 million robbery 46 Van taken by force 47 3 shops robbed 48 Computer robbed 49 Find for false visa 50 Youths arrested for robbery 51 Youth jumped into a well 52 Sucide Youth taken poison 52 Man took poison after quarreling with wife 54 Wife hanged herself 55 Husband hanged himself 56 Man hanged himself 57 Youth committed suicide
Table 4
NEWS ITEMS BY CATEGORY OF NEWS AND NEWSPAPER
Category Number Percent English Sinhala Total English Sinhala Total Daily News Divaina Daily News Divaina Observer Observer Aggression 2 36 38 6.06 63.16 42.22 Violence 17 14 31 51.52 24.56 34.44 Solutions 14 7 21 42.42 12.28 23.33 Total 33 57 90 100.00 100.00 100.00 % 36.7 63.3 100
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o en O r-( ni as •* CN r~ ON o o o O O o o o o o o en oo 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 Tota l P o CN CN o O o o o o 'O- ON r- r-- ON «-; 00 •sj- NO NO ** •*-» « •t NO NO "0- CQ NO Fo r o ,—, 00 ,—1 ro ON •t CN r- in •—i o en en o o o o o o __ CN oo 95. 5 33. 3 93. 3 95. 5 100. 0 100. 0 300. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 100. 0 Domest i r^ O CN r~ en CN r- r^ o o o o o o o o o «—> V~l o o o o o o o o o ' ' o o o o o o o o OS o o o o o o o f—4 r—i c> »—i ,—i r—« r-l W s 2> 1- AN D IT) o '—' *""' 00 8. 2 0. 0 ON 0. 0 4. 7 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 s•J-l •*-» ON ON or i o o o o l o s 1U ~ *"•' *-• •""' *~ *~" oo h o SUBJEC T Q en en ,—i CN ,—c CN o o o o o o o — _ f r<-> o o '~~ o Percen t 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 B Y o o o © o o o o Tot a CN _1 o*i *fr r- ON oo Os ig n 6. 6 9. 0 9. 3 & Observe r EWSPAPER - REPORT S o uu oo Z en o r-, —i fN T-< O ^5 o en —, o o o o en — T—« *"•* CN O 0. 0 0. 6 3 ^ (/I ON 0. 0 3. 3 0. 9 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 NEW S en ON ON O F to o Q violenc e violenc e PERCENTAG E violenc e violenc e to U1 Alcoho l Alcoho l le s le s late d late d CO relate d d CO relate d d AN D E E r e r e a n a n ta l ta l 5 Suicid e Suicid e Paedoph i Electio n Peac e Robber y Middl e Peac e Drug s Robber y Violenc e Drug s Ethni c Violenc e Paedoph i Electio n Ethni c Middl e umbe r ota l ota l ubjec t Tabl e •<*- NUMBE R A. 00 h CN CO ^n NO C— oo o H <£ — CN en -3- m NO c-~ 00 ON H ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. 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Nanyang Technological University Library o O o o o O o o o o o o O o o o o o o o o O o o o o o o o o o o o o o d d d d d d d d d d d d d cd o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H *J en m VO ~o~ o r-~ m VO —, o ^1- en m "o" ^f _bD en en to o o vq CN oo •—; o •—; ro ro o en en t—^ CN CN cn oo vd d d v1d d r^ d vd 3 en en m o o ' rn ^r •* o m en in o in bD -*-» r- en C~~ m r~ CN Os en o in c vo en CN t-- m en CN en o O "5 vd en r~ od oo vd •* en in ,—.' 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Suicid e o INHAL A ...... o DIVAIN A Tabl e NUMBE R Z oo — | o o O o o O o o CO O o o O o o o © o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ci o o o 00 o m o Os o m o o o in o m o •—' o m o o o ,—i in 00 o r- ^t- m ^J- o o m (N in o •* o m r~- so O O rs o ci so o r-~ r^ O m in o SO m o m ci o SO o 00 m (N o ro o m Os ^3- CN r- os CI oo "3- Tt 00 o O m o oo o in o O o O o o (N O in o O Os CM o Os Icoho l d violenc e te d violenc e to 00 < le s 1 r e l a * T) r e a n ta l (Continued ) 7 "re Ethni c Suicid e Middl e E Paedoph i Electio n Drug s Robber y Violenc e Peac e 4-1 Tabl e m — M~ ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library o o O o o o o O O o o o o o o r^o " o o O p o o o p O o o o o o o o o o o o o o © o © o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 2 — ^^ 2 ^^ ^^ ^— •—' — — ^^ •—1 o o hi m CO ON —1 CN CO o o o o OO 9. 0 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0 12. 2 33. 3 92. 3 100. 0 42. 4 . •*—» olutio n olutio n oo oo t-~ o CN o ON o CN ce n CO r^ o NO NO © OO NO no i— u t CO o iol e iol e o > > UJ ON o NO r^ co o o o o NO H o © o c t/o NO p o p o < ON © NO .2 00 CN o o o o CO i/o ssio r o CO CN o o o o NO — *""• — ™ — SPAPER - ~~ ^ ^ — A 60 00 ND C 60 £§ 60 < < < H co CO — ,—1 —1 CO — CO r^ ON CN t^ CO CN r-~ r~- U ~-" — CO ^5 '—' '—' NTAG 1 o o o1> o le n u c c le n aJ u o _— co o __ LO 2 . >— o 2 > o CU PERCENTAG E -o o TD si '> > U o Q 13 B o 13 o *-* Z 'oO oo < CO CO < le s le s rel a 13 J3 rel a 13 AN D E E r e r e a n ta l a n ta l 8 8 Paedoph i Peac e Robber y Violenc e Drug s ~2 Robber y Suicid e UMBER , Peac e Middl e umbe r Electio n Drug s Electio n Ethni c Middl e Violenc e Paedoph i Suicid e Ethni c abl e ota l . . . . , . ubjec t . , , . . . . o H Tabl e z;NUMBE R — CN co ^r ir-i NO r^ oo ON h- oo — (N CO •* I/O NO r~- oo ON (- Z LT. ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library o o o o o O o o o O o o o o o O o o o O o o o o o o o o o o S o o o o o o o o o o o H o m o m 3. 3 10. 0 95. 0 23. 3 lutio n o 00 o o o m o o ^r o o o o m o o ^r an. c o o o m u~> I/-) **• r-~ o SO c-> CM m Viol e o r-~ o r- o o o CM o SO o so o o o CM io n o SO o SO in o o rsi ao CM m o SO r- o o V •* < o m o r-> o Tf CM r» o Os Tota l —1 o — o O Os O o o — Csl 5.6 2 5.6 2 2.2 5 16.8 5 11.2 4 12.3 6 46.0 7 !fi Solutio n r- ro oo o o o 100.0 0 Numb ro •^ iolenc e o^ i/-> o in in CM Os > •3- 00 (N o — _I rN O c> (N r^ OO UJ — ~^ m H io n oo O UJ Z Aggres s z u. O uj N oo violenc e iolenc e ho l > > 1 lc o CO •*-» i n Sq.CM . l a oo c < le s o r e -o UJ UJ U CO ne e H er y io n TJ Item s op OS +000 1 8 oo -J 1— _ OT H UJ abl e ubjec t O cd Siz e o f 100-19 9 500-74 9 300-49 9 750-99 9 BOT H 200-29 9 Table8(ContL. ) 20-9 9 H OQ — CNI m •t u-i so r- oo Os r- H Z Tota l oo XI ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 2€7^°\ Table8(Conti.) BOTH Subject / Number Percent Aggression Violence Solutions Total Aggression Violence So! 1. Ethnic related violent 2 7 1 10 20.00 70.00 10 2. Middle East 0 3 0 3 100.00 3. Violence / 11 18 1 30 36.67 60.00 3.3 4. Paedophiles / 1 0 0 1 100.00 5. Election related violence 2 1 0 3 66.67 33.33 6. Peace t^Hcs 0 1 19 20 5.00 95 7. Drug/and Alcohol 3 1 0 4 75.00 25.00 8. Rojibery 12 / 0 0 12 100.00 9. ^uicide 7/ 0 0 7 100.00 Jotal n 31 21 90 42.22 34.44 23 Table 9 NEWS ITEMS BY SIZE OF NEWS ITEM Size of Items in^wj.CM. No % 20-99 / 41 46.07 100-199 / 15 16.85 200-299/ 10 11.24 300-499 11 12.36 500/749 5 5.62 7/0-999 5 5.62 1000+ 2 2.25 Total 89 100.00 (b) The Radio The sample consisted of three prime time news bulletins (8.45 pm) in English on the days specified. The channel selected was the National Service of the state owned SLBC. It is a translated version of the Sinhala news broadcast. (c) The Television The sample consisted of three prime-time TV newscasts in English televised over the ITN, the first television station to be opened in Sri Lanka. It is now partially under state control. It is a translated version of the Sinhala newscast. / ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 2. Perceptions on the role of media To determine perceptions of people vis-a-vis the role of the media in promoting a culture of peace, a standard questionnaire was administered. Although it was aimed at a sample of 40, only 21 responded in time, due to various constraints. As a result, this survey is based on the responses of 21 men and women, of different age groups. They included the following three main categories of respondents: i. Journalists ii. Academics iii. NGO personnel Owing to time and other constraints, media personnel affiliated to the radio and television, and representatives of religious groups were not included in this survey. An analysis of the respondents are given in Tables 1 - 4 Table 1 RESPONDENTS BY OCCUPATION AND SEX Occupation Number Percent Male Female Total Male Female Total Journalists 8 2 10 80.00 20.00 100.00 Academics 4 2 6 66.67 33.33 100.00 NGO 5 0 5 100.00 0.00 100.00 Total 17 4 21 80.95 19.05 100.00 Table 2 RESPONDENTS BY OCCUPATION AND DESIGNATION Occupation Designation Male Female Total JOURNALISTS Course Director 1 1 Senior Journalists 1 1 Feature Editor 1 1 Feature Editor 1 1 Sen. Sub Editor 2 2 Media Consultant 1 1 Chief Editor 1 1 Associate Feature Editor 1 1 2 / ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library 2S TOTAL 8 2 10 ADVOCATES Deans/ Arts Faculty 1 1 OF PEACE Chancellor 1 1 Anthropologist 1 1 Lt. Commander 1 1 Senior Lecturer 1 1 Secretary General 1 1 TOTAL 4 2 6 NGO Director Program 1 1 Director Media Research 1 1 Programme Office 1 1 General Secretary 1 1 Director 1 1 TOTAL 5 5 TOTAL 17 4 21 Table 3 RESPONDENTS BY WHETHER A MEMBER OR AFFILIATED TO ANY PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATION Occupation Male Female Yes No Total Yes No Total Journalists 5 3 8 1 1 2 Advocates of peace 4 4 2 - 2 NGO 4 1 5 Total 13 4 17 3 1 4 Percent Journalists 38.46 75.00 47.06 33.33 100.00 50.00 Advocates of peace 30.77 0.00 23.53 66.67 0.00 50.00 NGO 30.77 25.00 29.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 Table 4 RESPONDENTS BY WHETHER A MEMBER OR AFFILIATED TO ANY SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Occupation Male Female Yes No Total Yes No Total Journalists 2 6 8 2 2 Advocates of peace 3 1 4 1 1 2 NGO 4 1 5 Total 9 8 17 1 3 4 Percent Journalists 22.22 75.00 47.06 0.00 66.67 50.00 Advocates of peace 33.33 12.50 23.53 100.00 33.33 50.00 NGO 44.44 12.50 29.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 A T T E N T I O N : T h e Table S 5 i n g RESPONDENTS BY OPINION ON MEDIA, RELIGIOUS GROUPS, a p o r SOCIETAL GROUPS AND NGOs AND SEX e C o p y NEWS IS BASICALLY NEGATIVE IN NATURE r i g h t A Occupation Male Female c t a Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Total Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Total p p l i Agree Disagree Agree Disagree e s •* f\ 0 CN t Journalists o t m •* (N h Advocates of e u s Peace e CO in CN o f NGO t h •3- i^ r^ •<* CN "st" i s Total d o Percent c u l l OO'OO l l OO'OO m Journalists 0.00 14.29 75.00 100.00 47.06 0.00 0.00 50.00 e n t . Advocates of 0.00 42.86 25.00 0.00 23.53 0.00 100.00 100.00 0.00 50.00 N a Peace n O O OO' y a NGO 100.00 42.86 0.00 29.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 n g l l OO'OO l l OO'OO l l OO'OO Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 T 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 e c h n o l o g i c a l U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y A T T E N T I O N : T h e S i n g a p Table 6 o r e RESPONDENTS BY OPINION ON MEDIA, RELIGIOUS GROUPS, C o p SOCIETAL GROUPS AND NGOs AND SEX y r i g MASS MEDIA IN MY COUNTRY GIVE PROMINENCE TO EVENTS SUCH AS CONFLICT h t BETWEEN NATIONS, WARS, INTER-ETHNIC STRIFE AND MISUNDERSTANDINGS A c t a p p l Occupation Male i Female e s Disagree Strongly t Strongly Agree Total Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Total o t Agree Disagree Agree h Disagree e CN (N m 0 (N u Journalists s e o Advocates of f t h i Peace s m fNl m d NGO o c SO CN in c~> m r^ •t u Total m e n Percent t . N / Journalists 33.33 20.00 66.67 100.00 47.06 0.00 100.00 100.00 50.00 a n y Advocates of 16.67 40.00 33.33 0.00 23.53 100.00 0.00 0.00 50.00 a n g Peace T e C'V c NGO 50.00 40.00 0.00 0.00 29.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 h n o Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 l o g i c a l U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y A T T E N T I O N : T h e S i n g a Table 7 p o r RESPONDENTS BY OPINION ON MEDIA, RELIGIOUS GROUPS, e C SOCIETAL GROUPS AND NGOs AND SEX o p y r REPORTING ABOUT RELIGIONS IN MY COUNTRY IS BIASED, IMBALANCED AND SUBJECTIVE i OFTEN g h t A c Occupation Male t Female a p Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Total Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Total p l i e Agree Disagree Agree Disagree s m (N CN 0 t (N o Journalists t h m ^r Advocates of u s Peace e o •3- in f t NGO h in T VO (N r^ i Total d o c Percent u m Journalists 20.00 75.00 e 33.33 100.00 47.06 0.00 50.00 100.00 50.00 n 1 1 0000 0 0 00 t . Advocates of 0.00 25.00 50.00 0.00 23.53 50.00 50.00 N a n Peace y a O O OO' n NGO 80.00 0.00 16.67 0.00 29.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 g T Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 e 100.00 100.00 100.00 c h n o l o g it i c a l U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y A T T E N T I O N : T h e S i n g a p o r Table 8 e C RESPONDENTS BY OPrNION ON MEDIA, RELIGIOUS GROUPS, o p y r SOCIETAL GROUPS AND NGOs AND SEX i g h t RELIGIOUS AND SOCIETAL GROUPS AND NGOs IN MY COUNTRY HAVE PERFORMED WELL A c t IN PROMOTING PEACE, UNDERSTANDING AN TOLERANCD E a p p l i e Occupation Male Female s t o Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Total Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Total t h e Agree Disagree Agree Disagree u CN Journalists o CN •** CN f t Advocates of h i s Peace d o (N cN m c NGO u m CN C") Os ft r-- CN -3- Total e n t . Percent N a n Journalists 100.00 0.00 55.56 33.33 47.06 100.00 0.00 50.00 50.00 y 1 1 0000 a n Advocates of 0.00 33.33 22.22 33.33 23.53 0.00 50.00 50.00 g T Peace e c h NGO 0.00 66.67 22.22 33.33 29.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 n o l o Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00. 100.00 100.00 g i c a l U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y A T T E N T I O N : Table T 9 h e RESPONDENTS BY OPINION ON MEDIA, RELIGIOUS GROUPS, S i n g SOCIETA LGROUPS AND NGOs AND SEX a p RELIGIOUS AND SOCIETAL GROUPS AND NGOs HAVE ESTABLISHED GOOD RELATIONS o r H O 0 £ X s f- UJ < S UJ 5 < S 2 > U O e > WITH THE MASS MEDI INA MY COUNTRY C JU o _4> p Occupa.tio n Fema y 0 r Q < •a < — 5 £P H O >-, i k* 4> 4) >^ 60 C £P u u g 4> < 60 u 0) 111 £ h A Disag Agr Disagr c —! CM rsi ^r o t _ —i (N o 3 a rnalist s p -a m — rf p •—i > O o — ates of e s t o z a o CN ro in t h e "5 o •4—» r- ,—c (N — -3- o u s e _ •4—' o Per f t o d o o OJ od in f- in o o o ^r r^ o o O in h o o o o i rnalist s 0.0 0.0 s 50.00 1 1 o o 00 o •* ates of 0.0 0.0 50.00 c u m e z O O © © O 0.0 0.0 . 0.00 H 15 CO o o © o o o o N o © o o © o © o o o o o o o o a 0.0 0.0 100 100.00 n y a n g T e c h n o l o g i c a l U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y A T T E Table 10 N T I O RESPONDENTS BY OPINION ON MEDIA, RELIGIOUS GROUPS, N : SOCIETAL GROUPS AND NGOs AND SEX T h e ALL PARTIES CONCERNED HAVE TO WORK MUCH MORE CLOSELY TO PROMOTE A CULTURE OF PEACE S i n g a p Occupation Male Female o r e Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Total Strongly Agree Disagree Strongly Total C o p Agree Disagree Agree Disagree y r~- o (N r CM i Journalists g h ^t •<* CM t Advocates of A c t Peace a p m u-> p l NGO i e cs t r- ^r s ^r Total t o t h Percent e u Journalists 50.00 50.00 0.00 47.06 50.00 50.00 s e o Advocates of 28.57 0.00 0.00 23.53 50.00 f 50.00 t h i Peace s d NGO 21.43 50.00 100.00 29.41 0.00 o 0.00 c u Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 m e n t . N a n y a n g T e c h n o l o g i c a l U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y A T T E N T I O N : T h Table 11 e S i RESPONDENTS BY GOOD PRACTICES IN PROMOTING A CULTURE OF PEACE n g a Are there examples of media in your country that have adopted "good practices" in reporting abou religiont ? p o r e C Occupation Male Female o p 2 o y o r Yes Some No Total Yes Some i Total g h Q. o c VI t extent response extent A CM CO r-i O CNl c t Journalists a m -* CN p Advocates of p l i e Peace s CM t v/-> o NGO t h "3" r^ CM •* r^ Total u s e Percent o f t Journalists 42.86 50.00 0.00 75.00 47.06 50.00 0.00 100.00 50.00 h 1 1 0000 i s Advocates of 42.86 25.00 0.00 0.00 23.53 50.00 0.00 50.00 d o c Peace u m e NGO 14.29 25.00 100.00 25.00 29.41 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 n t . Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 N a n y a n g T e c h n o l o g i c a l U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library (N —i (N o o o o t(- CL) ~- CO o p o p o o f C o o © o c O in in o _o a. o CO o Z 1_ E Lo» Q. 3 U E th e promotio n E to o X *-» Li CL) o t o oo CO PEAC E C _o • '••-* o 3 O F Z *n — —, (N O O o o o o o o on t CO o o o o o co in in o >- '—' iv e cc "3- in r~ ^O m o •*-• — CULTUR E — o >n •* p CO r^ rn o A <> o 15 •* CO Q. 4^ (N o o .—1 4) H « m ,-_ ^ o © o o cu o o o o E CO u C in o in o o (N o rt> Q. r- .c CO ^— o CL) CO Z PROMOTIN G x: OJ CM o o o o 4-» o o o o I N be- -4—> o o o o S cou r CL) 00 ran o u, ^» (N ^—, en (~~ o m o 2 o ^D © P-) o o *-> © you r countr y tha t hav e mad positiv contribution s o \6 r-i o PRACTICE S •E § o i n K) &0 Z TJ .E CO •^ — oo o o O o «2 -a in p in p E i> medi a © oi o GOO D S in •—• <~ 2 CO m o O co CL) o f co u >- B Y uy "tj G. E understandin g an d toleranc e ECd «f1 C|_ u- X 3 c O o CU -C o CO CO CO CO CO CU *-* •- EU 4) -*-* CO mutua l 1 2 o. "cC c •£ 4) 3 <-> „. CO "5 <-> „•> ther e example s % 8 O 15 CJ Ui 15 ... O O *-> 3 9 8 o w a CO a o J? o o ^ 4) o O RESPONDENT S Ar e peace , Tabl e < 0, z Cu < CL, z f- < Q. o ATTENTION: The Singapore Copyright Act applies to the use of this document. Nanyang Technological University Library CJ •t Tota l o CU NG O (N Fem a COUNTR Y peac e Advocate s o f (N YOU R P N Journalist s r- GROUP S Tota l i/-> SUC H AN D NG O • 3* tfi Bibliography DeSilva, KM. (1981) A History of Sri Lanka (Oxford University Press) Hyndman, Patricia (1988) Sri Lanka: Serendib under Siege (Spokesman) McGowan, William (1992) Only Man is Vile: The Tragedy of Sri Lanka (Pan Books) Meson, Vijaya cd. ( ) Walking the Tightrope * ff*r r **-*-*> •+* c^*/ Pieris, G ed. (1997) Studies on the Press in Sri Lanka and South Asia (Kandy: International Center for Ethnic Studies) Pieris, G and S. W.A. de S. Samarasinghe, (1999) History and Politics: Millennial Perspectives (Colombo: Law and Society Trust) Sivatamby. Kartigesu (1995) Sri Lankan Tamil Society and Politics (Madras: Century Book House) Tambiah, Stanley, ( )Buddhism Betrayed? -*ei» -v~ V»*UKo Xn £/\ LM- £r„ \_J*LL~>-f QJnic^ijt; \J^- % C-**<