The Effect of Firing Temperature and Molarity on the Structural and Electrical Properties of Nano Particles Ofnickel- Cobalt Oxide

ECO-CHRONICLE 163 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 4. DECEMBER 2006, 163 - 170

THE EFFECT OF FIRING TEMPERATURE AND MOLARITY ON THE STRUCTURAL AND ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF NANO PARTICLES OFNICKEL- COBALT OXIDE.

Nisha J. Tharayil1, R. Raveendran1 and Alexander Varghese Vaidyan2

1Department of Physics, Sree Narayana College, Kollam, Kerala. 2Department of Chemistry, St.Stephen’s College, Pathanapuram, Kerala.

ABSTRACT Nano particles of Nickel-Cobalt Oxide were prepared by chemical co-precipitation method by decomposition of their respective metal chlorides, sodium carbonate and Ethylene Diamene Tetra acetic Acid (EDTA).The metal chlorides were taken in different molar ratios but the total molarity remains the same as 0.5M. The influences of molarity on the formation of nano particles of Nickel- Cobalt oxide were analyzed. The heat treatment of the ground precursor powders at their respective decomposition temperatures and beyond, resulted in the evolution of heat from the combustion of the residual carbonaceous material. This facilitated the reaction among the constituent metal ions and the formation of the desired oxide phase at low temperature. The average particle size was determined from X-ray diffraction line broadening and the diffractogram was compared with JCPDS data to identify the crystallographic phase of the particles. The shift in the d-value due to the nano nature was also analyzed. The effect of sintering on the particle size was also analyzed. The low temperature DC conductivity studies of the samples were carried out and it was seen that for Spinel structure, the activation energy was found to be 0.14552eV for the temperature range 100K-250K and 0.09030eV for the temperature range 250K-350K and for the cubic structure, it was found to be 0.5145eV for the temperature range 100K-245K and 0.5836eV for the range 245K-350K. The conductivity in the temperature range 250K-350K was much larger than in the range 100K-250K.

Key words: Nano particles, Chemical co-precipitation, Thermogravimetric analysis, SEM, Low temperature DC conductivity Thus these types of compounds can display INTRODUCTION many complicated chemical and physical properties (Dimitar et. al., 2003). Nickel-Cobalt Nano crystalline materials are solids composed Oxide is one of the transparent conducting of crystallites with characteristic size (at least on oxides. It is a P-type conducting material and a one dimension) of a few nanometers (Richard promising infrared transparent conducting oxide and Earl, 2005). The discovery of these materials because of its infrared transparency, stability in by Gleiter can be viewed as one of the most oxygen, ease of preparation, phase purity and fascinating ones of the past decades. Research high conduction. Nickel doped cobalt oxide into the synthesis and properties of nano scale shows p-type semi conducting behavior, similar materials has exploded over the past decade to intrinsic spinel cobalt oxide (Tareen, 1989). due to their unique size dependent properties Spinel nano crystals are important technological that often differ considerably from their bulk phase materials because they have a wide range of materials. Research in the field of fine grain applications ranging from ultra high magnetic mixed oxide systems have gained immense data storage, magnetic resonance imaging, importance because of their potential sorbents, drug delivery, battery materials, applications in many areas of technology (Slick, catalysts, biosensing to nano electronic 1980). The present study deals with the materials etc. (Zhang and Chen, 2006). In this preparation and characterization of mixed spinel paper, investigations were carried out primarily oxide systems with the general formula AB O 2 4 with the following objectives in mind. where A and B represent divalent or trivalent cations such as Ni and Co respectively. The ions a. In synthesizing Nickel - Cobalt Oxide by at both A and B sites can be tetrahedrally and chemical co-precipitation method, the effect of octahedrally co-ordinated by the oxygen atoms. molarity of Nickel Chloride solution and Cobalt 164 ECO-CHRONICLE Chloride solution on the formation of Nickel- 40KV and 100mA at a scanning rate of 80minute- Cobalt Spinel Oxide. 1 from 2 =50to 800 . The SEM photographs of the b. The effect of sintering temperature on the samples were recorded with a Hitachi Model S- formation of Nickel - Cobalt Oxide. 3000H scanning electron microscope. Pellets c. To check whether molarity change affect the of nano particles of Nickel-Cobalt Oxide of low temperature DC conductivity of the sample. diameter 13 mm and thickness 1-2 mm were made by applying a pressure of 4 tones in a MATERIALS AND METHODS hand operated hydraulic press. Using these pellets, the low temperature conductivity was Nano particles of Nickel-Cobalt Oxide were measured using a computer controlled TSC prepared by arrested precipitation from analytical apparatus in the temperature range 100K- 350K. grade Cobalt Chloride, Nickel Chloride and Sodium Carbonate using Ethylene Diamene RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Tetra acetic Acid (EDTA) as the capping agent, the details of which are given elsewhere (Jose Thermal analysis et. al., 2001). The samples were prepared from 0.5M solution. The choice of selection of 0.5M is The precursor on heating decomposes to form a compromise between quantity and quality. If Nickel-Cobalt Oxide. Thermo gravimetric we go for low molarities, the quantity obtained analysis of the carbonate precursor was carried will be very small; on the other hand high out to determine the decomposition temperature molarities will increase the size of the nano and the rate of decomposition. The TGA analysis particles. The metal carbonate precipitate was was performed in the temperature range from separated from the reaction mixture and washed 28o C to 800oC at a heating rate of 15oC/minute several times with alcohol and then with distilled under nitrogen atmosphere. The TGA curve of water to remove impurities, including the traces the carbonate precursor, together with the of EDTA and the original reactants if any. The wet corresponding derivative thermo gravimetry curve precipitate was dried and thoroughly ground is as shown in Figs. 1. a & b. using an agate mortar to obtain the metal carbonate precursor in the form of fine powder. The decomposition temperatures were found to On heating to the required temperature, the metal lie between 3000c and 3500c. Thus the heat carbonate precursor decomposed to form metal treatment of the ground precursor powders at oxide. In this process the particle size is their respective decomposition temperature and governed by the solution concentration, rate of beyond, resulted in the evolution of heat from precipitation and calcination temperature the combustion of the residual carbonaceous (Ashuthosh Sharma et. al., 2004). In the present material. This facilitates the reaction among the study, two combinations were taken, which are constituent metal ions and the formation of the defined as: desired oxide phase at a relatively low external a. Nickel Chloride in 0.4 molarity of the solution temperature. The decomposition temperature in and the Cobalt Chloride in 0.1 molarity and the both cases were found to be at 3500 C . sample formed out of this is denoted from here onwards by the code CN. XRD analysis b. Nickel chloride in 0.1 molarity of the solution and Cobalt Chloride in 0.4 molarity of the solution The precursor powders of CN and CoNi were and the sample formed out of this is denoted calcined at temperatures 3000 C, 5000C, 7000C from here onwards by the code CoNi. and 9000C for 3 hours each. All the XRD patterns revealed that the Nickel - Cobalt Oxide prepared Characterization of the sample were crystalline. The XRD patterns of the calcined samples are shown in Figs. 2. a & b. The calcination temperature of the carbonate precursor was determined from TGA and DTA The XRD studies revealed that the nano particles analysis. The TGA and DTA of the samples were of mixed oxide formed by chemical method were taken using Perkin- Elmer, diamond TG/DTA. crystalline. The fine particle nature of the mixed The XRD study was carried out by using an oxide was reflected in the X-ray line broadening. ‘X’pert pro model X-ray diffractometer employing The relative crystalline sizes were determined

Cu K radiation (PAN analytical, Netherlands) at from the XRD line broadening, using the Scherrer ECO-CHRONICLE 165 Fig. 1a TGA of CoNi

Fig.1b TGA of CN

equation d = 0.9 /  cos  (Cullity, 1978). The adjusted by controlling the temperature of the particle size for various calcination temperatures reaction. are as shown in Table 1. From the Table it is clear that with the increase in sintering The XRD analysis of CoNi, when compared with temperature, particle size also increased. This JCPDS (File No 40-1191) revealed the presence indicated that the size of the crystallites can be of a cubic phase. The lattice parameter was calculated as a = 8.12nm ( 0.003) A0, which Table 1. was found to be in agreement with JCPDS value. Sintering Particle size Particle size In the diffractometer, the angle (d-spacing) and temperature in nm for CoNi in nm for CN intensities of the high angle reflected beams served as a finger print for the crystal structure. As prepared 17 ± 5 15±5 The XRD pattern, when compared with JCPDS 5000 C 24 ± 5 33±5 revealed the structure as Spinel Oxide. The most 7000 C 34 ± 5 34±5 intense peak (intensity 100) was from the (311) 9000 C 35 ± 5 39±5 plane which correspond to an angle of 2 = 36. 692890 . 166 ECO-CHRONICLE The XRD analysis of CN, when compared with The cell parameter of the NiO within this JCPDS (File No 40-1191) also revealed the temperature range changed little and remained presence of a cubic phase. The lattice parameter close to the literature value of 4.176A0, indicating was calculated as a = 8.12nm ( 0.003) A0, which little structural interaction between the two was found to be in agreement with JCPDS value. phases. Therefore NiO must be considered as

The most intense peak (intensity 100) was from a separate entity to NiCo2O4 and not merely a the (311) plane which correspond to an angle of surface species. Further more, the existence of  0 2 = 43.14692 .This peak was that of cubic a solid solution of the form NiO-Co3O4 can be

Co3O4 (JCPDS File No.78-0643). Here the Nickel- excluded. The surface coverage of NiCo2O4 by Cobalt Oxide formed has no spinel structure as NiO for the material fired at higher temperatures the most intense peak was at 43.14692 A0. would then explain the loss of electrochemical performance evident from literature reports. The The presence of the cubic NiO phase appeared loss of activity may also be due to the reduction in the sample of CoNi fired at 7000 C and 9000 C in the surface area associated with the formation and in all samples of CN and co-existed with the of the NiO layer (Lapham and Tseung, 2004).

Ni Co2O4 in greater quantities .Two peaks of NiO from the planes (200 and 220) were seen in the It should be noted that the difference between

XRD pattern of CoNi and a single peak of NiO powder diffraction patterns of NiCo2O4 and Co3O4 from the plane (220) was seen in CN (JCPDS is unsurprisingly, very slight and the close File No.78-0643). inspection of high angle diffraction lines is often

Table 2.

 CoNi 2 dobserved dcal difference h, k, l a Mean a

18.82 4.71 4.68 0.03 111 8.16 8.12 31.16 2.87 2.87 0.04 220 8.11 36.70 2.45 2.45 0.02 311 8.12 44.60 2.03 2.03 0 400 8.12 59.06 1.56 1.56 0 511 8.12 64.98 1.44 1.43 0.01 440 8.11 CN 37.26 2.09 2.45 0.36 311 8.13 8.13

Fig.2a XRD of CoNi ECO-CHRONICLE 167 4 O 3 4 O 2 Fig. 2b XRD of CN (311) plane of Co

as prepared 4 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 C

(311) plane of NiCo 0 3 5 0 0 7 0 0 C 9 0 0 0 C 3 0 0 0

2 5 0 0 (220) plane of NiO

2 0 0 0 C o u n t s 1 5 0 0

1 0 0 0

5 0 0

1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 0 2 T h e t a necessary in order to assess the presence of Fig.3 a. SEM of CoNi smaller quantities of Co 3O 4 (Lapham and Tseung, 2004). Table 2 gives the lattice parameter and (hkl) values of the different planes of the prepared samples of CoNi and CN and the change in the d-values of the sample. The slight change in the d-values can be attributed to the nano sized species of Nickel - Cobalt Oxide (Rath and Kumar, 2004).

The XRD peaks were broadened due to the nano crystalline nature of the particles. These nano crystals have lesser lattice planes compared to the bulk, which contributed to the broadening of peaks in the diffractogram. This broadening of the peaks could also arise due to the micro straining of the crystal structures arising from defects like dislocations, twinning etc. These Fig.3. b. SEM of CN were believed to be associated with the chemically synthesized nano crystals as they grow spontaneously during chemical reaction. As a result, chemical ligands get negligible time to diffuse to an energetically favorable site. It could also arise due to lack of sufficient energy needed by an atom to move to a proper site in forming the crystallite (Ward et. al., 2005).

Microstructural studies

For microstructural analysis, the as - synthesized samples were directly transferred to the chamber of the SEM without disturbing the original nature of the products. The SEM images 168 ECO-CHRONICLE of samples are shown in Figs.3 (a & b). The Fig. 4b. Low temperature DC conductivity of CN SEM picture revealed that the particles are more or less elongated in shape in CoNi and spherical -5 in CN. Moreover the particle size can be estimated to lie in the range10-50nm. The -6 differences in particles due to changes in -7 100 K-250K

molarities were clear from the SEM photographs. ) 1 - -8 Low temperature DC conductivity studies -9

The low temperature conductivity studies were -10

carried out in the temperature range 100K-350K conductivity(sm ln The conductivity for CoNi at the lowest -11 temperature measurement (100K) was found to -12 be 9.21x10-6 s m-1 which increased to 2.32x10-3 s m-1 at 350K.The overall increase of conductivity 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 over the temperature range from 100K-350K was 1000/T K-1 about three order of magnitude, where as in the Fig. 4c. Low temperature DC conductivity of CN case of CN the conductivity for the lowest temperature measurement (100K) was found to be 4.81x 10-12, which increased to 5.75x10-6 at -6.0 350K. The overall increase of conductivity over -6.2 the temperature range from 100K-350K was -6.4 about six orders of magnitude. The Arrhenius 250K-350K plots of DC conductivity are shown in figs. 4 (a - c). -6.6

-6.8

It can be seen from the figs. 4 (a - c) that the conductivity ln conductivity increases with increase in -7.0 temperature and changes by about three orders -7.2 of magnitude for CoNi and six orders of magnitude for CN, in the temperature range -7.4 investigated. The rise in conductivity may be due 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 -1 to thermally generated carriers in the sample, 1000/T K and hence Arrhenius type of conduction temperature (Prasad, 2000). But in our case, a becomes apparent. A change in the slope of phase transition was not found from XRD. The Arrhenius plot was observed. It is reported that slight changes in slope may be due to slight change in the slope is related to transition contributions from different regions in the nano composite material (i.e. from grains, grain Fig. 4a. Low temperature DC conductivity of CN boundary etc.), where appearance (disappearance) of space charge polarization takes place accompanied with a change in activation energy (Syed et. al., 2006). The changes can also be related to changes in conduction mechanism. From the literature it is seen that the conductivity in Nickel-Cobalt Spinel Oxide is due to polaron hopping (Windisch, 2002). The activation energy values were calculated from the slopes of Arrhenius plots by fitting the experimental data to the Arrhenius   relation dc = 0 exp (-E/kT), where E is the  activation energy, k Boltzmann’s constant, 0 a constant and T is the temperature in Kelvin. The values obtained were 0.14552eV the temperature range from 275K-350K and .09030eV from 100K- ECO-CHRONICLE 169 250K, and that for CN were 0.5145 eV in the takes place accompanied with a change in temperature range100K-245K and 0.5836 eV in activation energy. the temperature range 245K-350K. REFERENCES CONCLUSION Ashutosh Sharma, Jayesh Bellare and Archana Sharma. 2004. Advances in nano science and The experimental results lead to the following Nano Technology, National Institute of Science conclusions on the properties of nano sized communication and information resources, p. Nickel-Cobalt Oxide. 185. Thermal analysis showed that the Cullity, B.D. 1978. Elements of X-ray diffraction, decomposition temperature of the carbonate Addison - wesley publishing company Inc. precursor was 3500 C for both the molarities. California, p. 102. The low temperature (3000 C-3500 C) exothermic decomposition of the carbonaceous material Dimitar, G., Klissurski, Ellie, L. and Uzunova. present in the precursor powder reduces the 2003. Cation - deficient nano - dimensional processing temperature for the preparation of particle size cobalt - manganese spinel mixed fine particles of this mixed oxide system. oxides, Appl. Sur. Scie., 214, 370 - 374. The X-ay diffractogram, when compared with Jose, J. and Abdul Khader, M. 2001. Role of grain JCPDS data, confirmed a Spinel structure for boundaries on the electrical properties of ZnO - CoNi at 2=36.69289 0 from the plane (311) and Ag nano composites: An impedance for CN, the spinel structure was not formed as spectroscopic study, 49, 729 - 735. the most prominent peak was at 2 =43.14693 0 The XRD pattern confirmed that in the sample Lapham, D. P. and Tseung, A.C.C. 2004. The CoNi, the Nickel-Cobalt Oxide formed has spinel effect of preparation technique and composition structure where as in CN it has no spinel form. on the electrical properties of nickel cobalt oxide The slight change in d-value can be attributed to series Ni CO O . Jr. of Mater. Sci. 39, 251. the nano sized species of Nickel-Cobalt Oxide. x l - x y As the sintering temperature increased, the Prasad, N.V. 2000. Studies on rare earth particle size also increased. When the annealing substituted Bismuth layered ferroelectro- temperature increased, the particles have magnetic ceramics, Ph. D. Thesis, Osmania gradually conglomerated to big clusters. The University, Hyderabad. presence of the cubic NiO phase appeared in the sample fired at 7000 C and 9000C, co existed Rath, M.K. and Kumar, J. 2004. A simple polyol with the Ni Co O in greater quantities in the case 2 4 process for synthesis of silver nanowires. of CoNi. Proceedings of International symposium on Advanced Materials and Processing, p. 1349. It is concluded that for the formation of Nickel- Cobalt spinel oxide, it is recommended to take Richard Booker and Earl Boysen. 2005. the molarity combination of CoNi and the Nanotechnology, Wiley Publishing Inc., USA. 10. sintering should be kept below 5000 C. Slick, P. I. 1980. Ferromagnetic materials (E. P. The values of activation energy obtained were Wohlforth, Newyork: North Holland) Vol. 2P, 189. 0.14552eV the temperature ranged from 275K- 350K and 0.09030eV from 100K-250K. and that Syed Mahboob, Prasad, G. and Kumar, G.S. 2006. for CN were 0.5145 eV in the temperature Electrical conduction in (Na Bi Ba Ca ) range100K-245K and 0.5836 in the temperature 0.125 0.125 0.65 0.1 (Nd Ti Nb )O ceramic, Bull. Mater. Sci. range 245K-350K. 0.065 0.87 0.065 3 Vol.29, pp.35. The slight changes in slopes of the Arrhenius Tareen, J. A. K., Malecki, A., Doumerc, J. P., plot may be due to contributions from different Launay, J. C., Dordor, P. Pouchard and regions in the nano composite material (i.e. from Hagenmuller, P. 1989. Growth and electrical grains, grain boundary etc.), where appearance properties of pure and Ni doped Co O single (disappearance) of space charge polarization 3 4 crystals, Mater. Resea. Bull.19, 8. 170 ECO-CHRONICLE Warad, H. C., Ghosh, S. C., Hemtanon, B., films with infrared transparency. Thin Solid Films, Thanachayanont, B. and Dutta, J. 2005. Science 420, 89 - 99. and technology of advanced materials, 6, 296 - 301. Zhang, H.T. and Chen, X.H. 2006. Size dependent x - ray photoelectron spectroscopy and complex

Windisch, C.F., Ferris, K.F., Exarhos, G.J. and magnetic properties of CoMn 2O 4 spinel Sharma, S.K. 2002. Conducting spinel oxide nanocrystals, 17, 1384 - 1390. ECO-CHRONICLE 171 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 4. DECEMBER 2006, pp: 171 - 180

ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING AND HYDRO-CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TWO TROPICAL RESERVOIRS OF SOUTH INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO POTABILITY.

R.S. Baiju 1, V. Sobha 1, D. Padmalal 2, B. Baijulal 1, A. Krishna Kumar 1, and V. Njanaprakash 3

1 Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Kariavattom Campus, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. 2 Environmental Sciences Division, Centre for Earth Science Studies, Akkulam, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. 3 Kerala State Land Use Board, Vikas Bhavan, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala

ABSTRACT

An indisputable and inseparable bond exists between freshwater bodies and human beings. In the coming decade, caring for water and sharing it is a challenge for humanity. The present investigation addresses to the water quality aspects of two reservoirs-Peppara and Aruvikkara- which supply drinking water to the Thiruvananthapuram city and its suburban areas. The physico-chemical characteristics of water samples were analyzed systematically with standard procedures. The values analyzed were evaluated in detail and compared with water quality standards prescribed by various national and international organizations. An overall assessment of the quality of water samples indicate that the physical parameters are considerably higher in Aruvikkara, but in the case of chemical parameters, Peppara reservoir showed comparatively higher quantities of almost all the parameters than Aruvikkara. Gibbs model has been worked out, correlating Na/Na+Ca against TDS. These studies revealed that the overall hydro geochemical environment of the reservoirs is controlled by the cumulative effects of precipitation and chemical weathering.

Key words: Hydro-chemical status, Environmental Setting, Tropical reservoirs, Gibbs Model

INTRODUCTION continued development are leading to conflicting pressures on water resources (Kraas, 1997; Water is a common heritage. Water is not only Bohra et al., 2004). An estimate by World Bank the most important essential constituent of all reports reveals that by the year 2025, about 3.25 animals, plants and other organisms but also it billion people in 52 countries will live in is pivotal for the survivality of the mankind in the conditions of acute water shortage (Serageldin, biosphere (Sharma, 2000). Human 1995). communities have been polluting water since Indian sub-continent is one of the wettest places civilization began .Water is going to be one of on Earth (Subramanian, 2000).India possesses the major issues confronting humanity in the about 4 % of the total average annual runoff of coming decades (Rosegrant, 1995). Safe the world. The percapita availability of natural drinking water is a vital requirement to human runoff is estimated to be 2500 Cu meters/ year being and its availability is so important in (National Water Policy, 1987). The total average contributing the overall socio- economic annual water potential is 1880 km3. Over to the development of a nation (LIamas, 1993). The topographical constraints, only 1110 km3 of the escalation in the population and the quest for available water can be put into beneficial use. 172 ECO-CHRONICLE Kerala, the second most rainfed state in India long. 77° 0 ’- 77° 15’. They fall under the has 44 rivers and a numerous freshwater bodies. jurisdiction of Nedumangad Taluk of the As per national norm, Kerala doesn’t have a Thiruvananthapuram district. The water single major river. The total catchment area of requirements of the Thiruvananthapuram city all the 44 rivers together is only 37,884 sq. km and its suburban areas are met from these having a total discharge of 77,900 Mm3 (PWD, sources. 1974). The state receives an average annual rainfall of about 3000 mm which makes it the Physiographically the highlands exhibit steep to second most rain fed state in India, next to very steep hill ranges with swiftly flowing streams. Assam (Upendran, 1997 and Nambudripad, The remaining portions, in general, exhibit 1998). moderately to steeply slopping ridges. Gently slopping to moderately slopping spurs are found METHODOLOGY on the down stream part of the study area (Fig. 5).The study area consists of almost Water samples (10 stations from Peppara and homogenous rock types, namely the Khondalites 5 from Aruvikkara) were collected using Ruttner (Garnet- Sillimanite gneiss with or without type water sampler for one period. The Graphite), Charnockites, Hypersthene- Diopside temperature and pH of the water samples were gneiss, Garnet- Biotite gneiss with associated analyzed on board. The other chemical Migmatites and certain intrusive rocks. Pyroxene parameters were analyzed in the laboratory using granulites, Quartzites and Calc- granulites are standard methods (APHA, 1998). the major intrusive rock of the study area (Fig. 6). The change in river course and channel STUDY AREA AND ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING orientation is controlled at many places by the fracture zones and joint planes. The study area Karamana River has a catchment area of 702 is blanketed by three major soil types viz. 1) forest sq. km, out of which about 247 sq. km. area loam 2) lateritic soil and 3) riverine alluvium (Fig. upstream to Aruvikkara town, comprising the 7). The climate of the study area is tropical humid Aruvikkara and Peppara reservoirs(Figs. 2&3) climate with a temperature variation of 22- 320C. Karamana River is a 5th order stream. The river The rainfall is reasonably high compared to the exhibits a dentritic drainage pattern. In the upper other parts of the state. reach, the tributaries and their subsidiary channels often show sub parallel pattern. Trellis The temperature of the overlying waters of the drainage pattern is also noted (Fig. 4).In Kerala; Peppara reservoir varied between 27ºC and 33ºC reservoirs are constructed mainly for generating and the pH between 6.2 and 8.4. The Peppara electricity, irrigating agricultural areas and reservoir showed a mixed trend in pH. The pH supplying water to communities. Reservoirs values, only in two stations, recorded lower levels provide benefits to the people, regulate climate than the standard limit of 6.5 – 8.5, prescribed and influence the socio- environmental regime by BIS. The turbidity found to be ranged from 0.1 of the adjacent regions that host the reservoir. to 5.9 NTU with a average of 2.23 NTU. Here the The Peppara and Aruvikkara reservoirs are turbidity was found to be very low. The total constructed in the upper reaches of the hardness ranged between 4.0 and 14 mg/ l and Karamana River upstream to Aruvikkara town this value was very low compared to the potability (Fig. 1). These reservoirs and their catchments limit of 300 mg/ l prescribed by BIS and ICMR. lie between North lat. 8° 31’- 8° 42’ and East The total solid concentration varied from 83.0 to ECO-CHRONICLE 173 Peppara reservoir Aruvikkara reservoir Fig. 8 Gibbs diagram

Fig.1 Study area

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig.4 Fig. 5 4 174 ECO-CHRONICLE Fig.8. Sampling stations-Peppara Reservoir Fig.8. Sampling stations-Aruvikkara Reservoir

6 

7    5

   8

9   1 4   10   2

Legend 3 Legend   Sediment and water  Water

349 mg/ l with an average of 156.36 mg/ l. The The dissolved oxygen (DO) content of the total dissolved solid (TDS) concentration was Peppara reservoir varied between 7.703 and between 14.0 and 61.0 mg/ l (average of 31.13 9.325 mg/ l (average of 8.67 mg/ l). The BOD mg/ l). The bicarbonate which causes the total value varied from 0.405 to 4.054 mg/ l. Nitrate alkalinity, ranged from 30- 120 mg/ l. concentration was found to be in the range of

Table.1. Comparative evaluation of the observed values of the present study against the various drinking water quality standards

Parameters BIS ICMR CPHEEO WHO IS-10500 Peppara Aruvikkara -1984 -1983 Reservoir Reservoir

Colour 5 HU 2.5 HU 5 HU Pt.scale 5 10 HU < 2 HU < 2 HU Odour Agreeable UO UO UO UO Agreeable Agreeable pH 6.5- 8.5 7.0- 8.5 7.0- 8.5 7.0- 8.5 6.5- 8.5 6.8 7.09 Turbidity 10 NTU 5 JTU 2.5 JTU 2.5 JTU 10 NTU 2.23 NTU 8.54 NTU TDS 500 mg/l 500 mg/l 500 mg/l 500 mg/l - 31.13 mg/l 36.56 mg/l Nitrate 45 mg/l 20 mg/l 70 mg/l 45 mg/l 45 mg/l 0.176 mg/l 0.143 mg/l Phosphate - - - - - 0.03 mg/l 0.05 mg/l Sulphate 200 mg/l 200 mg/l 200 mg/l 200 mg/l 150 mg/l 4.28 mg/l 3.84 mg/l Chloride 250 mg/l 200 mg/l 200 mg/l 200 mg/l 250 mg/l 25.67 mg/l 31.33 mg/l Hardness 300 mg/l 300 mg/l 200 mg/l 200 mg/l 300 mg/l 7.3 mg/l 8.46 mg/l Calcium 75 mg/l 75 mg/l 75 mg/l 75 mg/l 75 mg/l 1.75 mg/l 2.14 mg/l Magnesium 30 mg/l 50 mg/l 30 mg/l 30 mg/l 30 mg/l 0.72 mg/l 0.75 mg/l

BIS- Bureau of Indian Standards ICMR- Indian Council of Medical Research WHO- World Health Organization IS-Indian Standards CPHEEO-Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Office ECO-CHRONICLE 175 0.022- 0.321 mg/ l with an average of 0.176 mg/ WHO for drinking purpose is fixed to be 150 mg/ l. The allowed limit of nitrate for drinking l, and the sulphate concentration of the water according to WHO and BIS is 45mg/ l; (Table.1). samples of the Peppara reservoir were within Phosphate concentration was found to be the prescribed limits. Calcium concentration of ranged from 0.008 to 0.151 mg/ l (average of Peppara reservoir varied between 0.802 and 0.03 mg/ l). A range of 0.014 – 0.072 mg/ l was 3.206 mg/ l( an average of 1.75 mg/ l). The observed in the case of total nitrogen and the desirable limit for drinking purpose proposed total phosphorus ranged between 0.016 and by WHO is 75mg/ l. A range of 0.49- 3.206 mg/ l 0.176 mg/ l. was reported in this reservoir for magnesium (avg. 0.723 mg/ l). The prescribed limit proposed The chloride concentration ranged from 15.62 to by WHO for magnesium is 30 mg/ l and the water 32.66 mg/ l with an average of 25.67 mg/ l and samples analyzed were within this limit. Sodium this value is well below the desirable limit of 200 concentration found to range between 1.1- 2.4 mg/l prescribed by ICMR and WHO for potability mg/ l and in the case of potassium a range of purposes. The sulphate values varied from 0.2 – 0.7 mg/ l was reported in this reservoir. 0.702- 9.691mg/ l(average of 4.28 mg/ l). The proposed limit of sulphates by BIS, ICMR and The temperature was found range between 28ºC

Table.2. Values of various physico-chemical parameters of water samples analyzed from the two reservoirs

Parameters Unit Peppara reservoir Aruvikkara Reservoir analyzed Min. Max. Average Min. Max. Average

Temperature 0C 27.0 33.0 30.26 28.0 34.0 30.83 pH - 6.2 8.4 6.8 6.3 7.7 7.09 Turbidity NTU 0.1 5.9 2.23 6.9 11.0 8.5 Conductivity µmhos/cm 25.9 63.3 38.47 41.6 98.5 59.88 Hardness mg/l 4.0 14.0 7.3 4.0 12.0 8.46 TS mg/l 83.0 349.0 156.36 90.0 684.0 179.88 TSS mg/l 56.0 301.0 125.23 56.0 620.0 143.30 TDS mg/l 14.0 61.0 31.13 13.0 74.0 36.56 Total Alkalinity mg/l 30.0 120.0 55.5 40.0 80.0 54.33 DO mg/l 7.703 9.325 8.67 4.054 8.109 5.243 BOD mg/l 0.405 4.054 1.790 0.810 2.027 1.311 Nitrates mg/l 0.022 0.321 0.176 0.018 0.312 0.142 Phosphates mg/l 0.008 0.151 0.03 0.023 0.079 0.05 Total Nitrogen mg/l 0.014 0.072 0.039 0.012 0.088 0.041 Total Phosphorus mg/l 0.016 0.176 0.069 0.089 0.259 0.152 Chloride mg/l 15.62 32.66 25.67 28.40 35.50 31.33 Sulphate mg/l 0.702 9.691 4.28 1.40 8.006 3.837 Calcium mg/l 0.802 3.206 1.75 0.802 3.206 2.14 Magnesium mg/l 0.49 3.206 0.723 0.486 1.463 0.747 Sodium mg/l 1.1 2.4 1.52 0.90 6.6 2.69 Potassium mg/l 0.2 0.7 0.54 0.6 1.7 0.90 176 ECO-CHRONICLE and 34ºC. The pH varied between 6.3 and 7.7, mg / l. Nitrate concentration varied between 0.018 and turbidity between 6.9- 11 NTU. The average and 0.312 mg/ l with an average of 0.142 mg/l. turbidity value (8.5 NTU) of the Aruvikkara Phosphate ranged from 0.023 to 0.079 mg/ l reservoir was comparatively higher than that of (average of 0.05). Total nitrogen and Total Peppara reservoir (avg. 2.23 NTU). However, the phosphorus were found to be range between values were well within the standard limit 0.012 and 0.088 mg/ l and 0.089 and 0.259 mg/ prescribed by BIS (i.e., 10 NTU). Conductivity l respectively. Average values of nitrogen were showed variation from 41.6 to 98.5 µmhos/ cm found to be 0.041 mg/ l. The respective maximum with an average (59.88 µmhos/ cm) higher than and minimum values of other parameters are that of Peppara reservoir (38.47µmhos/ cm). furnished in Table.2 Total hardness ranged from 4.0 to 10.0 mg/ l with an average of 8.46 mg/ l. Total solid The concentration of Chloride ranged from 28.40 concentration varied from 90 to 684 mg / l with to 35.50 mg/ l with an average of 31.33 mg/ l and an average of 179. 86 mg/ l. The concentration this value is well below the desirable limit of 200 of Total Suspended Solids ranged from 56.0 to mg/l prescribed by WHO for potability purposes. 620 mg / l (average of 143. 30 mg / l.). The sulphate values varied from 1.40- 8.006mg/ l (average of 3.837 mg/ l). The proposed limit of Total alkalinity of Aruvikkara reservoir ranged from sulphates by ICMR and WHO for drinking 40.0 to 80.0 mg/ l with an average value of 54.33 purpose is fixed to be 150 mg/ l, and the sulphate mg/ l. The Dissolved Oxygen (DO) content ranged concentration of the water samples of the from 4.054 to 8.109 mg/ l. The BOD varied from Aruvikkara reservoir were within the prescribed 0.810 to 2.027 mg/ l and has an average of 1.311 limits. Calcium concentration of Aruvikkara

Table.3 Average chemical composition of Peppara and Aruvikkara reservoirs with other freshwater resources Parameters Pookot Pichola Nainital Victoria Ontario Chelur Sastha Vellayani Peppara Aruvik mcotta kara (Ref.1) (Ref.2) (Ref.3) (Ref.4) (Ref.5) (Ref.6) (Ref.6) (Ref.7) (present (present

pH 6.73 9.01 8.66 7.8 - 7.47 7.25 7.02 6.8 7.09 EC(µmhos/cm) 34.9 67.0 706 97 - 90 63 123 38.4 59.8 TSSmg/l - - - - - 75.47 95.37 335.7 125.2 143.3 TDSmg/l 25.57 430.0 440.0 - - 42.0 53.33 43.33 31.13 36.56 HCO3mg/l - 235 350 - 115 15.46 21.97 32.53 55.5 54.33 PO4-Pmg/l 0.04 0.10 0.13 - - 0.003 0.002 0.092 0.030 0.050 SO4mg/l - 35.0 98.0 2.5 27.1 BDL BDL 11.28 4.28 3.84 Clmg/l 7.03 73.0 15.0 3.0 26.7 18.9 8.87 18.76 25.67 31.33 Camg/l 2.88 22.0 33.0 3.9 42.9 6.68 7.01 4.87 1.75 2.14 Mgmg/l 1.84 21.0 55.0 2.70 6.40 1.60 2.64 1.63 0.72 0.75 Namg/l - 73.0 13.0 9.0 12.20 10.81 4.33 17.26 1.52 2.69 Kmg/l - 4.0 3.63 4.10 1.44 1.04 1.17 1.49 0.54 0.89

Ref. 1-Abbasi et al., (1989), Ref.2 –Das and Singh (1996), Ref.3 –Singh (1994), Ref.4 –Visser and Villeneuve (1975), Ref.5 –Burgis and Morris (1987), Ref.6 –Sreejith (1996), Ref.7 –Krishnakumar (1998) ECO-CHRONICLE 177 reservoir varied between 0.802 and 3.206 mg/ l( Hardness as well as calcium and magnesium an average of 2.14 mg/ l). The desirable limit for contents of these reservoirs were generally drinking purpose proposed by WHO is 75mg/ l. A constant throughout the study period. These range of 0.49- 3.206 mg/ l was reported in this values are significantly low compared to the other reservoir for magnesium (avg. 0.723 mg/ l). The freshwater regimes in India (Das and Singh, prescribed limit proposed by WHO for 1996). The observed average values of hardness, magnesium is 30 mg/ l and the water samples calcium and magnesium were within the analyzed were within this limit. Sodium permissible limit prescribed by BIS and WHO. concentration found to range between 0.90- 6.6 The observed concentration of TDS was under mg/ l(average of 2.69) and in the case of the desirable limits of the drinking water quality potassium a range of 0.6 – 1.7 mg/ l(average of standards of BIS, ICMR, CPHEEO and WHO. The 0.90) was reported in this reservoir. maximum permissible limit of TDS according to these standards is 500 mg/ l. The average Water quality- Overall assessment alkalinity values during the study periods in these reservoirs were 59.75 mg/ l and 55.0 mg/ l, Here the temperature variations observed were respectively, which were slightly higher than that temporal rather than spatial. One of the reasons of Sasthamcotta lake reported earlier by Sreejith for the above condition may be the peculiar (1996). No definite trend of dissolved oxygen with climate prevailing in the forest environments alkalinity was found in these two reservoirs, as encircling the Peppara reservoir. The indicated by Ganapati (1943). The dissolved shallowness of the reservoir might be another oxygen content of almost all the surface water reason (in the case of Aruvikkara reservoir) for samples collected from both the reservoirs the homothermous nature of these water showed higher values compared to the bottom bodies. Water temperature was found always water samples and decreased with increase in higher than the atmospheric temperature but it depth showing a clinograde distribution (Reid was seen that both the air and water temperature and Wood, 1976). Such type of distribution of variations were small, a characteristic feature in oxygen is characteristic of a productive reservoir the tropics (Ruttner, 1963; Lewis, 1987). The pH (Sreenivasan, 1970). The increase in DO content values of these reservoirs are found to be within with the surface water samples can be attributed the prescribed limits. The Aruvikkara reservoir to the mixing of atmospheric oxygen. DO in the showed greater turbidity than Peppara. bottom waters of the reservoirs will be utilized Productive water bodies found to have slightly for oxidizing the organic particles, a process turbid water. A total of four stations in the illustrated earlier by Babu et al.(1999). In the Aruvikkara reservoir showed turbidity values present study, the Peppara reservoir showed exceeding the limit of 10 NTU, the upper limit of BOD values ranging from 0.4053 mg/ l to 4.05 potable water fixed by BIS. Perhaps the increase mg/ l and in Aruvikkara, it ranged between 0.8106 in turbidity can be attributed by the discharge mg/ l and 2.03 mg/ l. Here in these two pressure of water from Peppara reservoir, reservoirs, nitrates concentrated in almost constructed in the upstream side of the similar proportions. The concentration and rate Aruvikkara reservoir. The average conductivity of of supply of nitrogen is intimately connected with Peppara and Aruvikkara reservoirs are the land use practice of the surrounding. comparable to the other freshwater sources of According to BIS and WHO, nitrate content in Kerala (Abbasi et. al., 1989). drinking water should not exceed 45 mg/ l. Here the average values of nitrate content of water 178 ECO-CHRONICLE samples from the two reservoirs were well below the clay fraction of the reservoir sediments when compared with the desired limit. Phosphate reported by Santhosh (1999) reiterates the is one of the elements which are least abundant, foresaid geochemical mechanisms. being often present in inconceivably small (Ruttner, 1963). Comparatively lower phosphate The plots of Na/ (Na+Ca) against Total Dissolved content with the water samples from Peppara Solids (TDS) of the Peppara and Aruvikkara than Aruvikkara can be attributed to the reservoirs fall within the precipitation dominance absorption of phosphates by the growing algae. sector of the phase diagram (Gibbs, 1970) (Fig. Sulphate concentration recorded slightly higher 8). From this it can be concluded that the overall in Peppara reservoir compared to Aruvikkara. hydro geochemical environment of the reservoir This can be attributed to the mixing up of is controlled by the cumulative effect of domestic sewage and other waste waters precipitation and chemical weathering. releasing out from intense cloth washing and bathing at these sites. The water quality conditions of the Peppara and Aruvikkara reservoir systems are closer to the GIBBS MODEL water quality conditions of the neighboring water bodies like Vellayani lake (Krishna Kumar et The HCO3- varies from 30 to 120 mg/ l in the al.,2002) and Sasthamcotta lake (Sreejith, water resources of the Peppara reservoir. But in 1996)(Table.3) and Neyyar reservoir( Suresh Aruvikkara, the value ranged between 40 to 80 babu et. al., 1998). mg/ l. It points moderate chemical weathering processes taking place in the provenance areas SUMMARY of the basin. From the geological map of the study area (Fig. 6), it is revealed that, the area is An overall assessment of the quality of water characterized by feldspar bearing rocks samples from the Peppara and Aruvikkara (Orthoclase and Plagioclase), which upon reservoirs indicate that the values of all the chemical weathering (Holmes, 1978) can physical parameters were found to be liberate alkali and alkaline earth elements to the considerably higher in the latter than the former. feeder channels of the reservoirs. Considering the chemical parameters, Peppara

2Na Al Si 3 O 8+2H 2O+CO 2- Al 2 Si 2 O 5 reservoir showed comparatively higher

(OH)4+SiO2+Na2CO3 -eq. 1 quantities of almost all the parameters like total alkalinity, DO, BOD, nitrates, phosphates,

2K Al Si 3 O 8+2H 2O+CO 2- Al 2 Si 2 O 5 sulphates, hardness, calcium and magnesium

(OH)4+SiO2+K2CO3 -eq. 2 than Aruvikkara reservoir. Higher quantities of total nitrogen, total phosphorus, chloride, sodium and

Ca Al 2 Si 3 O 8+2H 2O+CO 2- Al 2 Si 2 O 5 potassium were noticed with water samples

(OH)4+SiO2+CaCO3 -eq. 3 from Aruvikkara reservoir than Peppara. Among the physical parameters analyzed, turbidity of From equations 1-3, it is clear that chemical water samples from some of the stations of weathering of orthoclase (K Al Si 3 O8) and Aruvikkara reservoir were found to exceed the plagioclase feldspars (Na Al Si3O8 / Ca Al2 Si3 O8) limit prescribed for potability purposes. Among might be the source of Na+, K+ and Ca++ ions in various chemical factors analyzed, average the overlying waters of these reservoirs (Das values of Dissolved Oxygen content of water and Singh, 1996). The abundance of kaolinite in samples from Aruvikkara reservoir was found ECO-CHRONICLE 179 below the required limit where as BOD of water National Water Policy, 1987. Ministry of Water samples from Peppara reservoir was found to Resources, Govt. of India, New Delhi. exceed the permissible limit. All the other parameters analyzed from both the reservoirs PWD, 1974. Water resources of Kerala, Govt. of were within the potability limits. Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram

REFERENCES Upendran, N. 1997. Water resources of Kerala- Potential and utilization. Proceedings of the Sharma, B.M. (2000). Environmental studies. workshop on water quality problems with special Manipur University, Imphal. reference to drinking water in Kerala, CWRDM, Kozhikode. 1-12. Kevin T. Pickering and Lewis A. Owen, 1997. Water resources and pollution: An introduction Nambudripad, K.D. 1998. Surface water to global environmental issues 2 nd edition resources of Kerala. Water scenario of Kerala, A published by Routledge, New York. 187-227. compendium of background papers on the focal theme of 10th Kerala Science Congress, State Rosegrant, M. W., 1995. Water resources in the Committee on Science, Technology and 21st century. Increasing scarcity, Declining quality Environment, Kerala. 7-18. and implications for action. – Paper presented APHA, 1998. Standard methods for the at the conference on the sustainable future of examination of water and wastewater. 20th Edn, the global system, Tokyo, organized by the United American Public Health Association, Washington Nations University and the National Institute for D.C. 10268 Environmental Studies, Japan.

Ruttner, F., 1963. Fundamentals of Limnology. LIamas Ramon, 1993. All of Us. Environmental University of Toronto press, Toronto, Canada. education dossiers, Centre UNESCO de 295. Catalunya, Mallorca. 4: 285.

Lewis, W.M. Jr., 1987. Tropical Limnology. Ann. Subramanian, 2000. Water, Quantity-Quality Rev. Ecol. Syst. 18: 84- 159. Perspective in South Asia. Kingston International Publishers. Surrey, United Kingdom. 256 pp. Abbasi, S.A., Nair, S.R., Vasu, K., Padmini, V and Nirmala, E., 1989. Management and Kraas, 1997. “Managing resources in Mega- conservation of Pookot lake ecosystem in the cities”: Water as a bottleneck factor in Bangkok; Western Ghats. Report submitted to Department 117- 127. of Environment, Forests and Wildlife, Govt. of India (CWRDM), 132 Bohra, N.K., Mutha, S., and Aggarwal, P.K. (2004). Bio-Ecology of Potable Water: In Aravind Kumar Das, B.K. and Singh, M. 1996. Water chemistry and G. Thripathi (Ed.). Water pollution- and control of weathering of Pichola lake, Assessment and Management. Daya Publishing Udaipur district, Rajasthan, India, Environ. Geo. House, New Delhi. pp. 361-369. 27: 184- 190.

Serageldin, I., 1995. Water resources Sreejith, 1996. Limnology, Hydrogeochemistry management: A new policy for sustainable future- and origin of Sasthamcotta and Chelur lakes, Water International. 20: 15- 21. 180 ECO-CHRONICLE Kollam district, Kerala. M. Phil. Dissertation, Krishnakumar, A., V. Sobha, and D. Padmalal. Department of Geology, Annamalai University, 2002. Hydrogeochemistry of Vellayani Lake, Tamilnadu Kerala with special reference to its drinking water potential In: Conservation and Management of Ganapati, S. V., 1943. An ecological study of Aquatic ecosystems (Ed: K.S. Unni), Daya garden pond containing abundant zooplankton. Publishing House, New Delhi. 44-61. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 17: 41- 58. Suresh babu, D. S., Nandakumar, V., Padmalal, Reid, G.K. and Wood, R.D., 1976. Ecology of D., John paul, Jayaprasad, B. K. and Thampi, P. Inland waters and estuaries, ed. Seed (New K. (1998). Analysis of land, soil and water in the York); London. Toronto D. Van Nostrand Co. 485. Neyyar reservoir catchment: A case study. Project Final Report submitted to Department of Forest Sreenivasan, A., 1970. Limnological studies in and Wildlife, Government of Kerala. Parambikulam Aliyar Project. Aliyar reservoir (Madras state), India. Schweiz Zeitsch. Hydrol. Singh, M.1994. Environmental Geochemical 32: 405- 417. study of pollution in lakes of Nainital District, Kumaun Himalaya, India. Ph.D.Thesis Babu, K.N., Ouseph, P.P. and Padmalal, D. (Unpublished), 261. (1999). Interstitial water- sediment geochemistry of N, P and Fe and its response to overlying Visser, S.A. and Villeneuve, J.P., 1975. waters of tropical estuaries: A case from the Similarities and differences in the chemical South –West coast of India. Environmental composition of waters from West, Central and Geology. East Africa. Verh. Int. Ver. Theore. Angew. Limnon., 19: 1416-1426. Holmes Arthur, 1978. Principles of Physical Geology. English language book society / Van Burgis, M.J. and Morris, P. 1987. The natural Nostrand Reinhold (UK) Co. Ltd. 3: 57- 102. history of lakes. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. 218. Santhosh, V. 1999. Nutrient status in reservoir sediments: A case study- , M. Phil. dissertation, Krishnakumar, A. (1998). Hydrogeochemistry of University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. Vellayani freshwater lake with special reference to drinking water quality, Thiruvananthapuram. Gibbs, R. J. 1970. Mechanism controlling M.Phil. Dissertation (Unpublished), University of World’s water chemistry, Science, 170: 1089- Kerala. 1090. ECO-CHRONICLE 181 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 4. DECEMBER 2006, 181- 186

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PARAMETERS AND CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS OF MEENACHIL RIVER WATERS

Mohan Thomas 1, George Sebastian 1 and G. Karthikeyan 2

1. St. Berchmans College, Changanacherry-686101, Kerala, India 2. Gandhigram Rural Institute (Deemed University), Gandhigram-624 302, TamilNadu, India

ABSTRACT

The Meenachil River in the downstream locations is highly polluted due to anthropogenic activities. Backwater and inland-waterways tourism activities using motorboats, and houseboats and urbanization, subsequent to the development of Kumarakom and its suburbs into a major tourist destination have contributed to large-scale pollution. Evaluation of physico-chemical parameters of water samples from Meenachil river and its distributaries in north Kuttanad area were carried out during November, 2004 to March, 2005. The statistical parameters such as mean, mean deviation, standard deviation, (SD), relative standard deviation (RSD) and coefficient of variation (CV) were calculated. In order to assess the quality of water, the parameters were compared with their standard desirable limits for drinking water as prescribed by different agencies and sources such as USPH, WHO and ISI. The correlation coefficients amongst parameters were calculated. Significant positive and negative correlations were observed among the parameters. The water of River Meenachil, in the Kuttanad region was found unsuitable for drinking and household purposes.

Key words: River Meenachil, Mean deviation, Standard deviation, Coefficient of variation, Correlation coefficient.

INTRODUCTION The chemical composition of river water depends on the soluble products of rock weathering and The River Meenachil is one of the major rivers in decomposition and changes with respect to time Kerala. It is 78km in length. The river originates and space in addition to the external polluting from the Western Ghats, flows entirely through agents. The present study evaluated the physico- the Kottayam revenue district and debouches chemical parameters of the rivers of North into the Vembanad Lake in the North Kuttanad Kuttanad to assess the quality of water and region. Kadapuzha, Kalathukadavu, Trikovil, establish significant correlations amongst these Kurisumala, Poonjar and Meenadom are the parameters. Correlation analysis measures the major tributaries of the river. The southwest and closeness of the relationship between the northeast monsoons influence the independent and dependent variables. hydrographical condition of the river. Water flow Interrelation between correlation coefficients through the river is minimal during the summer gives an idea of water quality monitoring season. Uncontrolled deforestation taking place methods. The correlations found significant at in the Western Ghats and large-scale sand 5%, 1% or 0.1% levels are useful in assessing mining from the riverbed has adversely affected the water quality (Tiwari et al., 1986). the river. The main occupation of the people of Kuttanad is agriculture and they depend on river MATERIALS AND METHODS water for drinking, domestic, livestock and agricultural purposes. The river in the downstream locations has become highly Water samples were collected during November polluted by the discharge of large quantities of 2004 to March 2005 from stations located on municipal, industrial, and agricultural waste. River Meenachil at Nagampadom, Chungam, Increasing incidence of water borne diseases Illickal and on Kaipuzha Ar, Pennar, Kavan Ar, such as cholera, typhoid, jaundice and Chengalam Ar, and the Illickal Ar. The locations gastroenteritis have been reported from the of the stations were fixed in such a way as to lower regions of the river basin. give a fairly good coverage of the prevailing 182 ECO-CHRONICLE complex environmental conditions of the river in analysed using EI Spectrophotometer as per Kuttanad. Water samples from 10 identified APHA (1998). The Mean, Mean Deviation, stations were collected in clean polythene bottles Standard Deviation, Relative Standard Deviation without air bubbles following standard and Coefficient of variation were calculated. procedures. Temperature was recorded in ºC using a sensitive (1/10) thermometer. Turbidity, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION pH, Electrical Conductance (EC) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were measured on the The temperature of river water samples were in spot using EI Water Analyser. Total alkalinity, Total the range 28.7°C and 29.4°C (Mean 29.0°C) and hardness and Chloride content were analysed the CV value was 0.862. The mean value for following the methods of APHA (1998). The turbidity was 3.78 NTU (CV 12.14). The WHO method described in Trivedi and Goel (1986) (1984) prescribed limit of turbidity for drinking was adopted for the determination of Dissolved water is 10. The turbidity values of all water Oxygen (DO) and Biological Oxygen Demand samples were within the limit. The pH of water (BOD). The remaining parameters were was in the range 6.58 to 7.06 and the mean value

60 Alkalinity(mg/l) BOD Temperature(ºC) 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Station

1.0 Chloride(ppm) EC(mmhos ) Hardness(ppt)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Station ECO-CHRONICLE 183 6 DO(mg/l) Phosphate(mg/l) TDS(ppt) 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Station

25 Nitrate(mg/l) pH Turbidity(NTU)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Station was 6.85. The desirable limit (BIS, 1983) of pH value (18.97 mg/l) indicated organic pollution of range for drinking water was between 6.5 and water (Dara, 2004). BOD is lower in the upstream 8.5. The pH of water from all stations was inside and higher in the downstream locations this limit. The mean value of dissolved oxygen indicating heavy load of sewage and other was 4.29. The DO values varied between 5.9 effluents downstream. The moderately high CV and 7.4ppm with a mean value of 4.29ppm. The for BOD (28.97) indicated variations in BOD prescribed standard of DO for drinking water is values between stations. 5 ppm and above (BIS, 1983). The river water of all stations, except Kaipuzha and Pennar The average values of Electrical conductivity, showed DO values below the prescribed range, Total hardness and Total dissolved solids were which could be due to pollution of the water body 0.458 mmhos/cm, 0.064ppt and 0.045 ppt (De, 2001). CV values for Temperature (0.86), respectively. The EC, and TDS values observed Turbidity (12.14), pH (2.14) and DO (17.99) in the present study were below the standard showed that wide fluctuations of these factors desirable limits prescribed for natural waters did not occur between stations. The high BOD (1.4 mmhos/cm, 1.0 ppt and 0.5 ppt) by W.H.O 184 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 1- The mean values of the parameters of river water together with their Mean deviation(MD), Standard Deviation (SD), Relative Std. Deviation (RSD) and Coefficient of Variation (CV).

Sl. Parameter Mean Average Standard Relative Std. Coefficient of No. Deviation Deviation (SD) Deviation (RSD) Variation (CV) 1 Alkalinity(ppm) 35.95 5.489 6.630 6.290 18.442 2 BOD(mg/l) 18.97 3.985 5.496 5.214 28.973 3 Chloride(ppm) 0.1411 0.055 0.067 0.064 47.627 4 DO(mg/l) 4.29 0.592 0.771 0.732 17.986 5 EC(mmhos/cm) 0.46 0.148 0.195 0.185 42.689 6 Hardness(ppt) 0.0636 0.024 0.031 0.029 48.622 7 Nitrate(mg/l) 13.68 3.076 4.048 3.841 29.602 8 pH 6.85 0.115 0.146 0.139 2.136 9 Phosphate(mg/l) 2.67 0.760 1.016 0.963 38.091 10 TDS(ppt) 0.451 0.165 0.195 0.185 43.181 11 Temperature(ºC) 29.04 0.220 0.250 0.237 0.862 12 Turbidity(NTU) 3.78 0.360 0.459 0.435 12.142

(Trivedi and Goel, 1986). EC has a direct bearing elements in mineral deposits (Renn, 1970). The on the percentage of total solids (Srinivas et al., high CV values for EC (42.69), TDS (43.16) and 2000). High TDS value of water may be due to Hardness (48.62) indicated significant variations pollution. Hardness may also be due to the of these parameters among stations. addition of calcium and magnesium ions to a natural water system as it passes through soils The value of alkalinity provides an idea about and rocks containing large amounts of these natural salts present in water. Alkalinity is caused

Table 2 - The correlation coefficients (r) among various water quality parameters.

Parameters Alkali BOD Chloride DO EC Hard Nitrate pH Phosph TDS Temp Turbi -nity -ness -ate -dity Alkalinity 1.000 BOD -0.169 1.000 Chloride -0.183 -0.179 1.000 DO -0.487 -0.485 -0.123 1.000 EC -0.094 -0.129 0.970*** -0.185 1.000 Hardness 0.225 0.150 0.768** -0.455 0.819*** 1.000 Nitrate 0.615* -0.202 0.246 -0.432 0.185 0.416 1.000 pH 0.044 0.162 0.007 0.261 0.167 0.211 -0.413 1.000 Phosphate -0.225 0.112 0.437 -0.026 0.291 0.357 0.492 -0.303 1.000 TDS -0.116 -0.112 0.954*** -0.284 0.957*** 0.787*** 0.324 -0.072 0.411 1.000 Temp 0.114 -0.200 -0.230 0.366 -0.298 -0.287 0.072 -0.038 0.341 -0.335 1.000 Turbidity -0.006 -0.240 0.244 -0.347 0.110 -0.095 0.467 -0.839*** 0.345 0.313 -0.050 1.000 *Significant at 5% level, r > 0.553. ** Significant at 1% level, r > 0.684. Significant at 0.1% level, r > 0.780 ECO-CHRONICLE 185 by the presence of dissolved minerals in water. CONCLUSION The various ionic species that contribute to alkalinity include bicarbonate, hydroxide, Analyses of river water samples from North- phosphate, borate and organic acids. These Kuttanad showed that certain parameters like factors are characteristic of the water source and BOD, EC, TDS, alkalinity, chloride and phosphate the natural processes taking place at any given were generally high in many stations and in time (Sharma, 2004). The mean value of alkalinity some they exceeded the desirable limits. The was 35.95 ppm, which was well below the water samples from many of the stations were prescribed limit (120 mg/l). The CV of alkalinity polluted and therefore not potable. The water was 18.44, showing that wide variations did not samples from some of the upstream stations occur between stations. were of better quality and fit for drinking and domestic purposes. The samples from other The permissible limit of chloride in drinking water upstream stations were moderately polluted and is 250ppm (BIS, 1983). The river water samples needed proper treatments to minimize the effect recorded a mean value of 140ppm for chloride, of contaminants and to make them potable. The which was less than the permissible limit of values of correlation coefficients and their 250ppm (BIS, 1983). The presence of chloride significance levels will help in selecting proper in fairly large amounts in the downstream water treatment methods to eliminate locations may be due to the intrusion of saline contamination. water from the Vembanad Lake during summer. The high value of CV for chloride (47.63) indicated REFERENCES wide variations in chloride content between stations. APHA. 1998. Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water. American The phosphate and nitrate content of river waters Public Health Association. Washington. of North Kuttanad averaged between 2.67 ppm and 13.66 ppm, which were within the BIS. 1983. Standards for water for drinking and prescribed desirable limits set by WHO (1984) other purposes. Bureau of Indian Standards (0.1 ppm and 50 ppm). Nitrate contamination in Publication. New Delhi. river water may be due to organic and sewage pollution. Presence of excess nitrate in potable Dara, S.S. 2004. A textbook of environmental water causes serious health hazards to humans chemistry and pollution control. S. Chand & (Gupta and Saxena, 1997). Company. New Delhi.

The CV value for nitrate (29.6) does not indicate De, A.K. 2001. Environmental Chemistry. New very large fluctuations in nitrate concentration Age International. New Delhi. between stations. The CV value for phosphate (38.09) indicates wide fluctuations of the Gupta, A.K. and Saxena, G.C. 1997. Nitrate parameter among stations. contamination in ground waters of Agra and its correlation with various water quality parameters Out of the total 78 correlations between including heavy metals. Poll. Res. 16 (3): 155 - parameters, 8 were found to have significant 157. correlations (r > 0.533). Out of the eight, one correlation was significant at 5% (r >0.553 < Renn, C.E. 1970. Investigating water problems. 0.683), one correlation at 1% (r >0.684 < 0.779) Educational Products Division. LaMotte and six correlations at 0.1 % (r >0.780) levels. Chemical Products Company; Maryland. Some of the highly significant correlations (r>0.950) were discernible between EC, TDS and Sharma, M.R. 2004. Assessment of ground water chloride of river waters. Nitrate had significant quality of Hamirpur area in Himachal Pradesh. correlation with alkalinity (r=0.6154). Negative Poll. Res. 23 (I) : 131 - 134. correlation was found between pH and turbidity (r=-0.8391). Srinivas, C.H., Piska, R.S., Venkateshwar, C., 186 ECO-CHRONICLE Rao, M.S.S. and Reddy, R.R. 2000. Studies on Trivedi, R.K. and Goel, P.K. 1986. Chemical and ground water quality of Hyderabad. Poll. Res. 19 biological methods of water pollution studies. (2): 285 - 289. Environmental Publications. Karad.

Tiwari, T.N., Das, S.C. and Bose, P.K. 1986. W.H.O. 1984. Guidelines for drinking water Correlation among water quality parameters of quality. Vol. I. Recommendations WHO, Geneva. ground water of Meerut District. Acta Cienc 12 (3): 111 - 113. ECO-CHRONICLE 187 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 4. DECEMBER 2006, pp 187 - 192

PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSES FOR THE GEOLOGICAL AND GEO MORPHOLOGICAL STUDIES USING LANDSAT TM DATA

B. Poovalinga Ganesh 1, S. Rajendran 1, A. Thirunavukkarasu 1 and G. Bhaskaran 2

1 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar - 608 002 2 Department of Geography, Madras University, Chepauk, Chennai - 600 005

ABSTRACT

Digital Image Processing is one of the best technologies to sort out the required features from the remote sensing data. Principal component analysis enhances the utilities of this technology by reducing the redundancy of data by separating it into different images. Suruliyar and Koothanichiar sub watersheds, situated in the Theni District, Tamil Nadu, India shows a variety of natural earth resources. Principal component analysis has been performed to delineate the different geological and geomorphological units of the Suruliyar and Koothanichiar watershed. The interpretation study revealed major rock types such as granulite / khondalalite, charnockite, gneisses and recent sediments and geomorphological units, such as strucutal hill, pediments, bajada and low lying lands by the PC analyses.

Key words: Geology, Geomorphology, Principal component analyses, LANDSAT TM, Suruliyar and Koothanichiar sub water sheds

INTRODUCTION STUDY AREA

The advent of remote sensing has opened up The study area is situated in the southern part of new vistas in resource mapping with improved Uttamapalayam Taluk, Theni District, Tamil accuracy. Satellite images provide a wealth of Nadu, India, between 77°15’E and 78°25’E information of large areas of earth’s surface longitude and 9°30’N and 9°45’N latitudes (Fig (synoptic view) and serve as a permanent record. 1). It covers an area of approximately 100.19 km2. Remote sensing data obtained in digital form It is bound in the North - West by the Kambam can be processed by computers to produce Valley. The South of this largest and peculiar valley images for interpretation purposes. A digital is occupied by the Suruliyar and Koothanichiar image is a numerical representation of a sub watersheds, which flows from South to North sampled field. Digital image processing involves westwards and joins the Suruli River. All these the manipulation and interpretation of the digital physiographic units are extended NW-SE to images processed by computer to produce new ENE-WSW. The major drainage present in the data to study (Sabins and Floyd, 1987). Using area is of dendritic pattern. these techniques, the earth’s resources can be vigorously analysed and interpreted. In the MATERIALS AND METHODS present study, the rapid mappings of geological and geomorphological resources were The satellite data, Landsat TM (2001) and Survey attempted and the results of analyses were of India topographic maps were used as major discussed. data sets to the present study. The image 188 ECO-CHRONICLE processing software ENVI 4.2 was used to GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGICAL UNITS OF process the data. The geology, structure and THE AREA. gemophological units were checked with the field work. For mapping purposes, the Arc GIS In the present work, identification of various 8.3 was used. geological and geomorphological units were carried out based on remote sensing techniques Fig 1. The study area in Landsat TM Satellite with the input of actual ground truth. Various Data factors like degree of ruggedness, nature of dissection, amount of elevation/depth, drainage density, texture and pattern, vegetation and land

Narayanat N use pattern, reflectivity in terms of brightness grey evanppatt value / colour, slope characters, relative relief, u alignment of ridges/ valleys, crest configuration, Surulippat ti Koothanaichiar origin, extent of denudation, etc. have been taken

SURULI RIVER Ar into consideration for classifying the geological and geomorphological units of the study area. Suruliyar The study area was constituted by different rocks

Ar of the Pre-cambrian age. The major lithologies of the study area were granulite / khondalite, charnockinte, gneisses, crystalline limestone and recent sediments. The granulite, khondalite and charnockite occured in the western part of hill region of the study area. The gneisses and metamorphic crystalline limestones extended from the foot hill with gradational contact. The recent sediments developed along the river course occurred at the eastern part of the study area. The structural trend of the hard rock formation and the white patches of the crystalline

Table.1 Correlation of major geological and geomorphological units of the study area.

Sl. Geological Geomorpho- Height (m) Extent No. units logical units

1 Granulite Structural Hill 1225-1960 NE to SW of the area of the R.F / Khondalite with Plantation 2 Charnockite structural Hill 490-980 In the extent of NE to SW, Next to the R.F 3 Gneisses Bajada 400-420 Depositional Sediments placed at the foot hill of the area 4 Recent Sediments Shallow 245-490 Extent from bajada follows the drainage Pediment course 5 Recent Sediments Buried Pediment 200-250 Extend from shallow pediment 6 Crystalline limestone Low lying land 420-600 Extent from shallow and buried pediments ECO-CHRONICLE 189 limestones were well seen in the satellite data units with reference to the height and extent of (Fig.2). area are given in the Table.1.

Similarly, the geomorphological units namely, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION structural hills, pediments, low lying lands and bajada were interpreted as given in the figure Digital Image Processing (DIP) is a collection of (Fig.3). Structural hills and structural hills with techniques for the manipulation of digital images plantation were made up of igneous by computers, so as to generate enhanced (charnockite) and metamorphic (granulite and images that may highlight the necessary khondalite) rocks. They were delineated in the information to the maximum extent. satellite images by uneven topography, dendritic erosion, dark tone, medium to high drainage Image processing methods are grouped into density, coarse to uneven texture, high vegetation, four functional categories viz. Image restoration, blunt hill crest, convex slopes and gully erosion. statistical analysis, image enhancement and Buried pediment s appeared in dark tone with pattern recognition (Lillesand and Kiefer, 1994). high vegetation than shallow pediment which Image enhancement is the modification of an located along the river valley. Bajada was image to alter its impact on the viewer (Seigal interpreted at the foot hill region, developed and Gillespie, 1980). Enhancement is done to between the drainage course, and seen improve the image interpretability by amplification prominently parallel to the hill ranges. Low lying of the desired spectral or spatial characteristics, plain topography was interpreted by low while suppressing non-essential characteristics. vegetation, irregular shape, fine to medium Image enhancement involves techniques for texture and low slope terrain structure. The increasing the visual distinction between features comparison of geological and geomorphological in a scene. Image enhancement techniques can

Table 2. The well seen (*) and best seen (**) features highlighted by different PC analyses Geomorphological, Geological and structural Results of various in PC analysis performed teatures of the Suruliyar and Koothanichiar PC 1 PC 2 PC-3 FCC FCC watershed PC PC 3,2,1 1,2,3

Geomorphological Units Structural Hill with Vegetation ** ** * structural Hill ** ** ** * Bajada * * Shallow Pediment ** ** * Buried Pediment ** ** * Low lying land ** ** * * Tanks ** ** ** **

Geological Units Charnockite * ** ** Granulite/Khondolinite * ** ** Crystalline Limestone ** ** * Gneiss * ** ** * Recent Sediments ** **

Structural Features Lineaments * * * * Trend line * * 190 ECO-CHRONICLE Fig. 2. Lithological units of the study area Fig. 3. Geomorphological units of the study area

Narayande vanpatti Surulipatti

P P

LL LL SH CL CL SH LL P G P G LL

RS RS SH SH

SHP CH CH SHP

T T GR/KH GR/KH

SHP SHP

Fig. 4. PC3 image of study area showing the geologic and Fig. 5. FCC of PC 1,2,3 image showing all geomorphic units. geomorphic units. Structural Hill with Plantation - SHP, Structural Hill - SH, Low lying Land - LL, Pediments - P, Granulite / Khondalite - GR/KH, Charnockite - CH, Gneiss - G, Recent Sediments - RS, Crystalline Limestone - CL, Tanks - T. ECO-CHRONICLE 191 be broadly grouped into (i) contrast enhancement generated to distinguish and get more (ii) spatial features manipulation and (iii) the multi- information on the different units. The results of image enhancement (Lilesand and Kiefer, 1994). the PC analysis with well seen (*) and best seen In the present study, Multi Image Enhancement (**) features were listed out in the Table 2. techniques were carried out to improve the interpretability of the Landsat TM data in order to The interpretation showed that the PC2 image highlight the geological and geomorphological gives maximum information about the vegetation units. cover and the surface features of the area. For geological and geomorphologic applications, MULTI IMAGE ENHANCEMENT PC3 image was found useful. The NW-SE geological formation and structures were clearly A special feature of satellite remote sensing is visible. The structural hills, structural hills with that it provides data in multi spectral band. These plantation, pediments, bajada and low lying multi-bands, studied in combination, can lands were well demarcated in the PC3 image. provide much more information than a single PC3 Image gives information about structural band can do. Multi Image Enhancement includes hills with plantation, Limestone, recent Bands Rationing, Principal Component Analysis sediments lineaments and trend lines (PCA), Intensity, Hue, Saturation Transformation information. All the major geomorphic units i.e. (IHS) and Bands Combination (colour structural hill with plantation, structural hill, composites). In addition to the data obtained by piedmont zone, low lying land etc. can also be visual interpretation of analogue satellite data, seen well. (Fig.4). Since all the classes were the authors have performed Principal submerged in similar tone, two different Component Analysis of the Multi Image combinations viz. FCC of PC1, PC2, PC3 and Enhancement techniques to highlight geological FCC of PC3, PC2 and PC1 were generated in and geomorphological features too. order highlight different geological and geomorphological units of the study area, PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS inwhich the PC1, PC2 and PC3 combinations provided useful information on the resources as The Principal Component Analysis (PCA), interpreted in the Fig. 5. originally known as Karhunen-Loeve CONCLUSION transformation (KL-transformation) is used to compress multi-spectral data sets by calculating The present study revealed that the PC analysis a new co-ordinate system (Jenson, 1996). It is a powerful technique for highlighting major reduces the data redundancy. The geological and geomorphological units of the transformation of the raw remote sensing data Surilyar and Koothanaichiyar sub-watersheds. using PCA results in new principal component Different PC images and their combinations images that is more interpretable than the were highlighted for the geological and original image. PC analysis is used to compress geomorphological features. the information content of a number of bands of imagery into just three transformed principal ACKNOWLEDGEMENT component images. In the present work PC 1, PC 2 and PC3 images were produced. Among The present work is carried out with the partial these, PC3 contains maximum information about financial assistance of the ISRO-RESPOND the geological and geomorphological features project “ELGIORD” and the authors are thankful and are better interpreted in the PC image. Band to the Indian Space Research Organisation, combinations of PC1, PC2, and PC3 were Bangalore. 192 ECO-CHRONICLE REFERENCES Discrimination of rock types and detection of hydrothermally altered areas in south-central Siegal, B.S. and Gillespie, A.R. 1980. Remote Nevada, U.S. Geological Survey Professional Sensing in Geology: John Wiely and sons 381- Paper 883, 35 pp. 418. Sabins, Floyd F., Jr. 1987. Remote Sensing: Jenson, J. R. 1996. Introductory digital image Principles and Interpretations, 2nd ed., Freeman, processing, A remote sensing perspective. 2nd Newyork, 449 pp. edition. Prentice hall. New Jersey, 316p. Thomos, M. Lilles and Ralph, W. Kiefer. 1994. Rowan, L.C., Wetlaufer, P.H., Goetz, A.F.H., Remote sensing & Image Interpretation, John Billingsley, F.C. and Stewart, J.H. 1974. Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 750p. ECO-CHRONICLE 193 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 4. DECEMBER 2006, pp. 193 - 196

MASONRY CEMENT USING FLY ASH – A LOW COST INNOVATION

S. S. Bagchi1, P. K. Khurana1 and R. T. Jhadav2

1 Koradi Thermal Power Station, MAHAGENCO, Koradi, P.O - 441 111, Koradi, Nagpur. 2 Department of Chemistry, R.N.K., Engineering College, Katol Road -440013, Nagpur.

ABSTRACT

India is the second largest cement producer in the world with the current annual production of over 110 million ton with the prospect of a robust growth in the coming years. As far as masonry construction is concerned, the present scenario in this country is highly discouraging. The precious Portland cement essentially meant for structural application is invariably used for masonry work, whereas the masonry cement still remain far from the knowledge and usage. Cement manufacturers are selling Portland Pozzolana cement at par with ordinary Portland cement. An attempt has been made in the present study to explore the possibilities of obtaining the characteristics of masonry cement from the blend of ordinary Portland cement and fly ash. Its economic benefits and environmental significance in general were also studied.

Key words: Masonry cement, Ordinary Portland cement, Fly ash, Compressive strength, Fineness.

INTRODUCTION of approximately 110 million tones, causing several environmental problems. Fly ash can In India, the number of houses being built every be used for producing a variety of building year does not match with the increase in materials, of which masonry cement production population. The Govt. of India has targeted the consumes considerable quantity of it. Masonry year 2010 for providing housing for all; 13 lakh in Cement is chiefly intended for use in masonry rural and 7 lakh in urban areas annually, with works of bricks, stones, concrete block and also emphasis on extending benefits to the poor and for rendering plastering work. The 28 days the deprived. Apart from the above, housing stock strength obtained using 43 grade and 53 grade in the country is destroyed every year due to cement is much higher than the strength natural hazards. The cost of traditional building requirement of mortars .The strength desired for materials has gone up considerably over the various grades of masonry ranges between 0.5N/ 2 2 past few years, posing great challenges to m to 7.5 N/m (Pande et al., 2005). planners and technologists. Therefore it is MATERIALS AND METHODS imperative to state that while meeting our great demands of building materials on one hand and Measurement of compressive strength is rated maintaining ecological balance on the other, one as the best technique for measurement of has to find ways and means of exploiting pozzolanic reactivity; however, other factors industrial waste for the production of building involved in strength gain is over looked (Pande materials and devising appropriate technology et. al. 2005). Fly Ash samples from unit 7 of Koradi applicable for housing. Thermal Power Station MAHAGENCO were collected. Fly Ash samples were analyzed for its Fly Ash, an industrial by product from Thermal major physical and chemical properties as per Power Plants, has a current annual generation IS 1727: 1967. 194 ECO-CHRONICLE Cement sand mortar mixes (1:3 ratio) replaced Power Station, MAHAGENCO were collected. by 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40% and 50% fly ash Detailed analysis was carried out and it was were used in the present study. Cement used in observed that samples form 3rd row onwards of the mixes was 53 grade cement and sand was unit number -7 could be directly utilized to prepare standard sand IS 650: 1966. Masonry cement masonry cements, as it conforms to IS 3812 was tested in accordance with the method of ( Part-1) : 2003. 3rd row of unit 7 from boiler ends test specified in IS: 4031:1988. were selected for the present study. 2nd row was also applicable, but quality cannot be guaranteed RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (Bagchi et al., 2005). National and International Fly Ash samples from Unit 7 of Koradi Thermal codes for the siliceous pulverized fuel ash

Table 1.National and International codes for the silicious pulverized fuel ash. Sl No Component / characteristics Unit British std ASTM:C IS 3812 IS 3812 BS:3892 618 (part I) (part II) PI Rev 82 (2003) 2003 2003 Chemical requirement

1. SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe203 % __ 70 70 70

2. SiO2 min. % __ __ 35 35 3. MgO max. % __ __ 5.0 5.0

4. Total sulphur as SO3 max. % 2.5 5 3.0 5.0

5. Alkali as Na2O max. % __ 1.5 1.5 1.5 6. Loss On Ignition % 7 12 5.0 5.0 7. Moisture content max. % 1.5 3 __ Physical requirement 1. Specific surface (Blaine), min. m2/kg Variable 325 320* 200 2. Sieve residue on 45 micron % __ 32 34 50 sieve, max. (optional (optional test) test)

Table. 2. Analytical results of fly ash samples of Unit -7

Component/Characteristics Unit Row-1 Row-2 Row-3 Row-4 Row-5 U-7 U-7 U-7 U-7 U-7

1. Sio2 +Al2 O3 + Fe2 O3 % 95.24 94.47 93.82 93.76 93.51

2. SiO2 % 67.5 64.7 63.6 62.6 62.6 3. MgO % 0.41 0.45 0.52 0.55 0.54

4. Total S as SO3 % 0.82 0.84 0.87 0.85 0.84

5. Alkali as Na2O % 0.21 0.20 0.22 0.24 0.27 6. Loss On Ignition % 1.15 1.05 0.96 1.07 1.24 7. Moisture content % 0.47 0.49 0.41 0.49 0.47 8. Fineness – specific surface (m2/kg) by Blaine’s permeability method m2/kg 212 294 382 405 422 9. Residue on 45 micron sieve (max.) % 50.4 24.2 10.6 12.2 4.1 ECO-CHRONICLE 195 Table 3. Compressive strength in N/mm2 with different fly ash percentage of 3rd row of unit 7.

28 days compressive strength in N/mm2 (MPa) Mix % FA 10% FA 20% FA 30% FA 40% FA 50% FA 1:3 51.30 49.70 48.60 35.40 34.30 29.10 specification, are shown in Table-1. Analytical SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION results of fly ash from each row of electrostatic precipitator is shown in Table-2. 28 day Fly ash of a particular grade conforming to IS compressive strengths with different fly ash 3812 - 2003 is a reusable material and not a percentages were measured and their results waste. Physical properties such as particle size are shown in Table-3. The variation in and loss on ignition are the main criteria for the compressive strength of the adopted blend of quality control of fly ash. Once established, it will masonry cement was found to decrease with remain same throughout and hence addition increase of fly ash addition in all the cases upto 50% of fly ash of particular grade can be studied. Strength upto 50% replacement was used for masonry work, particularly for low cost found to be satisfactory and conforming to the rural housing. Fly ash based OPC - Masonry Indian standard, IS: 3466 - 1988. IS: 3466 - 1988 cement has greater potentiality and is states that average compressive strength of not considered to be superior to mortars made up less than 3 mortar cubes of 50mm size of ordinary Portland cement with respect to its composed of 1 part masonry cement and 3 parts durability, finish, environmental and economical standard sand (IS: 650 - 1966) by volume should aspects. give minimum compressive strength of 5MPa (N/mm2) General awareness is needed to use masonry mortars with fly ash, as one of the ingredient. Cost economics Availability of proper quality fly ash in sealed bags is also one of the major requirements for It is essential to note that the awareness about masonry work and this can contribute a lot to fly ash based masonry cement is insufficient. the development process in a sustainable way. Today the price of 50Kg Portland cement bag (53 grade) in Maharashtra State is Rs. 195/-. If REFERENCES 50% cement can be replaced by fly ash, It will be ASTMC 618. 2003. Standard specification for 50% cheaper. Moreover environmental benefits coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan are also enormous. for use as a mineral admixture in concrete. American Society for testing and materials. Environmental benefits

Bagchi, S.S., Khurana, P.K. and Jadhav, R.T. Use of one ton of Fly ash saves: 2005. Characterization of fly ash from Koradi 1. 1.40 tonnes of lime stone. thermal power plant for its use as a Pozzolona. 2. 3.30 G.J of thermal energy. Journal IAEM NEERI. Vol. 32 (3), p. 181-183. 3. 1 Square meter of land for disposing fly ash. 4. Reduction of 1 ton of CO ( a green house 2 BS 3892 PI Revision: 1982, Pulverised fuel ash gas) - Part I, Specification for pulverised fuel ash for 5. 55.5 KWH electrical energy. use with Portland cement, British Standard 6. To enable India to sell emission credits. Institution, London, UK. 196 ECO-CHRONICLE IS: 3466 - 1988. Specification for masonry IS 3812-2003 (Part-II) Pulverised fuel ash cement (second revision), Bureau of Indian specification. (Second Revision) Bureau of Standards, New Delhi -110002. Indian Standard, New Delhi - 110002.

IS: 4031-1988. Methods of physical test for Pande, A.M. and Gupta, L.M. 2005. Masonry hydraulic cement (first revision), Bureau of Indian mortars with fly ash as one of the ingredients-A Standards, New Delhi -110002. step towards sustainable development. Proceedings of International congress “Fly Ash IS 1727-1967 Method of test for Pozzolanic India 2005,” 4 -7 December, New Delhi, Chapter materials (First Revision) Bureau of Indian VI, p. 39.1 - 39.7. Standards, New Delhi - 110002. Pande, A.M. and Gupta, L.M. 2005. Properties of IS 3812-2003 (Part-I) Pulverised fuel ash flyash pozzolanic reactivity, Proceedings of specification. (Second Revision) Bureau of International congress “Fly Ash India 2005”, New Indian Standard, New Delhi - 110002. Delhi, 4 -7 December, Chapter VI, p.40 .1 - 40.10. ECO-CHRONICLE 197 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 4. DECEMBER 2006, 197 - 204

ASSESSMENT OF GROUNDWATER QUALITY IN SHALLOW AQUIFER ZONES IN TITTAGUDI TALUK, CUDDALORE DISTRICT, TAMILNADU, SOUTH INDIA.

G. R. Senthilkumar 1, J. F. Lawrence 2 and M. Arumugam 1

1 Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalaingar – 608 002, Tamil Nadu. 2 Department of Geology, Presidency College, Chennai – 600 005, Tamil Nadu.

ABSTRACT

The quality of water is as important as quantity and is dependent on various factors including average annual rainfall, nature of aquifer, residence time, etc. An attempt has been made to evaluate the water quality of Tittagudi taluk, which lies between latitude 11º 22’ 03" to 11º 36’ 29" N and longitude 78º 52’ 42’’ to 79º 18’ 59" E in Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu state. Water samples from predetermined, forty four (44) locations belonging to shallow aquifers of pre-monsoon period were collected and analysed using standard methods prescribed in APHA (1996). The analytical results have been processed using computer program. With output results, the following maps were prepared viz.TDS, TH, CR, Scholler’s water type, Stuyfzand water type, USSL classification and Gibbs plot. TDS in shallow groundwater varies from below 1000 to above 2500 mg/l. Total hardness above 300 mg/l (very hard water) was noticed in major parts of the study area. Mostly the area is occupied by Type-III classification, which indicates that bicarbonate water dominates the domain. As per Stuyfzand classification (1989), the study area water is classified into oligohaline, fresh, fresh-brackish, and brackish. Oligohaline existed only in one location. Fresh, fresh-brackish and brackish water distributed equally in the study area. Chloride concentration ranged between 5 to 300 mg/l. As per USSL classification, 22 out of 44 samples of groundwater of this region fall in the category of C3S1. Rest of the samples fall in the category of C5S4, C5S3, C4S3, C4S2, C4S1, C3S2 and C2S1. Most of the groundwater samples of the study area are promising for irrigation purposes. Gibbs plot indicated that mostly the water quality is due to rock water interaction and in few locations, it is due to evaporation. In general, the monsoon rainfall is found to be an influencing factor for the change in water quality.

Keywords: Aquifer, Tittagudi Taluk, Sedimentary, Crystalline, Bicarbonate, Monsoon.

INTRODUCTION 11º 36’ 29" N and longitude 78º 52’ 42’ to 79º 18’ 59" E in the Survey of India toposheet (nos. 58M/ Water is most essential to sustain life, and a 2, 58M/3, 58M/7, 58I/14 & 58I/15). The Tittagudi satisfactory quality is a must to consume. taluk occupies an aerial extend of 615.26 Km2 Consumption of poor quality of water leads to and the elevation ranges from 15m to 122m high level of risk to public health. Quality of water above MSL. The taluk receives an average rainfall is as important as quality. Identification of of 1011mm with more than 80% of the rainfall groundwater potential and its various chemical received during the northeast monsoon season. characteristics (quality) to meet the growing water The maximum and minimum temperature demand is the need of the hour. Aiming this view, ranges between 34º C and 20º C in the months an attempt has been carriedout to identify the of May and January respectively. Geologically the various chemical parameters of shallow aquifer taluk comprises hard and soft rock formations. system in pre-monsoon period in parts of Nearly crystalline rocks cover 73% and the major Tittagudi taluk, Cuddalore district (TN). rock types are charnockite, charnockite gneiss, migmatites, etc. River Vellar flows in the southern STUDY AREA part of the taluk. Wellington reservoir is the major tank as well as major source for irrigation. The study area, Tittagudi taluk, is situated in Geomorphologically the taluk consist of old flood Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu (Fig. 1). The plains, pediments, duricrust and pediment study area lies between latitude 11º 22’ 03" to covered by forestland. 198 ECO-CHRONICLE MATERIALS AND METHODS 1000mg/l is freshwater, 1000-10,000 is brackish water, 10,000 -100,000 is saline water and above Field study has been carried out in the year 2005. 100,000 is brine water. In the pre-monsoon, TDS Representative water samples were collected value of the shallow water of the study area, from 44 locations during pre-monsoon season (Fig.3) ranged between <1000 to >3000 mg/l. (Fig.2). The Electric Conductivity (EC) and pH More than 60% of the water samples from the were measured immediately after collection study area have TDS below 1000mg/l and it using a portable consort C-425 digital pH meter. reveals that majority of the sampling locations Collected water samples were analysed for are in fresh water condition. During stay or various physico-chemical parameters using movement of the groundwater in the subsurface standard procedures APHA (1996). The analytical regions, the TDS concentration slowly gets results were processed using HYCH computer enriched and it has been noticed that the program (Balasubramanian et.al. 1985) with groundwater in the recharge areas have low TDS subsequent production of output results. GIS than discharge areas Freez and Cherry (1979). technique has been used for preparation of thematic maps and the following maps were Total Hardness (TH) prepared accordingly. 1) Total Dissolved Solids 2) Total Hardness 3) Water Type 4) Water Hardness of water is not a specific constituent classification 5) USSL Classification and 6) but a variable, attributed by a complex mixture of Gibbs Plot. cations and anions. The degree of hardness of drinking water has been classified in terms of RESULTS AND DISCUSSION equivalent CaCO3 concentration. Accordingly, a type of classification of water has been proposed The results of the physico-chemical analysis of by Sawyer and McCarty (1987) using the total groundwater samples are presented in Table-1. hardness present in groundwater. The shallow water samples showed pH a maximum value of 8.5 and minimum value of In the study area, shallow aquifer system of the 7.2 during the pre-monsoon season. This pre-monsoon period exhibited hard (150-300 elucidates that the shallow water samples are mg/l) and very hard (over – 300 mg/l) type of water slightly alkaline in nature. Electrical conductivity (Fig.4). Hard water occured in ten locations; rest (EC) is a measure of the ability of a solution to of the locations were occupied by very hard water conduct an electrical current, transferred by ions during the pre-monsoon season. in solution. EC is thus related to the concentration and nature of ions present in the solution. The minimum EC value was observed Groundwater Type as 700µs cm -1 and the maximum value as 5100µs cm-1. EC typically varies considerably According to Schoeller’s (1967) classification of from catchments to catchments according to the water type, the water samples of the study area geological, lithological, sedimentological and can be brought under type-I, type- II, type-III, and hydrological characteristics. type-IV (Fig.5). Twenty-six samples out of forty- four can be brought under the type-III Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) classification. Remaining locations were shared by type-IV, (11 locations), type-II (02 locations) TDS is one of the governing factors to determine and type –I (05 locations). Type-III water occupied the suitability of water for various uses. Carroll nearly half of the study area. It is clear that (1962) proposed a classification based on Total carbonate concentration dominated the chloride Dissolved Solids present in ground water. and Sulphate concentrations in the shallow According to his classification, TDS upto water of the pre-monsoon period. ECO-CHRONICLE 199

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2. 200 ECO-CHRONICLE Groundwater classification Table 2. Categorization of water samples

Thematic map (Fig.6) showing ground water Sl.no Main type Cl in mg/l No. of classification of the study area has been locations prepared on the basis of Stuyfzand classification 1. G-Oligohaline 5-30 01 (1989). She classified the groundwater and 2. Fresh 30-150 15 identified eight main types on the basis of 3. F-Brackish 150-300 14 chloride content. The water samples of the area 3 4. Brackish 3 0 0 - 1 0 14

Table 1. Chemical analysis results of shallow aquifer (in ppm), pre-monsoon period

Map Name Long. Lat. EC pH Ca Mg Na+K HCO3 Cl SO4 TDS TH

+CO3

1 Ja.Endal 79.30 11.42 1200 8.2 77 29 106 293.9 195 28.8 768 311.4 2 Kilorathur 79.17 11.48 1850 7.9 75 42 177 343 350 38.4 1184 362.2 3 Kalathur 79.28 11.39 1525 7.9 69 35 141.5 318.5 272.5 33.6 976 336.8 4 Sirupakkam 79.07 11.58 3800 7.7 73 81 393 490.5 641.6 67.2 2432 514.6 5 S.Naraiyur 79.04 11.58 700 7.9 82.2 14.6 25.2 253.8 78 12.5 448 265.36 6 K.Kudikkadu 79.06 11.55 2500 7.7 75 55 249 392.2 418.3 48 1600 413 7 V.Kudikkadu 78.99 11.55 2740 7.8 52.2 75.3 388.5 946 361.6 50 1753.6 439.23 8 Kaludur 79.00 11.41 1300 8.1 88.2 49.8 84.4 414.9 184.3 48 832 424.68 9 Vinayakandal 79.00 11.49 1100 8.2 26 49.8 139.1 534.5 67.3 50 704 269.18 10 Panaiyandur 79.02 11.54 1500 7.8 62.1 66.9 113.8 441.7 198.5 50.4 960 429.54 11 Mangalur 78.95 11.52 3040 7.7 69 78 393 512.5 620.3 55.2 1945.6 492.3 12 M.Pudur 78.94 11.55 920 7.9 100.2 36.5 27.5 305.1 106.3 54.8 585.8 400.15 13 Pullur 79.09 11.52 1950 8.1 58.5 60.2 200 578.3 267.6 29.8 1091 389.5 14 Sirumangalam 79.21 11.48 800 8.5 40.1 38.9 65.5 390.5 53.2 0 512 259.74 15 Lakshmana puram 79.02 11.47 1170 7.7 99 70 38 488.1 124.1 45.6 748.8 534.5 16 Ma.podaiyur 78.93 11.51 1070 7.6 126 33 24 368.5 102.8 58.6 684.8 450.3 17 Avatti 79.04 11.43 1010 8.1 70.1 35.5 74.5 400.2 92.2 50 646.4 320.8 18 Agaram 79.26 11.43 1000 8.5 32.1 32.3 143.4 530.8 46.1 0 640 212.68 19 Narasinga mangalam 79.24 11.47 4700 7.6 35 22 292 666.3 108.1 115.3 3008 177.7 20 Tivalur 79.28 11.46 4000 7.5 217 11 631 907.5 790.5 100.8 2560 587.6 21 Kandamattan 79.04 11.51 760 7.8 34.1 49.8 41.5 371 28.4 52.8 486.4 289.43 22 Lekkur 79.04 11.48 2520 7.9 190.4 76 242.3 654 503.4 47.5 1612.8 787.6 23 Sevveri 79.08 11.48 2400 8.5 66.1 71.7 337.7 615.4 443.1 9.6 1536 459.22 24 Korakavadi 79.00 11.44 960 8 37 62 68 444.2 60.3 47.5 614.4 346.7 25 Kiladanur 79.07 11.46 1480 8 64.3 47.6 137.5 489.2 179.9 39.9 868.7 350.5 26 Alambadi 78.94 11.45 1100 8.1 120.2 32.8 33 314.7 131.2 51.9 704 434.98 27 Nedungulam 79.11 11.46 1240 7.7 80.2 46.2 103.7 286.8 257 19.2 793.6 389.92 28 Melur 79.13 11.46 5100 7.5 80.2 72.9 937.9 2379.5 308.4 134.4 3266 499.39 29 Vadakaranpundi 78.96 11.47 2830 8.1 86 82 350 939.6 347.4 54.8 1811.2 551.2 30 Thachchur 79.01 11.51 2300 7.8 198.4 115.5 94.6 517.4 510.5 48 1472 969.55 31 Adamangalam 79.08 11.43 1900 7.9 66.1 29.2 294.2 781 198.5 28.8 1216 284.97 32 Mosatti 79.25 11.41 1164 7.7 40 34 69 268 95 23.4 745 239.4 33 Kiranur 79.22 11.43 2600 7.7 124.2 88.7 268.5 666.3 464.4 57.6 1664 674.17 34 T. Endal 78.92 11.47 1430 8.3 5 67 192 623.7 81.5 49 915.2 385.1 35 Sirumalai 79.12 11.49 1370 7.5 73.5 48.5 136.2 387.4 245 12 877 384.8 36 Pennadam 79.20 11.45 1460 7.4 104.2 34 150.1 518.6 198.5 24 1256 399.9 37 Tholudur 78.90 11.49 3070 7.9 270.5 145.9 88.5 297.7 854.3 49.5 1964.8 1274.4 38 Pelandurai 79.25 11.38 1259 7.6 54 20 48 200 88 24 806 217 39 Tittagudi 79.14 11.46 1500 7.3 66.1 52.3 168.7 488.1 234 4.8 960 379.68 40 Koilyur 79.15 11.43 1100 7.6 68.1 40.2 108 392.4 180.5 4.6 795 347.28 41 G.Kudikkadu 79.18 11.38 1490 7.9 60.1 24.3 217 585.7 166.6 14.4 953.6 249.88 42 Irayur 79.14 11.40 920 7.7 88.2 24.3 61.8 414.9 81.5 4.8 588.8 320.13 43 Neyvasal 79.12 11.40 700 7.9 70.1 24.3 32.9 170.8 131.2 4.8 448 274.88 44 Semberi 79.21 11.40 4100 7.2 182.4 48.6 639.1 1757.2 333.2 124.9 2624 655.26 ECO-CHRONICLE 201

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 5. 202 ECO-CHRONICLE

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 8. ECO-CHRONICLE 203 fall under four types and the same is given in groundwater locations interacted with water, Table 2. except in few locations.

Fresh, F-brackish and brackish water occupies CONCLUSION equally in the study area. G - Oligohaline occupies only in the location 21, Kandamattan. The shallow water of pre-monsoon period of Tittagudi taluk area is carbonate water USSL classification dominated. The quality assessment showed that in general, water is suitable for domestic The United States Salinity Laboratory (USSL) has purposes. However high values of EC and TDS proposed a classification for rating irrigation at some sites make it unsafe for drinking. water with reference to salinity and sodium According to USSL classification, a major part of hazard (Richards 1954). C , C , C , C , and C , the shallow water is suitable for agriculture 1 2 3 4 5 purposes. Rock water interaction is mainly (based on salinity) and S1, S2, and S3 (based on sodium hazard). The study area revealed eight governing the quality of water in pre-monsoon classes of water during pre-monsoon period, season. It is observed that, the monsoon rainfall as shown in Fig.7. They are C -S , C -S , C3-S , is found to be influencing factor for changing the 2 1 3 1 2 water quality with rock water interaction. C 4-S1, C4-S2, C4-S3, C5S3 and C5S4. Among these, C -S and C -S , classes are suitable for irrigation 2 1 3 1 REFERENCES purposes, out of 44 locations, . C2-S1 existed in two locations and C3-S1 in 22 locations. Rest of the classes consisted of high salinity and alkali American Public Health Association (APHA), 1996. Standard methods for the examination of hazard, which restrict its suitability for irrigation, th especially in soils with restricted drainage water and wastewater, 19 edition, public health (Karanth 1989). Dillon, et.al, (2000) has adopted association, Washington, DC. recharge techniques to improve the water quality to meet the demand of irrigation and industrial Balasubramanian, A., Sharma, K.K. and Sastri, needs and noticed a remarkable improvement J.C.V. 1985. Geoelectrical and hydrogeochemical in water quality due to recharge. In unsuitable evaluation of coastal aquifers of Tamaraparani locations, quality of water can be improved by basin, Tamil Nadu. Geophysical research recharge technique. bulletin, vol. 23, no. 4. Carroll, D. 1962. Rainwater as a chemical agent Gibbs Plot of geologic processes – A review, USGS water supply paper, 1535 - G. It is an accepted fact that there exists a close relationship between water composition and Dillon, P. Gerges, N.Z., Sibenaler, Z., Cugley, J. aquifer lithology. Gibbs (1970) proposed a and Reed, J. 2000. Guidelines for aquifer method to distinguish the interaction due to storage and recovery of surface water in South precipitation of rock or evaporation. Demarcating Australia, (Draft.Mar.2000) CGS report 91. these fields will not only help in explaining the origin and distribution of the dissolved Freez, R.A. and Cherry, J.A. 1979. Groundwater, constituents, but also in deciphering the factors Prentice - Hall, New Jersey, USA. that control the chemistry of groundwater. The mechanism responsible for controlling the Gibbs, R.J. 1970. Mechanisms controlling groundwater chemistry of the study area by using world’s water chemistry, Science, v.170, pp.1088 Gibbs Plot has been represented in Fig.8. From - 1090. the HYCH output, it is observed that the rock water interaction is mainly governed by the Richards, 1954. Diagnosis and improvement of composition of pre-monsoon shallow water of saline and alkali soils, U.S. Department agri. the study area. hand book, no. 60, U.S. Govt, printing office, Washington D.C. Gibbs plot indicate that mostly the water quality is influenced by rock water interaction. In the Scholler, H. 1967. Qualitative evaluation of pre-monsoon, season, more number of groundwater resources (In methods and 204 ECO-CHRONICLE techniques of groundwater investigations and Karanth, K.R. 1989. Hydrogeology, Tata McGraw- development), water resources series, 33, Hill publishing company limited, New Delhi. UNESCO, pp. 44 - 52. Pratap, K. and Singh, A.K. 2001. Hydro-chemical Stuyfzand, P.J. 1989. A new hydrochemical Investigation of melt water draining from classification of water types, proc, IAHS 3 Bhagnyu Glacier, Alaknanda valley, Garhwal Science association, Baltimore, U.S.A, pp.33-42. Himalaya, Hydrogeology journal, 24 (1), 45 - 54. ECO-CHRONICLE 205 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 4. DECEMBER 2006, 205 - 210

A COMPARATIVE EVALUATION OF BODY SURFACE AREA IN LARGE WHITE YORKSHIRE AND DESI PIGS

Magna Thomas, Prejit, M. Manjusha, M. R. Rajan, B. Sunil & E. Nanu

College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, Kerala Agricultural University, Mannuthy, Kerala.

ABSTRACT

A study was conducted to assess the relationship between the body weight and total surface area belonging to weight groups <30 (13.5 - 30 kg) and > 30 (32 - 117 kg) in Desi and Large White Yorkshire pigs. In all the body weight groups, Desi breed recorded higher surface area per kg body weight than the Large White Yorkshire and it was found that the body surface area had a negative linear relationship with the body weight of the animal in all the classes of weight groups of both the breeds.

Key words: Desi pigs, Large White Yorkshire pigs, Body weight, Surface area

INTRODUCTION species and breeds evolved in hot climate have small body size and relatively larger surface area Climatic conditions prevailing in an area, and vice versa. availability of feed materials and other environmental conditions makes differences in In Swine, skin is the major organ for growth rate, body conformations and other thermoregulatory function. Though in pigs production traits in animals. Those animals thermoregulation is not done by perspiration which are better suited to environment of a (Hafez, 1968); conduction especially by particular area will thrive better, reproduce freely wallowing acts as a major criteria for and develops into native breed of that area. In all thermoregulation. Thus, surface area of animal the species, different breeds developed in in relation to body weight seems to be a major different locations. factor which decides magnitude of adaptation to tropics. Hence present study of quantifying Animals of one geographical area were surface area in two breeds namely Large White transported to another geographical area for Yorkshire and Desi Pigs was undertaken. exploiting better traits they inherit. Thus in pig breeds Large White Yorkshire, which is a native MATERIALS AND METHODS breed of temperate climate, were introduced to hot humid climate, like Kerala. In their native The body of the pig was divided into different environments, Large White Yorkshire pigs had a geometrical figures (Fig. 1) and the area in better growth rate, better reproductive characters, square centimeters was worked out individually. better adaptation and their performance with The summing up of individual areas gave the respect to these traits in tropics are not total body surface in square centimeters. comparable. According to Hafez (1968), Pig is a versatile animal, which gets adopted to any man (A) The head (A) was considered as a cone and - made change in climatic conditions. As a part the circumference of the base of the head and of adaptation to our hot humid climate they length of the head was measured. Area of the reduce their growth rate and performance. cone excluding the area of the base was Instead, we have our native breed of pig – Desi – calculated. which thrive well in its natural conditions like slum area, eating scavenges. Their genetic makeup (B) The neck was considered as rectangle (B). also is suited for this conditions. They have The length of the neck was measured from the smaller body size and less fat deposit, which is base of the head to the base of the neck, and it in agreement with Hafex (1968) who stated that was taken as the breadth of the rectangle. 206 ECO-CHRONICLE Circumference of the base of the head was taken circumference of the shoulder joint forms the as the length of the rectangle. The rest area of base and length from shoulder to knee joint the neck was taken as triangle (b) where the forms the height. The rest area of the limb was difference in circumference between base of taken as a cylinder (i.e., from knee joint to pastern neck and base of head was taken as the base of joint). From the circumference of knee joint and the triangle and length of neck as height of from length from knee joint to pastern joint, area triangle. of cylinder was worked out.

(C) The body surface area was measured in (E) Area of the hind limb was considered in the different ways in Desi and Large White Yorkshire. same manner where circumference of the stifle joint, circumference hock joint, length from stifle In Desi breeds, the body girth was measured at to hock and length from hock to pastern was three different levels, i.e., anterior, middle and measured. Area from stifle to hock was posterior. The length of the body was measured calculated as triangle (inner and outer) and area from the shoulder joint to the pin bone. The mean from hock to pastern as cylinder. of the anterior and posterior circumstance was taken as the length of the rectangle and the length # Area of Cone (excluding the area of the base) of the body was taken as the breadth of rectangle = πrl; and area was worked out. The drooping area where r is the radius and l is the length of cone. was considered as four triangles. Half of the body # Area of rectangle = lxb; length was taken as the height of the triangle where l is the length and b is the breadth of the and half the difference between anterior and rectangle. middle body girth as the base of the triangle. # Area of triangle = ½ bh; where b is base and h is the height of triangle. In Large White Yorkshire, average body girth was # Area of cylinder = 2πrl; taken as the length of the rectangle and body where r is the radius and l is the length of the length as breadth of rectangle. cylinder.

(D) The area of forelimb was divided into 2 The total body surface area of 10 Large White geometrical figures. From the shoulder joint to Yorkshire (5 growers, and 5 adults) and 10 Desi knee joint, it was considered as two triangles as Pigs (5 growers, 5 adults) were calculated and medial and lateral, for which, the half of the analysis of variance test was done. ECO-CHRONICLE 207 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION in Large White Yorkshire, it was 19.7+2.08 kg. It shows that body weight of animals selected for Table 1 revealed that, irrespective of genetic this study in both the breeds were identical. group, there was a negative linear relationship between body weight and surface area per kg body weight. Table 3. Average body weight for experimental animal (<30 Kg) Table 2 showed that in below 30 kg body weight Average + SE category, the difference in body weight was not significant. Desi 20.00+ 2.08 Large White Yorkshire 19.7+2.08 Table 3 showed that average body weight of ani- Total with in group 19.850+ 1.38 mals selected in Desi was 20 + 2.08, whereas

Table 1. Body weight, total surface area and surface area per kg body weight in Desi and Large White Yorkshire Pigs (less than 30 kg body weight category).

Desi Large White Yorkshire Sl. No. BW (Kg) SA (Cm2) SA/ Unit BW BW (Kg) SA (Cm2) SA/ Unit BW

1. 27 7304 250.3 25 5696 227.84 2. 21 55.2 251.5 23 5304 230.6 3. 20 5124 256.2 20.5 4943 241.1 4. 17 4871 286.5 16.5 4487 271.9 5. 15 4130 275.3 13.5 4036 267.1

BW = Body Weight in Kg and SA = Surface Area in Cm2 Table 2. Analysis of variance table of the body weight of Desi and Large White Yorkshire pigs selected for study (<30 Kg).

Degree of Sum of Mean F Value Probability freedom square square

Between genetic group 1 0.225 0.225 0.01 Non Significant Within genetic group 8 172.3 21.538 Total 9 172.525

Table 4. Analysis of variance table for surface area per kg. body weight of Desi and Large White Yorkshire pigs (<30 Kg).

Degree of Sum of square Mean square F Value Probability freedom

Between genetic group 1 647.381 647.38 1.875 0.2081 Within genetic group 8 2762.639 345.33 Total 9 3410.021

B W = Body Weight in Kg and S A = Surface Area in Cm2 208 ECO-CHRONICLE Table 4 stated that there was no significant Animals having more than 30 kg. body weight difference in surface area per kg. body weight also revealed a negative linear relationship between Desi and Large White Yorkshire breeds between body weight and surface area per kg. when they are below 30 kg. body weight (P = body weight in both the genetic groups (Table 0.2081 only). 6).

The results showed that Large White Yorkshire Table 7 revealed that body weight of two genetic 2 had an average of 247.868+8.31cm surface groups did not differ significantly. area per kg. body weight, whereas Desi had higher surface area of 263.96 + 8.31 cm2 per kg. Average body weight of animals selected in Desi body weight, though was not statistically was 70.4 + 13.17 kg., whereas in Large White significant (Table 5). Yorkshire it was 73.4 + 13.17 Kg. The two genetic groups had almost same average body weight.

Table 5. Average surface area per kg. body Table 9 revealed that, the difference in surface weight (<30 kg) with standard error (SE) for area per unit body weight (cm2 / kg.) does not Desi and Large White Yorkshire. differ significantly.

Average + SE This showed that in above 30 kg. body weight group, the Desi animals had a higher surface Desi 263.96+ 8.31 area per unit body weight (210.86 + 16.15 cm2 Large White Yorkshire 247.868+8.31 per kg. body weight) over Large White Yorkshire 2 Total with in group 255.914+ 6.16 (192.18+16.15 cm per kg. body weight) though the difference was not significantly different.

Table 6. Body weight, total surface area and surface area per kg body weight in Desi and Large White Yorkshire Pigs (>30Kg).

Desi Large White Yorkshire Sl. No. BW (Kg) SA (Cm2) SA/ unit BW BW (Kg) SA (Cm2) SA/unit BW

1 111 21050 189.6 110 16499 150 2 83 15891 191.5 91 16008 175.9 3 71 13703 193.1 70 12785 182.6 4 54 11847 219.5 64 12311 192.4 5 33 8602 260.6 32 8320 260

BW = Body Weight in Kg and SA = Surface Area in Cm2

Table 7. Analysis of variance table of the body weight of Desi and Large White Yorkshire pigs (<30 Kg. Body weight).

Degree of Sum of Mean F Value Probability freedom square square

Between genetic group 1 22.500 22.500 0.026 NON SIGNIFICANT Within genetic group 8 6938.4 867.3 Total 9 6960.9 ECO-CHRONICLE 209 Table 8. Average body weight with SE (>30 kg) Table 10 Average body weight with SE (>30 kg)

Average + SE Average + SE Desi 70.400 + 13.71 Desi 210.860 + 16.15 Large White Yorkshire 73.4 + 13.17 Large White Yorkshire 192.180 + 16.15 Total with in group 71.9 + 8.9 Total with in group 201.52 + 11.2

Table 9. Analysis of variance table of the body area / Kg. body weight of Desi and Large White Yorkshire pigs (<30 Kg.).

Degree of Sum of Mean F Value Probability freedom square square

Between genetic group 1 872.356 872.35 0.669 NON SIGNIFICANT Within genetic group 8 10426.5 1303.31 Total 9 11298.85

The body weight and surface area per kg. body investigated and to be confirmed. Even the weight in square centimeter showed a linear presented result indicated a higher body surface negative relationship both in below 30 kg. and area for Desi than its Large White Yorkshire above 30 kg. body weight group. This indicated counterpart though have been almost identical that, there is a progressive reduction in surface body weight. It clearly indicated that if animals area per unit body weight in both the genetic around maximum body weight for each genetic group as the animals advanced in growth. This group, if selected, would have given a different finding was in full agreement with Hafez (1968), result. who stated that with decreasing body size, the surface / volume ratio of the body and therefore SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION the relative surface from which heat is dissipated increases. The non significant difference An investigation into the body surface area per exhibited by 2 genetic group – Desi and Large kg. body weight was carried out in Desi pigs White Yorkshire – in below 30 kg. body weight belonging to the tropical climate and with Large group further reconfirmed the observation made White Yorkshire, a native breed of temperate by Hafez (1968). climate. In all the body weight groups, Desi breed recorded a higher surface area per kg. The non significant difference in body surface body weight than Large White Yorkshire, but the area per kg. body weight in above 30 kg body difference was not statistically significant. There weight group was unexpected. The result might was a progressive diminishment in body surface have been influenced by less number of area per unit body weight in both genetic groups. observations and mode of selection of The above result indicated that the body surface experimental animal that is having almost same area had a linear negative relationship with body body weight. (The above result disagree with the weight of animal and in all the classes of weight finding of Hafez (1968) who stated that, with group, the Desi had a higher surface area decreasing body size, the surface / volume ratio compared to Large White Yorkshire. Hence it is of the body and therefore, the relative surface advocated that more number of animals, from which heat is dissipated increases). A including animals which are around the higher number of experimental animals selected maximum mature body weight of that particular based on the similarity in age might have given genetic group, had to be compared to obtain a a different result which should be further clear and confirmative result in further studies. 210 ECO-CHRONICLE REFERENCES sows under large farm conditions. Anim. Breed Abst. 63 (12): 7380. Benedict, E.G. 1936. The Physiology of Elephants. Carnegic Institute. pp. 58, 93 -102. Jagadish Prasad, 1996. Goat, Sheep and Pig production and management, 1st Edn. Kalyani Burn, H. 1986. An outline of general Physiology. Publishers, pp. 185 -186, 196. 3rd Edn. W.B. Saunders Company, Philadelphia, pp. 478 - 496. Lomax, P., Schon Baum, E. 1998. Body temperature regulation, drug effects and Esmay, M.L. 1969. Principles of animal therapeutic implications. Mareel Dekker, Inc., environment – Environmental engineering in New York and Basel. pp. 76 - 80. agriculture and food series. The AVI publishing company, INC, pp. 160 - 218. Prosser, C.L. and Brown, F.A. 2001. Comparative animal Physiology, 2nd Edn. W.B. Saunders Hafez, E.S.E. 1968. Adaptation of domestic Company, Philadelphia, London, pp. 257 - 267. animals. 1st Edn. Lea and Febiger, pp. 101, 316 - 319, 458. Thomas, N. 2003. The body surface area as an aid to judge adaptability in pigs. Dissertation Huhn, U., Henze, A. and Jerk, R. 1955. Influence work. College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences, of selected ambient climatic factors on the Mannuthy, Kerala. performance of the inseminated primiparous ECO-CHRONICLE 211 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 4. DECEMBER 2006, pp. 211 - 214

Scientific Correspondence MAPPING OF REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF TAMILNADU STATE IN THERMAL- INFRARED EMISSIVE SPECTRAL REGION USING MODIS TERRA HYPERSPECTRAL DATA

S.Rajendran, A. Thirunavukkarasu and B. Poovalinga Ganesh Department of Earth Sciences, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu

ABSTRACT

The present study has been carried out to assess the application of hyper spectral data for mapping of regional geology in the thermal - infrared region and to study the emissive characteristics of major rock types of Tamil Nadu State. The study revealed that the emissive spectral signatures of different rock types depend on the mineralogical and chemical compositions of parent rock types. The narrow bend of MODIS Terra hyperspectral data proved to be the best tool for mapping of regional geology in their higher spectral and spatial resolutions.

INTRODUCTION from visible to thermal-infrared delivered data at 250m (2 channels), 500 m (5 channels) and Imaging spectroscopy is a new mapping tool for 1000m (29 channels) with higher spatial the next generation in remote sensing resolution and greater spectral resolution. In technology. The narrow spectral channels of an the present study, about 16 narrow spectral imaging spectrometer forms a continuous bands collected emissive spectral data in the reflectance spectrum of the earth surface in thermal-infrared region (3.660 to 14.385 µm) of comparison to the narrow channel of earth 21st January 2006 were used to map the regional observation systems like IRS, Landsat, Spot etc. geology of the Tamil Nadu state by image Imaging spectroscopy resolves the narrow analyses. absorption bands in the spectrum, which can be used to identify specific parameters. In particular, Geology of Tamil Nadu images that represent the effects of diagnostic absorption bands can be produced to show The geology of Tamil Nadu state of India forms specific variability of certain material features. part of the peninsular shield, about ¾th of the Absorption bands pay a key role in defining the area (74%) underlain by unclassified crystalline spectral curves of the different terrain rocks of Archaean and Pre - Cambrian ages parameters. The critical aspect of the data dating 2600 Million to 570 million years. The processing involves in separating this sedimentary formations constitute about 1/4th of component from the background both in the pixel the total area mostly along the coast flanking the and sub-pixel domain and assigns meaningful main crystalline on the west. It includes rocks of class. upper Gondwana age of about 200 million years (2% of the total area), Cretaceous of 130 - 140 Hyperspectral band of MODIS data million years (1 - 2% of the area) and Tertiary age of about 70 million years (5 - 6 % of the total A significant increase in the spectral resolution area). The coastal tract is covered by younger has lead to increase in narrow spectral band to alluvial and coastal sand formations of generate hyperspectral images. The Moderate Quaternary age (about 16%). Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) Terra Rapid Response system has been The granulite terrain rocks forms under high developed to provide rapid access to MODIS data temperatures and pressure conditions. The globally and it can be considered as a much- crystalline rocks exposed in this part of the enhanced successor of the AVHRR instrument peninsular shield include the rocks of onboard in the NOAA series of satellites. It has a charnockite group, khondalite group, banded whisk-broom sensor with 36 channels ranging gneisses and schist, traversed by ultramafic, 212 ECO-CHRONICLE basic and syenite intrusive. Upper Gondwana noise statistics in the data without band-to-band rocks, mostly comprising pink and white shale’s correlation. The second was the standard and calcareous sandstones are found near in principal component transformation of the noise- the Chengalpattu, Tiruchirapalli, and whitened data. The final data was evaluated by Ramanathapuram districts. In Tiruchirapalli the Eigen value. The first part is associated with district, the Gondwana rocks are unconformably large Eigen value and coherent images and overlain by cretaceous rocks, which are sub- complementary part with near unity Eigen values divided into four stages namely, Uttatur, and noise dominated image. The coherent Tiruchirapalli, Ariyalur and Niniyur, based on portion of the image was used to separate noise fossil evidences. The sediments consist mostly from data. Eigen values for bands that contain of limestone; marls, sandstone and clays extend information will be an order magnitude larger in age from the Cenomanian to Danian. They than those that contain only noise. The first 10 have succeeded by sandstones and clays of principal components depicted a total data Tertiary age (Mio-Pliocene). Formations of variance of 99.7%. Pixel purity Index (PPA) was Pleistocene and Recent age include alluvium in computed for the data. This algorithm finds the deltaic regions and river valleys and corraline most spectrally pure extreme pixels to be limestone in parts of Gulf of Manner as given in analyzed for end member determination and Fig. 1 (http://www.nic.in). makes separation and identification of end member easier. This was computed by MATERIALS AND METHODS repeatedly projecting n-dimensional scatter plot The entire image processing was carried out into a random unit vector. The extreme pixels in using ENVI software v4.2. The MODIS Terra data each projection were recorded and total number was HDF scientific data, which can be directly of times each pixel was marked as extreme was read using ENVI software. The bands were noted. A PPI image was created, in which the numbered form 1 to 36 in which thermal-infrared DN of each pixel corresponds to number of times region starting from band 20. The data from band that pixel was recorded as extreme. Extraction 20 to 36 (16 bands) in 1000m spatial resolutions of end number spectra were carried out using meant for surface temperature emissive visual inspection and comparison with existing characters were used for present analyses. A geological information, automated identification, spectral subset of data was taken for final spectral library comparison and abundance analysis. As ground calibration was not estimation in the sub-pixel domain using Mixture attempted at this stage of study, IAR algorithm Tuned Matched Filtering method (MTMF). This (Internal average relative reflectance) was used algorithm maximizes the response of a known to normalize the data. This is particularly effective end member and suppresses the response of for reducing hyperspectral data to relative the signature. It provides rapid means of reflectance in an area where no ground detecting specific mineral based on matches to measurements are available. An average specific end member spectra. It was basically spectrum (Fig. 2), calculated from the entire linear mixture theory. The MF score images were scene was used as reference spectrum, which gray scale images with values from 0 to 1.0, with was then divided into spectrum at each pixel. A 1.0 as the perfect match to the reference spectra. minimum noise transformation was carried out The corresponding infeasibility image, where on the data to improve the signal-to-noise ratio. highly infeasible number indicated that mixing between the composite background and the The data contained in the hyperspectral bands target was not feasible. were often highly correlated and therefore feature extraction techniques like principal component The spectral profile prepared based on emissive analysis (PCA) was generally used to reduce value showed that there is specific peaks and the dimensionality of the data sets. This dips in the curve in the thermal-infrared region transformation was used to determine the of the spectrum. This, when compared with the inherent dimensionality of image data to spectral profile in the dense vegetation pocket, segregate noise in the data, and to reduce the water body and settlements, showed clear computational requirement for subsequent changes in the profile. This helped in processing. It was a two level transformation. In understanding the response of emissive spectra the first level transformation estimates the noise over a pure exposed rock surface, which had a covariance matrix, decorrelated and rescales the characteristic spectral profile in the thermal- ECO-CHRONICLE 213 Fig. 1. The geology of Tamil Nadu state (http://www.nic.in)

Fig. 2. Spectral profile showing the average spectrum of 16 thermal bands (20 to 36) and their thermal emissive value ranges of study region in the MODIS Terra hyperspectral data

Fig. 3. The igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary terrain of Fig. 4. The igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary terrain of Tamil Nadu state interpreted from MODIS Terra Hyperspectral Tamil Nadu state in the MODIS Terra Hyperspectral data data (Surface temperature emissive band 31). 214 ECO-CHRONICLE infrared region. The original hyperspectral data limestone, marls, shale, sandstone, clay and was calibrated to emissive value. A minimum alluvial sand sedimentary rock types. In noise transform was carried out for the thermal Cuddalore sandstone, shale and clay had given band to reduce the noise and data redundancy. the values of 10.2, 9.8 and 9.6 respectively in the The MNF bands, which contain most of the thermal emissive region. The alluvial quartz sand spectral informations, were used to determine produced the maximum emissive value of 10.6. the most likely end member using PPI These were having fine to medium texture, procedure. The potential end member was irregular shape, light to gray tone and low relief loaded into an n-dimensional scatter plot and having low absorption of surface temperature rotated in real time for exposing the extreme and high emissive characters. Similarly, in members in the plot. These extreme members between igneous and sedimentary regions, the were extracted using Region Of Interest (ROI). metamorphic rocks consisting of Peninsular Once a set of pure pixel was identified with gneisses and schist were interpreted based on separate projection, it was related to the original the emissive values ranging from 10.0 to 10.8 image through ROI tool. This end member was due to their quartzo-feldspathic mineralogical used for subsequent sub-pixel classification contents and chemical composition characters. (Vinod Kumar, 2005). The crystalline limestone rocks, occurred in east of Cauvery, had produced the maximum emissive RESULTS value of 10.8.

Based on the above methodology, we attempted DISCUSSION to interpret the geology of Tamil Nadu state in the narrow bandwidth having ranges of 10.780- The present study results about the processing 11.280 µm (band 31) among the 16 spectral of thermal-infrared narrow bandwidth of MODIS bands. The emissive values of spectral bands Terra for regional delineation of major igneous, for different major rock types were analysed, sedimentary and metamorphic rock types in the interpreted and regionally classified as mafic geology of Tamil Nadu state. Through which, the igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary terrains emissive signatures were analysed and their as given in Figs. 3 and 4. The study of emissive thermal characteristics of the different rock types values of different rock units and their were studied. The interpreted emissive spectral mineralogical and chemical compositions signatures of different rock types in the thermal- showed that the ferro-magnesium mafic infrared region showed that these are depended minerals enriched igneous and mafic granulite on the mineralogical and chemical composition rocks were having the emissive values ranging of parent rock types. The narrow band spectral from 8.7 to 9.5, occurring in central and western characteristics of MODIS Terra hyperspectral data parts of the study region. The charnockite and proved to be the best unique tool for mapping of granulite had given the emissive value of 9.1 and regional geology utilizing their higher spatial 9.5 respectively. This has been interpreted with resolution and greater spectral resolution. dark tone and medium to coarse texture, high ACKNOWLEDGEMENT relief, and irregular shape discriminated as well in the thermal-infrared region compared to The authors are extremely thankful to ISRO, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. This is due Bangalore for sanctioning financial support to high absorption of temperature radiance and through Project “ELGIORD”. low emissive spectral signatures by the ferro- REFERENCES magnesium silicates bearing minerals of the rock. The emissive spectral absorption of Vinod Kumar, K. 2005. Initial results on sedimentary rocks occurred in the coastal track Hyperspectral data Analysis for End Member of Tamil Nadu produced the emissive value Separation for Lithological Discrimination in ranging from 9.6 to 10.6. These were Himalayan Terrain, News letter, NRSA January characteristics of silica, carbonates, 2005, v.2, no.1, pp 6-7. bicarbonates and aluminium rich silicates bearing mineral and chemical composition of Geology of Tamil Nadu state http://www.nic.in ECO-CHRONICLE 215 ECO-CHRONICLE VOL. 1, No. 4. DECEMBER 2006, pp. 215 - 218 REVIEW ARTICLE

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS OF CORPORATES IN THE CONTEXT OF GLOBALIZATION - A CRITICAL REVIEW

S. Dipu 1, B. Balu 2 and V. Salom Gnana Thanga 1 1Dept.of environmental Sciences, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala. 2Dept.of Commerce, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

ABSTRACT For business, risk assessment provides a way to allocate cost efficiently. They are increasingly using it as a management tool. Any environmental damage caused by the production process must be treated as an economic expense and entered on the balance sheet accordingly. As the ultimate support of much economic activity; the environmental resources base makes a critical contribution to the cause of sustainable development .Win win strategy is a major responsibility of corporate business firm. It is often argued that corporate environmental and social responsibility is basically a rational business response to ecological constraints and market opportunities.

Key words: Risk assessment, Winwin strategy, Market opportunities

INTRODUCTION using it as a management tool. Environmentalists, on the other hand generally Globalization of capital flows has heightened the see risk assessment as a tactic of powerful pressure to improve corporative governance and interest used to prevent regulation of non-danger responsibilities around the world. or permit building of facilities when there will be Environmental ethics is a topic of applied ethics, known fatalities. By treating everyone alike, which examines the moral basis of environmentalists over took the real danger to environmental responsibility. In these particularly vulnerable people. Risk assessment environmentally conscious times, virtually should not be used as an excuse for inaction. everyone agrees that we need to be environmentally responsible. Many business Toxic waste contaminates ground water, oil spills enterprisers have made huge investment on destroy shorelines, fossil fuels produce carbon production and distribution of goods and dioxide thus adding to the greenhouse effect, services that have resulted directly in extensive and use of fluorocarbon gasses depletes the waste production and degradation of natural earth’s protecting ozone layer. The goal of resources or encouraged consumption patterns environmental ethics, then, is not to convince us that do the same harm. These appears to be a that we should be concerned about the growing recognition that the increased freedom environment - most of us already are. Instead, enjoyed by big business in the era of globalization environmental ethics focuses on the moral need to be complimented by increasing foundation of environmental responsibility, and responsibilities. (UNCTAD, 1998). At the how far this responsibility extends. There are international level, various attempts to influence three distinct theories of moral responsibility to Tran’s national corporation practices through the environment. Although each supports codes of conduct have been abandoned. In a environmental responsibility, their approaches contest when such institutions have weakened, are radically different. corporate self regulation and voluntary institutions have evolved dominant approaches The first of these theories is anthropocentric or to promote business responsibility (Dawkings, human centered. Environmental 1995). anthropocentrism is the view that all environmental responsibility is derived from ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM human interests alone. The assumption here is that only human beings are morally significant For business, risk assessment provides a way persons and have a direct moral standing. Since to allocate cost efficiently. They are increasingly the environment is crucial to human well-being 216 ECO-CHRONICLE and human survival, then we have an indirect the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends duty towards the environment, that is, a duty, otherwise. “ which is derived from human interests. This involves the duty to assure that the earth remains ENVIRONMENTAL ACCOUNTING environmentally hospitable for supporting human life, and that its beauty and resources are A system of national or business accounting preserved, so that human life on earth continues where such environmental assets are air, water to be pleasant. Some have argued that our and land are not considered to be free and indirect environmental duties derive both from abundant resources but instead are considered the immediate benefit which living people to be scarce economic assets. Any receive from the environment, and the benefit environmental damage caused by the production those future generations of people will receive. process must be treated as an economic But, critics have maintained that since future expense and entered on the balance sheet generations of people do not yet exist, then, accordingly. It is important to include in this strictly speaking, they cannot have rights any framework the full environmental cost occurring more than a dead person can have rights. over the full life cycle of a product, including not Nevertheless, both parties to this dispute only the environmental cost incurred in the acknowledge that environmental concern derives production process, but also the environmental solely from human interests. cost resulting from use, recycling and disposal of products. This is also known as the cradle to A second general approach to environmental grave approach. responsibility is an extension of the strong animal rights view discussed in the previous section. If INDUSTRY AND ENVIRONMENT at least some animals qualify as morally Industrialization is the cause and effect of significant persons, then our responsibility economic development. Though industrialization toward the environment also hinges on the results in many benefits and prosperity, it also environmental interests of these animals. On gives birth to a number of problems and few this view, then, environmental responsibility unwanted side effects. On the one hand, it may derives from the interest of all morally significant cause reckless exploitation of natural resources persons, which includes both humans and at resulting in ecological imbalances and on the least some animals. Like anthropocentrism, other hand its affluent may cause environmental though, environmental obligation is still indirect. pollution. The increasing production of synthetic The third and most radical approach to materials is leading to less recyclable waste of environmental responsibility, called eco- natural substances, in India, the major industries centrism, maintains that the environment are the chemicals, fertilizers, insecticides, deserves direct moral consideration, and not one antibiotics, drugs, oil refineries, textiles, jute, that is merely derived from human (and animal) tanneries, sugar, distilleries, paper, metal etc. interests. CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY The concept of ecocentrism was proposed by Aldo Leopold (1949) in his highly influential Environmentalists have also criticized essay” The Land Ethic”. Leopold argues that in environmental economics for its emphasis on all areas of environmental conservation (forestry, economic growth without considering the wildlife and agriculture) two distinct mindsets will unintended side effects. Economist need to become apparent. Some will see the land in supplement estimates of economic cost and terms of commodity production, which benefit of growth with estimates of effect of that perpetuates the role of humans as conquerors. growth that cannot be measured in economic However, others will understand the land more terms. Many environmentalists also believe the broadly, where humans are but citizens of the burden of proof should rest with new land. The greatest obstacle toward achieving a technologies, in that they should not be allowed land ethic, then, is the economic mindset. simply because they advance material progress. Leopold concludes by offering a principle, which brings into focus the broader ethical concerns Humans respond to signals about scarcity and of the environment: “A thing is right when it tends degradation. Extrapolating past consumption to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of pattern into the future without considering the ECO-CHRONICLE 217 human response is likely to be a futile exercise, generally recognized that economic economists misargue. In general, the precise of development can be an important contributing natural resources have been declining despite factor to growing environmental problems in the increased production and demand. Prices how absence of appropriate safeguards. A greatly fallen because of discoveries of new resources improved understanding of the natural resource and because of innovation in the extraction and base and environmental systems that support refinement process (Marcuz, 1993). national economies is needed if patterns of development that are sustainable can be The code of conduct is a business responsibility determined and recommended to governments. in relation to sustainable development. It is a set of ethical principles and standards that As the ultimate support of much economic attempts to guide a firm’s environmental and activity, the environmental resources base social performance. The formulation of code of makes a critical contribution to the cause of conduct by companies and industry or business sustainable development. Especially in associations has escalated sharply during developing countries, environmental resources 1990s. This suggests that business may be are increasingly being depleted (soil is being crafting a new relationship to the environment eroded, forests eliminated, and grassland and society. overgrazed) to a degree that adversely affect the prospects for sustainable development. There Eco efficiency is another aspect of corporate is an urgent need for policy makers to be supplied responsibility. It is a process of adding more with an analytical framework for the problems value while steadily decreasing resources use so that they can systematically evaluate the (Schmidheiny, 1996). Eco efficiency is the tradeoffs involved and determine the most dominant model of environmental management efficient points for policy interventions. reform promoted by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. These considerations apply more to developing countries than to developed countries; because The corporate responsibility is diluted by green developing countries are generally primary wash activity. It is a process of disinformation producers with large subsistence sectors and disseminated by an organization so as to present thus are more dependent on their natural an environmentally responsible public image. resources, notably land and water.

It is difficult to assess the significance of Business managers and public administrators’ contemporary trends associated with corporate have very important role to play, bringing about environmental and social responsibility by simply speedier Environmental Resolutions. So far weighing up selected cases of best practice or management has been concerned about green wash. environment but in a totally different context. They have been seeing the environment “as Regarding corporate responsibility, voluntary boundless cornucopia, to be enjoyed, plundered initiative is one of the aspects. These encompass and rearranged for profit”. This approach has to a wide range of initiatives that go beyond existing be changed and now they have to see that it has laws and legislations related to environmental to be used in such a manner that there is an and social protection. They may be unilaterally optimum utilization in the larger interest of the developed by industry designed and run by society. It requires selection of that strategy for government, jointly developed by government the management of the environment which best and industry (UNEP, 1998). promotes the welfare of the society. (Sundar, 2004). THE ENVIRONMENTAL BASIS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Win win strategy is a major responsibility of Degradation and destruction of environmental corporate business firm. It is corporate strategy systems and natural resources are now that enables a company to simultaneously assuming massive proportions in some improve in environmental and social record while developing countries and are a threat to reducing costs and increasing competitiveness continued, sustainable development. It is now and productivity. 218 ECO-CHRONICLE It is often argued that corporate environmental REFERENCES and social responsibility is basically a rational business response to ecological constraints and Dawkings, K. 1995. Ecolabeling: Consumers market opportunities. There is a considerable right to know or restrictive business practice? debate regarding the win win supposition that Mimeo Institute for agriculture and trade policy, environmental improvements can go hand in Minneapolis. hand with cost reduction. Marcuz, A.A. 1993. Business and society; Ethics, CONCLUSION government, and the world economy. Homewood, IL; Irwin publishing. 1. Massive flow of foreign direct investment should facilitate transfer of cleaner Schmidheing, 1996. Financing change: The technology. financial community, eco-efficiency and 2. The polluter pays principle should be in sustainable development, MIT press, acted with immediate effect. Cambridge. 3. Good corporate governance should be developed in encouraging socially Sundar, I. 2004. Environmental and social responsible trade development. responsibilities of corporate business in the 4. Public participation is one of the most context of globalization. Environment and people, important requirements for promoting vol. 11.Hyderabad. corporate business responsibility towards sustainable development. UNCTAD, 1998. World investment report, 1998. 5. Add value to the traditions and morals of the Trends and determinants, UNCTAD, Geneva. local people. These values need to be in corporated into companies’ definitions and UNEP, 1998. Voluntary initiatives for responsible measurement to progress and success. entrepreneurship: A question and answer guide, 6. Transparency in the working procedures Industry and environment, Vol. 21, Geneva.