The use of the glissando in piano solo and concerto compositions from Domenico Scarlatti to George Crumb

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THE USE OF THE GUSSANDO IN PIANO SOLO AND CONCERTO COMPOSITIONS FROM DOMENICO SCARLATH TO GEORGE CRUMB

by

Shuennchin Lin

Copyright © Shuennchin Lin 1997

A Document Submitted to the Faculty of the

SCHOOL OF MUSIC AND DANCE

bi Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS WITH A MAJOR IN PERFORMANCE In the Graduate College

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1997 UMX Number: 980S783

Copyright 1997 by- Lin, Shuennchin

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THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA ® GRADUATE COLLEGE

As members of the Final Examination Committee, we certify that we have read the dissertation prepared by SHUENNCHIN LIN entitled THE USE OF THE 6LISSAND0 IN PIANO SOLO AND CONCERTO COMPOSITIONS FROM DOMENICO SCARLATTI TO GEORGE CRUMB

and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement for the Degree of DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

icholas Zumbro Dat^ r

Date

Date Rosenblatt

Date

Date

Final approval and acceptance of this dissertation is contingent upon the candidate's submission of the final copy of the dissertation to the Graduate College.

I hereby certify that I have read this dissertation prepared under my direction and recommend that it be accepted as fulfilling the dissertation requirement.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF EXAMPLES 5 LIST OF TABLES 8 LISTOFHGURES 9 ABSTRACT 10

Chapter 1. Introduction 12

Chapter 2. The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries 22 Domenico Scarlatti 23 Ludwig van Beethoven and Carl Maria von Weber 27 Franz Liszt 32 Johannes Brahms and Camille Saint-Sa&is 42 Bedrich Smetana, Mily Balakirev, Edvard Grieg, and Edward Elgar 47

Chapter 3. The Twentieth Century 55 Oaude Debussy and Maurice Ravel 56 Manuel de Falla and B&a Bartdk 67 Heitor Villa-Lobos, George Gershwin, and Aaron Copland 76 Igor Stravinsky, Serge FrokoBev, and Dmitri Shostakovich 88 Paul Hindemith, Michael Tippett, Olivier Messiaen, and Benjamin Britten 102 George Crumb 110

Chapter 4. Conclusions 118 The Use of the Glissando 118 Summary of the Glissando's Historical Development 120 The Future of the Glissando 122

APPENDIX A: Examples of Glissandi 125 APPENDIX B: The Final Spin—25,000 B. C 133 REFERENCES 139 5

LIST OF EXAMPLES

Example 1: Slide 14 Example 2: F. Qiopiiv Poloaaiser Op. 53 21 Example 3: D. Scarlatti, Sonafii, K. 468 23 Example 4: D. Scarlatti, Sonafca, K. 487 24 Examples: D.Scarlatti,Sonata,K.487.(manuscript) 24 Example 6: D. Scarlatti, Sonafa, K. 379 25 Example 7: L. van Beethoven, Kano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15,1 27 Example 8: L. van Beetfioven, Kano Sonata, Op. 53, Rondo 28 Example 9: C. M. von Weber, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, Finale. 29 Example 10: C. M. von Weber, Concertstiick, Op. 79 31 Example 11: C. M. von Weber, Concertstiickr Op. 79 31 Example 12: F. Lisz^ Magyar Dallok—UngarisAe National-Melodien, No. 9. 33 Example 13: F. Liszt, Paganini Etude No. 5 "La Chasse." 34 Example 14: F. Liszt, Hungarian Fantasia 35 Example 15: F. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. 36 Example 16: F. Lisz^ Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. 36 Example 17: F. Liszt Mephisto Waltz No. 1 39 Example 18: F. Liszt, Concerto in A Major. 40 Example 19: J. Brahms, Paganini Variations, I, Var. 13 43 Example 20: J. Brahms, Ohgarische Tanze No. 8. 44 Example 21: C. Saint-Saens, Piano Concerto No. 5, HI 46 Example 22: C. Saint-Saens, Aquarium from Le Camaval des animaux. 47 Example 23: B.Smeiana, Ballade in E minor. 48 Example 24: B. Smetana, Polka in A minor. 48 Example 25: M. Balaldrev, Islamey. 50 Example 26: E. Grieg, Hailing (Nonvegischer Tanz) from Lyric Pieces, Op. 71 51 Example 27: E. Elgar, Concert Allegro. 52 Example 28: C. Debussy, Feux d'artiBce. 57 Example 29: C. Debussy, Etude, No. 6. 58 Example 30: C. Debussy, Pour le Piano, Prelude. 59 Example 31: C. Debussy, Suite Bergamasque, Menuet 59 Example 32: M. Ravel, Jieux d'eau 62 Example 33: M. Ravel, Una barque sw L'oc6an 63 Example 34: M. Ravel, A/inaradb de/^radoso. 64 Example 35: M. Ravel, Gaspard dela Nuit Ondine. 64 Example 36: M, Ravel, Les Entretiens de la Belle et de la Bite from MaMirel'Oye. 65 Example 37: M. Ravel, Concerto for Left Hand. 66 Example 38: M. Ravel, Gaspard de la Nuit Ondine. 67 6

LIST OF EXAMPLES- Continued

Example 39: M. de Falla, Fantasia Baetica 68 Example 40: B.Bart6k, Rhapsody, Op. 1 71 Example 41: B. Bartdk, Tanz-Suite, L 72 Example 42: B. Bartdk, Sonata, I. 73 Example 43: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 1,1 73 Example 44: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 1, n 74 Example 45: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 2,1 75 Example 46: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 3, IE. 76 Example 47: H. Villa-Lobos, Simples Coletanea, Rhodante. 78 Example 48: H. Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do Indio Branco from Suite Ciclo Brasileiro. 78 Example 49: H. Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do Indio Branco from Suite Ciclo Brasileiro. 79 Example 50: H. Villa-Lobos, Moreninha from Suite Prole Do Bebe. 80 Example 51: H. Villa-Lobos, Rudepoema 81 Example 52: H. Villa-Lobos, Momo Precoce. 82 Example 53: G, Gershwin, Rhapsody in Blue. 85 Example 54: G. Gershwin, Concerto inF,l 85 Example 55: A. Copland, Piano Concerto. 87 Example 56: A. Copland, Piano Fantasy. 88 Example 57: L Stravinslg^, Trois Mouvements de P^trouchka, IH 90 Example 58: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, II 91 Example 59: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, II 92 Example 60: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5,1 92 Example 61: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 1, L 93 Example 62: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 2, III 94 Example 63: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 3,1 94 Example 64: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 3, HI 95 Example 65: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 2, n 95 Example 66: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 4, HI 96 Example 67: S. Prokofiev, Sarcasmes, Op. 17, No. 4 97 Example 68: S. Prokofiev, Toccata, Op. 11 97 Example 69: S. Prokofiev, Suggestion Diabolique, Op. 4, No. 4 98 Example 70: S. Prokofiev, Ten Pieces, Prelude, Op. 12, No. 7 99 Example 71: D. Shostakovich, Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12 101 Example 72: D. Shostakovich, Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12 101 Example 73: D. Shostakovich, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 35, IV 102 Example 74: P. Hindemith, 1922 Suite (Or Klavier, II 103 Example 75: M. Tippet, Piano Sonata No. 2 105 Example 76: O. Messiaen, Pne/ude. Les sons impalpables du reve 107 Example 77: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, V 107 7

LIST OF EXAMPLES- Continued

Example 78: O. Messiaen, Oe de Feu 1 108 Example 79: B. Britten, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 13 109 Example 80: B. Britten, Diversion on a Theme for Left Hand and Orchestra, Op. 21 110 Example 81: G. Crumb, Spring-Fire (Aries) from Makrokosmos L 112 Example 82: G. Crumb, Tora! Tora! Tora! (Cadenza ApocaIittica)from Makrokosmos II. 112 Example 83: F. Rzewski, The People United Will Never Be Defeated! 124 8

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: The Transposition Process in F. Liszf s La Chasse. 34 Table 2: Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Die Schlittschuhlaufer. 38 Table 3: The Function of Qissandi Used in F. Liszt's Works 41 Table 4: Summary of F. Liszt's Examples 42 Table 5: Examples in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries in Four Groups Based on Its Type 53 Table 6: M. Ravel's Kano Works Between 1901 and 1917 60 Table 7: Glissandi in M. Ravel's Concerto for Left Hand. 66 Table 8: Sxmimary of H. Villa-Lobos's Examples 83 Table 9: Pianist-Composers' Dates of Deatfi around the First Half of the Twentieth Century 86 Table 10: Summary of S. Prokofiev's Examples 99 Table 11: Examples in the Twentieth Century in Four Groups Based on Its T5rpe 113 Table 12: Examples of the Black-and-White Glissando 114 Table 13: Glissandi with Tempo fodications in The Twentieth-Century Works 115 Table 14: Examples Used Right Before the End of Each Piece/Movement... 115 Table 15: Special fridication with the Use of Glissandi 116 Table 16: TTie Ntmibers of Examples 118 9

USTOFHGURES

Figure 1.1,12: The Basic Executions of the Glissando 18 Figure 2: The Hand Position for the Glissando without the Destination Marked 18 Figure 3: Fingered Version of the Example from D. Scarlatti's Sonata, K. 487.. 25 Figure 4: Three Types of Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. 35 Figure 5: The Harmonic Structure on the Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. 37 Frgure 6: The Glissando on a Row in A. Copland's Piano Fantasy. 88 Figure 7: The T5^es of the Works in the Use of Glissandi 120 10

ABSTRACT

This document is a thorough study of the glissando throughout its chronological development, consisting of an examination of differences in the glissando's functions, types, and executions. Examples are extracted from piano solo and piano concerto compositions, which were written by composers from Domenico Scarlatti, bom in 1685, to George Crumb, bom in 1929. The glissando was used as a formal compositional device in the eighteenth century, beginning with the works of Domenico Scarlatti. It evolved from the Schleifer and was omamental and occasionally melodic in function. Composers of the Qassical period, like Ludwig van Beethoven and Carl Maria von Weber, expanded the device into octaves, which before the end of the nineteenth century was adopted by Bedrich Smetana, Joharmes Brahms, and Mily Balakirev. Franz Liszt produced many two-hand and double-note glissandi, and his output of glissandi is the most numerous in the entire piano repertoire. In twentieth-century, B^a Bart6k produced a dry effect in the glissando, while Prokofiev produced the most numerous glissandi in this century. Hindemitti wrote an unusual form of black-and-white glissando; Tippett's example is of the "fanfare" effect; and Britten contributed many glissandi in a single work, to a degree perhaps exceeded only by Liszt's works. For nationalistic composers, like Manuel de Falla and Heitor Villa-Lobos, the glissando is a fine device to express the feeling of ethnic emotions, such as joyful and energetic. Besides, the use of the black-key glissando gives 11 composers a fine application for impressionistic purposes, since its pentatonic orientation is easy to liken to images of nature: water, wind, etc. Such examples are found in the works of Qaude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, and others. Nonetheless, it becomes less crucial in this harmonic consideration in the works of more recent composers, in whose works the concept of tone- dusters or just a "noise" is revealed. This thesis also includes two appendices, one contains a chart of 473 glissandi categorized by function, and the second, an original composition by the author, which includes numerous glissandi in various types. Introductioii

The piano has gone through many years of development since the invention of the "escape" mechanism in the early eighteenth century. Although our concert instrtmient does not appear imtil the early nineteenth century, pianistic techniques were refined from ancestral keyboard instruments such as the virginal, clavichord, harpsichord, and fortepiano. The development of the piano's mechanism and techniques, as well as the personal aesthetics of various composers, have had a direct influence on the evolution of certain compositional devices which are recognized as being characteristic of personal or historical genres as well. Those pianistic devices which have been viewed by recent composers as strongly associated with the "traditional" include glissandi, trills, octave runs, staggered octaves, parallel passages, tremolos, broken chords, and vibrato-chord passages. In the most avant garde works, the use of these devices is less clear: some are distorted, others are dispersed or never used. Instead, extended "non traditional" technical devices such as tone clusters, muting or plucking of strings, banging both inside and outside the instrument, wiping on the strings, and vocalizing are utilized to enrich the piano repertoire. Composers are still searching for new sounds; pertinent examples can be foimd in works such as William Bolcom's Twelve New Etudes (1966), George Crumb's Makrokosmos I (1972) and H (1973), and Gyorgy Ligeti's 13

Etudes pour Piano, premier livre (1985).^ The old pianistic devices continue to be developed, while new techniques or new combinations of the old pianistic devices and extended techniques are invented by contemporary composers. The understanding derived from a thorough study of the glissando throughout its chronological development, consisting of an examination of distinct differences in the glissando's functions, ranges, executions, and tj^es, can support the viability of this traditional device for future piano composition. In this study, examples are extracted from piano solo and concerto compositions; piano chamber music, piano duos, and piano duets, will not be discussed.^ The term, glissando, which is derived from an Italianized French verb meaning "to slide," refers to a quick scale produced by single (later multiple) finger(s). This device could be notated either by written-out smaller-notes with appropriate markings—such as finger numbers or the word "glissando"—or by a diagonal line between the upper and lower notes; the latter is a very common indication used by twentieth-century composers. Moreover, some glissandi are indicated by connecting the ligatures between the upper and lower notes, but omitting the middle notes. Examples without

^Carlos Chavez also wrote etudes for the piano. Four New Etudes (1952). Different from the etudes mentioned in context, Chavez's etudes, based on the traditional keyboard plajang, deal with the techniques of "pointillism" and "dodecaphonism."

^This survey is intended to be complete as possible, drawing on the works by composers who were bom between Scarlatti and Crumb (1685-1929). All examples found are listed in Appendix A. However, not every example will be discussed or considered in detail because they are less significant or similar to other examples. 14

the indication of the glissando's destination note are also fotind in modem works, obviously assiiming a new kind of function. The Functions.^ 1. embellishment 2. melody, 3. virtuosic effect, 4. impressionism, 5. programmatic expression, 6. backward motion, and 7. modulation tool. The glissando is an offshoot of the "slide" (Schleifer) (Ex. 1).^ Inasmuch as the slide was one of the most common embellishments in the

Example 1: Slide.

early keyboard repertoire,^ the early glissando evolved from this device. Gradually, the melodic usage of glissandi became common. As other pianistic techniques were created profusely during the nineteenth century, the glissando came to be used as a virtuosic effect by virtuoso pianists. This kind of usage has been reinforced continuously, while some glissandi were in the manner of impressionism or programmatic expression. Another function of the glissando is 'T?ackward motion," which is always followed, or preceded, by

P. E. Bach implicitly suggested the function of ornaments are: 1. to connect notes— melodic function, 2. enlivening—colorific function, 3. giving weight and emphasis—rhythmic function, 4. contributing to a disposition "sad or joyful or otherwise"—melo^c or harmonic function. (See The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "OTmanents,§VU: Summarized by Function," 13:859-860.) However, this study does not follow his categories since he was concerned with ornaments in general. The study of glissandi intends to be more specific.

^'This ornament; also known as the elevation, whole-fall, slur or double backfall, consists of a little conjunct run of two accessory notes leading to its main note." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "Ornaments, §11: Appoggiaturas," 13:834-835.

^Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, 136- 142. 15

a fingered ascending/descending passage whose range is similar to the glissando. Moreover, some composers used the glissando as a tool for suddenly changing the tonality between the white-key and black-key harmonies. In addition, many examples have more than one of these functions. The Ranges. As a type of primitive ornament, the range of the glissando was quite narrow. This resulted from the limited capacity of the early keyboard instruments and because of relatively primitive keyboard playing skills. Accommodating the expansion of the piano's compass,^ examples found in the eighteenth century are only within two octaves, but the range expands to four-and-a-half octaves in the works of the Qassical period. The composes of the Romantic period expanded it again to five octaves, and an example of five-and-a-half octaves is also foxmd. This range reaches its maximum in the twentieth century; with the appearance of the black-key glissando, the use of the entire keyboard becomes possible in modem piano works. The Directions. Since the old slides mostly were ascenciing,^ the glissando at first followed tiiis model of execution.® The descending glissando began to be used by the early nineteenth-century composers, and examples of

®Of the compass of the two existing specimens of Bartolomo Christofori's instruments: one has four octaves and the other, four-and-a-half. Mozart's piano has five octaves. In 1790, Broadwood made pianos with five-and-a-half octaves and, in 1794, with six octaves. Liszt's Erard piano has six octaves. The works of Schtimaim and Giopin required nothing beyond six- and-a-half octaves. The present piano usually has seven-and-a-quarter octaves. The extra notes are added to the bass of some large grands by Bdsendorfer, which has seven-and-three- quarters or even eight octaves.

G. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, 59.

®See Scarlatti's examples in Chapter 2. 16

continuously descending and ascending glissandi are fotmd in the mid- nineteenth century. At the same time, the two-hand glissando appeared, first in the same direction, and later in contrary directions, which even applied to the two-hand octave-glissandi and black-and-white glissandi. In works with nationalistic characteristics, ascending examples are more frequent. This perhaps is because of the influence of folk music. The Types. Aside from purely musical motivation, the character of a composer's own instruments, hands, and plajring techniques, led to various types of the glissando that included: 1. white-key glissandi, 2. octave- glissandi, 3. two-hand glissandi, 4. double-note glissandi, 5. black-key glissandi, and 6. black-and-white glissandi.^ The octave-glissando began to be used in the early nineteenth century. Since it was not always easy to produce on every early piano, an alternative was frequently provided by the composers themselves or pianists; the most common one is allotting them to both hands. However, the experiments of incorporating extremes did not stop with nineteenth-century composers: an octave-glissando with another single-note glissando and even two octave- glissandi executed simultaneously are foimd in nineteenth-century works. Twentieth-century composers seemed to lose enthusiasm for this kind of

^here is a spectacular type of glissando, the chromatic glissando, which was created by Carl Tausig. See more details in the discussion of Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 5 in Chapter 3. This kind of glissando is rather unusual and unique; it is not necessary to set up a distinctive category. In addition, in spite of the distinct difference in timbre and acoustics, the idea of a glissando "on the strings" is indeed identical to a chromatic-glisscindo on the keyboard. (In George Crumb's Five Pieces for Piano, the composer used chromatic scale with the marking "gliss." to indicate the use of the glissando on the strings.) Since this kind of glissando requires a different kind of technique, a discussion of it will not be included in this study. Another transformation excluded in this study is the vocalized glissando, such examples are found in Karlheinz Stockhausen's fGavierstiickeXnand George Crumb's The Phantom Gondolier (from Makrokosmos). 17

glissando, since it remains hard to execute on modem pianos. The era of the virtuoso pianist-composer had all but died out by the mid-twentieth century; and as composers seek equally effective but easier gestures, these might cause fewer examples of the "extreme" glissando to be produced. The two-hand glissando was used beginning in the nineteenth century. This idea may have been derived from the alternatives for the octave- glissando, since examples of two-hand gUssandi foimd in this century are all in octaves. This is not always true for twentieth-century composers: one example found is in ninths. Another variation foimd in twentieth-century works is that of the black-and-white glissando; that is, when the black-key glissando is initiated, some composers create a two-hand effect, combining it with a white-key glissando. The double-note glissando is defined as a glissando with two notes in fixed intervals—excluding octaves—executed by one hand. Examples are found in the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Compared to the widespread use of the two-hand version, very few composers used this kind of glissando. The reasons perhaps are the same as for the relative infrequency of the octave-glissando, although the technique for the double-note glissando is easier than the octave-glissando. The black-key glissando, which outlines the pentatonic scale, weis used beginning with the impressionist composers. Since then, the black-key glissando has been adopted by many twentieth-century composers. Also, the use of the combination of black- and white-key glissandi was commenced in the early part of this century. As the effect became more common, the black- and-white glissando could be also executed in contrary directions. The Techniques. The execution of glissandi frequently accents the initial note (or interval), and the destination note is on the beat (Fig. 1.1). Occasionally, especially in a fast tempo or if an acrobatic-like effect is desired, the last few notes even are not depressed; there might be a little break between the destination note and flie scale covered by pedal. However, in the case of a destination note which is not on the beat, generally, it requires depressing all the notes (Fig. 1.2). For the glissando without the destination marked, the hand is upwards after the scale in the approximate pitch, and leaves the keyboard entirely (Fig. 2).

Figure 1.1,1.2: The Basic Executions of the Glissando.

Figure 1.1 Rgure. 12.

Figure 2: The Hand Position for the Glissando without the Destination Marked. hand position 19

The speeds of glissandi are varied: not every glissando must be played rhj^thmically evenly; in some examples, accellerando or ritardando is applied to the execution, and some examples naturally speed up near the end. The d3mamics are also varied: a brilliant sonority is the glissando's usual effect, but there are some examples marked "delicatissimo"or even coupled with the use of the una corda pedal. Glissandi with the crescendo or diminuendo marked are quite common; for them, the weight of hands is gradually changed. The use of the damper pedal is usual with the execution of the glissando, but this is not always true. Early examples demand a stylistic interpretation, and some modem examples need a dry percussive effect; the damper pedal does not serve these purposes appropriately. The octave-glissando and the double-note glissando require a similar technique; the difference is a matter of the interval size, and the fifth finger poses an inevitable disadvantage for the octave-glissando, owing to its inherent weakness. To execute them, the palm of the hands should be shaped over the reqtiired interval. Also, there should be enough height for the fingers to depress the keys, bi the case of octave-glissandi, the use of the thirnib with the fourth and fifth together, in the descending glissando in the right hand or the ascending glissando on the left hand, can make the result more secure. The execution of the black-key glissando requires a greater key contact between finger(s) and keys. Use of more than one finger often makes it easier to depress the keys evenly. Like the octave-glissando, the fingers need sufficient height to depress the black keys, and some pianists actually stand up 20 in order to place the weight of fingers on the keys efficiently. For the black- and-white key glissando in an identical register, using only one hand sometimes is more convenient and shows pianist's virtuosity convincingly. The two-hand glissando, executed in the same direction, requires the technique of maintaining the parallel motion of the hands. For each octave, one must always be aware whether both hands are still on the approximate notes. For executing the black-and-white glissando, generally, the hands must be placed closely together so that each hand can support the other. The Criticisin. A question of whether the use of the glissando is truly required sometimes occurs. In some cases, the indication given by the composer is rather clear, but fingering it might be even more effective; while, on the other hand, for some passages without any indication of using glissandi, using them might be the better choice. Besides, there are examples of so-called "quasi-glissando,"io which suggests the passages be played with the effect of glissando; here, the use of a "real" glissando becomes a possibility. Although described as "dear to the virtuoso" by Qarence G. Hamilton,!! not every virtuoso pianist-composer used the glissando in his/her piano works. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many of the best-known composers did not use this device, for instance: J. S. Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Franz Schubert Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Fr^d^c Chopin, Robert Schtmiann, and Peter Ilich Tchaikovsky. This might be because the glissando is characteristically a sort of acrobatic or virtuoso

!Osuch examples appear in Liszt's Reminiscences de Don Juan (Mozart), Smetana's Polka in A Major form Vzpominka na Cechy ve Forme Poiek, Op. 12, ^chmaninoff s Piano Concerto No. 4,2nd movement Kabalevsky's Piano Concerto No. 3, etc.

!!C. G. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, 63. 21

gesture, or the fact that these composers' personal musical styles were not

dedicated to this sort of keyboard exploitation.^^

l^For instance, Chopin, described as an "Idealizer of the Virtuoso Element" by Edgar Stillman Kelley, {Chopin The Composer, 45) "the philosopher of the beautiful, fashioned his iridescent harmonies and mysteriously woven lunar colors upon a black-and-white instrument" (Abram Oiasins, Speaking of Pianists, 220). His virtuoso pianistic passage-work was largely dependent upon dexterous finger motion. The glissando does not serve any function for his harmonic and melodic treatment on the piano. Obs^e Example 2 (Polonaise, Op. 53), if we ignore the accidental signs, indeed there are opportunities for the use of the glissando, but Chopin executed all the scales with the fingers.

Example 2: F. Chopin, Po/oiiaise, Op. 53 22

CHAPTER2 The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

The glissando developed from a primitive ornamental form to an expanded musical or virtuoso effect during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Black-key glissandi did not come into use at this time, but octave- glissandi, double-note glissandi, and two-hand glissandi became a part of the musical vocabulary of a number of nineteenth-century composers, and were passed on to composers of the twentieth century. The evolution of the glissando in its aspects of range, function, and execution wUl be studied in this chapter. This sxirvey begins with Domenico Scarlatti, where we find the first use of the glissando.^ Following the expansive usage by Ludwig van Beethoven and Carl Maria von Weber, the glissando was used even more lavishly by the Romantic composers, most notably by Franz Liszt. Other examples found in the nineteenth century are by Bedrich Smetana, Johannes Brahms, Camille Saint-Sa&is, Nfily Balakirev, Edvard Grieg, and Edward Elgar; some of their examples represent virtuosic character, some of them are nationalistic. Aside from the composers mentioned above, it would appear that other important composers avoided this device, including J. S. Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Franz Schubert Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, Fr^dMc Chopin, and Robert Schtimann. However, in the following century.

^In Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, 63, Qarence G. Hamilton illustrated Scarlatti's Sonata, K. 487 as the example when he addressed the first use of glissandi. However, in Scarlatti's eeirlier sonata, K. 379, the use of glissandi is also found. 23 the glissando has not only been used with greater frequency, but it has been used in new aesthetic applications.

Domenico Scarlatti The glissando was apparently first used by Domenico Scarlatti (1685- 1757), an Italian composer who lived mostly in Spain and therefore was isolated from his contemporaries. Scarlatti wrote more than five himdred and fifty sonatas for harpsichord, which display fairly modem types of technique, such as repeated-notes, cross-overs of hands, wide-range skips, virtuoso chordal figures, and glissandi. Among his nimierous sonatas, examples of glissandi are found in three sonatas: K. 379, K. 468, and K. 487. Glissandi used in K. 379 and K. 468 are ornamental in function, while a glissando in K. 487 is melodic. The ranges of these glissandi are simply within two octaves: K. 379 is in one octave, K. 468 is in one-and-a-half octaves, and K. 487 covers almost two octaves. To indicate the use of the glissando, the composer marked "con dedo solo"(with one finger) in K. 379 and K. 468 (Ex. 3), though there is no

Example 3: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 468.

• Con dedo solo

appropriate accidental for B-flat. In K. 487, there is no glissando execution marked in Scarlatti's manuscript, but in one edition noted in Qarence G. Hamilton's Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, this figure is played as 24

a glissando.^ Besides, if we observe Examples 4 and 5 (from Scarlatti's manuscript), there are nine thirty-second notes and five sixty-fourth notes in one measure in the manuscript The composer did not group them into any combination within the meter, which makes the glissando a possible mode of execution.

Example 4: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 487.

Example 5: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 487. (manuscript)

When we play these works on the piano, the use of the damper pedal is imnecessary for these glissandi. Examples of glissandi played without damper pedal do not appear again xmtil certain twentieth-century compositions.^ Moreover, the glissandi in K. 379 and 487 could be more easily executed by the fingers instead of being played as glissandi, resulting in two different kinds of interpretations: in K. 379, the thirty-second notes can be divided into two

^Qarence G. Hamilton, Ornaments in Classical and Modem Music, 63.

^An example is B61a Bcirtdk's Tanz-Suite, whidi is dated much later in 1923. The discussion of it is in Chapter 3. eighth notes evenly using the fingering of 2-3-1-2-3-4-1-2. This makes it easier to accurately reach the following chord (in 3rd) in the next down beat. If a glissando is used, the first note (D) of these thirty-second notes needs to be played "on the beat" The rest of the notes can be faster than the written value and shorter than the total value (two eighth notes), creating an exotic effect in this "Minuet" subtitted sonata. In K. 487, tfiis passage, as a cadence (I -V -1), could be a simple ascending glissando, or it could be divided as in the following figure and played by the fingers.

Figure 3: Fingered Version of the Example firom Scarlatti's Sonata, K. 487.

There is another kind of execution used in K. 376: in Example 6, the destination of the glissando is clearly on the third beat, hence, the notes on the second and third beats must be played in a precise rhythm.

Example 6: D. Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 379.

In K. 468, four glissandi occur continuously in the second section of this sonata. Unlike the previous example, these tiiirty-second notes shotild be executed only as glissandi, since "con dedo solo" was marked by the composer and the destination notes are rather easy to arrive at. 26

The idea of quasi gUssandi, which was used later by many composers, such as Franz Liszt, Dmitri Kabalevsky, etc., is also revealed in Scarlatti's examples. There is no indication of the use of glissandi in the second section of K. 379, but the parallel passages imply the same feature. The use of glissandi is still appropriate. Nonetheless, if fingering passages, the sound should be "queisi-glissandi" to match the earlier passages in this sonata. There is not enough evidence to say that no other composer besides Scarlatti ever used the glissando during this time, but it is true that among Scarlatti's well-known contemporaries, there is no one—^not Jean-Philippe Rameau, J. S. Bach, George Frederick Handel, nor C. P. E. Bach—^who wrote down the glissando as a formal figure in his keyboard compositions. The next use of the glissando, in Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15, occurred almost fifty years after Scarlatti died. This device may be a kind of "gimmick," but firom Scarlatti's examples, which anticipate examples in later piano compositions, it proved that the use of the glissando is viable.

Unlike the slide,^ the glissando was used infirequently by the composers of the Qassical period. There are no examples found in Joseph Haydn's, Muzio Qementi's, or Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's keyboard works. But during this era, the octave-glissando, which later was regarded as "impracticable on modem grands with "English' action,"^ is used in Ludwig van Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15, and Piano Sonata

^Refer to the discussion in Chapter 1.

footnote on the edition of Hans von Bulow and Sigmund Lebert. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc. 'X. van Beethoven Sonata for the Piano, Op. 53." 27 in C Major, Op. 53; Carl Maria von Weber's Kano Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, and Concertstiick; and Johann Nepomuk Hummel's Piano Concerto in A minor. Op. 85.

Ludwig van Beethoven and Carl Maria von Weber Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) expanded the piano's technique and sonority to achieve orchestral effects on the piano. Technically, he incessantly exploited the capabilities of the piano such as the range of d)mamics, lengthy trills, and octave-glissandi. In his piano works, not only the ingenious pianistic figures, but also the inspirational musical ideas that gave the following generation an impressive model. The glissando in Beethoven's Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major (1801) is used as a fortissimo cadence (V -1) to the recapitulation section (Ex. 7). This glissando—^melodic in function—should end on the downbeat (in measure 346). Therefore it must be performed in tempo, and the value of each octave must be even. Interestingly enough, since the composer did not mark any indication of a glissando, how can we know this is a place for an octave-glissando? (See Example 7.) A similar question occurs if we look at the scherzo movement of

Example 7: L. van Beethoven, Piano Concerto No. 1 in C Major, Op. 15,1. 28

Beethoven's Piano Trio No. 3 in C minor. Op. 1, No. 3. Both examples are fortissimo descending cadences; since they are in quite a fast tempo, to execute them either with a two-hand or as an octave-glissando is foolproof, as the use of octave runs is impractical for these two passages.^ The example from Sonata, Op. 53 (1805), is also melodic in function, and features a descending as well as an ascending line. Again, the precise tempo is crucial since each glissando is in two segments, and the pivot octave- G must come on the down beat of each measure, bi contrast to the previous example, these glissandi should be soimded very softly (the dynamic indicated here is pp). On the modem piano, one must use the una corda pedal for the elegant quality; use of the damper pedal must be careful to avoid a muddy soxmd. However, Beethoven's Viennese piano was well designed for the execution of the octave-glissando because of the lighter action, while piamst Hans von Bulow, one of Liszt's great pupils, suggested an easier version for these glissandi. See Example 8.

Example 8: L. van Beethoven, Piano Sonata, Op. 53, Rondo.

gtUtaniS' V (sempre t C.)

^Example from Hummel's Piano Concerto, Op. 85, presents a similar situation. 29

Carl Maria von Weber (1786-1826) was best-known as a composer of opera and his piano works are relatively tmimportant Nevertheless, his explorations of the piano's potential have enriched the piano repertoire. Maurice Hinson has observed that Weber's pianistic technique is: "characterized by large skips, brilliant passages in diirds, sixths, octaves, dramatic crescendos and awkward stretches."^ Weber's major piano works include the Concertstuci^ two concertos, four sonatas, more than eight variation sets, and many dance pieces. Most of them are difficult to play. Among these works, the use of the glissando is fotmd in the Piano Concerto No. 1 (1810) and Concertstiick (1821). Examples found in the last movement of Weber's Piano Concerto No. 1 are rather tmusual; two octave-glissandi® executed—^in thirds—by both hands simultaneously (Ex. 9). These glissandi are extremely difficult to

Example 9: C. M. von Weber, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 11, Finale.

play on today's instruments; they may have been practicable at the time owing to the composer's large hands, and a lighter touch and narrower

^Maurice Hinson, Guide to the Pianist's Repertoire, 672.

®For information about the counting of glissandi, refer to the footnote 1 in Chapter 4. 30 expanse of the keyboard.^ bi later times, only Johannes Brahms's Ongaiische Tanze has a similar example, which was written sixty years later.^^ "The last, and. unquestionably the most striking of Weber's compositions for the pianoforte was the Concertstiick."^! This work, actually the composer's third piano concerto,^^ is superbly written: it features frequent four-part chords covering a tenth, swift chromatic passages, widening right hand leaps, octave runs, racing passage work, and the octave-glissando. There are four glissandi used in the Concertst&ck, and three of them are in octaves. The first glissando occurs in the opening section (Ex. 10). This is a glissando of a very wide range—^four-and-a-half octaves—^which is melodic in function. The first octave-glissando over three-and-a-half octaves occurs in the third section, right before the orchestra's second repetition of the 'Tempo di Marda." This glissando, as an embellishment grandiosely punctuates the orchestra's repeated melody. In the last section, after the orchestra tutti, this octave-glissando transposed to a perfect fourth higher and repeated once, recalls the composer's acrobatic virtuosity. Since this glissando is quite difficult to play on every piano, Franz Liszt suggested two versions for it; one

^ohn Warrack, Carl Maria von Weber, 99.

difference is that Brahms's example is in contrary directions. This example will be discussed later in this chapter.

^^Sir Julius Benedict, Gari Maria von Weber, 158.

l^The ConcertstQck includes four sections which Weber bound together as a single movement. However, the early sketch of the work is in three movements. Program-note on "Deutsche Grammophon Gesellschaft" 138710 ST33 SLPM. 31 is executed witii two hands, the other is by substituted fingered scales (Ex. 11).13

Example 10: C. M. von Weber, Concertstuckr Op. 79.

Example 11: C. M. von Weber, Concertstuck, Op. 79. ttrictig fMi#

W

iitti • or A (implificatioa like Ihia tirieltf in tim*

the first octave-glissando used in this work, Liszt suggested octave runs for both hands and soloist join the orchestra in the second repetition of the Ma^. See the details in Schirmer edition, revised & fingered by Constantin Sternberg, "Editor's Note." 32

Weber's best-known piano solo work Aufforderung zum Tanz (1819) was later transcribed by pianist Carl Tausig^^ (1841-1871) in the 1860s. An octave-glissando is found in this version. Tausig transformed the original C major and A major octave ascending scales—^in sixteenth notes—^into two white-key glissandi; the first one in single-notes, and the second in octaves. Besides, there is a dynamic contrast between the C major and A major scales in the original version, but Tausig uses a brilliant virtuosic effect in both glissandi. However, these glissandi stiE retain the melodic character which Weber intended.

Franz Liszt Of numerous great piano composers in the nineteenth century, Franz Liszt (1811-1886) was the one who truly inherited Beethoven's ability to transfer orchestral power and effects to the piano. Liszt's idiomatic pianistic technique such as high trills imitating the cjnnbalon, tremendous octave runs, leaps over long intervals, howling tremolos, sophisticated double-note phrases, hand crossings, and brilliant glissandi, vastly increased the repertoire of pianistic effects. After hearing Liszt's performance in Paris, Sir Charles Hall^is said: Such marvels of executive skill and power I could never have imagined. He was a giant, and Rubinstein spoke the truth when, at a time when his own triumphs were greatest he said that in comparison with Liszt all other pianists were children Liszt was all sunshine

l^HaroId C Schonberg stated:"... Qirl Tausig, perhaps Liszt's greatest pupil. Many considered him the most flawless pianist of the century." The Great Pianists, 2^. Tausigalso made some piano reductions of Richard Wagner's operas.

l^'The first pianist in history to play the cycle of Beethoven sonatas in public. That was in 1861. He also invented an automatic page turner." Ibid., 222. 33

and dazzling splendor, subjugating his hearers with a power that none could withstand. For him there were no difficulties of execution.16 In his glissandi, Liszt used different kinds of executions, including double-note glissandi and two-hand glissandi. The former are found in the Paganini Etude, "La Chasse"{W51), MagyarDallok—Ungarische National- Melodien No. 9 (1840), Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15(1851), and the latter are found in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10(1853), Mephisto Waltz No. 1 (1860), Illustration No. 2 aus dem Prophet (von Meyerbeer) "Die Schlittschuhlaufer" (1850), Totentanz (1849) and the Piano Concerto No. 2 in A Major (1849). Other examples are found in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14 (1853) and Paraphrase of the Waltz from Gounod's Faust (1868). Magyar Dallok—Ungarische National-Melodien is Liszt's early cycle of Hungarian Rhapsodies.^"^ Three double-note glissandi, in sixths or thirds, are foxmd in No. 9 (Ex. 12). These glissandi are all melodic in function.

Example 12: F. Liszt, Magyar Dallok—Ungarische National-Melodien, No. 9.

iiiiiiiiU^iiiiiPlEl

rinforzando

Double-note glissandi are found again in the Paganini Etude "La Chasse." The key of La Chasse is E major. In the use of glissandi, the

l^Qiarles HaI16, Li£e and Letters, 37-38.

l^See "Vonvort" in Franz Liszt; Neue Ausgabe Samtlidier Werke, Serie I, Werke fur Klavierzu zwei HSnden, Band 18, £tude (Op.6); Ungarisdie Nationalmelodien by Editio Musica Budapest, 1985. composer's harmoiiic design is evidently intended to match the glissandi's natural harmonic implication, in which a simple modulation moves from E major towards to A minor and followed by C major (see Table 1). These

Table 1: The Transposition Process in Liszt's La Chasse. m. 68 69 70 73 82 83 J 84 87 EM am — — EM pivot-G CM - - E: I a: V i V C: V I glissando glissando glissando glissando double-note glissandi are all in sixths in the right hand (Ex. 13). The destination chord is given separate stems, which implies that it could be played by both hands.^s Besides, the symbol of the "wedge" ( • ) suggests placing this final interval exactly on the second beat.

Example 13: F. Liszt, Paganiid Etude No. 5 "La Chasse."

glineudo

In Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10, the characteristic sonority of the cymbalon is embodied. In the middle section, the continuous passages of

^8ln "Instructive Edition." Critically revised with fingering, pedalling and marks of expression by Paolo Gallico. New York: G. Schirmer. 35

glissandi can be grouped into three types (see Fig. 4): (a) connected ascending and descending glissandi, 0?) simple wide-range glissandi, and (c) two-hand outwards glissandi. The outer notes in types (a) and (b) must be played very rhythmically and articulated with >, •, or — . Type (b) should also be played slower since the value within one measure is larger, and type (c), closing the phrases, needs a heavier touch to provide enough weight for the crescendo.

Figure 4: Three Types of Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10.

Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14 was transcribed from the composer's early cycle of Ungarische National-Melodien No. 21, which is also the predecessor of the Hungarian Fantasia for piano and orchestra. Three glissandi are used in the Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. Compared to the Hungarian Fantasia, the latter repeats the first and third glissandi once, while the second one remains a fingered figure of a g)^sy scale as does its predecessor (Ex. 14).

Example 14: F. Liszt, Hungarian Fantasia. 36

The second glissando is melodic in function as its original form of a g3^sy scale, while the other two show a virtuosic effect, and require a electrifying touch and a fast tempo (Ex. 15).

Example 15: F. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14.

^ Hu 1

Five continuous descending glissandi are used in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15, subtitled R^dczy-Marsch. Although these glissandi are written in double-notes (in thirds), the ossia version (the single-notes glissando provided by the composer) might be more effective (Ex. 16).i9 These gHssandi

Example 16: F. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15.

FaenilK

.^ glissando 1*—mIJ F - s LA —£ ^ ^ ^ f- f ^ L - ... P. . #•-. ft m"

the earlier version of this work, the situation is different: the composer suggested the use of double-note glissandi for the descending passages in thirds (mm. 160-164). 37

suggest a harmonic basis for the use of glissandi in the nineteenth century: the triads on the white keys for the glissando. Figure 5 shows that every triad on the white keys is used as a beiss for the glissando.

Figure 5: The Harmonic Structure on the Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15.

k -I- 4- am GM FM em dm CM bO am GM FM (EM) a; i vn VI V iv in iiO i vn VI (V) C: vi V IV iii ii I vii® vi V IV (in)

Liszt was also a very active transcriber. Die Schlittschuhlauferwas transcribed from the theme of Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera Le Prophete.^^ There is a letter from Meyerbeer to Liszt regarding Liszt's transcriptions from this opera: Mr. Schlesinger has informed me of a letter you wrote indicating that you had written a major piano composition based on the anabaptist chorus from Le Proph^te, that it was your intention to dedicate this composition to me when the piece is published I do not want to await the arrival of this letter to express to you how pleased I am that you would think one of my pieces worthy of use as a motif for one of your piano compositions. It is most certinly destined to be performed throughout Europe and shall amaze those fortunate enough to hear your magnificent and poetic performances.^!

^^Giacomo Meyerbeer (1791-1864) was a virtuoso pianist as well as a famous opera composer. Liszt's other transcriptions based upon Giacomo Meyerbeer's works indude Robert le Diable and Les Huguenots. On Ae theme of Le Proph6te, Liszt also wrote his most monumental organ work Ad Nos ad Salutarem Undam, Fantasia and Fugue.

^^Heinz and Gudrun Becker, Giacomo Meyerbeer: A Life in Letters, 139. 38

The quantity of glissandi in this work is amazing, and it is perhaps true that this work. Die Schlittschuhlaufer (the Skaters), has the largest number of glissandi in the entire piano repertoire: fif^-seven total, including six two-

hand glissandi.22 All of them are ascending with a maximum range of five octaves. The composer used the device as a reiterating accompaniment figure. Two of them bear the indication "poco rit" These glissandi occur in three sections (see Table 2). The first two sections are enclosed by the two- hand glissandi. There are some glissandi of approximately one octave; technically, in this piece, they are more difficult to play than the longer ones. Besides, since some fingered quasi-glissando passages occur alternately with the glissandi, it might be easier to execute the short range glissandi with the fingers.

Table 2: Glissandi Used in F. Liszt's Die Schlittschuhlaufer. Section Measures Glissandi Two-hand glissandi. 1 203-250 1-34 3 2 305-330 35-53 3 3 464-469 54-57 0

Mephisto Waltz No. 1 ('The Dance in the Village Dm:" Episode 6rom

Lenau'spoem "Faust") was dedicated to Carl Tausig.23 The two-hand glissando is used light after three measures of silence and followed by the grandiose main theme (Ex. 17). Concerning the execution of this two-hand

22For information about the counting of glissandi, refer to the footnote 1 in Chapter 4.

^We have previously observed his transcription of Weber's Aufforderung zum Tanz. See the footnote under the discussion. 39

glissando, Emil von. Sauer's edition, published by C F. Peters, has the following comment: "A fine effect is produced by pla5dng this run glissando with the right hand, the left hand executing it as a scale." The edition by Earl Wild has a different opinion: "By starting an octave lower and adding the octave E in the left hand at the top of the glissando, a greater definition is accomplished."

Example 17: F. Liszt, Mephisto Waltz No. 1.

The Totentanz (The Dance of Death) is a theme and variations, which is based on the theme derived firom the plainchant 'Vies Irae" from the Mass for the Dead. Of this work, Sitwell wrote: Its shuddering, clanking rhjrthms, its soimds as of dandng bones, are of the weirdest achievement possible. It is, somehow, a piece admirably adapted for piano and orchestra; the piano has a real causus vivendi, a real reason for its presence in the orchestra.^^ The glissandi used in this tremendous work are a diabolic and sardonic programmatic expression and also lend a rather virtuosic effect. Thirteen, including three two-hand, glissandi are used in "Variation H;" and seven in the closing section, "Allegro animato," which are all two-hand glissandi in the same register.

^^acheverell Sitwell, Liszt 230. 40

Four two-hand glissandi are used in the Concerto No. 2 in A Major. These glissandi are all in four octaves. The difference is that in the last one, the left hand does not follow the right hand but stops on the third octave (Ex. 18). In addition, the descending ones start from F and end on E; such design suggests the glissando is ornamental in function, while the ascending ones, between two Es, are actually melodic in function.

Example 18: F. Liszt, Concerto in A Major.

Paraphrase of the Waltz from Gounod's Faust;^ pianist Femicdo Busoni's favorite piece, is one of Liszt's most successful works. Seven glissandi are fotmd in this work. They are all ascending and melodic in function. It would be interesting to ask why Liszt did not use octave glissandi instead of two-hand glissandi—especially since all two-hand glissandi by him are in octaves, except for examples in contrary directions—and why there seems to be no use of the black-key glissando. The black-key glissando outlines the pentatonic scale which simply is not part of Liszt's musical style. Octave-glissandi are used in Beethoven's works, since the light action of his Viennese piano was well designed for their execution. There is no doubt that 41 the strength and pliability of the action in Liszt's pianos was quite different from that of the early pianos. This differentiation necessitated a heavier action and a considerable lowering of the dip (or "fall") of the keys. Weber's piano was not only lighter in touch but also narrower.25 Liszt's suggestion for executing the octave-glissando in Weber's Concertstuckhas already been discussed (Ex. 11). Likewise, Liszt even wrote ossia passages for glissandi in his own works, such as two ossia passages in place of the use of double-note glissandi in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15, a chord passage substitute for the two-hand glissando in the Piano Concerto No. 2, and a simplified version for many lengthy glissandi in Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. Liszt's examples are simimarized in Table 3 and Table 4. The cited Liszt's examples of glissandi were written from arotmd 1839 to the 1850s.26 There are no octave-glissandi written by this significant piano virtuoso, although derMeister produced many dazzling two-hand and double-note

Table 3: The Function of Glissandi Used in Liszt's Works. Magyar Dalok—Ungarische Melodic. National-Melodien No. 9. La Chasse. Ornamental with a virtuosic technique. Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. Connection of two (or three) displaced melodies. Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. Virtuosic effect. Melodic. Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. Ornamental. Die SchlittschuhlSufer. Ornamental. Totentanz. Virtuosic effect. Programmatic expression. Concerto No. 2 in A Major. Virtuosic effect. Ornamented or melodic. Mephisto Waltz No. 1. Virtuosic effect. Waltz (rom Gounod's Faust. Melodic.

25"Weber's piano, a Brodmaim (Vienna), had an octave span of 15.9 cm. as against the modem 16.5 cm." John Warrack, Carl Maria von Weber, 99(.

26in Sacheverell Sitwell's study. Waltz torn Gounod's Faust might be written some yecirs before 1868. Liszt 345. 42 glissandi, and the quantity of glissandi is the most numerous in the entire piano repertoire. The range of glissandi also was expanded to five octaves at this time.

Table 4: Sttmmary of F. Liszt's Examples. Title Numbers of Type included® Ossia Years Glissandi version Magyar Dalok—Ungarische 3 A A 1840. National-Melodien No. 9. 3rd 6th Piano Concerto in A Major. 8 • 1839, rev. 1849-61. La Chasse. 4 A 1840,1851. 6th Die Schlittschuhlaufer. 57 A& 1850. Totentanz. 30 A V ft ^ 1849,1853,1859. Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. 28 1853. A V ^ afd • No. 14. 3 A V ft 1853. No. 15. 5 3rd 1851,1871. V • Mephisto Waltz No. 1. 2 ft 1860. Waltz 6rom Gounod's Faust 7 A 1868. key for these symbos is found in Appendix A.

Johannes Brahms and Camille Saint-Saens Joharmes Brahms (1833-1897) is viewed as "the principal opposite number to Liszt in the field of keyboard music in the latter half of the nineteenth century." F. E. Kirby continued, Brahms had none of the great "international" quality that was so characteristic of Liszt Although, Like Liszt he was a pianist and even conductor by profession, Brahms was never in the public eye by such activities; indeed, when he made his Viennese debut as a pianist, he used his two piano quartets, a genre of composition that had never been associated with pianistic virtuosity.^^

E. Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music, 320. 43

Among Brahms's major piano works, glissandi are found in the Paganini Variations, Op. 35, Bk. 1 (1866), and Vhgarische Taitze No. 8 (1872); which are all in octaves. The Paganini Variations are actually a study in piano technique. Brahms wrote two volumes of them; each volume has a theme and 14 variations. The theme—^in 12 measures—^is derived from the violin virtuoso Nicolo Paganini's Caprices, Op. 1. Besides Brahms, Robert Schumann, Liszt, and Sergei Rachmaninoff also composed piano transcriptions or sets of variations based on this theme.28 Ungarische Tanze—ten of them—represent Brahms's interest in a national folk-music character. These works were arranged by the composer himself from his earlier version for piano duet—the first ten date 1869, and Nos. 11-211880. Also, Brahms produced orchestral versions of Nos. 1,3 and 10 in 1874. In the examples from the Paganini Variations, as in many of Liszt's examples, these glissandi—^melodic in function—could also be construed as virtuoso effects (Ex. 19). Although they are much shorter than the examples

Example 19: J. Brahms, Paganini Variations, I, Var. 13.

2®See Schumann's Studien, Op. 3 (1832), and Op. 10 (1833); Liszt's Paganini Etudes (1838 and 1851); Rachmaninoffs Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini for Piano and Orchestra, Op. 43 (1934). of Beethoven or Weber, the fast tempo "vivace e scherzando"assures their difficulty.29 As in Weber's Piano Concerto No. 1, the example firom Brahms's Ungarische Tanze shows two octave-glissandi executed simultaneously by both hands—^but in contrary directions—as a melodic in function with an expression of the virtuoso character, which the glissando had commonly become in the nineteenth century (Ex. 20). However, unlike Weber's example, these simultaneous glissandi do not incorporate the same number of notes; there are thirteen notes in the right hand and eleven notes in the left hand. Since this passage is certainly rather difficult to play, Brahms, like Liszt, provided an Ossia version for both hands.

Example 20: J. Brahms, Ungarische Tanze No. 8.

gUmuulo

Ccimille Saint-Saens (1835-1921), called the "French Mendelssohn," taught Gabriel Faur6 and studied with Friedrich Kalkbrenner, who, along with Pierre Zimmerman, were the earliest exponents of French school of

^^DetlefKraus's book (trans, by Lillian Lim) fohaimes Brahms: Composer fyr the Piano, 66-67, has a very detailed analysis of the tempos of this work. pianism. The French school, the opposite of tfie Stuttgart school, was described as follows: The touch was sensitive, it stayed dose to the keys, and it did not press deeply. It also was fluent, de^ immaculate like a fine etching. Thereifore the tone was likely to be of smaller dimensions—shallow, pale, transparent Behind it was an unrufQed emotional spirit which highly valued such aesthetic graces as elegant, calculated proportions and subtle phrasing.^o Saint-Sa&is's pianistic writing was based on his own excellent piano technique. His music seems to be of less emotional depth than Schumann's and more transparent than Brahms's, but his use of certain pianistic devices recalls the Lisztian. Many Lisztian virtuosic devices are easily found in Saint- Saens's works. About his musical style, Albert Lockwood had the following comment: Saint-Saens' quality may be characterized as that of a mirror rather than that of a prism, and his compositions as reflections rather than as paintings. His art always elegant and polished, shines imequaUy, the thought is spim out to inconceivable tenuosity in places. His urbanity and eclecticism preclude pronounced person^ convictions, and he gathers atmosphere from Timbuctoo to Teheran. This is spread like jam and is not transmuted into the inevitableness of great art. His Gallicism is indeed evident, but his personality is so covered with conventions that his compositions as a group, tmlike the works of the greatest writes, do not display a composite soul. A Saint-Sa&is harmonic scheme, to put is differently, does not exist in the larger sense.31 His examples of glissandi are found in the third movement of the Piano Concerto No. 5, Op. 103 (1896), and Aquarium (from Le Camaval des animaux). The Piano Concerto No. 5—bearing the sobriquet "Eg3^tian"—^was

^^Reginald R. Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Technique, 315.

Albert Lockwood, Motes on the Literature of the Piano, 166-167. dedicated to Louis Di^er, who was a teacher at the Paris Conservatory and taught Robert Casadesus, Alfred Cortot, Marcel Dupr6, and £douard BUsler. Besides the intentional use of Eastern color in this concerto, Saint-Sa^ used many virtuosic devices, such as octave runs, passages of great speed, wide broken chords, and a glissando, which encompasses a wide range—five-and- a-half octaves (Ex. 21). Except for an example from Maurice Ravel's Concerto

Example 21: C. Saint-Sa&is, Piano Concerto No. 5, HI.

V for Left Hand, this glissando might have the widest range in the entire piano repertoire. The octave B-flat in the left hand must be played rhythmically, and the glissando should be performed at an even tempo. Le Camaval des animaiixis a light work, which Saint-Saens refused to publish during his life-time for fear diat it would be taken as evidence of his musical character. However, these fourteen character pieces do represent Saint-Sa&is's music style, by and large. Aquarium is a programmatic character work, hi this worig four glissandi—all identical in every aspects— are foimd (Ex. 22). The style of these glissandi forecasts pianistic impressionism; later in this vein, many such examples were written by the new French lions, Qaude Debussy and Maurice J^vel. Example 22. C. Saint-Saens, Acpianuni from Le Cdmsval des aiumswc.

Bednch Snietana, Mily Balakirev, Edvard Grieg, and Edward Elgar Bednch Smetana (1824^-1884), bom in Bohemia, was one of the foremost representatives of musical nationalism. Piis musical ideals were mfluenced by Bohemia's dance music, as in the case of another Bohemian composer, Antonin Dvorak. Moreover, in some of Smetana's virtuosic works, Liszt s influence is present but not overwhelming; Smetana's techmque incorporates a more delicate and crystalline texture than Liszt's extravagant and grandiose style. Smetana s most numerous piano works are dance movements, including polkas, mazurkas, waltzes, Bohemian dances, and Czech dances. While the Etude, Op. 12, the ConcertStudy "On die Seashore" and the Sonata in G minor show the composer's ambition to explore the capabilities of the piano and his own musical imagination. His examples of glissandi are found in the Ballade in E minor (1858) and the Polka in A minor (from Bohemian Dances [1877]). The Ballade in E minor is an incomplete work, which later provided some ideas for his opera Dalibor, and his transcription of Schubert's sixth song from Die Schdne MuUerin, Der Neugierige. The Ballade, remaining a 209-measure sketch, was written when the composer was under 48

the spell of his pupil, a Swedish girl, Froi'da Benecke. The set of Bohemian Dances, four miniature polkas, is from the composer's last period of works. The Polka in A minor is subdued, as opposed to the usual nature of this kind of dance. An octave-glissando used in the Ballade—coupled simultaneously with another single-notes glissando—^might be the only example with this kind of execution, which closes the preceding cadenza-like passage (Ex. 23).

Example 23: B. Smetana, Ballade in E minor.

This glissando, as a backward motion, is also a dazzling virtuoso effect. The example from the Polka, a short, but very electrifying glissando, suggests a strong folk flavor (Ex. 24). Like the previous example, this glissando—

Example 24: B. Smetana, Polka in A minor.

preceded by a successive descending passage—also functions as a backward motion, but also as a melodic rather tiian a virtuosic gesture. Later in this 49 piece, the composer used a chromatic scale instead of a glissando to create another climax. Both examples of Smetana bear some similar features: 1. white-key ascending, 2. function as a backward motion, and 3. followed by a new and clear melody.

Mily Balakirev (1837-1910) was the guiding spirit of the Russian

"Mighty Five."32 His music incoporates various folk resources: Russian, English, Czech, and Spanish. His use of glissandi is found in his best-known piano work, /s/amey (subtitled "Fantaisie Orientale"), which was composed in 1869 and revised by the composer thirty years later. Nicholas Rubinstein gave its premiere in the winter of 1869. The work—^which has been orchestrated by Alfredo Cassella—^is one of the most dazzlingly difficult piano works in the entire piano repertoire, and its technique is typical Usztian. Edward Garden said: 'Tt is perhaps the 'ultimate' technical piece in the pianoforte repertoire." Garden continued. There can be no point in such a piece unless it can be flimg out as if it were a technical joke—an amusing ten minutes of exotic colour, insistent rhythm and pianistic exhibitionism. The notes are super- abimdant, certainly, but not one is superfluous or unnecessary to the glittering, rippling, effect of colour, "fhe build-up towards the end is not tmlike the build-up in Tamara—but whereas tfie orchestral work is sombre, dark and hatmting, the piano work, finished so much more quickly, is light, airy; superficial, perhaps, in a way, but fascinating, intriguing and thorougWy worth while.33

^^The other members in this group are Cfear Cui, Alexander Borodin, Nicolai Rimski- Korsakov, and Modeste Mussorgski. This group was known as the "St Petersburg School" as opposed to the "Moscow School," headed by Peter Ilich Tchaikowsky.

33Edward Garden, BalaJdrev: A Critical Study of His Uk and Music, 221. 50

This piece uses three Armenian and Cauoisian melodies. An octave- glissando is used near the end of the work. This glissando has multiple functions: 1. as a melody with a virtuosic technique, which is quite obvious, 2. as a backward motion because of its preceding passage which is a descending pentatonic scale, 3. as a modulation tool since this white-key glissando is followed by the melody in the key of D-flat major (Ex. 25). This last is a new

Example 25: M. Balakirev, Islamey.

JET

kind of usage in the nineteenth century. A later composer, Edvard Grieg, and many twentieth-century composers also utilized this technique.^ This octave-glissando could be played as a single-notes glissando in the right hand because of its difficulty as mentioned before.

Edvard Grieg (1843-1907) is frequently remembered by the piano world only for his great concerto. Most of his piano works reflect many nationalistic elements; especially, his Lyric Pieces (thirteen volumes in ten books), which increased the body of lyrical repertoire for the piano. Besides that of Norwegian folk music, his music also shows the influence of Robert

this usage, since the tonal system still was in the Romantic style, Balakirev's and Grieg's examples are not as clear as die twentieth-century composers'. See more examples in next chapter. 51

Schumann and Felix Mendelssohn, who founded (he Conservatory of Leipzig in the same year of Grieg's birth, where Grieg started his formal music education in 1858. Grieg's use of the glissando is foimd in Hailing (from Lyric Pieces^ Op. 71 [1901]). Hailing, a Norwegian dance, is one of the works from the composer's last period. This volume of lyric pieces was dedicated to Fru Mien Rontgen, a Swede, bi Hailing, Grieg adopted a motive from Swedish folk music accompanied by a rich use of chromatic harmony. A white-key glissando leads the tonality from D-flat of the preceding passage to F (Ex. 26). This glissando can be seen as a modulation tool.

Example 26: E. Grieg, Hailing (Norwegischer Tanz) from Lyric Pieces, Op. 71.

Edward Elgar (1857-1934), bom in Broadheath (near Worcester), was a leading British composer of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. His piano works are rather limited and relatively unimportant. Perhaps the Concert Allegro, Op. 46 (1901), is the composer's only masterpiece for piano, which was dedicated to Fanny Davies, a English pianist. The work was considered to be lost for more than a half century. John Ogdon gave the first modem performance of the re-discovered composition in 1968. Two glissandi are fotmd in this work, the second glissando is an octave wider than 52 the first one. The composer indicated tfie number of notes in these glissandi—one is 13, the other is 20—which is a rather unusual indication for the glissando (Ex. 27). A cadenza-like passage is preceded by the glissando, and the dynamic level is quite elegant as opposed to virtuosic—pp and ppp.

Example 27: E. Elgar, Concert Allegro. , accel. molto rit.

Examples used in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, grouped in four types, are illustrated in Table 5. 1. Octave-glissandi were used beginning in the early years of the nineteenth century in the works by Ludwig van Beethoven, Carl Maria von Weber, and Johann Nepomuk Hummel. Even simidtaneous two octave- glissandi were used. Afterwards, examples of octave-glissandi are found again, this time further developed by adding another glissando, as in Bedrich Smetana's example, and simultaneous two octave-glissandi in contrary directions are found in Johannes Brahms's works. After Brahms's Ongarische Tanze No. 8, the octave-glissando is not foimd again imtil in Dmitri Shostakovich's Sonata No. 1, Op. 12, written, almost fifty years later, in 1926. 53

Table 5: Examples in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries in Four Groups Based on Its Type. Type Title Year #sofGI.a Details 1. Octavfr~" Beethoven, Piano Concerto, Op. 15. W 1 Fdrtissimd. glissandi Beethoven, Pfano Sonata, Op. 1805 5 Pianissimo. 3 Two octave^glissandi Weber, Piano Concerto No. I. 1810 4 simultaneously in 3rds. 3 Weber, Concertstuck. 1821 4 Hununel, Piano Concerto, Op. 85. 1821 1 Smetana, Ballade in E minor. 1858 1 With another glissando. Weber-Tausig, Auffbrderungzum Tanz. 1 1860s 2 Brahms, Paganini Variation L 1866 4 Short range, but frequently. Balakirev, Islamey. 1869 1 Brahms, Ungarische Tanze No. 8. 1872 2 Two octave-glissandi simultaneously in contrary directions. 2. Double- Liszt; Ma^rarDalok—Ungarische 1840 In 6ths or 3rds. note National^elodien No. 9. glissandi Liszt Chasse." 1840 4 In6ths. Liszt, Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15. 1851 5 In3rds. 3. Two- Liszt Piano Concerto in A Major. 1839 4 In the same register. hand 10 glissandi Liszt Totentanz. 1849 30 All ascending. Liszt DieSddittschuhlSufe. 1849 57 3_ In contrary directions. Liszt Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. 1853 27 Liszt Mephisto Waltz No. 1. 1860 1 4. Other Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 379. 12 glissandi Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 468. 4 Scarlatti, Sonata, K. 487. 1 Liszt Hungarian Rhapsody No. 14. 1853 3 Liszt Waltz 6rom Gdunotrs Faust 1868 7 Smetana, Polka in A minor. 1877 1 Short. RimsW-Korsakov, Cbncerfo, Op. 30. 18SZ 5 All ascending. Saint-^ens, PranoConcertoA/b.^ m. 1896 1 Very wide range. Grieg, Hailing (Norwegischer Tanz). 1901 1 Modulation tool. Elgar, Concert Allegro. 1901 2 Saint-Sagns, Aauanum. 4 All identical. ®In entries that appear as fractions: total glissandi found is the denominator, while the number of them which fit in the specified category appears as the numerator. In the case of two-hand glissandi, the numerator indicates the number of "examples," not the nimiber of "glissandi." For other details which refer to the counting, see the footnote 1 in Qiapter 4.

2. Franz Liszt did not use, or even consider the use of octave-glissandi, but he was the only major composer who wrote double-note glissandi and two-hand glissandi in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. In addition, his use of the gesture was prolific; his body of works shows the greatest number of glissandi of any composer in these two centuries. 54

3. Examples found in the works of Bedridi Smetana, Mily Balakirev, and Edvard Grieg, might not be viewed as "virtuosic" as those of Beethoven, Weber, Liszt, and Brahms, but generally they all have a common character which is nationalistic.^ 4. Beginning with an ornamental function at the outset, examples are foimd in the early part of the nineteenth century, with the melodic function as the most common usage. Later in the century, the use of the glissando as a virtuosic effect, programmatic expression, backward motion, or modulation tool became more important.36 5. The range of glissandi began with Domenico Scarlatti's one octave, through Beethoven's three-and-a-half, Liszt's five, and reached Saint-Saens's five-and-a-half, which is the maximum range in the nineteenth-century works. 6. The harmonic structure implied in these glissandi is rather distinctive. Within these musical periods, the white-key glissando must function within its natural harmonic consonance; that is, the harmony built by the white keys, such as CM, am, GMm7, etc. Examples from Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 15 show this most clearly. (Refer to the discussion in pages 36-37.) In other examples, the composers generally all followed this harmonic principle for the use of glissandi.

35scarlatti's examples are of a virtuosic diaracter in his time, complementing the Spanish background so often represented in his music.

36All of examples' function can be seen in Appendix A.

^^The use of GMm7 or GMmM9 instead of GM, and emM7, emm7, bmM7, dmM7, are found in the examples of Brahms's Paganini Variations, Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10 and Die Schlittschuhlaxikr. In Saint-Saens's example, a white-key glissando above B-flat outlines CMm7 chord which is resolved later in FM (V-I). 55

CHAPTERS The Twentieth Century

Nineteenth-century composers developed the function of glissandi from that of a simple ornamental device to include melodic usage and the gesture of virtuosic fanfare. Twentieth-century composers inherited this point of view, and bestowed new aesthetic interpretations and ingenious modes of execution on them. Octave-glissandi and two-hand glissandi were still used; in addition, in the first decade of the twentieth century, black-key glissandi appeared, while in the 1920s, glissandi on the strings were initiated. As composers in the previous century, many twentieth-century composers did not use this device in their piano compositions at all; however, the development of glissandi is still vivid and noteworthy. Some examples show the combination of white-key glissandi and black-key glissandi simultaneously executed in the same or contrary directions; glissandi used to change djmamics or tempos also give this device another novel feature. One graphic notation of the glissando has become more universal among twentieth-century composers. In addition, the glissando's "destination," which originally was the main note for the siide, gradually is omitted by some twentieth-century composers, since the glissando itself becomes more and more significant and interesting, assuming a new function. This chapter will continue to trace the evolution of the glissando (on the keys) in the aspects of range, function, executiorv and characteristics, beginning with the works by the two foremost impressionist composers. 56

Qaude Debussy and Maurice Ravel, and followed by the works of the nationalists: Manuel de Falla and Bfia Bartdk in Europe, and Heitor Villa- Lobos, George Gershwin, and Aaron Copland in America. Examples of octave-glissando appear again in two Russian composers' works: Igor Stravinsky and Dmitri Shostakovich, while another Russian composer. Serge Prokofiev, employed the most frequent use of the glissando in the twentieth century, parallel to Franz Liszt in the nineteenth century. Returning to European composers, Paul Hindemith, Michael Tippett^ and Olivier Messiaen also contributed some glissandi, while Benjamin Britten is another prolific composer in the use of glissandi. The final discussion in this chapter concerns examples from George Crumb's Makrokosmos I and JT.

Oaude Debussy and Maurice Ravel Qaude Debussy (1862-1918), who studied at the Conservatoire Nationale de Paris from the age of ten, "added more to the piano than any composer since Chopin: new theories about pedaling, new ideas about sonority, a completely new concept of figuration and layout."^ Harold C. Schonberg continued, "After Chopin, the significant advance in piano technique came from two composers—Qaude Debussy in France and Serge Prokofiefr in Russia."^ Debussy's varied uses of glissandi are foimd in Menuet (from Suite Bergamasque [1890]), the Prelude (from Pour le Piano [1901]), the prelude Feux d'artifice (1913), and the Etude: Pour les huitdoigts (1915). Among them, the

^Harold C Schonberg, The Great Pianists, 343.

2lbid., 388. 57 most significant feature is that he used the bladc-keys in the glissandi in Feux d'arUBce and Etude: Pourles hvdtdoigts. The composer's common harmonic devices such as parallel chords, modal scales, whole-tone scale, and pentatonic scales, are compatible with the tonality of the black-key glissando, which had never been used by the nineteenth-century virtuosos. In an example from Feux d'artifice (Fireworks), Debussy even combined simultaneous white- and black-key glissandi (Ex. 28).3 Since the

Example 28: C. Debussy, Feux d'artiGce.

execution of these glissandi is quite difficult, some pianists actually stand up in order to execute them successfully, while for other pianists with strong fingers, the use of executive right hand alone is a convincing and convenient execution. Another black-key and white-key glissando illustrated in the Etude: Pour les huit doigts (For Eight Fingers) is not executed simultaneously, but connected by both hands (Ex. 29).^ The composer stated:

^On observing these glissandi, Paul Roberts said: "On closer examination we can see that the glissando is intimately related to the opening ostinato: its descending black notes are bom from the three descending black notes of die first measure." Paul Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy, 185.

^This execution is prepared by the preceding measure where after a black-key glissando (by left hand), right hand "plays" a short (four notes) interruption. This process repeats twice. 58

In this study the changing position of the hands make the use of the thimibs inconvenient, and the execution of it would thereby become acrobatic.5

Example 29: C. Debussy, Etude, No. 6.

For these glissandi, Paul Roberts's suggestion of fingered execution of the black-keys allotted to both hands, rather than playing a "glissando," perhaps is even more breathtaking in resxilt.^ The function of these glissandi, besides as an acrobatic effect, has its impressionistic ptirpose. Debussy frequently interpreted his music in terms of the action of natural phenomena upon his emotions. He said: Music is the expression of the movement of the waters, the play of curves described by changing breezes. There is nothing more musical than a stmset He who feels what he sees will find no more beautiful example of development in all that book which, alas, musicians read too little—the book of nature.^ If we observe Example 28, where descending glissandi cover almost the whole keyboard, they create a theatrical visual and aural excitement, as if the flame of the kaleidoscopic fireworks is suddenly extinguished. Paul Roberts described these glissandi:

footnote on the score.

^Paul Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy, 310-1.

^Leon Vallas, Theories of Claude Debussy, 8. 59

As the excitement increases, the electrifying glissando becomes the only way out, as if this is the only possible culmination of music made out of such sparse matenal—an audacious theatrical gesture that appears to negate all musical intention.® In examples from the suite Pour le Piano, Prelude, the memory of the bravura briUiancy of the old German organ toccata is reinforced by these glissandi (Ex. 30). In the Suite Bergamasque, the Menuet, a sixteenth-century

Example 30: C. Debussy, Pour le Piano, Prelude.

Italian dance, was inspired by Paul Verlaine's poems Fetes galantes (1869). Robert Schmitz likened it to "... a reflection in a mirror—a menuet in the distance seen through the windows from a garden."^ Also since this glissando is executed at a very soft dynamic (ppp) (Ex. 31), it seems to imply a

Example 31: C. Debussy, Suite Bergamasque, Menuet

V

®Paul Roberts, Images: The Piano Music of Claude Debussy, 185.

Robert Schmitz, The Piano Works of Oaude Debussy, 51. 60 programmatic plan of preparing the atmosphere of the following piece, Clair de Lime (Moonlight). As an impressionist composer, Debussy was very exact in indicating the nuances of dynamics in the glissando. In Example 30, the dynamic is soft, starting with a sforzando, then increasing in volume to fortissimo. In Example 29, diminuendo and crescendo are used in the glissando. In addition, although the glissando tisually bears a brilliant sonority, delicate colors based upon frequent pianissimos were also applied to the glissando, such as the example in the Menuet(Ex. 31).

Maurice Ravel (1875-1937) was an impressionist with aspects of the classicist. His piano works could be divided on the basis of these two characteristics; he and Debussy are the quintessence of impressionism, and he and Igor Stravinsky are credited with the initiation of the neo-classic movement. Ravel's first mature work for piano solo, feux d'eau, was composed in 1901. After 1917, the composer did not produce any piano solo works, but his two concertos were composed in 1930-31. Ravel's major solo piano works between 1901 and 1917 are collected in Table 6.

Table 6: M. Ravel's Piano Works Between 1901 and 1917. Jeux d'eau. 1901 impressionist. Sonatina. 1905 neo-classical. Miroirs. 1905 impressionist Gaspard de la nuit 1908 impressionist. Valses Nobles etSentimentales. 1911 neo-classical. Le Tombeau de Couperin. 1917 neo-classical. 61

Interestingly, Ravel's examples of glissandi in the works of this period are all impressionistic in style: Jewc d'eau^ Une barque surl'oc^an and Alborado del gradoso (from Miroirs), Ondine (from Gaspard de la Ntdt), and a transcription work, Les Entretiens de la Belle et de la Bete (from the suite Ma Mkrel'Oye). Later in 1930s, examples are found again in the composer's two concertos—Concerto in G Major and Concerto for the Left Hand. Black- key glissandi are found in feux d'eau, Ondine, and Une barque surVocian. Continuously ascending and descending glissandi are used in Alborado del gradoso, executed in parallel double-notes (in thirds or fourths); in the first movement of Concerto in G Major, where the continuous execution begins with single hand and ends with both hands; glissandi encompeissing a very wide range are seen in another example from Ondine and in Concerto for the Left Hand, where even a glissando covering the whole keyboard (on the white-keys) is found. Jeux d'eau, which "invites comparison with Liszt's Jeux d'eau a la villa d'Este,"'^^ was the starting point of his "pianistic novelties." F. E. Kirby pointed out: Jeux d'eau has in it many features characteristic of musical Impressionism: the simple ternary formal plan, the episodic character, the coloristic use of dissonance, here arpeggio figurations involving simultaneous seconds, the use of glissandi and chromatic scale runs, and irregularities in the rhythm.ii A descending black-key glissando used in the work is characterized as a feature of impressionism from the above statement, and this is the first black-

l^oger Nichols, Ravel, 16.

E. Kirby, A SbortHistory of Keyboard Music, 387. key found in this study (Ex. 32). Examples from Une barque sur I'oc^an and Ondine also represent this kind of character.

Example 32: M. Ravel, Jewc d'eau.

j/iKnndu.

The title, Une barque sur I'ocedn (A Boat on the Ocean), suggests the programmatic subject. This piece demands an immense variety of color, making it akin to an orchestral work. In the words of Olivier Messiaen,.. there exists an orchestral kind of piano writing which is more orchestral than the orchestra itself and which, with a real orchestra, it is impossible to realize."i2 Technically, it inevitably brings to mind Usztian virtuosic writing, with the numerous effective arpeggios, which suggests the waves striking the boat and the swaggering feeling of the tempest The black-key glissandi recaU the one in feux d'eau, although this time the composer uses a narrower range in the middle register, ascending and descending with more musical interpretation, which represents the breakers ebbing and flowing (Ex. 33). Later in this worlg a parallel passage—in measure 74—is played with the fingers with a touch similar to the glissando. Ravel's music was "inspired by the sound of water, and the music of fountains, cascades, and streams."i3 if

Original resource is from A. Gol6a,/?enco/7fres a vecOtfwer

l^Arbie Orenstein, Ravel: Man and Musidan, 37. 63

Jeux d'eau is "the play of the water," then Une barque stir I'oc^an is "a struggle with the water."

Example 33: M. Ravel, Une barque sur L'oc^an.

^ /riiaando rt r*j

Alborado del gradoso (The Jester's Serenade) is the best-known piece in this set. It is a "wild Spanish dance with brilliant harmonic coloration and rhythmic excitement

Following in the steps of Domenico Scarlatti, he turns the keyboard instrument into a huge guitar. In its treatment of staccato, repeated notes and glissandi^ both single and double—^which Ravel could do wonderfully well, probably because of his squarish thumbs.i^ Roger Nichols attributed these glissandi to the composer's hands; in technically, these double-note ghssandi—^in thirds or fourths—are not as difficult as the octave-glissando. These double-note glissandi have an exotic effect, especially in fourths (Ex. 34). They are actually derived from the previous scales in measures 44 and 46. The composer extended these continuously ascending and descending scales into the figure of glissandi, which create a brilliant virtuosic effect. They are the only double-note glissandi found after Franz Liszt's examples in this study; Liszt's examples

l^David Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music, 47.

^%oger Nichols, Ravel, 45. The statement of "single" must be a mistake since there are only double-note glissandi used in this piece. 64

represent the pianistic fianfare, while Ravel's examples suggest the guitaristic feature.

Example 34: M. Ravel, Alborado del gradoso.

Perhaps the set Gaspard de la Muit is Ravel's most difficult solo piano work. "It is rather the musical achievement—colorful evocations of three diabolical poems by Aloysius Bertrand—that impresses today."^^ first piece in this set, Qndme, like feux d'eau and Une barque surl'oc^an, is another imaginative work inspired by water. Ondine is a water spirit. The use of the glissando suggests the spirit is coming out of the water. A glissando encompassing a very wide range, from CC to a^, is foimd in the work, where an omission of the indication of "8va" in measure 75 obviously is a mistake by the composer, who appears to have been a poor proof-reader (Ex. 35).

Example 35: M. Ravel, Gaspard dela Nvit, Ondine.

Ir pit* p ponith

^^David Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music, 49. 65

Les ^tretiens de la Belle et de la Bete is a transcriptioii from tfie composer's Ma Mdre I'Oyer^"^ a suite of five pieces for four hands. The original version and the two-hand version are completely identical, including tiie glissando—omamental in function—^which is preceded by a silent moment (Ex. 36). This silence recalls an example from Franz Liszt's

Example 36: M, Ravel, Les Entretiens de la Belle et de la Bete from Ma M&e rOye. VMoav^

Mephisto Waltz No. 1 (Ex. 17), while in effect different from Liszt's grandiose re-opening. Ravel created a static atmosphere preceding the ending section. Concerto for Left Hand is a large movement with three sections of confrasting tempo—^Lento, Allegro, Lento—and was dedicated to Paul Wittgenstein in 1931.18 Far from the impressionistic and neo-classic qualities of Ravel's musical style, this work shows the influences of jazz, Hisparuc and

Ma Mdre I'Oye, glissandi are found in other movements: two black-key glissandi in Laideronnette, Imp4Tatrice des Pagodes and fifteen white-key glissandi in Le Jardin (4erique. However, only Les Entretiens had been transcribed for piano solo by the composer.

ISpaui Wittgensein, Austrian-bom American pianist; subsequently commissioned left-hand piano works since he lost his right arm in tfie World War I. Besides the work by Ravel, Wittgensein also premiered the works of Richard Strauss, Erich W. Komgold, and Benjamin Britten. See Baker's Biographical Dictionary ofMusidans, 8th edition, 2064. modemism.i^ Five glissandi are found in this work: one in the first section, two in the second section, and two in the third section. They are all on the white keys and ascending, including one covering the entire range of white keys (Ex. 37). Their functions are various. From Table 7, we see that the range

Example 37: M. Ravel, Concerto for Left Hand.

is--.

for those which are melodic in function is much shorter than those which are ornamental, backward motion, or virtuosic features.

Table 7: Glissandi in M. Ravel's Concerto for Left Hand. Section^ Glissando liange Function A 1 Embellishment Backward motion. 4 B 2 Melody. 4 3 Melody. 4 C 4 6 Embellishment. Backward motion. 5 Embellishment Virtuosic feature.

^Section A: mm. 1—120. Section B: mm. 121-453. Section C: mm. 454-525.

The influence of jazz is foimd again in Ravel's Concerto in G Major (1932). This work was dedicated to Marguerite Long.20 The composer used

^^aurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Ordtestra: An Annotated Guide, 241.

^^arguerite Long, a French pianist and pedagogue, was credited as having an important role in promoting French music. See Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 8th edition, 1079-80. many continuous ascending and descending glissandi in the introduction of the first movement, and this section is concluded by two-hand glissandi. In this movement, glissandi are found not only in tiie piano part; later in the middle of this movement, dramatic chromatic-gUssandi by the harp and strings, and even the quasi-glissando scales in the woodwinds all represent this kind of virtuoso gesture. Since the intent of this concerto is to please and amuse,^! these glissandi work quite well for this purpose. Like Debussy, Ravel was also very exact in indicating the nuances of dynamics in the glissando: Example 38 shows a glissando executed at a very soft dynamic (ppp) and in Example 35, 7eplusp possible" was marked in a long-range glissando. In Les Entretiens de la Belle et de la Bete, a glissando is in a very delicate treatment (Ex. 36).

Example 38: M. Ravel, Gaspard de la Nuit Ondine.

• It f fn •!«*• fktnc antAn 1

ppp

Manuel de Falla and B41a Bartdk In Spain, the uses of glissandi are found in the sonatas of an Italian, Domenico Scarlatti, in the eighteenth century. No Spanish-bom leading composer (such as Isaac Manuel Francisco Albeniz and Enrique Granados)

^^Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Ordiestra: An Annotated Guide, 241. 68

used this device until Manuel de Falla. In Hungary, there are many examples written in the manner of Htmgarian folk music by Franz Liszt, and in the twentieth century, the Htmgarian-bom composer, B4Ia Bartdk also used this device qtiite often.

Manuel de Falla (1876-1946) was bom in Cddiz, Andalusia. The core of his musical style is the Spanish dance, although he did not use existing folk melodies in his compositions. Falla's piano compositions are quite few, and his best-known work perhaps is the Fantasia Baetica (1919)—dedicated to Arthur Rubinstein—^which is considered the composer's most demanding piano solo work. Baetica was a province of the old Roman Empire, which roughly coincides with present-day Andalusia. Obviously, the composer used this title to recall his birthplace. Ten glissandi are foimd in the first section of this work These glissandi are quite sinuous, which represents the influence of the Andalusian g3^sy music. The notation for these glissandi is novel for this time; the composer wrote the connection of ligatures between the upper and lower notes to indicate the use of glissandi (Ex. 39). About forty years later, there is a similar indication in Michael Tippett's Sonata Mo. 2.

Example 39: M. de Falla, Fantasia Baetica. 69

Besides, there are seventeen glissandi used in Nbches en los Jardines de Espana (Nights in the Gardens of Spain), including twelve black-key glissandi, which are also connected with the ligatures to indicate the use of glissandi. The work, including three movements—En el Generalife^ Danza lejana, and En los jardines de la Sierra de Cdrdoba—^is actually a work of "sjnnphonic impressions for piano and orchestra," which "has no specific program but contains some of the most poetic music ever written by FaUa."22 Interestingly, all of the glissandi used in the first movement are on the black- keys, while examples in the third movement are all on the white-keys. En el Generalife (In the Gardens of the Generalife) is a work which describes a garden in the hills of Granada, with fountains and cypresses, and En los jardines de la Sierra de Cdrdoba (In the Gardens of the Sierra de Cordoba) is an energetic, wild gypsy dance. We have already observed the use of the pentatonic scale to describe the image of "water" in many of Debussy's and Ravel's examples, while in Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsodies^ white-key glissandi are also used to enhance the atmosphere of the gypsy dance. Notably, Falla indicated "ad lib. quasi cadenza"'m the glissandi, which enriches the device beyond its fixed impression of a gimmick and becomes a more musical device.

Bfla Bart6k (1881-1945), described as "the greatest of the piano percussionists" by Harold C. Schonberg,^^ was a fine pianist as well as a composer. His music is:

22ibid., 92.

23HaroId C Schonberg, The Great Pianists, 394. 70

characterized by biting dissonance, driving rhythms, explosive accents, and frequent staccato or martellato touches. But it is not without romantic warmtfi in its frequent use of melodic lines based on the Slavic folk idiom If ever a pianist needed full arm and bodily participation in his technique, it is in the music of Bartdk, with its quick wide skips, many large chordal and octave passages, and d^tach^ touches24 Bart6k's percussive view of the piano^s and his ingenious harmonic settings inspired piano compositions in a different style, but just as important as those of Debussy. Bartdk's best-known piano works are the series of Mikrokosmos, 153 character pieces in six volumes composed between 1926 and 1937. These pedagogical series "comprised one of the most comprehensive collections of contemporary techniques and idioms."^^ Bart6k's later works all require elements of a virtuoso technique, such as octave nms, percussive tone quality, tone clusters,27 rhythmic drive, and glissandi. Bart6k's use of the glissando is found in the Rhapsody, Op. 1 (1905), Tanz-Suite (1923), the Sonata (1926), and three concertos. Rhapsody, a work from the composer's early period, is a good demonsfration of the composer's use of Hungarian melody. Originally, it was written for piano solo in 1904. The composer himself transcribed it with an added introduction into a

^^Reginald R. Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Technique, 483.

25HaroId C. Schonberg concluded: "Bartdk, after all, was a pianist of the old school, where tone was still the most important thing, and he never banged out his music as so many of his successors do." The Great Harusts, 344.

^^Maurice Hinson, Guide to The Pianist's Repertoire, 62.

^^"His use of them was intensified after his 1923 meeting with the American composer Henry Cowell." Halsey Stevens, The Life and Music ofBda Bartdk, 132. 71

version for piano and orchestra.28 The worl^ as well as incorporating a wealth of material related to Gypsy folklore, demands a technique of Lisztian virtuoso level. In the piano solo version, eight glissandi are found, which are all together in the middle of the work. These glissandi are all between two Es, except the last one ending on a G-sharp (Ex. 40).^^ This is a new treatment in the early twentieth century—a white-key glissando ending on a black note— which suggests the sudden change of the tonality. Later, Bart6k used this "exchange" technique again in his Piano Concerto No. 2.

Example 40: B. Bartdk, Rhapsody^ Op. 1. Riten molto

UP

Tanz-Suite was written—originally for orchestra—for the celebration of the imion of Buda and Pest in 1923. The piano transcription was by the composer himself. This suite includes six movements, and the uses of glissandi are found in the first (two glissandi) and third (one glissando) movements.30 In particular, Bart6k tised an ascending glissando in the opening, which is the only example found used in this place (Ex. 41). In this

2®rhe work actually appeares in three versions: 1. one movement for piano solo (without the Cast second section); 2. two-movement for piano solo, which was marked as the "premidre- version" by the composer; 3. two-movements for piano and orchestra with a longer slow movement than in the solo version. The composer marked "deuxi^me-version" on it.

^^The version for the piano and orchestra uses two less glissandi, and the first two glissandi are one octave lower.

3®In the orchestral version, where the piano is part of the score, the use of the glissando is different; the opening one remains the same but is one note shorter; the second one (in the piano 72

Example 41: B. Bartdl^ Tanz-Suite, L

Moderato,J.92

Ai$-7 - " —' f glissando, the use of the damper pedal is unnecessary (compared to the eighteenth-century examples by Domenico Scarlatti) because of the use of the lowest register on the keyboard, which express as the percussive character of the composer's musical style. Besides, like the indication of "poco allarg."in the Piano Concerto No. 1, the composer used the same indication in the second glissando of this work. Bart6k's Sonata is his longest and most extended piano solo work. In this work, the percussive effects are ubiquitous. Halsey Stevens stated: The piano is now treated percussively throughout; there are no really l5nic spots even in the sustained second movement, where the thematic material is as limited in compass as elsewhere in the Sonata. The folklike contours of Bartdk's melody are almost entirely sublimated in the first two movements of this work.^! An example used in the first movement also presents a percussive style, although its feature is rather square (Ex. 42). Despite the simpler feature, the execution of ttiis glissando is rather acrobatic in intention: the initial note (with the right hand) is lower than the left-hand figure; when the glissando is ascending, the left hand moves to a very low register. Besides, as in the version) is expanded to seventeen glissandi, including one example of the two-hand glissando; the one in the third movement becomes ascending while in the piano version, it is descending.

Halsey Stevens, The Life and Music of B4Ia Bartdk, 132. 73

Example42: B.Bart6k,Sonata,!.

examples in the Tanz-Stdte, the use of the damper pedal is also tmnecessary here. The first movement, in classical sonata-allegro form, is often described as "barbaric." The glissando is used at the end of this movement. Not many glissandi are placed at the end of a work (or movementp^ We have already observed one example from Qaude Debussy's Suite Bergamasque. Bartdk has another example which is used in the second movement of his Piano Concerto No. 1. In 1926, Bart6k wrote four major piano works: the Sonata, the Piano Concerto No. 1, Out of Doors, and Nine Little Piano Pieces. Besides the glissando used in the Sonata, four glissandi are foimd in the Piano Concerto No. 1, two in the first movement and two in the second movement In Example 43, firom the first movement, this two meastire passage—the

Example 43: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 1,1. Sostenato,«• loo

^^All examples in the end of a work/ movement are listed in Table 14 in this diapter. 74 second measure is simply an octave higher than the first measvire—Bartdk gives, for the first time in this movement, a taste of his concept of this "pianistic" feature. However, his treatment of the piano is exactly as a pitched percussion instrument Glissandi used here as a virtuosic effect reinforce this concept to a certain extent. Note the use of the smaller-notes for the destination notes, which might imply the intention of omitting these final notes. This "intention" becomes reality in Serge Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 5 (1932) and in Frederic Rzewski's The People United Will Never Be Defeated! (1975). In the second movement of Bart6k's Piano Concerto No. 1, the piano is even more like a percussion instrument; especially in the middle section, it simply plays reiterated rhythmic figures on tone-clusters. There are no strings, woodwinds, and brass, in the beginning and at the end of this movement, but only the percussion instruments along with the piano. This atmosphere is ended by a sudden change of tempo, as a glissando is used as a fanfare and leads to the third movement (Ex. 44). (Note that the destination

Example 44: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 1, n.

« is on the first beat of the following movement.) This example shows an ascending glissando continued firom the left hand with the right hand while the left hand descends. Significantly, the composer changed the tempo in this glissando, "poco allarg."is marked over the glissando, as David Fallows 75 stated: "An instruction to slow down the tempo and after to develop a fuller and more majestic plajdng style."33 In this case, the hesitation only lasts two measures, then the music goes to the next movement right away. In an example from the first movement of Bartdk's Piano Concerto No. 2, a descending black-key glissando is pre-figured from the previous tone- dusters construced by a pentatonic scale, as if exhausted by the orgiastic climax built up by consecutive scale passages and tone-clusters (Ex. 45). Different from Debussy's or Ravel's examples, this black-key glissando ends on a white note (F). Besides, "poco ritardando"is marked over this glissando.

Example 45: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 2,1.

rilard.

The Piano Concerto No. 3 (1945), premiered by Gyorgy Sandor, is the composer's last piece. Unlike the first two concertos, a glissando is used in the finale, which is a rondo with two fugal episodes. In Example 46, the descending octave runs occur for the third time, but this is the only time the figure is preceded by a two-hand glissando. However, firom measure 62 to measure 65 as the first section is concluded with the piano's descending octave runs, the strings play an ascending glissando, which is—from c to b' connected by cellos, violas, and second violins. This could be seen as a

^^The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 1:265. 76 preparation, for the glissando in the piano.^^ Obviously, this ascending glissando is a virtuoso effect and a backward motion to ornament the climax produced by the longest descending octave runs, which are nine measures, as opposed to first two, which are six measures. Note that the initial note in the left hand, GGG, actually does not exist in most modem pianos (Ex. 46). Perhaps only Bosendorfer's pianos can encompass this note.

Example 46: B. Bart6k, Piano Concerto No. 3, IE.

a-

Heitor Vnia-Lobos, George Gershwin, and Aaron Copland The use of glissandi in America, besides the application of folk music— such examples are ubiquitous—^represents rather advanced contemporary techniques. In Brazil, Heitor Villa-Lobos contributed nimierous glissandi; and in the USA, George Gershwin's examples are derived from jazz, while Aaron Copland's examples are witliin the modem vocabulary.

While Bartdk utilized Hungarian folk elements as one of his compositional sources, a composer six years younger, melded his Brazilian

^Later, after the piano's two-hand glissando, the first violins and double basses also join the execution of a glissando, while the range at this time is from GG to a^. 77

pedigree with western influence to compose his music; Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887-1959), was bom in Rio de Janeiro. At the age of twenty-six, he became a student at the Instituto Nadonal da Musica in Rio de Janeiro, and married pianist Ludlia Guimaraes. VUla-Lobos's original instruments were guitar and cello, but he became familiar with piano composition through his wife's efforts. In 1918, he was beMended by pianist Arthur Rubinstein, It was Rubinstein who encoxiraged the yoimg Villa-Lobos to spend time in the years between 1923 and 1930 in Paris. Later the composer's frequent use of French translation for the Portuguese tities and indication of dynamics and tempos in French are aU attributed to this experience. This influence also affected his musical style. Maurice Hinson had a very pertinent comment: This great Brazilian artist began composing in a post-Romantic style, moved to Impressionism and folklore, later experimented with Qassidsm, and finally synthesized all these elements.^ His examples of glissandi are fotmd in many places, such as the Piano Concerto No. 4 (1952), Mdmo Precoce (1929), Rudepoema (1926), Dansa Do Indio Branco (from Suite Cido Brasileiro [1936]), Rhodante and Em um Bergo Encantado (from Simples Coletinea [1919]), Moreninha (from the first series of Prdle Do Bib4 [1921]) and Alegria na Horta (from Suite Floral^ Op. 97 [1919]). Because Brazilian folk elements were often employed in Villa-Lobos's musical style, the glissando's brilliant sonority, visual exdtement, and scintillating effects, are well utilized for this purpose. Interestingly, most of Villa-Lobos's examples are ascending. This also may be the result of the influence of Brazilian folk music.

^Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Ordiestra, 298. 78

Compared to the examples of other composers, Villa-Lobos's use of glissandi was generally less virtuosic. However, some of them require a special execution. A black-key gHssando, used at the end of Rhodante (Circle Dance), is played with the right hand above a sustained initial note (F- sharp)—splayed with the left hand with a fermata indication—^which serves as a leading tone to the end on G (Ex. 47).

Example 47: H. Villa-Lobos, Simples Coletanea, Rhodante,

There are four glissandi used in Dansa Do hidio Branco (Dance of the White Indian), one of which is a two-hand glissando (Ex. 48). This example

Example 48: H. Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do bidio Branco from Suite Ciclo Brasileiro.

ff PP

recalls an example from Liszt's Concerto in A Major (Ex. 18). Both examples feature a shorter glissando in the left hand, although one example is ascending, the other is descending. The novel difference is that Villa-Lobos's example is not in octaves but in ninths, while we have already observed that Liszt's two-hand glissandi are all in octaves. This ninth-glissando, functioning as a backward motion, virtuosic effect, and programmatic expression, is coherent to tfie tonality constructed by the frequent use of the seconds, which is the main harmonic structure of the work. However, besides the recognizable first interval (al and b^) at the start of the glissandi, it is hard to tell the difference with the two-hand glissando in octaves. In addition, the preceding passage of this glissando occurs earlier in the work, which IS followed by a single-notes ascending glissando three times, and each time the range is wider until it reaches g4 in the "Presto" section (Ex. 49). These three glissandi all function as a backward motion.

Example 49: H. Villa-Lobos, Dansa Do India Branco from Suite Gclo Brasileiro. Presto

llllllllifrfillliiiilimill!!!!

Other examples are found in the second movement, Em urn Bergo Encantado (In an Enchanted Cradle), of the series Simples Coletanea. This movement shows the composer's impressionistic style and is rather improvisatory writing, which leads to the interesting meters of 15/8 and 18/8. Two descending ghssandi, in measures 5 and 9, are also inherent in this kind of wnting. They are both ornamental in function. Alegria na Horta is credited as highly inventive and tonally intriguing idea by Eero Tarasti.^^ In 1937, Villa-Lobos even transcribed it into an orchestral version in the first suite of Desobrimento do Brasil (Discovery of Brazil). The glissando used in the work functions as a programmatic expression (the title meaning "Fetes in the Garden"), and from the preceding passage, this glissando also can be seen as a backward motion. Villa-Lobos, like Bartdk, also used the technique of changing tempo in the glissando; an example is foimd in Moreninha (The Little Paper Doll), where "veloce ad lib." is indicated (Ex. 50). The glissando follows an ostinato

Example 50: H. Villa-Lobos, Moreninha from Suite Prole Do Bebe.

motif passage in broken thirds which rolls through the entire piece, and precedes a descending scale in seventh chords. The function of backward motion is used again, and it actually is a typical way for the composer to utilize the glissando. Rudepoema (Rough Poem) is Villa-Lobos's most extended piano solo work as well as a significant masterpiece in the entire piano repertoire. fri the music of the Western Hemisphere it can be most readily compared to the Concord sonata of Charles Ives; pianistically speaking

^Eero Tarasti, Heitor VUla-Lobos: The Life and Works^ 1887-1959,254. it is as revolutionary as Stravinsky's piano arrangements of his Petrushka. Esthetically, it is Villa-Lobos's strongest contribution to Brazilian modernism, equal to Portinari's frescos or Mario de Andrade's novel Macuna&na.^ The work, written during the composer's period in Paris and finished in 1926, was dedicated to Arthur Rubinstein. There are twenty-four sections

within this work.38 Virtuoso passages are foimd throughout, including some rather unusual "glissandi" in the sixteenth section, "Mains, mais tres rythm^,"which are the shortest glissandi; only two notes (by octaves) for each glissando (Ex. 51).39 These figures obviously represent the composer absorbing the technique of guitar plajdng. However, three "normal" glissandi are used in the seventeenth section, "Un peu modir€ etgrandeoso." This is a

Example 51: H. Villa-Lobos, Rudepoema.

quite brilliant section, and these glissandi reinforce the fanfare. They all function as a backward motion with a virtuosic effect.

37lbid., 259.

^^here is a detailed analysis of eadi section in Eero Tarasti's book. Ibid., 259-267.

^^ven the SchleiUsi' has three notes. These "two notes" glissandi are not counted as "glisseindi" in this study. Mdmoprdcoce (Precocious Momus, the king of the Carnival) is typical Brazilian festival music, which produces novel and tmconventional sounds. The work, alternating naivete in themes and rhjrthms with complicated vvriting,40 jg actually based upon the composer's earlier piano series "Camaval das aciaggas,"which later was orchestrated by the composer himself. The Momopr^coce is genuinely Brazilian carnival: ...the frolicking bandof masked children includes poor frapeirozinhos or ragpickers as well as the offspring of aristocracy—"all together in order to celebrate freely and as muA as they possibly can."'^^ An ascending white-key gUssando—as a backward motion—is preceded by a fingered descending passage (Ex. 52). It gives a scintillating impulse for the following jest-like passage.

Example 52: H. Villa-Lobos, Momo Precoce.

Villa-Lobos's Piano Concerto No. 4 was premiered by Bernardo Segall under the composer himself conducting the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra. The work includes four movements, and two ascending glissandi— ornamental in function—are used in the third movement; this movement is a "typical late-Villa-Lobosian Scherzo, a kind of 'joy' of music making as such

^^aurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Orchestra, 299.

^^Eero Tarasti, Heitor Villa-Lobos: The Life and Works, 1887-1959,337. without any prolonged development and letting all orchestral caprices and

melodico-rhythmic whims flourish."^^ Like many of the composer's examples, these glissandi also reinforce the jojrful atmosphere. To summarize Villa-Lobos's use of glissandi in Table 8, we see that only one black-key glissando is used in his piano works, there are no other

Table 8: Summary of H. Villa-Lobos's Examples. Year Title Ss of T5T3e included® Range Glissandi 1918 Em tun Bergo Encantado 2 V 1919 Rhodante 3 A A 2-3 1919 Alegria na Horta 1 A 1921 Moreninha 1 A 1926 Rudepoema 3 A V 3 1929 Mdmopricoce 1 A 1936 Dansa Do India Branco 5 A? 2-4 1952 Concerto Mo. 4,3rd mvt 2 A li-2

key for these sjmibos is found in Appendix A.

fancy double-note or octave-glissandi, and only one example is with both hands. Among the composer's eighteen glissandi, only five of them are descending. Unlike the virtuoso composer's examples, the range of Villa- Lobos's glissando is relatively narrow. The functions of these glissandi mostly are as programmatic expressions and backward motion, and few are ornaments and virtuosic effects.

42lbid., 349. 84

George Gershwin (1898-1937) was bom in Brooklyn, New York, and died in Hollj^ood, California. About his mtisic, Matirice Hinson had the following comment: He was a bom lyricist; and his complex rhythms, changing meters, and original modulations indelibly stamp his music. Compared to his achievements, his technical flaws in construction and orchestration pale to insignificance. In his short life Gershwin not only made American popular music respectable but also influenced such composers as Ravel, Copland, Weill, Krenek, and Walton.^ Gershwin's uses of glissandi are found in the Rhapsody in Blue (1924) and the Concerto in F(1925). Both works are full of American popular flavor. The Rhapsody in Blue, as its title implied, was a blues impression work, written for piano solo as well as for piano and orchestra—orchestrated by Ferde Grof^. This work was finished within a very short time and became one of the best-known American style pieces of the twentieth century. The Concerto in Fwas a commission by Walter Damrosch, a conductor of the New York Symphony Society, and premiered at Carnegie Hall in 1925. The Concerto is actually a fantasy for the piano and orchestra. The composer orchestrated it himself. Interestingly, there are no jazz instruments, (for instance, saxophone) used to convey the jazzy atmosphere, which is rather felicitously represented by the music itself. The glissando in both versions of the Rhapsody in Blue is exactly the same: a white-key glissando in the left hand with the emphasized C-sharp in different registers in the right hand (Ex. 53). This kind of combination works quite well for the purpose of virtuosic gesture. This jaunty ascending glissando can be seen as an extension of the opening phrase—an ascending

^^Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Orchestra, 108. Example 53: G, Gershwin, Rhapsody in Blue.

LM.

col glissamdo brillanfe

B-flat scale by the clarinet. The composer indicated it as a "brilliant glissando;" the added C-sharp notes in the other hand enhance the effect and the figtire becomes more playful. This design indeed recalls the example from Saint-Saois's Piano Concerto No. 5 (Ex. 21). The glissando foimd in the first movement of the Concerto in F, like the previous example, is followed by a whole note with a fermata marked. The difference is that this gUssando is not in a brilliant effect but rather concealed and slower (Ex. 54). which is after orchestra's introduction and

Example 54: G. Gershwin, Concerto in iv I.

rLA^\j I Poco meno mo^o (J = um)

S.JL

f leads into the piano solo section 'Toco meno mosso." A diminuendo in the glissando gives it a jazzy flavor. There is another glissando found in the third movement, which is quite brief and ornamental in function. 86

Aaron Copland (1900-1990), an American composer, studied composition with Mile. Nadia Botilanger^ in Riance and piano with Ricardo Vifies.^ He was one of the foremost performers of contemporary music of the day. Since most pianist composers did most of their creedic work in the first half of the twentieth century (see Table 9), Copland's writing style becomes very important as stemming from an earlier pianistic strain.

Table 9: Pianist-Composers' Dates of Death aroimd the First Half of the Twentieth Century. Alexander Scriabin Moscow, A!7711915 Maurice Ravel Paris, 12/28/1937 Claude Debussy Paris, 3/25/1918 SerRd Rachmaninoff Beverly Hills, 3/28/1943 Camille Saint-Saens Algiers, 12/16/1921 B^a Bartdk New York, 9/26/1945 Alta Grada, Argentina, Ferrucdo Busoni Berlin, 7/27/1924 Manuel de Falla 11/14/1946 Gabriel Faur6 Paris, 11/4/1924 Serge Prokofiev Moscow, 3/5 /1953

Copland's music is characterized in some aspects: the French "contemporary galant;"sax early preoccupation with polyrhythmic music and jazz elements; a powerful dissonant, percussive, and abstract phase; a more popular, accessible idiom; and a number of serial attempts.^ Harold Schonberg had the following comment:

^MUe. Nadia Boulanger was a student of Gabriel Faur^. Her other famous students include Roy Harris, Walter Piston, Elliott Gurter, and Dinu Lipatti. She advised Copland to compose the Organ Symphony, and she played the organ part with the New York Symphony Orchestra, under Walter Damrosch's conducting in 1925. Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musicians, 8th edition, 222-3.

^^Ricardo ViAes, a Spanish pianist, was an enthusiastic propagandist of Spanish and French music. Ibid., 1967.

^ee F. E. Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music 449, and Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Orchestra: An Annotated Guide, 70. 87

The Bart6k-Prokofieff-Stravinsky style, with the addition of the contributions of the German twdve-tone and then serial composers, lead into a good deal of today's piano writing, as exemplified in America by such composers as Aaron Copland and Elliott Carter.'^^ Of his considerable output for the piano, the principal works are The Cat and the Mousey PassacagUa, Piano Variations, Piano Sonata, Piano Fantasy, and Piano Concerto. Among them, glissandi are foxmd in the Piano Concerto (1926) and Piano Fantasy (1957). The Piano Concerto reflects the composer's efforts to utilize a jazz vocabulary and his preoccupation with thematic variation. And the Piano Fantasy, the composer's longest piano work, resembles Lisztian writing in many respects. The Piano Concerto is in the form of two movements without interruption. An electrifying ascending glissando preceding the final chord is used at the end of the work (Ex. 55). This glissando functions as a virtuosic effect and creates a rather effective ending. Since the overall writing of the concerto is highly dissonant, the glissando ornaments this tone quality.

Example 55: A. Copland, Piano Concerto.

The Piano Fantasy is a somewhat improvisatory work, involving a free dodecaphonic series and diatonic major-and-minor scales. In Example 56, an ascending glissando, foreshadowed firom its preceding fingered-scales, combines with accented bell-tones and ends on the top note c^. The composer

^^Harold C. Schonberg, The Great Pianists, 394. Example 56: A. Copland, Piano Fantasy.

tarryiMf fonttri.

M used a quite flexible tempo indication for these two glissandi: "slow" and "hurrying forward." The following passage is lacking the decorative glissando, but otherwise identical. Figure 6 shows that the glissando actually parallels the row, F-D-B-G#-E-C#-A#-F#-D#-C, produced with the left hand.

Figure 6: The Glissando on a Row in Copland's Piano Fantasy. 8va

E C# A# F# D# B#=C

Igor Stravinsky^ Serge ProkoBev, and Dmitri Shostakovich With Ravel, Igor Stravinslqr (1882-1971) was considered the initiator of the neo-classic movement after World War I. One of the most long-lived 89

composers, Stravinsky also adopted many musical styles, including folk elements, jazz, neo-romantidsm, and serial methods. David Burge stated: He looked to the music of the past for formal models and even for stylistic characteristics, though his musical personality was so strong that he was able to transform whatever model he chose into his own specific and incomparable style, full of wit and vigor. One could say that he used the music of the past as Bartdk used folk music: assimilating, synthesizing, and transmuting it to his own purposes. More than anyone he was responsible for the establishment of the neoclassic movement in the 1920s, not a "school" per se but rather a point of view that found unacceptable the blurred pastels of impressionism and the anguished gloom of expressionism.^ Although a concert pianist himself, Stravinsky did not contribute much to the piano repertoire. His uses of glissandi are found in his transcriptions of the set Trois Mouvements de Pitroucbka, which was trariscribed from the first, second, and fourth scenes of the composer's famous ballet P^brouchka (1911), and finished in the same year of Le sacre du printemps (The Rite of Spring) in 1912. Unlike the other transcriptions from Stravinsky's ballet, which were made as a convenience for rehearsals, these three character pieces, Danse russe^ Chez P^trouchka, and La semaine grasse, are concert works full of pianistic and virtuosic writing. Glissandi are found in Danse russe (one glissando) and La semaine grasse (sixteen glissandi, including two octave-glissandi). These octave-glissandi were written forty years after Brahms's Ungarische Tanze No. 8 (1872). The graphic indication is applied to them, and the composer implidtiy realized the difficulty of the octave-glissandi by indicating "8va ad libitum "for the performers (Ex. 57). Along with these octave-glissandi, the others in single-notes all represent the composer's virtuosity.

^David Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music, 85. Example 57: I. StravinsJqr, Trois Mouvements de Pdtrouchka^ TTT,

Serge Prokofiev (1891-1953) was a student of Annette Essipova (the exponent of the Leschetitzky method) at St. Petersburg ConservatoryHis piano works are "among the greatest and most significant of the twentieth century with their driving sarcastic rhythms, and both percussive and intensively lyrical qualities, helped to formulate decisively the complete piano technique."50

Prokofiev, among twentieth-century composers, is the most prolific in the use of glissandi—just as Liszt was in the nineteenth century—and examples are foimd even in his very early works, such as Diabolical Suggestion, Op. 4, No. 4 (1912), Toccata, Op. 11 (1912), Prelude, from Ten Pieces, Op. 12, No. 7 (1913), and Sarcasms, Op. 17, No. 4 (1914). Glissandi are used in all of his five concertos, but> surprisingly, only two glissandi are foimd among his nine piano sonatas; both are in the first movement of his

49rheodor Leschetizl^ (1^0-1915), a student of Carl Czemy and also a student of pmlMophy at Vienna University, joined the feculty of the St Petersburg Conservatory in 1862. as famous students were Ignace Paderewski, Artur Sdmabel, Isabelle Vengerova, and Annette ^sipova. Leschetizky's method is expounded in Groundwork of the Leschetizky Method hv Malwine Bree. ^

Reginald R. Gerig, Famous Pianists and Their Tedmique, 308-309. 91

Sonata No. 6, Op. 82 (1940). Other example is found in the March and Scherzo transcribed from the composer's opera Love for Three Oranges (1922). Among the composer's numerous examples, glissandi without marked destination are also foimd in his Piano Concerto No. 5, Op. 55 (Ex. 58). This is a very unusual notation, which is only fotmd in recent composers' works. See examples from Frederic Rzewski's The People United Will Never Be Defeated! (Ex. 83).

Example 58: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5,11.

I^Hodermto feea aoooatnato J -10*

In the Piano Concerto No. 5 (1932), eight glissandi are found in the first, second, and fifth movements. Besides three glissandi without marked destination in the second movement, there are another two used in the second movement. These glissandi, similar to the example in Copland's Piano Fantasy (Ex. 56), are anticipated by their preceding fingered scales, and are categorized in function as backward motion (Ex. 59). In the fifth movement, two white-key glissandi are executed with the right hand, while the left hand plays on the black keys. The effect is quite similar to the black- and-white glissandi, nevertheless, the black keys must be emphasized in the manner of a melody and the glissando is used as a virtuosic effect. Indeed, those glissandi without marked destination also represent this idea, which is fotmd again in Olivier Messiaen's work. Noticeably, this kind of execution in 92

Example 59: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, E.

Example 60, the figure actually recalls the example of the "chromatic glissando" which was a spectacular creation by pianist Carl Tausig in his unpublished wori^ Gespensterschiff. Here is the story: During the summer [1859] Carl Tausig and the Bohemian Smetana also stayed with Liszt for a short time. Bofii brought works of their own with them: Tausig, among other things, the Gespensterschiff^ a piece, not then published, containing an incredible passage which put even Liszt in difficulties. It was an ascending chromatic glissando ending shrilly on a top black note! After a few vain attempts, Liszt eventu^y said to Tausig; 'Tunge, wie machst du das?" Tausig sat down, performed a glissando on the white keys with the middle finger of his right hand, while simultaneously making the fingers of his left hand fly so skilfully over the black keys that a chromatic scale could clearly be heard streaking like lightning up the entire length of the keyboard, ending on high witti a shrill 'Tjip."^!

Example 60: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, L

Adrian Williams, Portrait of Liszt By Himself and His Contemporaries^ 357-8. The Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 10 (1912), is a work from the composer's early period. This work "gives us a good idea of the strengths of Prokofiev's own performing style, 'combining the massive texture of chords and octaves with very difficult "acrobatic" leaps and pearly, 6tude-Iike runs."'52 Six glissandi are found in this concerto, they are all between E and B (Ex. 61). In

Example 61: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 1,1. mmrms s m r >• * •

this section, the music obviously emphasizes in these two notes, while the glissando, as a filler, enriches the harmony and creates a tonal qualify similar to those in Bart6k's Rhapsody, The Piano Concerto No. 2, Op. 16 (1913), has the largest number of glissandi among Prokofiev's works, which is fourteen in total: one in the first movement, eleven in the third movement, and two in the end of the fourth movement. In the third movement, white-key and black-key gUssandi are alternately executed with the right hand while the left hand plays descending broken chords based on major and minor modes (Ex. 62). They are the composer's only examples on the black-keys. The composer suggested fingered alternatives for them owing to the difficulty: like the examples in Liszt's Die SchJittschuhlaufer, for these shorter ranged glissandi, it is harder

52David Gutman, ProkoEev, 42. 94 to control the speed; fingered it becomes a better solution, while it should still sound like a glissando.

Example 62: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 2, IE.

To explore sharp, percussive capabilities of the piano,^^ Prokofiev, in the first movement of his Piano Concerto No. 3, Op. 26 (1921), used the glissando in a very high register to create a thrilling sotmd (Ex. 63). Although

Example 63: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 3,1.

these white-key glissandi are between two black keys, they are not used for the purpose of modulation but actually are ornamental and virtuosic in function. In Example 64, from the third movement, there is a device of quasi-glissandi in almost unplayable parallel seconds, usually played as glissandi. Similar

53"Debussy wanted to suggest a piano without hanuners. Prokofiev, Bartdk, Stravinsky and Hindemith had the opposite view. Nonsense, they said in effect The piano is a percussive instrument, and there's no use trjring to disguise the 6act. So let's face up to it and treat the piano as a percussive instrument." Harold C. Schonberg, The Great Pianists, 390. Example 64: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 3, HI.

passages are found in the second movement of Bartdk's Piano Concerto No. 2 (1932), although those passages are played with the fingers (Ex. 65).

Example 65: B. Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 2, H.

The Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 53 (1931) was written for pianist Paul Wittgenstein, as was Ravel's Concerto for Left Hand. Nevertheless, the pianist did not like it and refused to play it.54 Prokofiev was intending to re­ write it for two hands, but the premiere of the work, in 1956 with the soloist Siegfried Rapp, was rather successful. This concerto is revealed as a precise score moderate in scope though affording flashes of virtuosic technique within its light and entertaining firamework. Ravel used gliss^ndf in his Concerto for Left Hand, and so did Prokofiev in the Piano Concerto No. 4; while examples in the former are quite expansive, in the latter the example is rather simple (Ex. 66). This glissando, used at the end of the third movement, encompasses only two octaves, and functions as an ornament. Comparing

^Baker's Biographical Dictionary of Musidans, 8th edition, 2064. 96

Example 66: S. Prokofiev, Rano Concerto No. 4, HI.

jQT CD* fcrto this glissando with those used in tfie composer's Piano Concerto No. 1 (Ex. 61), once again, the glissando is used between two emphasized notes. This suggests that one of the composer's predilections of using the glissando was as a "fiUer." The Piano Sonata No. 6, one of the composer's masterpieces for piano from his "Soviet Period," shows the composer's return to neo-Romantidsm and even expressionism from the evident influence of Stravinsky and Les SixP^ This work—premiered by the composer—^was finished during World War n and contains some turbulent figures, such as the use of rapid leaps, awkward changes of hand position, "col pugno" (with the fist), and glissandi. Two glissandi, with accented interval, identical in every respects, are foimd in the first movement. Prokofiev also contributed an example with changing of tempo: in Sarcasms, Op. 17, No. 4, where a glissando incorporates the use of the una corda and ritardando (Ex. 67). Compared to its parallel passage—a fingered ascending scale within one octave in measure 35—tiiis glissando is similarly melodic in function. Besides, this phrase is derived from the opening theme (in measure two) and occurs a number of times, becoming a glissando extending to three octaves at the close of the movement.

^^Stephen C E. Fiess, The Piano Works of Serge ProkoBev, 149 and 189. Example 67: S. Prokofiev, Sarasmes, Op. 17, No. 4. a-

corda

Toccata demands tremendous endurance and rhjrthmic drive. This work shows the composer's musical styles of expressionism, primitivism, and mechanistic aesthetics.^® An ascending white-key glissando is foxmd at the end of the work (Ex. 68)P Like all of the percussive implications, the use

Example 68: Prokofiev, Toccata, Op. 11.

of the damper pedal must be very careful with the execution of this glissando—^frequently changing the pedal or without the use of it in some pianos or music halls—since the melody is in a very low register with a high dynamic level. The range of this glissando is the composer's widest one, in five octaves. To execute this glissando, the right hand must move from its

56rbid., 3.

examples in the end of a work/movement are listed in Table 14. 98

highest position to a very low position, and immediately reaches the gUssando's destination in two beats in a fast tempo (Allegro marcato). This supplies a rather exciting splash for a bravura ending. The function of this glissando obviously is a virtuosic effect Besides, since its destination and its preceding passage are in the same register, it also can be seen as a backward motion. In Diabolical Suggestion, the use of strong accents and sforzandi are magnificent. "The technical difficulties of this piece include trills performed by rapid alternation of hands, scale and arpeggio figures, staccato chords and

thirds, rapid leaps, hand-crossing, and glissandi."58 The function of these two glissandi is transmitting the sonorities firom G^M to CM (Ex. 69).

Example 69: S. Prokofiev, Suggestion Diabolique, Op. 4, No. 4.

The Prelude (fi'om Ten Pieces^ Op. 12) was originally written for solo harp and transcribed for solo piano by the composer himself. The work is in an A-B-A form. In the "B" section, eight identical glissandi supply the charm of bell tones in a touch of graceful delicacy (Ex. 70). The composer indicated "delicatissimo"m these glissandi to suggest a very elegant quality of soimd. Like examples from the composer's Piano Concerto No. 1 (Ex. 61) and Piano

^®Stephen C. E. Fiess, The Piano Works of Serge ProkoBev, 104 Concerto No. 4 (Ex. 66), these glissandi are all between two Es and function as a "fiUer."

Example 70: S. Prokofiev, Ten Pieces, Prelude, Op. 12, No. 7.

detfeatissimo

Table 10 shows that Prokofiev's examples are mostly ascending, and black-key glissandi are only found in the Piano Concerto No. 2. Compared to

Table 10: Summary of S. Prokofiev's Examples Year Title #sof GI. Type included^ 1912 Piano Concerto No. 1,1st mvt. 6 A 1912 Suggestion Diabolique. 2 A 1912 Toccata. 1 A 1913 Prelude, Op. 12, No. 7. 8 A 1913 Piano Concerto No. 2,1st, 3rd, 4th mvt. 14 A V • 1914 Sarcasmes, Op. 17. 1 A 1921 Piano Concerto No. 3,1st, 3rd mvt 5 A V 1922 March and Scherzo Erom the Love for 1 A Three Oranges. 1931 Piano Concerto No. 4,3rd mvt 1 V 1932 Piano Concerto No. 5,1st, 2nd, 5th mvt. 8 A V 1940 Sonata No. 6. 2 A ® A key for these symbos is found in Appendix A.

the examples of the nineteenth-century's most prolific composer (Franz Liszt), many of whose examples are two-hand glissandi, none of them are fotmd in Prokofiev's works. Besides, Prokofiev hardly used numerous glissandi in a single work or a single movement. 100

Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-1975) was primarily a symphonist He and Dmitri Kabalevslqr are credited as the ones who rivaled Prokofiev's achievements among the Russian composers.^^ Shostakovich began piano lessons at the age of nine and later attended the St. Petersburg Conservatoire. But he abandoned pursuing the career of piano virtuoso after he was awarded a Certificate of Merit in the First International Chopin Piano Competition in 1927.60 Shostakovich's output for the piano includes two piano concertos, two piano sonatas, two sets of Preludes,^! and Ten Aphorisms. Perhaps because of the composer's strong orchestra and chamber orientations, his piano music reflects an orchestral style. His uses of the glissando are foimd in the Piano Sonata No. 1 (1926) and the Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 35 (1933). The Piano Sonata No. 1 is a work of the composer's early period, and shows the influence of Prokofiev. It shows highly dissonant and full of energetic and brilliant virtuosity. The Piano Concerto No. 1, for piano, trumpet, and strings, represents the composer's neo-classic style, which is 'lean and acerbic and has some musical irony tinged with Slavic melancholy The Piano Sonata No. 1 is a one-movement work cast in three sections: Allegro, Lento, and Allegro. Glissandi are found in the first section, which are melodic in function. Among these six glissandi, there is a very tmusual

^^avid Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music, 103.

^^onald Stevenson, The Piano Music, from Shostakovich: the Man and His Music, 81-103.

^^The first set is entitled 'Twenty-Four Preludes for Piano, Op. 34^" and the second set is "Twenty-Four Preludes and Fugues for Piano, Op. 87."

^^Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Orchestra: An Annotated Guide, 269. 101 design, that is, the composer added a black note in the middle of a white-key glissando. In addition. Example 71 shows the composer's treatment of the

Example 71: D. Shostakovich, Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12.

fP Cfffwr*

glissando as a modulation tool; he even used the octave-glissando in this way (Ex. 72). Ronald Stevenson said: Shostakovich's Sonata, this concept [ConstructivismI would read something like this: the piano is a music-machine made by carpenters and engineers; let us celebrate it as a machine. It is the Hammerklavier. A proto-revolutionary composer, Beethoven, so designated his Sonata op. 106. Let us make it the "hammer and sickle" music-machine! Let us glory in poimding chords and slashing glissandi!^^

Example 72: D. Shostakovich, Piano Sonata No. 1, Op. 12.

Two identical glissandi are fotmd in the fourth movement of the the

Piano Concerto No. 1. The composer used a black note eis tfie destination of a white-key glissando, but this is not a case of a modulation tool since the tonality does not change (Ex. 73). Actually, these two glissandi are quite

^%onald Stevenson, The Piano Music, from Shostakovich: the Man and His Music, 89. 102 similar to the example from Prokofiev's Piano Concerto, No. 3 (Ex. 63), and function as the same as a virtuosic effect

Example 73: D. Shostakovich, Piano Concerto No. I, Op. 35, IV.

gftxMttmdff

Paul Hindemithr Michael Tippett, Olivier Messiaen, and Benjamin Britten Among the European composers, glissandi were foimd in works by Paxil Hindemith (German), Michael Tippett (English), Olivier Messiaen (French), and Benjamin Britten (English). Britten contributed many glissandi in a single work, to a degree perhaps exceeded only by Liszt's works. Messiaen's examples are much less virtuosic but expressive, while Tippett's example, perhaps owing to his "American-character," is of the "fanfare" effect. Hindemith produced an unusual form of black-and-white glissandi.

Paul Hindemith (1895-1963), a theorist, teacher, and performer, as well as one of the foremost composers of his time, composed prolifically for every instrument His use of glissandi is found in the Suite 1922, a product of his early years. This suite perhaps is not among the composer's better works from that time, as his approach to ragtime and other popular dances of the day is heavy-handed. 1922 means "post-war Germany, defeat, inflation, bitterness, and a huge national production of forced gaiety. The young 103

Hindemith's mood at the time was ironic, if not actually sarcastic."^^ The work includes five movements: Marsch, Shimmyr Nachtstuck, Boston, and Ragtime, which are the parodies of early twentieth-century dance styles within the old dance form. An example of two-hand glissandi is found in the second movement "Shimmy." The Shimmy was not treated "as a trival, vulgar night-dub dance but as something grotesque and monstrous. Jazz elements, though plentiful, are hidden in a thick texture of dissonance and a ponderous rhythm.''^^ The use of glissandi is rather significant; in contrast to the other two-hand glissandi found in this study, Hindemith's example is played simultaneously in contrary directions and combines both white-key (descending with the right hand) and black-key (ascending with the left hand) glissando (Ex. 74). In

Example 74: P. Hindemith, 1922 Suite fur Klavier, H.

(Usicrtafca) 'axniftn

the previous century, only Franz Liszt contributed three two-hand glissandi in contrary directions in his Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10, though they are both on the white-keys and in outward directions. Hindemith used the indications—^Untertalten, Obertalten—^for the use of the white-key and black- key glissandi. Compared to its parallel phrase (in measure three), the right

^^Program notes on slipcase of DOT, DLP3111,1958. 65lbid. 104

hand is on. octave-E with the left hand on octave-D-sharp, which pre-figures the tonality of this black-and-white glissando.

Michael Tippett (1905- ), bom in London, is a British composer but has made the USA the stage for much of his life's activity.^ About the American character of his music, Aaron Copland had the following statement It is no problem at all for an American to like and empathize with Michael Tippett. In fact^ his name invariably brings to mind the as yet unexplored relationship of British and American music of this century. ... [W]hen I came to know Tippett's music better, I appreciated his darker, more philosophic side. But still the impression remained; his directness of expression, his clear-cut themes, and above all, the rh)^thmic life of his scores pointed to a natural affinity with characteristic aspects of American composition.^^ Tippett did not write copiously for the piano. Glissandi are fotmd in the Piano Sonata No. 2, which is a one-movement work, first performed by Margaret Kitchin in the Edinburgh Festival in 1962. This work, including motifs from the second act of the composer's opera King Priam,^^ is "mainly lyrical, thoroughly worked out, but little development to speak of."®^ Glissandi used here—combined with accented bell-tones—are a rather

^Michael Tippett visited the School o£ Music and Dance of the University of Arizona in the winter of 1996. About the composer's encounter with Arizona, Meirion Bowen had the following description; "Undoubtedly the real watershed in Tippett's life and work in the middle Sixties was his 'discovery' of America. He went there for the first time in 1965 as a guest composer at the music festival in Aspen, Colorado. Immediately, he fell in love with the canyons, mesas and deserts of Arizona, New Mexico and Utah." Michael Tippett, 33.

^^lan Kemp, ed. Michael Uppett A Symposium on his 60th Birthday, 53.

68ibid., 206-7.

^^aurice Hinson, Guide to The Pianist's Repertoire, 648. 105

virtuosic effect. Tippett indicated "dopo la 2nda battuta " (after the second beat) for the place to start the glissando (Ex. 75). The indication of other

Example 75: M. Tippet, Piano Sonata No. 2.

[dSin)pO€ac pact

glissandi in the work is unusual: without the diagonal line between the upper and lower notes but connecting the ligatures of the two outer groups notes, which is similar to de Falla's indication in Fantasia Bastica (Ex. 39). Moreover, some of them—they are all white-key glissandi—are between a tonality produced by the black-keys. However, these glissandi do not function as modulation tools but as embellishments, and this section (from measure 174 to measure 206) is enclosed by continuous ascending and descending glissandi.

Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992) has had a significant influence on modem music. Karlheinz Stockhausen and Pierre Boulez are among his most famous students. In 1966, Messiaen was appointed professor of composition at the Paris Conservatoire. An international piano competition bearing his name was established in 1967 as part of the Royan Festival. In 1971 he won the Erasmus prize.^o

The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musidans, "Messiaen, Olivier,"12:204-205. 106

Messiaen's examples of glissandi are found in the fifth movement of the Preludes (1929) and tie de Feu 1 (from Quatre etudes de rythme [1949]). The Preludes^ including eight pieces, represent the music of the composer's first period. Andr^ Boucourechliev said: "In his first period, Messiaen's personal style and principal discoveries in rhjrthm, harmony and tone-colour are eilready evident. The style is rich, even baroque, and is perfectly adapted to the forces it employs."^ The series Vingt regards surVenfant J^sus is the most famous work in this period, while the Preludes recall the styles of impressionism and neo-romantidsm. The works of the composer's second period are radically opposed to these "baroque" characteristics, and the Quatre etudes de rythme are characteristic of this period. Messiaen considered himself a "rhythmidan" as well as a composer, and the dominance of rhythm in his work reflects this; and Quatre etudes de rythme show "a sudden paring down in the composer's pianistic writing; it is as if all the spedal features of his style were laid bare. Manipulations of rhythms become extremely dear, and the contrasts of registers and densities are brutal, so as to be as obvious as possible."^ The harmonic structure of the Prelude: Les sons impalpables du reve (The Imperceptible Sotmds of the Dream) is built on the octatonic scale. The work is in a rondo form: A-B-A-C-A-B-A-Coda. A glissando is used just before the end: a brief crescendo to / in an ascending white-key glissando, which is followed by a soft dosing (Ex. 76). The music momentarily enters a

T^Ibid., 12:206.

^Andr6 Boucourechliev divided Messiaen's works into four periods: 1. up to the Turangalila-symphonie (1946-8), 2. Cant^yodjayi to the Livre d'orgue (1951), 3. R^veil des oiseaux to Sept haikal(1962), and 4. Couleurs de la dt^ cileste onwards. Ibid. 107

Example 76: O. Messiaen, Fre/ude. sons impalpables du reve.

mysterious atmosphere and seems to hesitate on an "A," and suddenly the glissando occurs and leads to a very surprising ending. This glissandi represents the composer's impressionistic technique with a programmatic intent. The rhythm of the opening of he de Feu 1 recalls Bartdk's With Drums and Pipes from Out of Doors. There are two glissandi foimd in he de Feu 1. The composer marked "gliss. touches blanches" to indicate the use of the white-key glissando. Here, similarly to an example from Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 5 (Ex. 77), in he de Feu 1, white-key glissandi are executed with

Example 77: S. Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 5, V.

the right hand, while the left hand plays a pentatonic scale on the black-keys in an identical register creating a typically exotic effect (Ex. 78). Actually, it 108

would sound like a black-and-white glissando, but as the composer did not use the glissando on the black-keys, perhaps this pentatonic scale should be brought out more than the white-key glissando and treated as a melody. These two glissandi are identical and create a virtuosic effect.

Example 78: O. Messiaen's he deFeu 1.

Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) is considered one of the greatest English composers since Henry Purcell. First piano lessons from his mother were at the age of five, and formal piano lessons were with Harold Samuel in 1928 and Arthur Benjamin during his studies at the Royal College of Music from 1938. Later, the composer became a marvelous pianist of the day. However, his piano output is not large. Glissandi appear in his three piano concertante works: Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 13 (1938), Diversion on a Theme for Left Hand and Orchestra, Op. 21 (1940), and Scottish Ballad, Op. 26 (1941)7^ Significantly, they are rather numerous in each work. Twenty-fotir glissandi are found in the Piano Concerto No. 1, and twenty glissandi in Scottish Ballad. This frequency of use is only second to that of Liszt. In addition, there are four glissandi fotmd in Diversion, including one on the black-keys. The Piano Concerto No. 1 was premiered at a BBC Promenade Concert with the composer himself as the soloist and the BBC Sjonphony Orchestra,

^^Scottish Ballad was written Cor two pianos and orchestra. Its discussion will not be included in this study. conducted by Henry Wood in 1938. The work, including four movements Toccata, Waltz, faipromptu, March^'*— is a work of the composer's early period. Twenty glissandi are found in the 'Toccata" and four glissandi in the March, all of them are on the white-keys. These two movements show the composer's typically briUiant writing style, the "Toccata" bears a percussive character and "betrays the influence of Bartdk and Shostakovich."75 In the ' Toccata," glissandi are all placed in the extended cadenza. Mostly they are continuously ascending and descending within the same register: a^ to a^ or a4. Although in Example 79 we see that the intervals on the black-keys are between the white-key glissandi, this can not interpret these examples functioning as a modulation tool but actually as a melody.

Example 79: B. Britten, Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 13.

Diversion was dedicated to pianist Paul Wittgenstein.^^ The work is a theme and ten variations with a tarantella finale, which "display various kinds of left-hand technique. No attempt is made to imitate two-handed piano playing. An elaborate and taxing workout for the one hand alone, with

^his revised version dated in 1945. The third movement in the original version is Reatative and Aria".

^Sjohn Evans, The Concertos^ from The Batten Companion, 415.

76See Ravel's Concerto (or Left Hand and Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 4. 110

trills in the Recitative, widespread arpeggi in the Nocturne, agility over the keyboard in the Badinerie and Toccata, and repeated notes in the final Tarantella.77 Four glissandi are foxmd in Variation 1 "Recitative," Variation 7 "Badinerie," and Variation 9 "Toccata." Coinddentally, gUssandi all occur in the sections mentioned from the above statement These glissandi, all melodic in function, represent a very dear melody line and simple harmony (Ex. 80). The glissando's essence is strongly brought out in this work, which also coinddes with another of Maurice Hinson's comments about Britten's music: "his style is characterized by thin textures which add darity and zest to his writing."78

Example 80: B. Britten, Diversion on a Theme for Left Hand and Orchestra Op. 21.

veioee /tv

George Crumb George Crumb (b. 1929) was bom in West Virginia and educated at Mason College, the University of Illinois, and the University of NCchigan. He was a member of the faculty of the University of Colorado from 1959 until 1964. In 1964, he served as a "Composer-in-Residence" at the Buffalo Center for the Creative and Performing Arts through the recdpt of a Rockefeller

^Maurice Hinson, Music for Piano and Orchestra: An Annotated Guide, 49.

78Maurice Hinson, Guide to The Pianist's Repertoire, 118. Ill

grant Beginning in 1965, Crumb has taught at the University of Pennsylvania. Pianist David Burge knows Crumb's music very well since he also taught at the University of Colorado in 1962—75. He wrote the following remarks about the composer Crumb found particular reference to life's mysteries in the sounds of Debussy's music, the autobiographical confessions of the songs and sjonphonies of Mahler, as well as the poems of Rilke. He also fotmd them in the magically evocative images of Garcia Lorca, a Spanish poet whose language he did not speak but whose incisive linguistic concepts and sonorities were in tune with his own inner visions. Equally important, he learned about musical form from the classic^ masters and Bartdk, admired the transparent lyridsm of Dallapiccola, and was profoimdly affected by the ecstasies of carefully prepared, hyperromantic climaxes in the music of Alban Berg.^^ Crumb's mature piano solo works include Five Pieces for Piano,^ A Littie Suite for Christmas, A.D. 1979, Gnomic Variations, Processional, and first two sets of the Makrokosmos.^ In these works, the composer's use of glissandi on the strings is ubiquitous. Other extended techniques, including muting, plucking, strumming, vocalizing, special timbre effects made by adding various materials on the strings, and ingenious notations, have become the composer's tj^ical musical characteristics. Unlike Crumb's frequent uses of glissandi on the strings, his examples on the keys are found only in the Makrokosmos I (1972) and II (1973), which are written for amplified piano. The composer himself noted that this title reflects his admiration for B^a Bart6k (Mikrokosmos) and Qaude Debussy

^^avid Burge, Twentieth-Century Piano Music, 211.

^^Which was regarded by the composer as his first "representative" work.

^^Makrokosnios HI (1974) is for two cimplified pianos and percussion (2 players). Makrokosmos IV 0-979) is for an amplified piano, 4 hands. 112

(24 Preludes), while its "spiritual impulse" is akin to Fr616ic Chopin and early Robert Schumann.®^ Along with the second set, there are 24 "fantasy- pieces," whose themes are derived from astrological signs. Five glissandi are used in the Aries of Spring-Fire (from Makrokosmos I), and all of them are placed between tone-clusters at the climax of the work (Ex. 81). Like many of Debussy's examples, these glissandi are also impressionistic in function, suggesting the image of the "fire."

Example 81: G. Crumb, Spring-Fire (Aries) from Makrokosmos L

In Tora! Tora! Tora! (from Makrokosmos II), there are seven examples of black-and-white glissandi, which are also impressionistic in function (Ex. 82). Unlike many other black-and-white glissandi, the examples here produce the effect of "noise."

Example 82: G. Crumb, Tora! Tora! Tora! (Cadenza Apocalittica) from Makrokosmos II.

^^Don Gillespie, ed. George Crumb: ProSIe of a Composer, 109. 113

Of the examples in twentieth-century piano works, besides the normal glissando, four other types are illustrated in Table 11.

Table 11: Examples in the Twentieth Century in Four Groups Beised on Its Type. Type Title Year #s ofGli-ssandi® 1. Black-key Ravel, Jeux d 'eaux. 1901 1 glissandi Ravel, Uns barque surVoc^aru 1905 2 Ravel, Otidine. 1908 2 •3 Debussy, Feux d'artiBce. 1913 4 Prokofiev, Piano Concsrto No. Z HI. 1913 4 15 E)ebussy, Etude, Pourles huit doigts. 1915 4 A Falla, l^oches en los Jardines de Espana, I. 1915 12 17 Villa-Lobos, Rhodante. 1919 1 Hindemith, Shimmy. 1922 1 Bart6k, Piano Con

1. When compared to Table 5, it is interesting to note that examples of octave-glissando used in the twentieth century were foimd only in the works of Shostakovich and Stravinsky, and double-note glissandi—^first found in Liszt's works—were used again only by Ravel. In contrast, the black-key glissando had been used rather lavishly. Besides, many composers used two- hand glissandi, but only Hindemith's example is in contrary directions— following Liszt's example in his Hungarian Rhapsody No. 10. 2. The black-key glissando outlines the pentatonic scale, but later it becomes less crucial in this harmonic consideration, and resembles nearly the concept of tone-dusters or just a "noise." There are four combinations in the black-and-white glissando: (a) both descending, (b) both ascending, (c) in contrary directions—^inwards, (d) in contrary directions—outwards. Only the combination (d) has not been foimd yet Moreover, if these glissandi are applied to both hands, there is more variety: (i) white-key in the right hand, (ii) white-key in the left hand. Summing up these possibilities, examples of the black-and-white glissando foimd are collected in Table 12.

Table 12: Examples of the Black-and-White Glissando. Year Composer, Htle # of gl. Range Execution^ 1913 Debussy, Feux d'artiBce. 1 5 1922 Hindemith, Shimmy. 1 4 1 1961 Ginastera, Piano Concerto No. 1,4th mvt. 1 5 k 1 1973 Crumb, Tora! Tora! Total 7 OS ® A key for these symbos is found in Appendix A.

3, The first example indicated the changing of tempo in the glissando was foimd in Liszt's Die Schlittsdmhlaufer. There are more examples by 115

twentieth-century composers, such as Bartdk, Villa-Lobos, Prokofiev, and Copland. Examples with tempo indications are collected in Table 13.

Table 13: Glissandi with Tempo Dedications in The Twentieth-Century Works. 1915 Falla, Moches en los fardines de EspaHa, HI. gliss. ad lib. quasi cadenza. 1926 Bartdk, First Piano Concerto. gliss. poco allarg. 1932 Barti3k, Second Piano Concerto. gUss. poco ritard. 1945 BartiSk, Tanz-Suite. gliss. poco allarg. 1919 Villa-Lobos, Rhodante. glissando veloce. 1921 Villa-Lobos, MorenJnha. gliss. veloce ad lib. 1926 Villa-Lobos, Rudepoema. gliss. veloce. 1914 Prokofiev, Sarcasmes, Op. 17, No. 4. (glis. ad libitum) ritard. 1957 Copland, Piano Fantasy. gliss. (slow), gliss. hurrying forward.

4. The use of a glissando immediately before the end of a work (or movement) is a new treatment by twentieth-century composers. Table 14 illustrates examples in this category, while there is an example used at the opening of a work, that is Bart6k's Tanz-Suite.

T^le^4j_^MagksUsedK^^Be|^re^^^^ofE^^Piere/^b^^^^ 1890 Debussy, Menuet from Suite 1926 Bartdk, Sonata, I. Bergamasque. 1912 Prokofiev, Toccata, Op. 11. 1926 Bartdk, Piano Concerto No. 1, II.® 1913 Prokofiev, Piano Concerto No. 2, IV.® 1926 Copland, Piano Concerto. 1919 Villa-Lobos, Rhodante. 1929 Messiaen, Les sons impalpagles du rive. 1921 Stravinsky, Trois Mouvements de 1931 Ravel, Concerto for Left Hand. P^trouchka. ^Indicated slightly differently.

5. The graphic notation of the glissando is a universal treatment among twentieth-century composers. Among the selected composers in this study, only Villa-Lobos and Shostakovich did not use the graphic indication for their glissandi. Examples from these two composers are either in a short 116 range or the usage of glissandi is still melodic in function. Like many other indications for ornaments, when the execution of the ornament makes it imnecessary to indicate every single note, the graphic symbol is flie best solution. The symbols for the use of tremolos and trills represent pertinent examples of this. Other indications for the use of glissandi along with the graphic indication are collected in Table 15.

Table 15: Special Indication with the Use of Glissandi. 1919 Falla, Fantasia Bastica. Connection of ligatures between upper and lower notes. 1922 Hindemith, Shimmy. Untertalten, Obertalten. 1949 Messiaen, he de Feu 1. gliss. touches blanches. 1961 Ginastera, Concerto No. 1. gliss. (teclas negras). 1962 Tippett, Sonata No. 2. Cormection of ligatures between upper and lower notes.

6. Most glissandi used in the twentieth century fulfill the function of virtuosic effects or programmatic expression. Some are used as a modulation tool or embellishment while the use of the glissando as a melodic gesture occurs infrequently in modem piano works. This can also be seen as the use of graphic indication becomes common for modem composers, since melodic function would not be served by this kind of indication.®^ The use of the glissando as an impressiorust device can be traced from Saint-Saens's Aquarium (Ex. 22) and was inherited largely by the impressionist composers; while in works incorporating the national style, the glissando usually represents programmatic intent. The use of the glissando as a modulation tool is rather novel in twentieth-century compositions, although in the

^^Benjamin Britten's examples are the exceptions, since the amount of glissandi is quite large, and the graphic notation is rather consistent. 117 previous chapter, there are two examples; Balakirev (Ex. 25) and Grieg (Ex. 26).84 7. There is a similar circumstance in the works with many glissandi, that is, they appear grouped closely together in the work. Such as Debussy's Etude: Pour les huit doigts (6), Ravel's Concerto in G (8), Bartdk's Rhapsody (8), Ginastera's Piano Concerto No. 1 (6), Prokofiev's Piano Concerto No. 2, third movement (11), Prelude Op. 12, No. 7 (8), Tippett's Sonata No. 2 (7), and Britten's Piano Concerto No. 1, first movement (20). Even examples discussed in the previous chapter—^Scarlatti's and Liszt's—also reveal this kind of treatment. This tells us that a single glissando usually introduces a surprising effect, while multiple-glissandi reinforce the impression of the device.

occurences of these functions can be seen in Appendix A. 118

CHAPTER4 Conclusions

The Use of the Glissando Summing up the examples found in this study, the total number of glissandi is 473, used in 90 works.^ The following table (Table 16) shows in detail of the amount and characteristics of each kind of glissando.^

Table 16: The Ntmibers of Examples. Total numbers found: 473 white- black-key ascending descending octave- double- two-hand key glissandi note glissandi glissandi # % # % # % # % If % # % # %

Concerto 164 16 128 52 7 0 19 Sonata 39 0 30 9 8 0 0 Etude 8 4 6 6 0 4 0 Misc. 224 18 193 49 11 15 19

Total 435 92.0 38 8.0 357 753 116 245 26 55 19 4.0 38 16.1

Octave-glissandi: Among 26 octave-glissandi, 21 of them were used during the nineteenth century. The remaining five examples were produced

^Glissandi were counted according to this method: each octave-glissando and double-note glissando was counted as one glissando, while any example executed by both hands was counted as two glissandi, hence, "two glissandi are in a two-hand glissando," or "an example of the two-hand glissando has two glissandi in it" In this special case, the in Table 16 for two- hand glissandi is the number of "examples," not the number of "glissandi." That is, "38 examples are two-hand glissandi, whiA total is 76 glissandi." Therefore, the percentage of "76 divided by 473 (the total numbers of glissandi) is 16.1%."

^The numbers are based upon examples listed in Appendix A, but exclude Frederic Rzewski's since he is yoimger than George Crumb, who is the last composer discussed in this study. 119 by Stravinsky and Shostakovich. The twentieth-century virtuosos, such as Bartdk and Prokofiev, avoided the use of the octave-glissando. Perhaps they considered that the octave-glissando requires tremendous endurance and drive but without enough benefit in return. Apparently, following the Lisztian-tradition, the octave-glissando is not a practical device for them. Double-note glissandi: Only 19 examples in four works are foimd; Liszt contributed twelve of them. Ravel the other seven. Similar to the disadvantages of the octave-glissandi, even Liszt himself gave an ossia version for the double-note glissandi in his own work. Ravel's example dates to 1905—about a half century later than Liszt's examples—and uses continuously ascending and descending glissandi in a musical fashion which may have inspired use in later piano compositions. Two-hand glissandi: Among 38 examples of two-hand glissandi—Liszt contributing 20—a half of them are foxmd in piano concertos. There are 10 examples of the black-and-white glissando (4.2%), seven of them were produced by George Crumb. This kind of glissando is gradually becoming an application of the tone-clusters sonority for present-day composers. Along with glissandi on the strings, this kind of glissando will perhaps be used more frequently later. Black-key glissandi: Only 38 black-key glissandi are found (8.0%), none of them in piano sonatas. And only 28 of them (5.9%) are executed alone, since 10 of them are executed with white-key glissandi. Starting from the very early years of the twentieth century—the first example found is Ravel's Jewc d'eau, dated in 1901—this kind of glissando obviously has not been in frequent use. Directions: The glissando mostly followed the model of its ancestral device, the slide, in directions: 755% are ascending, and only 245% of them are descending, hi the case of two-hand glissandi, only five examples are executed in contrary directions, which are in the works of Liszt, Bart6k, and Hindemith. Type of works: Piano concertos and similar types of works have a significant amoxmt of glissandi: among 473 examples, they have about 40%, and 32 concertante works are among 90 works in which glissandi are found. The brilliant effect of this device is highly suited to the character of the concertos. On the contrary, only three works are etudes, and they have only 2.5% in amount.

Figure 7: The Types of the Works in the Use of Glissandi. Total: 90

Misc.: 47 Concerto: 32 51.4% 38.1% 2d Sonata

• Concerto Etude: 3 8.2% 2^^

Summary of the Glissando's Historical Development When the glissando has been written as a formal compositional device in the eighteenth century, beginning with the works of Domenico Scarlatti, it evolved from its ancestral device, the slide, and was ornamental and occasionally melodic in function. Although Scarlatti's examples are relatively simple, they anticipate examples in later piano compositions in 121

several aspects, such as "quasi-glissandi" and the destination note (or chord) on (or off) the beat In the early part of the nineteenth century, Ludwig van Beethoven, Carl Maria von Weber, and Johann Nepomuk Hummel expanded the device in octaves, which before the end of the century was adopted by several composers, such as Bedrich Smetana, Johannes Brahms, and Mily Balcikirev. Among twentieth-century composers, only Igor Stravinsky and Dmitri Shostakovich utilized this kind of glissandi. Frariz Liszt produced the largest quantity among all of the composers. He created two-hand and double-note glissandi, and also bestowed a virtuosic effect, which has become a quite popular treatment of the device since Liszt's efforts. While the virtuosic effect is actually the glissando's natural essence, examples are ubiquitous, developing with the improvement of the piano itself and the larger and larger expectation from the performer and the audience. For nationalistic composers, the glissando is a fine device to express the feeling of ethnic emotions, such as jojrful and energetic. When it is accompanied with a virtuosic intention, an electrifying charm intoxicates both the performer and the audience. Bedrich Smetana, Mily Balakirev, Edvard Grieg, and Edward Elgar in the nineteenth century; and Manuel de Falla, B^a Bartdk, Heitor Villa-Lobos, George Gershwin, and Aaron Copland in the twentieth century, all have this kind of character in their glissando. The impressionists, Qaude Debussy and Maurice Ravel, began to use the black-key glissando, which is a fine application for impressionistic purposes since its pentatonic orientation is easy to liken to images of nature: 122

water, wind, fireworks, and so forth. However, this impression gradually faded out in the works of more recent composers, in whose works the concept of tone-clusters or just a "noise" is revealed. Harmonically, the use of glissandi are distinctively within their natural consonance. Until the early part of the twentieth century, impressionists still followed this principle in the use of the black-key glissando. As a percussive character in the examples of B61a Bartdk and Serge Prokofiev, this principle seems to be exploded, and the device appears with a greater flexiblity of application. Melodically, glissandi simply outline a scale. Examples appearing as an alternative between a fingered scale and a glissando—especially if the figure is in a short range—surface quite often, and even a comparison between the original work and its transcription show the device's obvious application. Examples from the works of Manuel de Falla and Benjamin Britten demonstrate a extreme possibility of using glisssandi as a cadenza, which enriches the meaning of this device and is a far cry firom its earlier reputation as a gimmick.

The Future of the Glissando The evolution of glissandi is still progressing in current piano compositions. Today composers still use this "traditional" device in their piano works, while around 1920s, glissandi on the strings were initiated by Henry Cowell in his Aeolian Harp (1923), Piece for Piano with Strings (1924), and The Banshee (1925). This later became one of the common devices for 123 avant garde composers.^ Interestingly, while "glissandi on the strings" were derived from "glissandi on the keys," the applications of the former are gradually being reclaimed for the use of the latter. Such techniques include using different speeds, wiping the strings, use of various parts of fingers— nails, finger-tips—^and playing on different parts of the strings.^ Some composers have applied these ideas to the keyboard glissando; a fine example is Frederic Rzewski's The People United Will Never Be Defeated!. Frederic Rzewski was bom in Massachusetts in 1938 and studied at Harvard and Princeton. He is a fine pianist as well as a composer; he premiered Stockhausen's Klavierstuck X in 1962. The People United was composed in 1975. The work, approximately one hour long, is a theme and set of variations. In this work, the use of glissandi—^in Variations 10,12,34, and 36—^is startling! Glissandi without destination marking (Ex. 83), glissandi executed by palm, the use of a white-key glissando ending on black note, accented on the starting notes, two-hand glissandi wiping inwards in contrary directions, black-and-white glissando, various dynamic plans, etc. The composer obviously absorbed the concept of glissandi on the strings and

%uch as John Cage 0)-1912), Milton Babbitt 0?. 1916), Pierre Boulez (b. 1925), Karlheinz Stockhausen (b. 1928) and George Crumb.

4john Cage indicated "GUSS. ON STRINGS (COVER PAPER)" and "GUSS. ON STRINGS (FINGER-TIPS)" in his Music of Change U, and"ABR-GUSS. ON STRINGS (FINGERNAIL)" in Music of Change III, and IV. In the Two Pastorales for Piano, the usage include "SWEEP STRING LENGTHWISE TOWARDS DAMPER (FROM BEYOND) (FINGERNAIL)," "SLOW GUSS. ON STRINGS," and "ACCEL. GUSS. ON UNTUNED STRINGS. THIS SIDE OF DAMPER, MIDDLE RANGE, WOOD STICK, BEGIN FAST, CONTINUE WITH RTTARD." George Crumb used "rapid glissando over strings (f.t.)" indication in his Gnomic-Variations. In Karlheinz Stockhausen's Klavierstucke Xn, the use of glissandi on the strings include "Fingemagel-Gliss Qber die Saiten streichen," "mit parallelen Fingerkuppen und FingemSgeln auf mehrere saiten glieichzeitig klopfen," and "mit Fingemdgeln auf Saiten hin und her reiben." 124

applied them on the keys with the techniques from the old format of glissandi.

Example 83: F. Rzewski, The People United Will Never Be Defeated!

The People United offers a rather suggestive example for the future of the glissando and indeed a good opportunity for modem-day composers to re­ evaluate using the device. Pianisf s sympathy with the aesthetics of modem composers is declining; and fewer and fewer composers are keyboard interpreters,^ and can develop tfie pianistic technique directly or feel the device is still important and intriguing. From further studies of many other traditional devices, one could expect that those devices will evolve new forms to fuUfil both composers' aesthetics and awaken pianists' enthusiasms.

"With the single exception of Bartdk, no composer has contributed to the repertory to anything like the same extent as did Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven or Schubert." The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, "Keyboard Music m. The Growth of Pianism," 10:33 125

APPENDIX A Examples of Glissandi

^ ascending on the white keys. ^ descending on the black ke3rs. ft two-hand glissandi (on the white keys, ascending). ^ black-and-white glissandi (RH on the black keys, descending). ^ in contrary directions (inwards, LH on the black keys). ^ 3rd octave-glissando (ascording). V double-note glissandi (in 3rds, descending).

co a. Q CSJX AS "S g S x: c E 3 •aU E J >> (Q E Composer I 1 5 i E3 & Range 1 1 JU o. Composition Year Z inoct. cuE 2 ceCQ a.r E

MilyBalakirev 1869 A. Islamey rev. 1 A oct 3 • • • 1902 Samuel Barber Piano Concerto, Op. 1962 2-^ 38

Bda Bartdk Rhapsody, Op. 1 1905 8 A (Kano solo version) 2 • • Tanz-Suite, I, m 1923 3 A V 2-3 • Sonata, Istmvt 1926 1 . A 4 Piano Concerto No. 1 1926 5 A V A 1st 2nd mvt. V 2&5i • PianoCmcatoNo.2 . W Istmyt. 1932 1 3 • Piano Concerto Mo. 3 1945 A 3rd mvt. 2 k 5 • • • 126

§ S 1 o. Q o I 5 •8 I 2 c "S O u S w •s(B g i "i 3 !> Composer •g 3 i Range "S r "8 a. Composition Year Z \ 1= in oct (B E oa • ) JFiiano QmicattmC : M^i>Op.ISr 1801 • Istmvt Prano Sonata, Op. 53 A V A net 3rd mvt. 1805 5 oct V 2 • Johannes Brahms Paganini Variations 1866 V Bk.I,Var.l3. 4 x-li • • Ongarisch Tanze 1872 2 A V • • No. 8 2(RH) Benjamin Britten Piano Concerto No. 1, 1938 • Op. 13,1st; 4th mvt rev. 24 A V 2-4 1945 Diversion on a Theme 1940 for Left Hand and rev. 4 A V 2-6 • Orchestra, Op. 21 1951 Aaron Copland Piano Concerto 1926 1 ~ A 4 • • Piano Fantasy 1957 2 A 4 • • George Crumb . Sprbig-Fire iam. • V MakrtdhosmosI 1972 5 : ,-A • Tora! Tora! Tora! A A 5i.6 (Cadenza 1973 14 • Apocalittica) from V • Makrokosmos J7 127

e0 o. 1 mX o u :s(O •p •o3 E >s 1 "g Composer E3 >\ Range *s Compositiotv Year Z in oct.

Qaude Debussy Suite Bagainasqae^ 18W r -A • Menuet 4 Pour le Piano, 1901 5 A • Prelude 3-4 AT Prelude 1913 7 2-6 Feuxd'artiBce AT J Etude 1915 6 T • 1-2 • Pour les huit doigts Edward Elgar Allegro CConcert 1901 2-3 Solo), Op. 46 Manuel de Falla Nights in die A V 1915 17 2-4 Gardens of Spain AT Fantasia Bastica 1919 10 A V A-' George Gershwin Rhapsody inblue 1924 1 A 4 • Concerto in F 1925 2 A 2 • 1st, 3rd mvt. Alberto Ginastera 12 AmaicaaPtdudes 1944 1 1 • No. 3 Cre

0 e 1 _o 1 i o "S p- S 1 :s e •a 1 0 I 3 "S £ i J . Range t "8 a. Year s SI 1 «s E Composition z u inoct. 1 2 > CO

Paul Hindemitli Sli£ma^(6com:Suiie • A X -1922") 192Z Johaim Nepomuk Hummd Piano Concerto m A 1821 3I inznoi>Op.85 Dmitri Kabalevsky Piano Concerto No. Z 1935 Op. 23, Istmvt. Franz Liszt 1839 Hano •• • Concerto No. 2 rev. 8 AV 4 1849 M^yar DaJok— A • ungarische National- 1840 3 A 3rd 3 Maodien No. 9 A 6th 1849 Totentanz 1853 30 AV 2-4 • • 1859 Illustration No. 2 aus dea Prophet (von Meyerbee r;1850 57 A ft 1-5 • Die SchlittschuhlSufer .'A • Lachasse 1851 4 . A 6th 3 • • Hugarian Rhapsody 1853 28 A V A • • No. 10 V No, 14 1853 3 AV A • • 1851 3rd No. 15 rev. 5 V V 2 • 1871 Mephisto Waltz 1860 2 -A ft • N0.I 4 Paraphrase of the Waltz from Gounod's Faust 1868 7 A 2-2| • 129

1 S o i C CL o X J 1 bJ o 5 1 o 1 *8 V*w s C •8 TJ OI ts 3 g c •g 1 (8 •5 8 3 Composer E Range 3 Q. 3 1 'v t U "S Year (S 1 £ Qjmposition Z H inoct. 1 2 > CD B.

Olivier Messiaen Fedudei Lessaosr 19» 1 A 4 • impalpa^esdu rfve tie de Feu 1 from Quatre Etudes de 1949 2 A 2 • rythme Serge Prokofiev Piano Concerto No. 1, 1912 6 A 2-4 • Op. 10,1st mvt 1 Piano Concerto No. 2, 1913

A V 1 Op. 16 rev. 14 • • 1st, 3rd, 4th mvt. 1923 • Piano Concerto No. 3, Op. 26 1921 5 AV 2-3 • • 1st &. 3rd mvL Piano Concerto No. 4, 1931 1 V 2 • Op. 53, 3rd mvt Piano Concerto No. S, Op. 55 1932 8 A V 1-4 • 1st, 2nd, 5th mvt Suggestion 1912 2 A 4 • • Diaboliquer Op. 4, No. 4 ToccatSrOpAl 1912 I A 5 • • Ten Pieces, Op. 12, 1913 8 A 2 • No. 7 Prelude Sarcasmes^ Op. 17 No.4 1914 1 - A 3 • March and Scherzo 6rom the Love for 1922 1 A 2 • Three Oranges Sonata No..^ Op. 82. 194D 2 A ' 2 • 1st mvt. 130

c c § e i. _o X J U 5 0 1 w 5 s •2 Z e (9 UJ 0 e c "S >v (« s 1 B 3 1 3 Composer 1 >V Range s "S r 1 Cl Composition Year Z } inoct 2 1 e 1 2 > ca fi.

Sergei Rachmaninoff - - - Rano (joncai6'No,3^ • :A 0p.30r3idin«t 1909 1 2 • • Rhapsody on a Theme 1934 2 A k 4 • • • by Paganini, Op. 43 Maurice Ravel Jewcd'eau 1901 1 • 5 • Miroirs Una barque sur 1905 2 AT • I'oc^an A 3rd Alboradodel 1905 4 A V V 2-4 • A gradoso 4th V Gaspard de la Nuit, 1908 3 A A 3&7 Ondine • LesEtitn/BeasdelaBtBe deJaBeteftamAlbum • de sixMcneaax dtdsi! 1912 1 A 4 Concerto for Left 1931 5 A Hand 2i-7 • • • • Piano Concerto in C 1932 8 AV & 3- 5 Major, Istmvt. • )ako\ Hano Concerto,Op. 1882 5 A 2-6 • 30 • Frederic Rzewski ThePeopleUtdtedVm I Never be DeSBtted^Vtii 3575 AV • • la 12; 34^ 36 22 ¥ 1+ 1 AV 131

c Q. e 1 CtiX o o •c 3 •8 £ 15 •o 3 1 BJ § E % a(S (S 1 $ 9 Cbm{X)ser £ Range 1 § •g 3 1 •K (S Composition Year Z in oct c2 > CB I I" Caxnille Saint-Safins JNanoCaacertoNo^S r. • • 1896 1 -A •_ • 3rdin.vt. • Aquahtan from Le 4 A 2 • Camaval des animaux Domenico Scarlatti 5Qnae^IC379 12 A 1 • Sonata, K. 468 4 A • Sonata K. 487 1 A 2 •

V Piano Sonata No. 1, 1926 6 AV 2 Op. 12 • • Piano Concerto No. 1, 1933 2 A 3 Op. 35,4th mvt. • Bedrich Smetana A Ballade inE minor 1858 2 A oct 3 • • Polka in A minor 1877 1 A 2 • •

Igor Stravinslqr TroisNbmvementsde A ll.5 P&roudika, .19a 17 oct :l8t3rtmvt Soulima Stravinsky Weddin/tBdlsboniliie JhreeBauyTaies^Sliul, 1 OadeteHa : ^ Michael Tippett SonataNo.2 1962 8 4-5 132

§ e o.>: S 1 o CIl s "S &- u 3 "2 c s 0 •8 •0 so EIS •S IS i 3 1 Composer i Range •8 •g Year S Q 1: r Composition Z H inoct a

Heitor Villa-Lobos -' - - - . . r.' l|-3 EmumBago 1918 2 --v • Encantado Rhodante 1919 3 A A 2-3 • AI^n'anaHorta 1919 1 -A • firom Suite Flotair Op.97 Moreziinha from Suite 1921 1 A 3I • • Prdle Do B4b4 Rudepoema 1926 3 A V 3 • • Mdmopr^coce 1929 1 A 4 • • Dansa Do Ihdio Branco firom Suite 1936 5 A V 9 2-4 Gdo Brasileiro Piano Concerto No. 4 1952 2 A li-2 3rd mvt Carl Maria von Weber Piano Concerto No. 1, A 1810 A 3 • Op. 11, finale 2 A Concertsuck, Op. 79 1821 4 A Oct 35-4 • Weber-Tausig A Au&trdenmgxam 18605 act 4fc3| Tarn APPENDIX B

The Final Spin—^25,000 B. C.

for piano solo 134

THE FINAL SPIN - 25,000 B.C.

Shuennchin Lin

/L ta.

RH i j.» 7 *^ / 1 LHRH f [1 /v\ /r\ u '

- •;/ \ / \ n-^ a tempo VI " II f 1 — 0=® I5va 135 136

RH

lot fiw

o=<»

pp

r

o-« ISva ff" /T.

JSvm zei 138

0=«

!n. I— I —I itfaioim

P

wiping gliss. on Iho blaek-k»y.

t5vm

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Benedict Julius. Carl Maria von Weber. London: Sampson Low, Marston & Co., Ltd., 1980. Berger, Arthur. Aaron Copland. New York: Oxford University Press, 1953. Blokker, Roy. The Music of Dmitri Shostakovich. London: The Tantivy Press, 1979. Blom, Eric. Beethoven's Pianoforte Sonatas Discussed. New York: Da Capo Press, 1968. Bowen, Catherin Drinker. Free Artist. The Story of Anton and Nicholas Rubinstein. New York: Biandom House, 1939. Bowen, Meirion. Michael Tippett. London: Robson Books Ltd., 1882. Brewer, Harriette. Modem Masters of the Keyboard. Freeport: Books for Libraries Press, 1969. Chasins, Abram. Speaking of Pianists. New York: Knopf, 1957. Qapham, John. The Master Musicians Series: Smetana. London: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1972. Cone, Edward T. The Composer's Voice. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. Copland, Aaron and Perlis, Vivian. Copland: 1900 through 1942. New York: St. Martin's/Marek, 1984. Culshaw, John. Sergei Rachmaninoff. London: D. Dobson, 1949. Dawes, Francis E. Debussy Piano Music. London: British Broadcasting Corp., 1969. Demarquez, Suzanne. Manuel de Falla. Tran. Salvator Attanasio. Philadelphia: Chilton Book Co., 1968. Drake, Kenneth. The Sonatas of Beethoven as He Played and Taught Them. Music Teachers National Association, Inc., 1972. Dunn, John Petrie. Ornamentation in the Works of Frederick Chopin. New York: Da Capo Press, 1971. Emery, Walter. Bach's Ornaments. London: Novello, 1953. 144

Evans, Peter. The Music of Benjamin Britten. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1979. Fanning, David, ed. Shostakovich Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995 Fiess, Stephen C. E. The Piano Works of Serge ProkoGev. Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press Inc., 1994. FuUer-Maitland, John Alexander. Schumann's Pianoforte Works. London: Oxford University Press, H. Milford, 1927. Garden, Edward. Balakirev: A Critical Study of His Life and Music. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1967. Gat, Jozsef. Technique of Piano Playing. London: Collet's, 1965. Gerig, Reginald R. Famous Pianists and Their Technique. Washington and New York: Robert B. Luce, Inc., 1974. Gilbert, Steven E. The Music of Gershwin. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1995. Goldberg, Isaac. George Gershwin. A Study in American Music. New York: Frederick Ungar Pub. Co., 1958. Green, Carol Anne. Melodic and Harmonic Analysis of Selected Piano Works by Aaron Copland. Dissertation, Indiana University, 1970. Griffiths, Paul. The Master Musicians: Bartdk. London: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd., 1984. Guiard, Yves. "Failure to Sing the Left-Hand Part of the Score during Piano Performance: Loss of the Pitch and Stroop Vocalizations." Music Perception, VI/3:299-314, Spring, 1989. Gutman, David. Prokofiev. London: The Alderman Press, 1988. Hamilton, Qarence G. Cfmaments in Qassical and Modem Music. New York: AMS Press, 1976. Hervey, Arthur. Saint-Sa&ts. Westport, Cormecticut: Greenwood Press Pub., 1970. 145

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