Drug Abuse in Sports SUBJECT FORENSIC SCIENCE
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SUBJECT FORENSIC SCIENCE Paper No. and Title PAPER No. 9: Drugs of Abuse Module No. and Title MODULE No. 28: Drug Abuse in Sports Module Tag FSC_P9_M28 FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9 : Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 28 : Drug Abuse in Sports TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. Learning Outcomes 2. Introduction 3. Forensic Issues 4. Classification of Prohibited Substances in Sports 5. Some Notable Drugs used in Sports 6. Analytical Approach to detect Dope Drugs 7. Summary FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9 : Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 28 : Drug Abuse in Sports 1. Learning Outcomes After studying this module, you shall be able to know about The commonly use Drugs in sports. Classification and nature of the Drugs used in Sports. The techniques for detection of these drugs. 2. Introduction Drug abuse in sport is habitually called as “doping”. The universal word „dope‟ is being used both as a noun and as a verb. The word does not appear in this context before the twentieth century regardless of the practice of horse „nobbling‟, which was known well before this time. For example, the story of the famous trial of Daniel Dawson, publicly executed at Cambridge in 1812 for poisoning racehorses with arsenic. The abuse of drugs in an attempt to enhance performance in human sporting competitions is not new. For example, the Greek authors Phylostratos and Galen stated on the ethics of participants in the Olympics who would take any preparation to improve their performance. Roman gladiators were often intoxicated to make their fights more vigorous and gruesome as demanded by the spectators. The effect of drugs on performance is often exceptionally difficult to determine, and there is little conclusive available work for any species. The results that have been published are often contradictory as some of the workers advocate an increase in the competitor‟s performance and others suggest no improvement. The assessment systems used to evaluate the effect of drugs may not sufficiently relate to the appropriate sporting performance, such as increase in muscle strength and sprint running. Moreover, athletes may take far larger amounts of drugs than would be ethically acceptable in most human experiments. The toxic side-effects of drugs are less difficult to ascertain, but the conclusions drawn from the available data are often contingent. However, there is sufficient evidence of the harmful effects when certain drugs are misused to validate their prohibition from sports competitions. In human sports, the main monitoring body is International Olympic Committee (IOC). Nevertheless, since 1999, doping concerns have been taken over by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9 : Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 28 : Drug Abuse in Sports 3. Forensic Issues For most substances, the mere presence of the substance or an analytic metabolite in the biological fluid sampled constitutes an offence, but for some substances there is a reporting threshold. If the drug is detected, but it is less than the reporting threshold, no offence is reasoned to have occurred. Multifaceted rules apply to some of the substances, not least because some have therapeutic uses. The obligation is on the athlete to obtain a „Therapeutic Use Exemption‟ for certain categories of substances, with the substances covered under this possible exemption made clear in the WADA list. The WADA list also recognizes that some anabolic agents and hormones are produced endogenously. The fundamental rationale is that, an offence is considered to have occurred if one or more of these prohibited substances are detected in an athlete‟s specimen at a level outside of that which is considered to be the normal range in humans for the substance. For some substances, offences apply both in-competition or out of- competition, whereas for others an offence applies only if the substance is detected in-competition. For some sports, specific classes of substances are prohibited. For example, beta-blockers are prohibited in-competition in sports such as shooting, billiards and gymnastics. Alcohol is prohibited in-competition for sports such as motorcycling, power boating and archery. The emphasis when prohibiting use of a substance is on whether or not the use of a substance or method is proposed to enhance sport performance. The position regarding excessive quantities of normal nutrients is much argued. Although they are not currently included in a prohibited list, there is no hesitation that certain vitamins, notably B1, C and E and also Creatine have been used in large doses with the purpose of affecting performance. 4. Classification of Prohibited Substances in Sports 4.1 Stimulants This group of drugs includes psychomotor stimulants, sympathomimetic amines and other diverse CNS stimulants. They may produce alertness, wakefulness and an increase in the ability to concentrate. In addition they may improve the competence to exercise strenuously or produce a decreased sensitivity to pain. These effects are potentially of benefit to a wide variety of sports involving sustained physical and mental activity. FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9 : Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 28 : Drug Abuse in Sports 4.1.1 Amphetamines: Amphetamines are stimulants that include several structurally related drugs dextroamphetamine, methamphetamine, Phenmetrazine, and methyl phenidate. Physicians prescribe these drugs on a short term basis for treatment of obesity and also to treat narcolepsy and minimal brain dysfunction in children. 4.1.2 Cocaine: Cocaine, also a Central Nervous System Stimulant, when snorted, affects the brain within few minutes, the peak effect come within 15 – 20 minutes. When injected cocaine takes about 15 seconds to affect the brain. The euphoria following cocaine use is in some ways similar to the intense euphoria following an outstanding athletic performance. Both are in part facilitated through the “pleasure brain”. The individual feels energetic and hyper alert. 4.1.3 Sympathomimetic Amines: Sympathomimetic Amines are group of stimulants of which ephedrine is an example. However, Pseudoephedrine and phenylpropanolamine, which used to be in banned list of WADA is no more in the same category. The ephedrine is also found in low doses in cough, cold and sinus medications. Because these medicines are broadly used by the people as over the counter drugs, they are effortlessly abused by competing athletes‟ for their stimulant effects. Prohibited stimulants: Adrafinil, Adrenaline, Amfepramone, Amphetamine, Amfetaminil, Amiphenazole, Benzfetamine, Benzylpiperazine, Bromantane, Cathine, Clobenzorex, Cocaine, Cropropamide, Crotetamide, Cyclazodone, Dimethylamphetamine, Ephedrine, Etamivan, Etilamphetamine, Etilefrine, Famprofazone, Fenbutrazate, Fencamfamin, Fencamine, Fenetylline, Fenfluramine, Fenproporex, Furfenorex, Heptaminol, P-Hydroxyamphetamine, Isometheptene, Levmethamphetamine, Meclofenoxate, Mefenorex, Mephentermine, Mesocarb, Methylenedioxyamphetamine, Methamphetamine, Methylephedrine, Methylphenidate, Modafinil, Nikethamide, Norfenefrine, Norfenfluramine, Octopamine, Ortetamine, Oxilofrine, Pemoline, Pentetrazol, Phendimetrazine, Phenmetrazine, Phenpromethamine, Phentermine, 4- Phenylpiracetam, Prolintane, Propylhexedrine, Selegiline, Sibutramine, Strychnine, Tuaminoheptane and other substances with a similar chemical structure or similar biological effect(s). FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9 : Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 28 : Drug Abuse in Sports 4.2 Narcotics Analgesics Narcotics are derivatives of Opium and consist of powerful painkiller drugs. Narcotics are not perceived as ergogenic drug. However, their use, misuse and abuse potential in sports may be high because of pressures on the athlete to perform competitively despite varied musculo-skeletal injuries. The pressure on the athletes to perform well is so intense that they sometimes turn to narcotics as an emotional escape. These drugs are banned so as to decrease the risk of tragic conditions. Prohibited Narcotics analgesics: Buprenorphine, Dextromoramide, Diamorphine (Heroin), Fentanyl and its derivatives, Hydromorphone, Methadone, Morphine, Oxycodone, Oxymorphone, Pentazocine, Pethidine 4.3 Anabolic Steroids Anabolic steroids are synthetic derivatives of the natural male hormones Testosterone, which is produced principally by testes in males and is responsible for androgenic (masculinizing) and anabolic (tissue- building) effects. The abuse of anabolic steroids has historic foundations in man‟s aspiration to create a body building “wonder drug”. This group of drugs is responsible for the most pervasive abuse of drugs in sports. In human sport, anabolic steroids are used as bodybuilding drugs, occasionally in very large quantities, in events such as weightlifting and shot-putting. There are generally two chemical types based upon the androstane and estrane ring systems: those with a 17α-alkyl group, which are active orally but possess hepatotoxicity, and 19-nor derivatives administered by injection. Although steroidal estrogens and some stilbenes reputedly possess anabolic activity and are engaged in beef production, they do not appear to be used as doping agents. Anabolic Steroids reverse the negative or catabolic effects of exercise have on muscle. During exercise the adrenal glands naturally secrete glucocorticoids that induce muscle breakdown. Anabolic Steroids minimize this catabolism and thus build muscles. FORENSIC SCIENCE PAPER No. 9 : Drugs of Abuse MODULE No. 28 : Drug Abuse in Sports 4.3.1 Exogenous Anabolic Agents: Androstenediol, Androstenedione,