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The best way to study, teach, and learn about books. The History Boys INTRO Genre: British Realistic Drama Setting: Cutlers’ Grammar School, a fictional boys’ grammar BRIEF BIOGRAPHY OF ALAN BENNETT school in Northern Britain, some time in the 1980s. Alan Bennett was born in Leeds, England. He attended Oxford Climax: While taking Irwin home on his motorcycle, Hector has University, and received his undergraduate degree in Medieval an accident. The crash cripples Irwin and kills Hector. History. He co-wrote and performed in a comedy revue called Antagonist: The Headmaster is in some ways the play’s Beyond the Fringe when he was in his mid-twenties, and this antagonist. He is a strict and inflexible presence at the school, launched his theater career. Since then, Bennett has worked in and comes across as anti-intellectual. He seems to care about theater, television, and radio. He has been an actor and a the boys’ Oxford and Cambridge careers for the wrong director as well as a writer. He is best known for his plays The reasons. Madness of George III and The History Boys. Bennett still lives in Point of View: Play Britain with his partner, Rupert Thomas. EXTRA CREDIT HISTORICAL CONTEXT Re-writing Posner for the stage. Alan Bennett changed and The History Boys takes place in 1980s Britain, when Margaret revised his script during the rehearsal process for The History Thatcher was in power. The play does not directly reference Boys. He had originally written Posner as a boy who matures the political context of the time, but some of Thatcher’s policies very late in life (this was based on Bennett’s own experience). In affected Britain’s educational climate. She cut funding one early draft, the play’s last line was Posner saying, “It’s not all significantly for British universities. After her 1988 Education bad news. My voice is breaking.” But the play’s director, Reform Act, schools had to follow a national curriculum and Nicholas Hynter, said that it would be too difficult to cast a submit to periodic inspections. Such measures may have teenaged actor whose voice had not yet broken. Bennett re- contributed to the Headmaster’s insistence on quantifiable wrote the part to remove this detail. results from his teachers, thus creating a backdrop for the play. Cheating death. In 1997, Alan Bennett was diagnosed with RELATED LITERARY WORKS terminal cancer. He began work on an autobiographical work The History Boys was turned into a movie after it was published, called Untold Stories, which he expected to publish only and it was one of many movies produced in the early 2000s posthumously. But the chemotherapy worked, and Bennett’s that focused on Britain in the 1980s. Others included Son of cancer went into remission. He published Untold Stories, and in Rambow, which focuses on two British schoolboys trying to 2004, finished The History Boys. make a film together one summer, and This is England, which examines 1980s skinheads and white nationalism. Alan Bennett has written many other works, including the play The Madness PLOT SUMMARY of George III, which he also adapted into a movie with British The History Boys follows two teachers and a group of students director Nicholas Hynter. He has often collaborated with at an all boys grammar school in England in the 1980s. The Hynter, including on his 2009 play The Habit of Art, which boys are all trying to get into Oxford and Cambridge. At the centers on the poet W.H. Auden, who is also referenced in The beginning of the play, we see Hector, a beloved teacher in his . Hynter took over as the Artistic Director of History Boys 60s, leading his General Studies class. He congratulates the Britain’s National Theater in 2003, just before he staged The boys on their recent exam results, and says that now that their History Boys. He produced other new work by British exams are over, their real education can resume. Hector tells playwrights at around the same time, including Elmina’s Kitchen the boys that they shouldn't be so concerned with getting into in 2003 and On the Shore of the Wide World in 2005. the most prestigious universities, Oxford and Cambridge, KEY FACTS because there’s a whole world outside of these places. Full Title: The History Boys The school’s Headmaster wants the boys to attend prestigious universities in order to raise the profile of the school. He hires When Written: 2004 Irwin, a young Oxford graduate, to teach history and give the Where Written: England students extra “polish.” The boys meet Irwin during a funny When Published: First performed in 2004. scene in Hector’s class. The Headmaster walks in as they are Literary Period: Contemporary drama improvising a skit, in French, about a brothel (Hector is using

©2016 LitCharts LLC www.LitCharts.com | Follow us: @litcharts | v.S.003 Page 1 The best way to study, teach, and learn about books. this method to teach the subjunctive verb tense). After this desk, saying that he feels he has wasted his life. The boys are episode, Hector asks if anyone needs a ride on his motorcycle. nonplussed, and Posner is the only one who moves to comfort We soon learn that Hector gropes the boys while they ride Hector. behind him on their way home from school. They discuss this The Headmaster tells Mrs. Lintott about Hector’s groping, and matter-of-factly. says that he’s almost glad it happened. He’s been wanting to fire In Irwin’s classes, he encourages the boys to explore Hector anyway, because Hector’s results are so hard to unconventional positions in their essays, even if they don’t fully quantify. He exits, and Mrs. Lintott tells Irwin that the believe them. He says that this will make them more Headmaster is a “twat.” competitive university applicants. Irwin begins to realize that In their first shared lesson, Hector and Irwin discuss the the boys have a lot of literary knowledge from Hector’s classes, Holocaust. Hector and Posner argue that one shouldn’t try to but that they don’t want to use it on an exam. He becomes more make a good point about the Holocaust on an exam, because and more curious about what goes on in Hector’s classes, this demeans the suffering of those involved. Dakin and Irwin especially when he finds that Hector conducts class behind a argue that the Holocaust is an historical event, too, and can be locked door. We witness more General Studies sessions with discussed as such. A few scenes later, Mrs. Lintott, Hector, and Hector, in which he reminds the boys that literature will help Irwin giving the boys mock admissions interviews. Mrs. Lintott soothe pain and heartache later in life. delivers a monologue about the way that women are Irwin tells Mrs. Lintott another history teacher, that Posner, marginalized in history while men get to make all the moves. one of the boys, came to see him recently. We have already Afterwards, Dakin asks Irwin about his time at Oxford. Their learned that Posner has a crush on his fellow student Dakin, conversation becomes flirtatious. but that Dakin is sleeping with the Headmaster’s secretary, We then hear from the boys, in narrative asides, about their Fiona. Posner tells Irwin that he thinks he might be gay. In a exams and admissions visits. They have all received places at narrative aside, Scripps (another student) says that Posner Oxford or Cambridge—even Rudge, who got in partly because goes to Irwin because he has senses that they both have a his father was once a janitor at the university. Then Dakin crush on Dakin, and he “wanted company.” confronts Irwin. While at Oxford, he learned that Irwin lied Soon after this, Irwin asks Hector to encourage the boys to use about being a student there. Irwin admits that this is true. their General Studies knowledge on the exam. Hector says that Dakin seduces him, convincing him to come out for “a drink.” He some knowledge is not meant to be “useful.” Irwin argues that teases Irwin for being rebellious in the classroom, but cautious education is for the present, not just for comfort in the boys’ in life. old age. Dakin tells Scripps that the Headmaster often makes passes at Near the end of Act One, the Headmaster calls Hector to his Fiona, and that he has used this information to get Hector a office. He tells him that he has learned of Hector’s groping on reprieve. He says that he’s going to ride home with Hector the motorcycle. He asks Hector to retire at the end of the term. today, for old-times sake. When the Headmaster sees Dakin in Hector quotes several lines of poetry, and begins to tell the a helmet, however, he forbids this. Instead he tells Hector to Headmaster that “the transmission of knowledge is in itself an take Irwin. erotic act.” The Headmaster shuts him down, saying that his We hear from Scripps, in a narrative aside, that the motorcycle behavior “isn’t normal.” He says that Hector and Irwin will share crashed on the way home that day. No one knows exactly what their classes for the rest of the term. happened, but Irwin was left crippled, and Hector is dead. The In the last scene of the act, Posner and Hector discuss a poem boys gather and share their memories of Hector. Then Mrs. about a young soldier who died in war. They both seem to Lintott tells us about their lives. Most of the boys end up relate to the poem, which has themes of being an outsider. successful in some profession, but Timms gets into drugs, and Dakin enters wearing a motorcycle helmet, ready to go home Posner ends up leading a lonely life, though he always with Hector, but Hector shoos him away, and rides off alone. remembers Hector’s teachings. The play ends when Hector Act Two begins a few years in the future. Irwin is now a says that the lesson he really wanted to teach the boys was this: historian on TV. A man comes to visit him on set, and we later “Pass the parcel. That’s sometimes all you can do. Take it, feel it, find out that it is osnerP . He asks Irwin about his relationship and pass it on.” with Dakin, and seems to be writing a piece of journalism on the subject. Irwin gets angry, and Posner leaves. CHARACTERS The narrative returns to years earlier, back in Hector’s classroom. The boys are joking around, and Hector becomes Hector – Hector is the central character in the play, a beloved overwhelmed with discouragement. He puts his head on his teacher who believes that his students should learn literature

©2016 LitCharts LLC www.LitCharts.com | Follow us: @litcharts | v.S.003 Page 2 The best way to study, teach, and learn about books. by heart in order to help them weather life’s difficulties. His and doesn’t know what to make of those feelings. His Jewish teaching style is irreverent and energetic. He often has the background also comes up, especially in the scene where the boys act out scenes or sing songs, and he seems unhampered boys discuss the Holocaust with Hector and Irwin. Posner by the usual school rules. He does not believe that exams are argues passionately that the Holocaust cannot be treated like useful. The Headmaster deplores Hector’s teaching style, just any historical event. At his Oxford interview, however, he because its results cannot be measured or quantified. We learn downplays the Holocaust, and is praised for his “detachment.” over the course of the play that Hector is lonely and dissatisfied He receives a scholarship to Oxford, but eventually leaves the in many ways. He has become disillusioned with teaching, he school, telling Irwin years later that it “didn't work out.” In Mrs. suppresses his homosexual desires, and he is in an emotionally Lintott’s review of the boys’ lives, we learn that Posner has few distant marriage with a woman. He gropes his students while friends and spends a lot of time at the library. He has, however, they ride behind him on his motorcycle, and this eventually taken Hector’s teaching to heart, and this may give him some leads him to lose his job. Dakin helps him re-gain his position at internal solace. Among the boys, Posner stands out as sensitive the last minute, but to no avail—Hector is killed while driving and scholarly. his motorcycle with Irwin on the back seat. Dakin – Dakin is charming, manipulative, self-confident, and Irwin – A young, recent university graduate who comes to handsome. This makes him popular at school, and at least three teach history at the school and help prepare the boys for their of the male characters in the play are sexually attracted to him university entrance exams. Irwin’s philosophy of education is (Posner, Hector, and Irwin). Dakin has a sexual relationship about looking at questions from an unconventional angle in with Fiona, the Headmaster’s secretary, and he also seduces order to appear more interesting to examiners. It stands in Irwin (though they never go through with their plans to have stark contrast it with Hector’s academic style. Throughout the sex). Dakin is also intelligent and often argumentative. Of the play, we suspect that Irwin harbors an attraction for his student boys, he is the most drawn to Irwin’s way of turning historical Dakin. Irwin becomes crippled in the motorcycle accident that questions on their head. Dakin is accepted to Oxford on a ends the play, and spends the rest of his life in a wheelchair. He partial scholarship. After his schooling, he becomes a highly goes on to become a historian on television, and later an paid tax lawyer. advisor for British politicians. Scripps – Scripps is Dakin’s closest friend, a pianist, and an Headmaster – The Headmaster of the grammar school where aspiring writer. He is a devout and practicing Christian, and he the action of the play takes place, his real name is Felix says that his parents don’t understand this choice. Scripps Armstrong. He is very concerned with sending the boys to delivers a large chunk of the play’s narrative asides to the Oxford and Cambridge in order to raise the school’s profile. He audience. They show him to be thoughtful and engaged. He dislikes Hector’s scattered teaching style, and hires Irwin to eventually becomes a journalist, though he hopes to one day be make the boys more competitive university applicants. He also a “real” writer. sexually harasses his secretary, Fiona—and Dakin uses this fact Rudge – Rudge is a talented athlete from a working-class as leverage against him after the Headmaster tries to force background. The teachers all underestimate him, and don’t Hector to leave the school. believe that he has much chance of being accepted to Oxford. Mrs. Lintott – Mrs. Lintott, whose first name is Dorothy, is a Rudge surprises them, however, although he gets in partly lower-form history teacher at the grammar school, and the only because his father was once a janitor at the school. Rudge is female character who speaks in the play. She is very good at brusquely honest throughout the play, and several times makes giving the boys a factual grounding in history, but the a blunt, insightful comment that cuts to the core of things. He Headmaster hires Irwin to take charge of the boys’ final eary of eventually works in construction, helping to build “affordable schooling. He thinks that Mrs. Lintott doesn’t have what it takes homes for first-time buyers.” to give the boys “polish” for their university interviews. Mrs. Lockwood – Lockwood is a thoughtful student who also Lintott is dry and practical. She is close with Hector, but also participates in the class’s irreverent joking. He becomes a critical of him. In one notable monologue, she offers a feminist magistrate. critique of history, reminding the boys that women are often Akthar – Akthar is a Muslim student, a fact that is referred to left to clean up mistakes made by powerful men. At the end of several times throughout the play. He eventually becomes the the play, she relays the brief life story of each of the students, headmaster of a school. and Irwin. Timms – Timms is a funny and confident student. He often Posner – At one point in the play, Posner describes himself this contributes to the class’s lively banter. He ends up owning a way: “I’m a Jew. I’m small. I’m a homosexual. And I live in chain of dry-cleaners and using drugs. Sheffield. I’m fucked.” Posner’s journey towards discovering his sexuality figures largely in the play. He feels attracted to Dakin,

Crowther – Crowther is an aspiring actor and theater competitive candidates for universities. As Rudge puts it, Irwin enthusiast. He is one of the quieter students in the class. He encourages them to say that “Stalin was a sweetie,” because this eventually becomes a magistrate. argument will set them apart. The play ultimately shows that Fiona – She never appears on stage, but Fiona is the Irwin’s version of “thinking for yourself” is shallow. Recognizing Headmaster’s young secretary. Throughout the play, she is also the conventional argument and then arguing the opposite side seeing Dakin. We learn about her mostly in the context of doesn’t ultimately involve much original thought. It’s a way of Dakin’s sexual exploits, which seem to be numerous. The appearing smart or funny, but not of truly grappling with a text Headmaster also pursues Fiona, and Dakin eventually uses this or a historical event. Irwin doesn’t make a career in fact to try to keep Hector in his job. academia—he moves on to journalism, entertainment, and politics. Director – The director only appears in one scene at the beginning of Act Two, helping Irwin with his television history On the other side of these issues is Hector, a teacher who piece about King Henry VIII. He is pre-occupied with making a represents the “old guard” of British education. Hector sees historical documentary that won’t be too hard for people to knowledge as a way to aid personal growth and help soothe understand. emotional pain. Hector teaches the boys to memorize texts by heart, as he wants them to save the lessons of poetry and Make-up assistant – At one point during the filming of Irwin’s literature for life’s inevitable hardships. Hector continually television documentary, a non-speaking make-up assistant reminds the boys that Oxford and Cambridge will not brings Posner off the set when Irwin decides that he is no necessarily make them happy—after you achieve a certain longer welcome there. marker of success, life still continues on. Man – At the beginning of Act Two, we meet an unidentified With the motorcycle accident that leaves Irwin crippled and man who seems to be writing some sort of journalistic piece Hector dead, the play ultimately comes down on the side that about Irwin, Hector, and Dakin. By the end of the scene, we knowledge and education are most important as ways to deal realize that this man is Posner. We sense that he is suffering with life’s cruel randomness. Despite this, Mrs. Lintott from some sort of psychological trauma, and that he remains observes that some of Hector’s students go on to lead deeply invested in his sixth-form days. He has left Cambridge, unfulfilled lives, guided by a misplaced sense that art can save because, we learn, it “didn’t work out.” them. Posner, the character who most fully adopts Hector’s stance, ends up lonely, and with much less material success than his classmates. Hector’s final words at the end of the play, THEMES words that come from beyond the grave, are that the boys In LitCharts each theme gets its own color and number. Our should “pass the parcel. That’s sometimes all you can do. Take it, color-coded theme boxes make it easy to track where the feel it and pass it on.” He knows that the game of success is themes occur throughout the work. If you don't have a color small and inadequate in the face of our ultimate mortality. The printer, use the numbers instead. point is to use literature and history as ways to more fully savor life. Like Hector’s lessons, the play aims to leave the audience with more tools to answer their own questions about the 1 THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION purpose of life. One of the play’s major questions is about the general purpose of knowledge and education. Are they meant to be practically 2 HISTORY AND TRUTH useful, to help students pass examinations and be quantifiably successful? Or are they meant to inspire personal growth and The History Boys shows that history is ultimately random—both wisdom, and to help students through painful experiences? On in terms of what happens, and in terms of what we choose to the furthest end of this question is the grammar school’s remember. Linked to this theme is the question of whether or Headmaster, who sees education in utilitarian terms. He wants not it is important to search for truth in the study of history. his students to attend prestigious universities, notably Oxford Irwin tells the boys that it is not important to be truthful in and Cambridge, in order to raise the profile of the school that their arguments—as long as their arguments are unique and he runs and thus increase its wealth and prestige. The interesting. Scripps says at one point that in Irwin’s classes, Headmaster brings in Irwin, a young, recent university truth is just “another point of view.” In his scene as a TV graduate, to give the students more “polish” as they prepare to journalist, Irwin then demonstrates the random way that we compete for spots at Oxford and Cambridge. Irwin then remember history by showing that, when visiting an old abbey, teaches the boys to take unconventional positions on historical people tend to be most interested in monks’ ancient toilet questions—even if they don’t believe in the truth of their paper. Yet Irwin’s way of dismissing absolute historical truth argument. Irwin thinks that this will make them more sometimes leads to morally questionable results. This becomes

©2016 LitCharts LLC www.LitCharts.com | Follow us: @litcharts | v.S.003 Page 4 The best way to study, teach, and learn about books. most pointed in the boys’ discussion of the Holocaust, when molestation of the boys suggests that he is repressing an Irwin suggests that the boys should put the event in context or attracting to men, and his friend and colleague Mrs. Lintott also proportion. Posner and Hector object to this, saying that such suggests this. Posner is attracted to Dakin, and wonders if this an argument diminishes the suffering and horror of the event in is just a “phase,” but ultimately decides that it is not. Irwin, too, a way that is unacceptable. is attracted to Dakin. Their homosexual attractions place these At times, the characters step out to narrate in the midst of the characters outside the realm of societal “normalcy” and lead to action, and this effectively dramatizes the difference between feelings of loneliness and frustration for them. The play the way events feel as they are happening in real time, and the ultimately uses sex and sexuality to illustrate the boys’ way that we remember them historically. As the scenes unfold, processes of maturation, and to show that becoming adults they seem to have many possible meanings and interpretations. requires working either within or against a set of prescribed When a character steps out to narrate, they often add nuance rules for behavior. Conformity often leads to loneliness and to what we’re seeing, making us feel that we’ve come closer to lack of fulfillment, but society also punishes those who rebel the “truth” of the matter. But these narrative asides also break against its rules. Adulthood requires that the boys balance up the emotional trajectory of the scene. A story told after the these various demands, while also reaching towards a state of fact cannot fully encompass the emotions and dynamics felt in greater self-knowledge. the present. In the end, the play most poignantly demonstrates the 4 HOPE AND FAILURE randomness of history and of life with the motorcycle accident. The hope of getting into Oxford or Cambridge is a driving force Different characters narrate this event after the fact, and we in the play. The Headmaster wants it badly for his students, and don’t see it occur onstage. Scripps notes that we don’t know the the students want it, too. Only Hector seems to understand factual truth of the story, but that Irwin has taught him to never that a prestigious university won’t be the culmination of his accept a neat narrative. The play ends with this idea that there students’ lives and happiness—yet he doesn’t have all the is no single historical truth. Life is always more complex, both answers, either. Hector admits to Irwin that part of him wants emotionally and factually, than the historical version of it can the boys to “compete,” and Mrs. Lintott suggests that Hector’s be. teaching prepares the boys for their ultimate failure, rather than trying to guide them towards success. Similarly, Dakin 3 SEX AND SEXUALITY argues at one point that “literature is actually about losers” who are compensating for something. Though he is being glib, The boys in the play are coming of age both intellectually and Dakin’s argument also rings true, given the experiences of the sexually, and these two growing up processes are often linked adults in the play. All of them have ended up teaching at the in The History Boys. In one scene, Scripps and Dakin compare school after a life that is in some ways marked by failure. Dakin’s seduction of Fiona with the progress of World War II. Hector has suppressed his sexuality, and is married to a woman. Later, Dakin concludes that “history is fucking.” The play raises Mrs. Lintott has an ex-husband who told her lies, and she’s now major questions about the purpose of education, so these relegated to being a lower-form teacher. Irwin pretends that he comments make us wonder, too, about the purpose of sex. Is it a got a degree at Oxford, but he didn’t—he went to a less realm of personal fulfillment? Or does it serve as a way to gain prestigious school, and then went to Oxford for a teaching certain levels of success in society? A major plot point in the certificate. He lies to cover up his feelings of inadequacy and play is the revelation that Hector gropes the boys when they vulnerability. ride behind him on his motorcycle. When the Headmaster finds out about this, Hector starts to defend himself by saying that The culmination of this theme comes with the litany of the the transmission of knowledge is necessarily erotic—further boys’ accomplishments at the very end of the play. They all tying these two themes together. The headmaster shuts him achieved their initial short-term dream of going to Oxford or down, however, saying that his activity “isn’t normal.” This Cambridge, but then went on to varying levels of success and moment illustrates the ways that the boys will be asked to happiness. One of the most notable biographies is Posner’s. He curtail their sexual desires to fit within certain societal norms as ends up frustrated and alone, spending lots of time in the local they grow up. It also shows, however, that Hector’s vision of sex library, living a “shadow life” online, and following his former and knowledge has grave shortcomings. He sees them as ways classmate’s successes from afar. The meaning of Posner’s to move towards personal fulfillment—but in acting on this idea, apparent failure is not entirely clear. He lives a rich life of the he has crossed a social boundary that is meant to protect his mind, but in poorer material and social circumstances. The play students, and he ruins his own career. ultimately suggests that there is no way to live a life that is free of frustration, and that grand youthful hopes will always end in The play frequently deals with themes of homosexuality, and some degree of failure and compromise. Bennett himself is gay. Hector is married to a woman, but his

©2016 LitCharts LLC www.LitCharts.com | Follow us: @litcharts | v.S.003 Page 5 The best way to study, teach, and learn about books. 5 CLASS AND GENDER the other hand, is primarily associated with his homosexuality: he usually gropes the boys as they ride behind him on their way The History Boys takes place at an all-boys school in England. It’s home from school. The motorcycle thus comes to symbolize a grammar school, meaning that students don’t have to pay to Hector’s non-conformity in a variety of ways, some positive and attend (though they have to pass entrance exams), and the some negative. When Hector first enters in the play, he is most prestigious schools in Britain are private schools, which wearing his motorcycle clothes, and the boys take off his primarily serve richer students. Irwin reminds the boys that outerwear, piece by piece. This scene suggests the ceremony they’ll be competing against more privileged peers, like people that might surround a heroic figure (Hector’s name also links who have traveled to Rome and can talk about that on the him to a famously brave warrior in the ). At the beginning of exam. Given their class background, the grammar school boys Iliad the play, before we know what happens on the motorcycle, it have a harder road to success. Rudge, in particular, comes from seems to make Hector seem strong and larger than life. He is in a working-class family. Throughout the play, people look down many ways a rebellious figure, rejecting the rules that society on him, condescend to him, and assume that he won’t succeed. places on him. Yet this takes a more sinister turn when the His father was a janitor—but he was a janitor at Oxford, and motorcycle is revealed to be the site of his molestation of the this fact ultimately helps Rudge get admitted. This is only the boys. Ultimately we come to understand the motorcycle as the case, however, because Oxford apparently wants to make a only place where Hector can act on impulses that he usually show of progress by having the son of a janitor attend as an suppresses, and it is clear that his non-conformity also causes undergraduate. This situation helps illuminate the way that him loneliness and desperation. class figures in the play’s overall argument about historical truth. Throughout history, socioeconomic status works in contradictory and sometimes random ways to affect the ways THE LOCKED DOOR that events unfold. Class is mostly a hurdle for these boys on The locked door of Hector’s classroom sets it apart from the their journey, but at one crucial moment, Rudge’s working-class rest of the educational system. When Hector is teaching, he background helps him. The play thus shows class as one of the locks his door against Irwin, and even against the Headmaster. invisible factors affecting history. The locked door symbolizes the invisible pact that Hector Another of these invisible factors is gender. The play calls forms with his students, agreeing that they will try to resist the attention to the way that women are edged out of positions of forces of conformity together. This comes with its own power and erased from history, and it also dramatizes this fact dangers—most notably, Hector’s secret molestation of his in its own structure. There is only one female character who students—yet the locked door also creates a separate space for speaks in the play: Mrs. Lintott. The others (including Dakin’s knowledge and self-actualization that doesn’t exist in the rest love interest, Fiona) exist only when men talk about them. Mrs. of the school. Lintott even notes partway through the play that she has not yet been given the chance to have her own internal life through narration. Later, she gives a memorable monologue about the QUOTES role of women in history, arguing that “history is women The color-coded boxes under each quote below make it easy to following behind with the bucket.” Men take the lead and make track the themes related to each quote. Each color corresponds the mistakes, and women clean up. She also says that men are to one of the themes explained in the Themes section of this better than women at skewing historical facts to suit whatever LitChart. narrative they want. Mrs. Lintott’s observations thus call attention to another way that history fails to be fully truthful—it often erases the experience of women. ACT 1 I was confusing learning with the smell of cold stone. If I had gone to Oxford I’d probably never have worked out the SYMBOLS difference. Symbols appear in red text throughout the Summary & Analysis •Speaker: Hector sections of this LitChart. •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth •Theme Tracker code: MOTORCYCLE Motorcycles are often associated with rebellious male figures 1 2 in literature and in pop culture. They’re also often linked to male heterosexuality and machismo. Hector’s motorcycle, on

Hate them because these boys and girls against whom you are •Mentioned or related characters: Irwin to compete have been groomed like thoroughbreds for this one •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth particular race. •Theme Tracker code: •Speaker: Irwin 1 2 •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, Class and Gender •Theme Tracker code: Truth is no more at issue in an examination than thirst at a 1 5 wine-tasting or fashion at a strip-tease. •Speaker: Irwin Dakin’s navel, I remember, was small and hard like an unripe •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth blackberry. Posner’s navel was softer and more like that of the •Theme Tracker code: eponymous orange. Posner envied Dakin his navel and all the rest of him. That this envy might amount to love does not yet 1 2 occur to Posner, as to date it has only caused him misery and dissatisfaction. TIMMS: Sir, I don’t always understand poetry. •Speaker: Scripps HECTOR: You don’t always understand it? Timms, I never •Mentioned or related characters: Posner, Dakin understand it. But learn it now, know it now and you’ll •Related themes: Sex and Sexuality understand it whenever. •Theme Tracker code: TIMMS: I don’t see how we can understand it. Most of the stuff poetry’s about hasn’t happened to us yet. 3 HECTOR: But it will, Timms. It will. And then you will have the antidote ready! Grief. Happiness. Even when you’re dying. We’re making your deathbeds here, boys. You give them an education. I give them the wherewithal to resist it. •Speaker: Hector, Timms •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth, •Speaker: Hector Hope and Failure •Mentioned or related characters: Mrs. Lintott •Theme Tracker code: •Related themes: The Purpose of Education •Theme Tracker code: 1 2 4 1 History nowadays is not a matter of conviction. It’s a performance. It’s entertainment. And if it isn’t, make it so. There’s no better way of forgetting something than by •Speaker: Irwin commemorating it. •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth •Speaker: Irwin •Theme Tracker code: •Related themes: History and Truth •Theme Tracker code: 1 2 2 One of the hardest things for boys to learn is that a teacher is human. One of the hardest things for a teacher to learn is not With respect, can I stop you? No, with a poem or any work of to try and tell them. art we can never say ‘in other words.’ If it is a work of art there •Speaker: Mrs. Lintott are no other words. •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, Hope and Failure •Speaker: Timms

•Theme Tracker code: HECTOR: And what happens after the exam? Life goes on. Gobbets! 1 4 •Speaker: Hector, Irwin •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth, I’m a Jew. Hope and Failure I’m small. I’m homosexual. •Theme Tracker code: And I live in Sheffield. 1 2 4 I’m fucked. •Speaker: Posner Strange how even the most tragic turns of events generally •Related themes: Sex and Sexuality, Hope and Failure, Class resolve themselves into questions about the timetable. and Gender •Speaker: Headmaster •Theme Tracker code: •Mentioned or related characters: Hector 3 4 5 •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth •Theme Tracker code: DAKIN: The more you read, though, the more you see that literature is actually about losers. 1 2 SCRIPPS: No. DAKIN: It’s consolation. All literature is consolation. HECTOR: The transmission of knowledge is in itself an erotic •Speaker: Dakin, Scripps act. In the Renaissance… HEADMASTER: Fuck the Renaissance. And fuck literature and •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, Hope and Failure Plato and Michaelangelo and Oscar Wilde and all the other •Theme Tracker code: shrunken violets you people line up. This is a school and it isn’t 1 4 normal. •Speaker: Hector, Headmaster

I count examinations, even for Oxford and Cambridge, as the •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, Sex and Sexuality enemy of education. Which is not to say that I don’t regard •Theme Tracker code: education as the enemy of education, too. 1 3 •Speaker: Hector •Related themes: The Purpose of Education The best moments in reading are when you come across •Theme Tracker code: something — a thought, a feeling, a way of looking at things — 1 which you had thought special and particular to you. Now here it is, set down by someone else, a person you have never met, someone even who is long dead. And it is as if a hand has come HECTOR: Codes, spells, runes — call them what you like, but do out and taken yours. not call them gobbets. •Speaker: Hector IRWIN: I just thought it would be useful… HECTOR: Oh, it would be useful…every answer a Christmas •Mentioned or related characters: Posner tree hung with the appropriate gobbets. Except that they’re •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth learned by heart. And that is where they belong and like the •Theme Tracker code: other components of the heart not to be defiled by being trotted out to order. 1 2 IRWIN: So what are they meant to be storing them up for, these boys? Education isn’t something for when they’re old and grey and sitting by the fire. It’s for now. The exam is next month.

©2016 LitCharts LLC www.LitCharts.com | Follow us: @litcharts | v.S.003 Page 8 The best way to study, teach, and learn about books. ACT 2 •Speaker: Hector It is a sad fact that whatever the sublimity and splendour of the •Related themes: History and Truth ruins of our great abbeys to the droves of often apathetic •Theme Tracker code: visitors the monastic life only comes alive when contemplating its toilet arrangements. 2 •Speaker: Irwin •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth, I didn’t teach you and Wittgenstein didn’t screw it out of his Hope and Failure very guts in order for you to turn it into a dinky formula. •Theme Tracker code: •Speaker: Hector 1 2 4 •Mentioned or related characters: Dakin •Related themes: The Purpose of Education •Theme Tracker code: What made me piss my life away in this god-forsaken school? There’s nothing of me left. Go away. Class dismissed. Go. 1 •Speaker: Hector •Related themes: Hope and Failure What has truth got to do with it? I thought that we’d already •Theme Tracker code: decided that for the purposes of this examination truth is, if not an irrelevant, then so relative as just to amount to another 4 point of view. •Speaker: Scripps Shall I tell you what is wrong with Hector as a teacher? It isn’t •Mentioned or related characters: Irwin that he doesn’t produce results. He does. But they are •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth unpredictable and unquantifiable and in the current educational climate that is no use. •Theme Tracker code: •Speaker: Headmaster 1 2 •Mentioned or related characters: Hector, Mrs. Lintott •Related themes: The Purpose of Education History is a commentary on the various and continuing •Theme Tracker code: incapabilities of men. What is history? History is women following behind with the bucket. 1 •Speaker: Mrs. Lintott •Related themes: History and Truth, Class and Gender What’s all this learning by heart for, except as some sort of •Theme Tracker code: insurance against the boys’ ultimate failure? 2 5 •Speaker: Mrs. Lintott •Mentioned or related characters: Hector •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, Hope and Failure How do I define history? It’s just one fucking thing after another. •Theme Tracker code: •Speaker: Rudge 1 4 •Related themes: History and Truth •Theme Tracker code: They go on school trips nowadays, don’t they? Auschwitz. Dachau. What has always concerned me is where do they eat 2 their sandwiches? Drink their Coke?

©2016 LitCharts LLC www.LitCharts.com | Follow us: @litcharts | v.S.003 Page 9 The best way to study, teach, and learn about books. I didn’t want to turn out boys who in later life had a deep love of ACT 1 literature, or who would talk in middle age of the lure of The play opens with Irwin, a We begin by seeing where Irwin language and their love of words. Words said in that reverential former teacher, now in his ends up: giving morally way that is somehow love. That’s what the tosh is for. Brief forties. He sits in a wheelchair. questionable advice to Encounter, Gracie Fields, it’s an antidote. Sheer calculated He is speaking to several Parliament, and sitting in a silliness. members of the British wheelchair. This is an image of •Speaker: Hector Parliament, discussing a bill frustrated expectations and past •Mentioned or related characters: Irwin that would limit jury trials and drama. Irwin later says that he “to a significant xtente abolish once dreamed of making an •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, Hope and Failure the presumption of innocence” academic breakthrough, but in •Theme Tracker code: for those accused of a crime. this scene, he is using academic This bill seems like an assault language to make a political 1 4 on liberty, but Irwin advises argument. His physical disability the legislators to argue that is also a reminder of how the bill actually makes people random, unexpected events can Why are you so bold in argument and talking but when it more free—it gives them the change a person’s life path. actually comes to the point, when it’s something that’s actually freedom to walk around happening, I mean now, you’re so fucking careful? without fear of crime, knowing 1 2 4 •Speaker: Dakin that criminals will be punished. •Mentioned or related characters: Irwin Irwin says that this type of argument reminds him of •Related themes: Hope and Failure school. •Theme Tracker code: We then flash back into the Hector is first introduced with a 4 past, to a classroom at an all- heroic ritual: the boys remove his boys school in northern motorcycle gear as if it is armor, England, some time in the and Hector is a warrior (the Pass the parcel, boys. 1980s. Hector, a history name Hector even references the That’s sometimes all you can do. teacher, enters in a motorcycle famous warrior from Homer’s Take it, feel it, and pass it on. helmet and leather Iliad). As his motorcycle gear Not for me, not for you, but for someone, somewhere, one day. motorcycling outfit. Eight comes off, however, he is revealed Pass it on boys. sixth-formers—boys ages 17 to be just an older teacher. This That’s the game I wanted you to learn. and 18, who are in their last same process happens on a Pass it on. year of school before applying larger scale over the course of to universities—enter as well. the play, as the boys learn to see •Speaker: Hector They are Posner, Dakin, adults like Hector as flawed •Related themes: The Purpose of Education, History and Truth, Scripps, Rudge, Lockwood, human beings. The ritual Hope and Failure Akthar, Timms, and Crowther. removal of clothes also has •Theme Tracker code: They remove Hector’s sexual undertones, which motorcycling gear and show it foreshadow Hector’s actions on 1 2 4 to the audience, naming each the motorcycle. item in French as they do so. Then Hector begins teaching. 3 4 SUMMARY & ANALYSIS

The color-coded boxes under "Analysis & Themes" below make it easy to track the themes throughout the work. Each color corresponds to one of the themes explained in the Themes section of this LitChart.

Hector opens his class by For Hector, education is not Timms asks if Housman was a Homosexuality will be a theme congratulating the boys on a about the intellectual “nancy,” a pejorative slang throughout the play. Timms’ good performance on their A “conformity” that exams word for a homosexual man. comment suggests that it is still Levels (A Levels are exams represent. A Levels are Hector tells him not to use considered a socially odd and taken at the end of high school “credentials” because they are a that word, and hits him on the somewhat deviant practice in in England that help determine type of knowledge that the head with a book. Timms British culture (or at least at the admission to universities). educational system approves of. protests that Hector himself school), and Hector’s response Hector calls the exams Hector, on the other hand, thinks uses the word, and Hector shows that he wants the boys to “longed-for emblems of your that the boys should define their says that his old age excuses move beyond knee-jerk negative conformity.” Now that summer own standards. This opening this. Crowther says, jokingly, reactions to homosexuality. But is over, he says, the boys are scene introduces the boys as that Hector is not supposed to Hector also uses the word back to continue with their successful, intelligent students, hit them, and that they could “nancy” himself, suggesting that real education. Rudge asks with high hopes for their own report him. Hector joins in on he, too, has taken on some of why Hector is implying that A futures. the joke, feigning despair. society’s prejudices. Levels aren’t education. Dakin says that Hector should Hector responds that they’re 1 4 treat them with respect, now 3 just “credentials” for the boys’ that all eight boys are up for CVs (resumes). His class, scholarships to Oxford and General Studies, is for the “bits Cambridge. in between” those credentials. Hector sits down, pretending We see here the tension inherent The title “General Studies,” We witness some of Hector’s to be shocked. He says that he within Hector’s educational Hector continues, is a main teaching techniques. He thought “that silliness was philosophy: it is supposed to set euphemism. (Posner looks up has the boys find the answers for finished with,” and that the the boys up for happier lives, but the word and defines it for the themselves (by looking words up, boys were going to aim for less it may also limit them practically. audience: “substitution of mild for example) and encourages prestigious institutions. He Hector’s encouraging the boys to or vague or roundabout them to memorize quotes from asks why they even want to go go to less prestigious universities expression for a harsh or literature. These are not results- to Oxford and Cambridge. might mean that they earn less direct one.”) Hector says that, driven methods, and they Lockwood says it’s because money or fame in life, but it’s if he were in charge instead of therefore represent an “old they’re old now—“tried and clear that Hector has different, the Headmaster, he would call guard” approach in British tested.” Hector shoots back less quantitative ideas about them “A Waste of Time.” He education. that it’s actually only because what success means. then quotes scholar and poet other boys want to go there. A. E. Housman in saying, “All 1 He then bans any mention of 1 4 knowledge is precious.” Akthar Oxford and Cambridge from correctly identifies Housman his lessons, hitting the boys as the original speaker. again as he does so. He reminds them that there’s a world beyond those schools.

Dakin notes, “you’re hitting us The Bible quote suggests that The scene changes to the staff In this scene, we meet Mrs. again, sir.” Hector says that Hector’s classroom is a space room. The Headmaster asks Lintott—the only female “whatever I do in this room is a outside of the regular Mrs. Lintott, the school’s character who speaks in the token of my trust…it is a pact. educational system: class with history teacher, what her plans play—and witness the way that Bread eaten in secret.” This is a him is an almost spiritual are for “these Oxbridge boys. she is marginalized within the reference to the Bible, experience. Through the playful Your historians.” She remarks school. She is expected to do the Proverbs 9:17. He also quotes King Lear scene, we understand that their A Level results were grunt work of providing a solid Deuteronomy, saying that the that the students are willing good, and the Headmaster foundation in history, but when it boys should “choose life” participants in this “pact.” agrees. Mrs. Lintott says that comes time for the last rather than Oxford and Hector’s physical playfulness she expects to do “more of the important push to get students Cambridge. At his desk, he also has sexual undertones, but same” to prepare them for into prestigious universities, she feigns despair again. Posner as Timms notes, the boys their University entrance is passed over. We also witness says, “Look up, My Lord,” and respond in a mostly joking and exams, but the Headmaster the way that the Headmaster then he and Timms launch into accepting manner. However, says that that hasn’t worked looks at education as a way to a scene taken from King Lear, their playful protestations also before. He wants them to get achieve social status. He wants just after Lear’s death. Then show that they understand that into the best schools—Oxford that status not only on behalf of the bell rings, and Hector Hector’s sexual come-ons aren’t and Cambridge—to raise the the boys, but even more so, for jumps into the Lear scene, socially acceptable. school’s profile. “Factually tip- the school and himself. His skipping ahead a few lines to top as your boys always are,” worldview is at odds with say that he must go. Timms 1 3 he says, “something more is Hector’s, and this creates tension speaks a line of narration to required.” Mrs. Lintott asks between them. the audience, clarifying that what he has in mind, and he the hitting didn’t hurt them. It says that it’s something like 1 5 was a joke. In fact, he says, the “presentation.” Mrs. Lintott students “lapped it up.” scoffs at this, saying that “properly organized facts need Back in the present, the boys Scripps’s aside here is an example no presentation.” But the discuss the hitting. Rudge says of the way that these headmaster insists that the that Hector hits the boys he commentaries to the audience boys need more charm and likes (and that’s not Rudge can add information to the scene “polish.” himself). Dakin says, “happily,” as it unfolds in real time. that he’s “black and blue.” However, as in many cases, this Scripps speaks an aside to the one also jars us out of the audience, saying that he’s the moment—as Scripps changes the only one of the boys who topic when he speaks. This is a believes in God. It’s gone out way of dramatizing the fact that of style, he says, “but the big history both clarifies and fails to man [God] is glad.” fully capture the events of life. 2

The Headmaster exits as Hector’s comment reveals that The scene changes as Scripps In the meeting between the Hector enters. Mrs. Lintott he was once in the same boat as begins to narrate. He says that Headmaster and Irwin, we sense asks Hector if he himself tried his students, and believed that one day, he thought he saw a again that most adults in this to get into Cambridge, and older universities were more new schoolboy outside the play see university admission as Hector replies that it was desirable. He has since changed headmaster’s office. It turns a major facet of one’s identity. actually Oxford—he wanted to his mind, realizing that education out to be the new history Irwin gains credibility from his go someplace “old.” Mrs. is about more than the package it teacher, Irwin, who is in his prestigious degree, while the Lintott says that her school, comes in, and that old things are mid-twenties. The Headmaster seems to want to Durham, was old. Hector says not inherently worth celebrating. Headmaster enters and justify his less prestigious that his school, Sheffield, This second idea also relates to ushers Irwin into his study. He credentials with an argument wasn’t, but he gained the way that we should think says that the boys are about being a free spirit. This something from that: “I was about history—if something is preparing for December suggests that one major purpose confusing learning with the ancient, that doesn’t mean that examinations, but that Irwin of a good university education is smell of cold stone. If I had it’s inherently worth must already know that, social standing later in life. As gone to Oxford I’d probably remembering. Mrs. Lintott’s because he went to was suggested before, the never have worked out the comment about pizza is actually Cambridge. Irwin clarifies that Headmaster doesn’t seem to care difference.” Mrs. Lintott says a subtle joke about unsatisfying it was Oxford. The about art or education for their that her school had a good sexual experiences in college. Headmaster says that he own sake, but only as means to history program, and that she This is our first hint that she has himself went to Hull, because an end. ate her first pizza there, and been disappointed by men, and “this was the fifties. Change had other firsts, too—“but it’s perhaps by men who thought was in the air.” Irwin mentions 1 4 the pizza that stands out.” She that they were pleasing her. We the poet Phillip Larkin, who says that she wishes some of also learn that both Hector and was the librarian at Hull. The the boys wanted to go to Mrs. Lintott did not achieve the Headmaster says that Larkin Durham, but both teachers level of success that the boys are was a “pitiless” librarian, and agree that they’ll all keep hoping for, and this suggests that that artists “get away with pushing for Oxbridge (a they have had to compromise murder.” combination of the words and adjust their expectations Oxford and Cambridge). over the course of their lives. 1 2 3 4 5

Then the Headmaster Rudge, an athlete who comes The scene changes to Hector’s This scene suggests the ways comments that the boys are all from a working class background, classroom. He asks the boys, in that sexual and intellectual smart—except for Rudge. is underestimated throughout French, where they would like maturation will be linked Rudge plans to apply for the play. This suggests the ways to work today. The scene throughout the play. With this admission into Christ Church that big, societal structures like proceeds in French. Rudge brothel scene, the boys are acting college at Oxford, but the economic class affect daily life in says he wants to work in a childish and silly about both sex Headmaster says he doesn’t invisible ways (Rudge isn’t garage, but the other boys and school—yet Hector ties this have much chance of getting around to overhear this protest. Dakin suggests “une exercise to learning the in. He tells Irwin that the boys conversation, but it will probably maison de passe.” Hector subjunctive. He considers “need polish. Edge. Your job.” affect the way that Irwin sees understands, but the other silliness a part of education, too. He says that there is an him). We also see that Irwin’s and boys ask what that means. We also see Posner enacting opening in the History Hector’s teaching styles come Posner translates: it’s a some suppressed desires in this department at the school, and into direct conflict in the school brothel. Hector says, still in class by taking off Dakin’s pants that if Irwin can help the boys schedule. There isn’t room for French, that they can work in a (even if it’s all part of the act). get scholarships, he can have both of them in the modern brothel—as long as all of the Again in this case, Hector’s class the position. He offers three British education system. clients speak in the subjunctive is a space where normal social lessons per week. Irwin says or conditional verb tense. The rules don’t seem to apply. This this isn’t enough. The 1 5 boys begin to act out the scene means that Posner can act on his Headmaster says that they’ll in French. Posner plays a homosexual feelings in a way only be able to find an hour chambermaid named Simone, that wouldn’t be allowed more, given that Hector keeps Dakin plays a client, and anywhere else. a tight hold on General Timms plays a prostitute Studies. As he leaves, he named Claudine. Crowther, 1 3 encourages Irwin to grow a Akthar, and Lockwood play moustache to look older, and supporting roles at the brothel to keep better control of the (Rudge doesn’t speak, and classroom. Scripps accompanies the scene on the piano). At one point, Posner takes off Dakin’s pants, saying that he’ll be more comfortable on the bed that way. The scene reaches a point where Timms and Dakin negotiate the price it will cost Dakin to touch the prostitute’s breasts, when there is a knock at the door.

Posner, still playing the When the Headmaster enters, Soon, the Headmaster Though Irwin has begun to assert chambermaid, says that it must Hector changes the scene from interrupts to introduce Irwin himself, Hector still retains a kind be another client, and goes to one in which boys are playing as a new professor at the of power over him, and even over open it. It is the Headmaster women and talking about sex to school. Then, in English, he the Headmaster himself. Hector’s and Irwin. Hector, still a more masculine scene— tells the boys to stop their vision of education still rules the speaking French, greets the soldiers in wartime. This suggests silliness. He asks if Hector is day, and seemingly his students’ Headmaster, who begins to that gender and sexuality are “aware that these pupils are hearts as well. Hector says he’s respond in English that he more fluid in Hector’s classroom Oxbridge candidates.” Hector acting in the boys’ best interests, hopes he isn’t interrupting. than they are in the outside feigns surprise. The but Rudge’s comment about Hector stops him, and says world, and also that one Headmaster says that Irwin exams reminds us that Hector that he must continue in situation would be seen as will be offering them additional may not just be thinking of the French. The Headmaster asks, “appropriate,” while the other coaching, and begins to ask for boys—his uncompromising vision in halting French, why Dakin might make the Headmaster some of Hector’s lesson time of education may also be a way has his pants off. The boys are concerned or angry. We also see for that purpose—but Hector of adding meaning to his own life. paralyzed. Hector asks them to that the Headmaster is in some flatly refuses. The Headmaster If it is poetry and not wealth or explain what’s going on, and ways not as smart as the boys says that he is “thinking of the social status that matters, then Dakin begins, “I am a man are—Hector’s teaching has boys,” and Hector says that he Hector’s life has been a success. who…” but Hector stops him, worked, and the students all is, too. The Headmaster turns saying that he’s not just a speak better French than their to Irwin and says, resigned to 1 4 man—he’s a soldier. A Headmaster does. Irwin, on the defeat, “fuck.” Then the bell wounded soldier. Hector says other hand, is able to participate goes off. As class is ending, that they are pretending to be in the class. This foreshadows the Rudge says to Hector that it’s at a Belgian hospital during ways that his educational true that they don’t have much World War II. Dakin is philosophy will begin to time to prepare for their wounded, and the other boys challenge Hector’s. university entrance exams. are playing medical personnel. Hector asks who is going home As we witness Hector asking the Hector tells them to continue 1 2 3 5 now, but no one responds. He boys to ride with him on the the scene, and they launch into says that he’s sure he can give motorcycle, (where, as we later a dramatic rendition of a someone a lift, and asks Dakin learn, he will grope them), we wartime medical ward. Then if he’s on “pillion duty” (a pillion begin to see him as a lonely and Irwin cuts in to ask if Dakin is the second seat on a broken man. A moment ago he might be shell-shocked. The motorcycle). Dakin says that was banishing the Headmaster classroom registers this as an he’s going into town. Crowther from his domain, but now, intrusion into their normal says that he’s going for a run. Hector has to cajole reluctant routine. Akthar has computer club. students to ride on a motorcycle Posner offers to come, but with him in order to play out his Hector says never mind. sexual fantasies. We see that Scripps says, “resignedly,” that intellectual fulfillment doesn’t he’ll come. Hector accepts this, necessarily correlate with sexual and leaves. As he follows, fulfillment, or with personal Scripps says, “the things I do happiness. for Jesus,” and flashes Dakin the middle finger. The boys 1 3 4 discuss this. Posner says that he would go, but Hector never wants him to. Timms agrees. Dakin says that Posner and Timms “don’t fit the bill,” but that they should be grateful for that.

The scene changes to Irwin’s Here, we see that Mrs. Lintott’s Irwin looks at them again, and Here, Irwin reminds the boys that classroom, where he is passing educational philosophy has been asks if any of them have been their class status makes them back essays. He says that they based on the idea of truth and to Rome. They haven’t. He less likely to get into Oxford and are all “dull.” Dakin protests correctness. Irwin, on the other reminds them that some of the Cambridge. This is another that he “got all the points,” and hand, doesn’t value these things students they’re competing reason why he doesn’t believe in Irwin says that his essay isn’t at all, and cares more that the against will have traveled there Mrs. Lintott’s philosophy that wrong, but it’s still boring. boys’ essays are interesting and and other places, and that well-presented facts are enough Crowther says that this is the surprising. Lockwood implies they’ll therefore be able to for the entrance exam. The game way they’ve been taught to do that Mrs. Lintott would call this drop in specifics to eepk their of admissions is not things, and Lockwood chimes approach “dramatic,” suggesting essays from being boring. This straightforward—class makes it in that “Mrs. Lintott that Irwin’s idea of academia is will please the examiners, who unequal, and so the boys have to discourages the dramatic.” more about entertainment than are used to reading the same use strategy and cunning to get Timms complains that he can’t it is about rigor, thoughtfulness, thing over and over. In that ahead. This view takes into read Irwin’s handwriting, and or truth. The boys, and the context, Irwin says, “The account the way that social Irwin says that it’s the fault of audience, aren’t yet sure how to fourteen foreskins of Christ dynamics work in the real world. his eyesight, and “we know respond to Irwin’s philosophy, will come as a real ray of Hector’s vision of education, on what that’s caused by.” He’s and Timms voices this confusion, sunshine.” Irwin says that they the other hand, is focused on a intimating that masturbating saying that the boys don’t know should hate these other personal relationship with too much is said to make you yet how they should be acting in students, because they have history and literature, and is go blind. Timms pretends to be this class. such an advantage. Crowther more idealistic. Irwin’s amoral scandalized by this, asking if asks why they’re even strategies, then, are more useful this is “a coded reference to 1 2 bothering, and Irwin says that in helping the boys achieve the mythical dangers of self- it’s probably because they, or things in an unfair social system. abuse” (another term for their parents, or their masturbation). Irwin says that headmasters want it. Judging 1 2 5 it “might even be a joke.” by the quality of these essays, Timms asks if jokes will “be a however, Irwin suggests that feature,” because “we need to they should go to a lesser know as it affects our mind- school and “be happy.” Then he set.” says, after a long pause, that there is “another way.” Timms Irwin pauses. Then he says Irwin here links sex and asks if they should cheat. Irwin that during the Reformation in academics. He does this to be says, “possibly,” and then the the history of Christianity, shocking, and also to show his bell rings. As he leaves, Irwin “fourteen foreskins of Christ” students the type of surprising tells Dakin that there isn’t time were preserved, but people argument that he hopes they will for joking around. said that one church in Rome make. Yet the boys are more had the true specimen. Dakin comfortable with the discussion says that Irwin shouldn’t think than Irwin expects them to be. they’ll be shocked by this This suggests that their previous mention of foreskins. free-wheeling lessons with Crowther agrees: “some of us Hector have led them to be more even have them.” Lockwood comfortable with sexuality, and says that Posner doesn’t, also able to see through the because he’s Jewish, and that shock-value arguments that this is “not racist,” thought it is Irwin wants them to make. “race-related.” 1 2 3

After the class, Timms calls Hector frames his own classes as Dakin says that he sometimes Dakin can see that Hector is Irwin a “wanker.” Dakin says preparation for the boys’ old age. wishes Hector would “just go repressed and frustrated, while that all teachers have to “show This gives the students the idea for it.” Scripps says that Hector Dakin himself is uninhibited and you they’re still in the game” by that Irwin’s teaching methods does go for it, but Dakin says confident. This contrast is partly talking about things like might be more about youthful that he means off the between adulthood and youth, foreskins. Scripps tells him to energy than sage wisdom,—but motorcycle. Then Dakin says as the play gives a sense that lighten up, as Irwin is “only five the boys also remind us about that Rudge is having sex. adulthood is full of frustrated minutes older than we are.” Hector’s groping, and we Rudge replies that he only has expectations, while youth is full Then Dakin asks what remember that Hector, too, has sex on Fridays, because he of possibility. We also witness happened with Hector on the lapses in wisdom. The play needs to play rugby and golf on again the way that sex serves as motorcycle. Scripps says it was continues to offer mixed signals the weekend. He then cuts in social capital—it gives Rudge and the same as usual, but that he about which teacher’s vision of with narration to the audience, Dakin a special status. managed to slip his bag education is superior. saying that no one thinks he Meanwhile, Rudge points out between them. Scripps says he can pass the exam, but “fuck he’s still underestimated believes Hector thought that 1 2 3 4 ’em.” Dakin says that he is academically. We know that this he had given Scripps an seeing the Headmaster’s is partly because Rudge is poorer erection, when “in fact it was secretary, Fiona. They haven’t than the other boys, showing my Tudor Economics had sex yet, but Dakin hopes again the way that class can Documents, Volume Two.” that they will do so on the invisibly affect events and Posner approaches, and they study floor one of these days. interactions. stop talking. 3 4 5 Posner cuts in with some We learn that Posner is in love, narration to the audience. He and that this love (which defies says that because he was “late societal norms) is making him growing up,” he doesn’t get to miserable. Though he was late in be a part of these maturing, however, Posner is not conversations, and that they sexually stunted—he has a rich think he doesn’t understand. In and active sexuality, but it’s fact, he says he knows more focused on men, and so makes about “them and their bodies” him feel like a social outsider. than they would expect. Scripps’s narration again offers a Scripps then adds his own clarification that we couldn’t get narration. He says that by merely watching the boys “Dakin’s navel…was small and interact, showing how personal hard like an unripe blackberry,” commentary can reveal hidden while Posner’s is softer, more truths that might not be seen by like an orange. Scripps says outsiders or observers of history. that Posner envies Dakin’s navel “and all the rest of him.” 2 3 4 At this point, Scripps says, Posner has not yet identified this envy as love. It is causing him “misery.” Back in the present, Posner walks away, and Scripps, Dakin, and the other boys keep talking.

The scene shifts to the staff Here, Mrs. Lintott suggests for Irwin offers an alternate Irwin suggests that popular room. Mrs. Lintott remarks to the first time that the way people interpretation, suggesting that versions of history are partly a Hector that Irwin seems write history has to do with their Britain is partially responsible way of making ourselves feel “clever.” Hector agrees: gender. Her comment suggests for the war, and that they don’t better about the past. The British “depressingly so.” Mrs. Lintott that Irwin’s educational like to remember this fact wants to remember World War I says that men are generally philosophy is incomplete, because of the huge death toll. in a certain way so that they good at history, because because it doesn’t acknowledge The commemorations of the don’t have to face more they’re so good at storytelling. the way that women would tell war, he says, are a way of complicated and difficult Her ex-husband, for example, the story. She also suggests that forgetting Britain’s culpability. emotions or learn from past told a lot of stories. Hector Hector is telling himself a limited He suggests that the British mistakes. On another level, the muses that Dakin is “a good- story about Dakin in the present, general Douglas Haig, who is narrative asides throughout the looking boy, though somehow just as Irwin is telling a limited generally considered to have play have been making a similar sad.” Mrs. Lintott says, “you story about the past. Hector’s led too many British soldiers to point—that the explanation that always think they’re sad.” She, comment about how he helps the their death at the battle of seems obvious on the surface however, thinks of Dakin as boys resist education, however, Passchendaele, might actually might actually fail to capture the “cunt-struck.” Hector is taken suggests that Mrs. Lintott’s view have been an effective warrior. full truth of any given time or aback by this. Mrs. Lintott says is also limited, this time by the He argues that, apart from event. that she thought he would like norms of the educational system. their poems, many of the poets that description, as “it’s a Their conversation again brings seem to have had mixed or 1 2 compound adjective,” which up the theme of how hard it is to even positive feelings about Hector likes. Hector brings the pin down one single truth. the war. conversation back to Dakin, Irwin says that poetry can “add Up until this point, Irwin’s saying that he’s clever. Mrs. 1 2 3 5 flavor” to an essay. Dakin educational philosophy seemed Lintott claims responsibility likens this to the foreskins, and valid (in this scene at least)—but for that. Hector says, “you give Irwin ignores him. Irwin when he begins to trivialize them an education. I give them suggests that they look to a literature, the sentiment in the the wherewithal to resist it.” Kipling poem about the war classroom swings back to Mrs. Lintott says that Hector is instead of the Wilfred Owen. Hector’s side. Rudge wants a better than most teachers at Owen’s poetry expresses simple explanation of what’s giving his students a sense of horror about the war, but happening: essentially, how he discovery. Kipling at first supported it, should weigh Irwin’s philosophy The scene changes to Irwin’s The fact that the boys all have then wrote grief-stricken against Hector’s. Irwin initially classroom. He says that the the same view about World War I poetry after his son was killed says that there are no simple boys’ essays have come to a suggests that Irwin may be right in action. Irwin begins to answers—a view that the play “less-than-startling” that their ideas are “dull.” They summarize Kipling, saying, “in supports—but then he tells conclusion that poets have a haven’t come to diverse, other words…” but Timms cuts Rudge to write down his own generally bad view of World interesting conclusions: they’ve in and says that in the case of a supposedly controversial War I, and that “the origins of all conformed to the same one. work of art, “there are no viewpoint, reminding us that the Second War lie in the They believe that this one answer other words.” Lockwood Irwin’s way of looking at history unsatisfactory outcome of the is “true,” but Irwin questions that. agrees, and Irwin is puzzled. is actually rather formulaic. First.” Timms agrees with this As we have come to see Then Rudge cuts in and asks assessment, and the others throughout the play, there what the upshot of all this is. 1 2 nod, too. Irwin says that the usually isn’t just one definition of Irwin says that Rudge secondary institutions will truth—especially if one wants to shouldn’t just parrot what the welcome this interpretation, be unique or entertaining. teacher says. But, he also tells but that it will put Oxford Rudge to write down Irwin’s fellows to sleep. Scripps insists 1 2 own idea that the First World that it’s “true,” and Irwin asks War was a “mistake. It was not what truth has to do with a tragedy.” anything.

Then Irwin tells Scripps that Irwin re-iterates that truth is not Still in the classroom, Scripps Irwin just linked sex and history, “truth is no more at issue in an the central issue on an and Dakin discuss Fiona. and here Dakin does the same examination than thirst at a exam—the examiners are Dakin uses a metaphor of thing, as he compares his sexual wine-tasting or fashion at a actually looking to be World War I to explain his exploits with Fiona to a conquest striptease.” Dakin asks if he entertained and intrigued, as if sexual conquests. He says that in World War I. Irwin’s metaphor really believes that, or if he’s they are at a wine-tasting or a Fiona is the “Western Front,” reminded us that sex can be just trying to provoke them to striptease. In this second which was the area Germany about teasing provocation, but question their assumptions. metaphor, Irwin once again links invaded during World War I. Dakin’s words suggest that it is Scripps and Lockwood argue sex and academics—he is being The night before, Dakin says, also about power. This is further that “art wins in the end,” and purposefully provocative, just as he had advanced as far as “the emphasized by the fact that the then the bell rings. Scripps he wants the boys to be. The actual place,” but ultimately Headmaster, who has power over begins to quote a poem by boys reject Irwin’s thoughts “not onto it and certainly not Fiona as her employer, abuses Philip Larkin that discusses the about World War I by quoting into it.” Fiona stopped him at that power to try to grope her at way World War I stripped some lines of poetry, suggesting “23.00 hours.” He says that work. This metaphor reduces Britons of their innocence. that literature is able to previously, “her tits…fell after a both history and sex to power Lockwood, Akthar, Posner, encapsulate emotions of the time prolonged campaign,” and that relationships rather than and Timms all chime in with that are lost in Irwin’s shallower he can now “access” them emotional human relationships. lines of the poem as they get re-telling. whenever he wants. Scripps Posner’s comment seems to ready to leave the classroom. tells him that’s enough, and come from a place of jealousy Irwin asks, confused, how they 1 2 3 Dakin says that at least he’s and sadness, as he recognizes the all know this poem. Then he gotten farther with Fiona than inevitability of Fiona’s seduction, exits. the Headmaster, Felix, has. He and doesn’t want to hear more “chases her round the desk about Dakin’s love life. hoping to cop a feel.” Posner, who has been lingering in the 1 2 3 5 classroom, too, cuts in that the war metaphor isn’t perfect, because Fiona is in the midst of a “planned withdrawal.” Presumably, she’s eventually going to let Dakin have sex with her, so he’s not overwhelming her with force. “You’re just negotiating over the pace of the occupation,” Posner says. Scripps tells Dakin, “just let us know when you get to Berlin.”

Dakin then says that he’s Hector’s reminder that poetry is Then Hector moves on to a This is one of Hector’s teaching beginning to like Irwin more, an antidote for unhappiness game that they play in class. techniques—to play silly games in though Irwin still doesn’t like reveals more about his The boys challenge him to order to keep the boys from being him. Posner begins to sing a educational philosophy. He name a reference to a work of too self-serious about their song, “Bewitched,” while believes that education is not literature or art, and if he can education. The fact that he Scripps plays the piano. The necessarily about mastery, name it, they have to put fifty includes movies suggests that he other boys come back into the success, or definable pence into a tin. Timms and is not drawn to literature classroom from their break. achievements. Life will be full of Lockwood begin a scene while because some external authority The scene changes to Hector’s difficulty, and Hector thinks that Scripps plays the piano (they has deemed it important. He General studies class. Hector education is there to give one the say that they have to smoke wants the boys to choose what’s asks Posner to recite a poem, tools to deal with that while they do it). Hector knows important for themselves, and and Timms groans that he suffering—not to try and avoid the reference—it’s from a this includes movies and pop doesn’t understand poetry. suffering altogether. Irwin’s famous movie—so Timms and culture. Hector says that his job for teaching is more realistic than Lockwood pay up. Then they now is just to learn it—he’ll Hector’s in terms of immediate unlock the door, and Hector 1 understand it later. It’s meant results, but Hector’s somewhat and the boys exit. Only Rudge to be an antidote for future cynical view of life is also stays behind in the classroom unhappiness and practical in its own way. to work. troubles—“we’re making your Mrs. Lintott enters and sees Rudge is an astute observer, deathbeds here, boys.” 1 2 4 Rudge. She asks him how the despite what the others think of Someone knocks at the locked The locked door of Hector’s class is getting along with him. He sees that Irwin wants door to the classroom. Hector classroom represents the fact Irwin. Rudge says it makes him them to add “flavor” to their begins quoting from a scene in that his General Studies classes miss her lessons, and she is “facts,” and suggests that this is a Hamlet in which he orders that happen outside of the regular flattered. He says that Irwin’s somewhat shallow pursuit. He the door be locked after the educational system. The norms classes are “free-range…you’ve also understands, however, that queen is poisoned. Someone and ideas of this system are force-fed us the facts; now the facts were “force-fed” in the tries to open the door, but powerful, and they’re always we’re in the process of running first place, and the boys weren’t can’t. Hector asks the boys to trying to intrude into Hector’s around acquiring flavor.” Mrs. allowed to discover them on their name knocks at the door in domain. Here, Irwin symbolizes Lintott asks if that’s how Irwin own. His comparison of the boys literature, and Akthar, Posner, that more mainstream talks about it, and Rudge says to chickens being raised for food and Scripps name instances educational philosophy. Hector he came up with the metaphor suggests the “production line” from Coleridge’s poetry, a uses literature as a buffer against himself. He says he’s about to aspect of the educational system, Mozart opera, and the Bible. the world, even in a literal go home to watch some especially as this school seems so Timms looks outside, and says way—he doesn’t answer the movies that Irwin has concerned with the end result of that the knocker was Irwin, knock, but instead quotes from recommended, the Carry On getting into Oxford or but that he’s gone now. Hector works of literature about knocks films. Mrs. Lintott asks if Irwin Cambridge. muses about other knocks, at the door. likes these movies, and Rudge from death, love, and says that he probably doesn’t. 1 2 5 opportunity. 1 Irwin has argued that they acquire some of the “permanence of art” simply by staying popular over time. Rudge calls Irwin’s lessons “cutting-edge.”

The scene changes to Irwin’s We already suspect that Hector Irwin asks whether Hector has The boys half-jokingly express classroom. Timms asks Irwin is lonely, and now the boys a “programme” to his teaching, the central differences between where he lives, and he gives a wonder whether Irwin is too. and Akthar and Timms say Hector and Irwin’s teaching vague response. Akthar and Adults in this play have made that it’s about the pursuit of styles. Lockwood’s joking Dakin press him, wondering if education their life, but the boys knowledge for its own sake. comment that Hector is “nobler” he has a life outside of think this fact might make their Irwin says that this used to be has a grain of truth to it. Hector teaching. Irwin changes the personal lives less satisfying. called “wider reading.” wouldn’t compare academics to subject back to their Irwin also says here that history Lockwood says that it can a strip-tease, and his class does essays—he says they’re is not about discovering how you actually sometimes be feel somewhat sacred (earlier on, “dreary” again. He reminds really feel—it’s about putting on a “narrower reading,” because he even uses a Bible passage to them that if they get a show. Unlike Hector, Irwin Hector thinks that it’s okay to describe it). Yet this more high- question about Stalin, they doesn’t see school as a place for know any book, as long as you minded vision of academics isn’t shouldn’t follow the crowd and personal exploration. know it well. Crowther adds as immediately “useful,” and for condemn him—they should that what Hector teaches also young people trying to make find a way to defend him. Irwin 1 2 4 has to pertain to “the heart.” their way in the world, that’s an declares that, “History Lockwood agrees, and says, important aspect of education nowadays is not a matter of “it’s higher than your stuff, sir. too. conviction. It’s a performance. Nobler.” Posner adds that it’s It’s entertainment.” Rudge says not as “useful,” because it’s not 1 that he gets it—Irwin wants “focused.” Timms and Akthar them to find an“ angle.” agree that Hector is “blurred” in comparison with Irwin. Scripps steps out to deliver Scripps points out that Irwin’s narration to the audience. He teaching method isn’t as “free- Akthar changes the subject, Auden, Hector, and Irwin are all says that Irwin eventually range” as he pretends it is. It commenting that Irwin is very teachers, and we know that became well known as a simply involves identifying the young. Lockwood asks Auden and Hector were both historian who always took an common stance, and then taking whether teaching at the school sexually attracted to their unconventional point of view. the opposite position—but this is “just a hiccup between the students, meaning that school Scripps says that his method doesn’t actually involve any end of university and the and other parts of life became was, however, “as formal in its original thinking. beginning of life,” and Dakin intertwined for them. The boys way as the disciplines of the asks whether Irwin likes the want to know whether Irwin, too, medieval schoolmen.” There 1 2 poet Auden. He says that has a life that is wrapped up in was a formula to it. Hector does, and so they hear school and his career. Lockwood a lot about him. He was a and Akthar suggest that this Back in the present, Irwin says Irwin believes that the exam is teacher for a time, too. Dakin teaching job isn’t a phase of that the boys should take exam about showing off, not about asks whether Auden would Irwin’s “real” life.” This relates to questions about things they historical facts, so you don’t have have been more like Irwin, or the idea that the boys have lives don’t know and answer using to actually know an answer in more like Hector, and Irwin full of possibility outside of knowledge that they do have, order to succeed. The fact that says he doesn’t know. Dakin school, while the teachers have like answering a question the boys pretend to be surprised posits that he might have been given up some of those hopes about Rembrandt with about the locked door shows that more like Hector. He says that and remain trapped in knowledge about Ingres. they have at least partly bought “he snogged his pupils. Auden, academics. Rudge asks if Ingres was an into Hector’s pact—they too sir. Not Mr. Hector.” Dakin then “old master,” and this leads want to keep his classes separate quotes a romantic line of 3 4 Timms to quote a poem. Irwin from the outside world. This poetry that Auden wrote asks if they learned that poem suggests that they find value in about a student. with Hector, and Timms Hector’s anti-system mentality. evades the question. Then Irwin asks why Hector works 1 2 behind a locked door during his classes. The boys pretend to be surprised to hear this.

Irwin asks them whether they The boys show that they have at The scene changes to the staff This conversation touches on a could answer an exam least partly bought in to Hector’s room. Mrs. Lintott asks Irwin few relationships that are question about Auden, and ideas about how education whether he’s earned a unrequited or one-sided. One is they all protest. Timms says should make them better people. nickname from the boys. He Hector’s relationship with his that Hector’s stuff is “not They also clearly feel the “sacred” says he doesn’t think so. Mrs. “unexpected” wife (Mrs. Lintott meant for the exam,” but rather aspect of his classes, as they Lintott says that “a nickname is apparently knows that Hector is “it’s to make us more rounded naturally feel that the things he an achievement,” and Irwin attracted to men, and that he human beings.” Irwin says that teaches them are not meant to comments that Hector doesn’t nonetheless remains married to a they must use all the be deployed on an exam. But have one. Mrs. Lintott says woman). Another is Posner’s knowledge they have on the Posner reminds us that the boys that “Hector” is it—his real unrequited love for Dakin. test, and Akthar replies that still care about success, and name is Douglas, but the only Finally, the teachers at the school this would be “a betrayal of would be willing to betray person to call him that is “his have a one-sided relationship trust.” Posner clarifies to Irwin Hector’s pact in order to get somewhat unexpected wife.” with their students, who don’t that the boys are just joking. ahead. Before, when the boys Irwin says that Posner came really see them as full people. Then Lockwood quotes quoted poetry in Irwin’s class, it into his classroom yesterday The presence of all of these half- another line of poetry, one that was to fight against Irwin’s idea with a problem. The following formed relationships in the play Irwin doesn’t know, and about World War I and to tell a scene layers the staff room suggests that loneliness creeps Lockwood says that it’s by more emotionally nuanced story conversation with the up on you as you get older. Mrs. female poet Stevie Smith. Irwin about the past. Here, however, conversation in Irwin’s Lintott, Hector, and even Irwin says the line could be perfect poetry becomes one more piece classroom. Posner tells Irwin have lives that are dominated by to end an essay on post- in Irwin’s examination game. His that he thinks he is work and seem devoid of fulfilling imperial decline, and asks, educational philosophy is gaining homosexual, and that he is in love. Posner, though still young “how much more stuff like that ground over Hector’s as the exam love with Dakin. Irwin tells and hopeful, seems headed in have you got up your sleeves?” approaches. Mrs. Lintott that he that direction, too. The bell goes off. Lockwood “sympathized, though not so says they’ve got lots more, and 1 2 4 much as to suggest I might be 1 3 4 Posner and Scripps act out a in the same boat.” Mrs. Lintott scene from the 1945 film Brief asks if he means the same boat Encounter. Irwin recognizes it, with Dakin, and Irwin says, and says that the lesson has “with anybody.” Mrs. Lintott been a “waste of time.” Dakin says this was a good idea. It’s says that this is just like hard for boys to understand Hector’s lessons. Irwin says that teachers are human, she that’s true, “but he’s not trying says, and hard for teachers to get you through an exam.” “not to try and tell them.”

Posner asks Irwin whether Posner has been looking for clear Irwin asks why Posner came to The fact that Irwin is also this is a phase, and says, “some answers about his sexuality, and him about Dakin, and not to suppressing his homosexual of the literature says it will he is drawn to the idea that Hector. Posner says that he attraction for Dakin suggests pass.” Irwin, either in an aside success (in the form of Oxbridge) wanted “advice” and not a that he, like Hector and Posner, is or to Mrs. Lintott in the staff might be a magic bullet to solve quote from literature. Hector lonely. Yet Irwin doesn’t try to room, says that he wanted to all of his problems. Posner is still thinks that literature is make Posner feel less alone. tell Posner that literature (i.e. hopeful about his future, but “everything,” but Posner says, Instead, he tries to place himself books and poetry) says Irwin and the audience know “it isn’t, though, is it, sir?” apart from Posner. He suggests otherwise. Posner says that that university admissions won’t Scripps cuts in with a narrative that Posner, unlike Irwin, has not he’s not sure whether he solve his heartache. Irwin even aside to the audience. He says learned to contradict society’s wants his feelings to pass, but points out that in this case, that what Posner didn’t say is commonly held ideas—but the he knows he wants to get into Posner would do better to look to that he had seen Irwin looking scene as a whole shows that Cambridge. He believes this literature for solace—the course at Dakin, too. Scripps says of Irwin’s bold academic might make Dakin love Hector has been suggesting all Posner, “basically he just philosophies have not helped him—or it might make him care along. This suggests that Hector wanted company.” Irwin tells him avoid loneliness and less. Then he gives this is right to think that his teaching Posner that the feelings will suffering. He probably insults assessment of his life: “I’m a will make the boys happier than “pass.” Posner agrees. As a Posner as an ineffective way of Jew. I’m small. I’m a Irwin’s emphasis on exams will. parting shot, Irwin tells Posner making himself feel better. homosexual. I live in Sheffield. that he should stop being so I’m fucked.” Mrs. Lintott asks 1 3 4 5 agreeable, and “acquire the 1 3 4 whether they talked about habit of contradiction.” Posner anything else, and Irwin says says “yes, sir. No, sir.” Scripps no. She exits. then accompanies Posner on the piano while he sings the Irwin, back in the scene with Irwin lies to Mrs. Lintott, which last verse of a hymn. Posner, asks what the boys do suggests that he is embarrassed in Hector’s lessons. Posner that he pushed Posner to tell him The scene changes. Dakin asks Scripps, like Posner, is an says “nothing,” and adds, “you more about Hector. Irwin’s Scripps what he does to outsider—he is the only one of shouldn’t ask me that, sir.” interest indicates that he wishes practice his religion, and the boys who believes in God. Irwin calls it a “quid pro he shared the same special Scripps says that he prays and But Scripps is able to explore his quo”—Posner confided in him, relationship with the students goes to church, but that mostly own mind and make and now he’s confiding in that Hector does—though the “it’s what you don’t do.” Dakin unconventional choices about Posner. Posner says that he audience, of course, knows that asks if he means that he his sexuality while still relating to has to go. Irwin persists, asking this special relationship has a doesn’t “wank” (masturbate). others socially. He is thus an Posner whether the boys learn sexual side that Irwin should not Scripps doesn’t, but says that example of a well-adjusted poetry on their own. Posner want to emulate. Irwin in this it’s not forever. Dakin teases person—one of the few in the says that Hector makes you scene seems desperate for both him: “just tell me on the big day play. He draws from Irwin’s want to learn, and Irwin asks status as a teacher and and I’ll stand well back.” teaching methods, as we see in how. Posner says that it’s “a friendship with the boys, Scripps says that he feels that his irreverent description of God, conspiracy…against the world,” suggesting that his bravado in he has to practice religion now but he also benefits from then tells Irwin that he hates class covers up his uncertainty so that it’s not something he Hector’s beliefs about developing this interrogation, and wants and insecurity. has to return to later in life. He yourself without concern for to go. Irwin asks if the says that his parents hate it. social convention. conspiracy aspect is what 1 3 4 He also says that there are makes Hector work behind a things he still doesn’t 1 3 4 locked door. Posner says that understand about it’s a way of making sure that religion—like the fact that you Hector’s classes are apart should love God just because from the world, “not part of he loves you. He compares him the system.” to “Hector minus the motorbike” and says that “God should get real.”

Dakin says that this is a good Scripps says that he doesn’t want The scene changes to an Hector is here finally willing to line of argument for to use his “private” thoughts on unidentified location. Irwin compromise his principles in Cambridge interviews. Scripps the exam, and this further and Hector are mid- order to promote the boys’ says he won’t use it—it’s suggests that he has internalized conversation. Irwin says that success—and Irwin shows that private. Dakin says, “fuck some of Hector’s teachings. His he’s gathered that the boys he understands Hector’s point of private.” Scripps asks Dakin to beliefs about religion are for his know a lot of information from view. Irwin actually feels similarly test him on T.S. Eliot, and own growth, not for any external Hector’s class, but that they that exams aren’t true education, recites an Eliot poem about a validation. Dakin, on the other seem to think that they but he wants the boys to use painting by the artist Piero hand, is beginning to question shouldn’t use it on the whatever they can to pass them della Francesca. Dakin Hector’s teachings even as he university examinations. anyway. Bennett never draws a comments that “the more you also criticizes Irwin. His Hector says that’s not sharp line or takes a strong read, though, the more you see comments about literature surprising, because he openly moralizing tone about these that literature is actually about suggest that Dakin has come to calls exams the “enemy of teachers’ two opposing losers…all literature is see suffering as a failure, not as a education” (though he adds, viewpoints. Indeed, one of his consolation.” Scripps protests fact of life. He seems to think “which is not to say that I don’t major arguments is that we that some literature is about that if one is not a “loser,” then regard education as the enemy shouldn’t accept simplistic joy, and Dakin responds that literature becomes unnecessary. of education, too”). Still, he explanations of truth, especially it’s only written when good Dakin and Scripps are thus both says that he’ll talk to them about big questions like the things are over, and it’s beginning to form their own about it. Irwin thanks him, and purpose of education. “lowering.” Scripps asks if he ideas about how they should use says that he actually really means it, or he’s trying Hector’s and Irwin’s teaching to sympathizes with Hector’s 1 2 4 out some “original thoughts” live their lives. They are maturing view of exams, but that the for the exam. Dakin says he intellectually and growing into “gobbets” the boys have isn’t, but Scripps says it’s the adulthood. learned with Hector “might kind of thing that Irwin would just tip the balance.” say. Dakin says it was Irwin 1 4 Hector immediately objects to Even while this scene blurs the who opened him up to this way this characterization, saying, line between Hector and Irwin in of thinking—“I didn’t know you “codes, spells, runes—call them some ways, Hector still feels were allowed to call art and what you like, but do not call forcefully about his point of view. literature into question.” He them gobbets.” Irwin protests It is when Irwin trivializes says that the idea comes partly that he was only thinking that literature that Hector and the from the philosopher the ideas might be useful, and boys disagree with him most Nietzsche. He mispronounces Hector objects to this, too, strongly, because this shows that the name, and Scripps corrects saying that the poems and his vision of education is him. Dakin is horrified, movie scenes belong in the emotionally shallow. Irwin and realizing that Irwin listened to realm of the heart, and are “not Hector also disagree about the him talk about Nietzsche to be defiled by being trotted purpose of education in the long without correcting him. out to order.” Irwin asks why or short term. Hector is thinking they’re learning them, then, about the boys’ whole lives, while and says that education isn’t Irwin is thinking about “next just for old age—“the exam is month.” This is partly due to their next month.” But Hector different ages, as Hector reminds Irwin that after the understands more about how exam, life will go on. much suffering life entails, while Irwin, like the boys, still believes in the power of success to make one happy. 1 2 4

The scene changes again. The The Headmaster is even more Scripps begins to narrate. He Immediately after Mrs. Lintott Headmaster asks Irwin how extreme than Irwin is in his view says that halfway through the tries to caution Irwin against any the boys are doing, and Irwin that education should be useful, school term, the Headmaster sexual affair with the students, says he thinks they’re doing which serves to make us more calls Hector into his office. an off-stage female character well. The Headmaster sympathetic to Irwin as a There, he asks Hector why he also changes the course of demands more certainty, and character. Even though he’s also teaches “behind locked doors,” history. This non-speaking female Irwin says that there’s always hedging his bets, in discussing and Hector says it’s because character is a major force in the luck involved. The Headmaster the “randomness” of the exams he doesn’t want to be story, further dramatizing the is taken aback by this, and says Irwin clearly understands that disturbed. “Teaching?” the way that women are often left that he doesn’t want to repeat life is shaped largely by random Headmaster asks pointedly. He out of a narrative, even though the failures of previous years. events. This is one of the lessons continues that his wife works they may have a large influence. Irwin comments that the boys that he is trying to teach the boys at a charity shop in town, and The Headmaster’s discovery of might benefit from using more in his history classes, and one that lately she has been the incident happens by of Hector’s knowledge, and that the play upholds as a looking out the window to see coincidence, again illustrating the Headmaster says that valuable lesson. a man driving a motorcycle Bennett’s argument that history they’re not likely to do that. with a boy riding behind, and does not progress linearly and The Headmaster can’t see the 1 2 4 the “man…fiddling.” She wrote predictably, but rather through a point of knowing reams of down the license plate number. series of random, unpredictable poetry by heart, and doesn’t Now, the Headmaster knows events. think that’s what the that it was Hector. The examiners will be looking for. Headmaster says that he’s not 2 5 going to do anything for the Mrs. Lintott enters, and the Mrs. Lintott (like Scripps earlier) time being, but that Hector Headmaster exits. She tells seems to suspect that Irwin should plan to retire early, at Irwin that if he remains a might have feelings for Dakin. the end of the term. teacher, he’ll learn that She has already cautioned Headmasters are often the Hector against being seduced by Hector doesn’t immediately Hector here enacts his own enemy of a good school Dakin, and now she subtly tells answer. Then he quotes a line educational philosophy—in his culture. She tells him that Irwin the same thing. Mrs. Lintott of A.E. Housman’s poetry: “The hour of need and suffering, he Hector’s aim is to be a is thus operating behind the tree of man was never quiet.” looks to literature. Hector’s memorable teacher, and that scenes to help protect two major The Headmaster says that it’s quotes are only vaguely related Irwin should forgive him if he male characters in the play. She “no time for poetry,” and to the topic at hand, and his oversteps. Changing the is astute enough to sense their Hector responds, “I would response also feels inadequate, subject, she asks whether attraction to their students, and have thought it was just the given the seriousness of the Dakin is the best student, and her response is to try to minimize time.” The Headmaster asks Headmaster’s accusations. This Irwin says he’s the “canniest.” the damage that they might Hector why he didn’t stop to suggests that Hector’s Mrs. Lintott says he’s the best suffer at the school as a result. think. Hector quotes another philosophy is not always well- looking. She says that Dakin Mrs. Lintott will later argue that poem: “to think that two and suited to the practical matters in certainly knows more than women operate behind the two are four / And never five life. Irwin does, at least about the scenes of history, and here, she nor three / The heart of man school, because he’s seeing does just that. has long been sore / And long 1 3 4 Fiona, the Headmaster’s ’tis like to be.” secretary. Irwin says that he 2 3 5 didn’t know that. Mrs. Lintott says that he should, and she suspects that Posner does.

The Headmaster asks if Hector’s estranged marriage The poem is about an army Posner is a stand-in for Drummer Hector’s wife knows about shows us again that his adult life drummer who dies, and is Hodge in this conversation, and this, and Hector says he’s not is marked by failure and buried in a foreign land. Hector for the poet Thomas sure, but he doesn’t think she’d frustrated expectations. In this Hector and Posner discuss it. Hardy. Posner is a boy navigating be “interested.” Hector says scene, the Headmaster is clearly Hector points out that the his own difficulties in life, while that his wife helps out at the pre-occupied with social dead soldier has a name and a Hector is a skilled interpreter of charity shop, too, and that he convention and practical known occupation—he is literature, giving Posner some doesn’t understand how matters, while Hector, on the “Drummer Hodge.” In previous guiding principles to live by. In women think. The Headmaster other hand, has learned to blind wars, he would have been an this scene we see some ways that moves on to a new topic, himself to social conventions. unknown soldier in a mass Hector can effectively apply his saying that this unfortunate This means that the Headmaster grave. Posner asks how old educational philosophy to real circumstance leads him to ask sees Hector’s sexual acts as Hardy is. At first Hector thinks life, as he uses poetry to relate to that Hector share his lessons unusual and deviant, while he’s asking how old the Posner in a more nuanced and with Irwin for the remainder of Hector sees them in the context drummer is, and says that he comforting way than Irwin could. the term. He says that he has of self-actualization and the would have been younger than At the same time, there is some always considered Hector’s quest for knowledge. This Posner himself. Then Posner sexual tension in this scene, and lessons to be more about some incident shows that Hector’s clarifies, and Hector says that the subtext of both men vision of culture than about educational and life philosophies the poet Thomas Hardy was discussing their frustrated the boys’ best interests, and aren’t fully adequate for about sixty when he wrote the desires. that sharing a lesson will also confronting life’s challenges—he poem—Hector’s own age. help remedy that. He reminds lacks practical social intelligence, 1 3 4 Hector that he would rather and this leads him to act in Hector goes on to say that Here, Hector makes one of the force an early retirement than destructive ways. Hardy had a “saddish” life. He play’s clearest statements about fire him. As Hector leaves, he 1 2 3 4 also notes that Hardy tends to frustration and failure, as he starts to say that “nothing use compound adjectives by describes a sense of holding back happened.” The Headmaster putting the prefix “un” in front and being a social outsider. says it wasn’t nothing. Hector of a noun or verb. In this case, Posner and Hector share this begins to explain himself: “The Hardy describes the feeling, largely because of their transmission of knowledge is drummer’s body as shared homosexual desires. in itself an erotic act. In the “uncoffined.” Hector gives Hector here offers Posner advice Renaissance…” but the other examples: “Un-kissed. about how to deal with it: Headmaster counters, “Fuck Un-rejoicing. Un-confessed. through reading. Though we have the renaissance,” and “all the Un-embraced.” He says that just seen the limitations of other shrunken violets you this gives the sense of “being Hector’s educational philosophy people line up. This is a school out of it,” and holding back. in his confrontation with the and it isn’t normal.” Posner says that he got that Headmaster, this scene reminds The scene changes to Hector’s Again Hector links sex and sense from the poem. Then us that he is right that there is classroom. Hector sits at his learning, saying that Irwin’s Hector says, “the best much wisdom to be gained from desk wearing his motorcycle flashy intellectualism is like moments in reading are when literature. Posner, the student clothes, and Posner enters. pornography. The fact that you come across something — who most feels himself to be a Hector asks if Dakin is coming Posner is coming in after hours to a thought, a feeling, a way of social outsider, can find comfort too, and Posner says he’s busy work on poetry illustrates the looking at things — which you in books. deeper way that Hector’s had thought special and going over old exam questions 1 2 3 4 with Irwin. Hector compares educational philosophy appeals particular to you.” He says that this to “pornography,” and asks to the boys. Posner sacrifices his this feels like a companionship Posner what he’s learned to time to come learn poetry with with someone you have never recite this week. Posner says Hector. met, and “it is as if a hand has he has learned Thomas come out and taken yours.” Hardy’s “Drummer Hodge.” He 1 3 recites it.

There is a moment in which it Hector’s teaching style allows Irwin goes on to say that these We have already encountered seems that Hector might grab him to find a strong emotional “rags are hallowed…by time.” the idea that age alone is not Posner’s hand, or place his connection with Posner. That They have become “sanitised enough to make something hand on Posner’s knee. But connection verges on the sexual, by the years and sanctified, important. Hector expressed this nothing happens. Hector asks but Hector holds back, now too.” He ends the segment by idea about Oxbridge, and Irwin Posner to speak the last stanza putting up barriers between saying that the “cults” of today here suggests that many people again, and Posner does. Then himself and his students. This are no more rational than the who study history also focus on Dakin enters wearing a moment of restraint shows that ones that came before. He old things just because they’re helmet. Hector asks why he’s true maturity involves a balance stumbles a bit as he finishes, old. At this point, Irwin seems to wearing that, and Dakin among competing desires: and apologizes to the Director, have become disillusioned by his responds that it’s Wednesday, intellectual fulfillment, social who says this is unusual for own educational philosophy: he so he’s riding home with connection, sexual satisfaction, Irwin, and suggests that they tells the Man (Posner, as we will Hector on the motorcycle. and societal acceptance. It is take a break. Irwin wheels see later) that it is “showy” and Hector says that he won’t be only now that he has been himself back to a Man who has “false.” doing that today. Hector exits, caught, however, that Hector is been watching, and asks if all and Dakin and Posner remain learning the sexual aspect of that this sounds familiar. He says 1 2 4 behind, “wondering.” maturity. that it is “meretricious, of course, but that’s nothing new.” 1 3 4 The Man asks what ACT 2 meretricious means, and Irwin says that it means “eye- Act two opens with Irwin, At the beginning of the second catching, showy; false.” about five years after the end act, we see that Irwin’s emphasis of act one, sitting in a on performance has led him to The Man says that Irwin was a Irwin has always been skilled at wheelchair and talking to a become an academic entertainer. “good teacher,” and Irwin self-presentation—he used that camera. He is doing a This is probably a lucrative replies that meretricious skill to help the boys navigate television piece on King Henry career, and one that gives Irwin people are often effective their exams. Here, he even VIII, who dissolved Catholic social accolades—but the teachers, especially on TV. He understands that his disability monasteries during his reign in downside is that he has to make says that his disability also can serve to make him look more the 1500s. Irwin narrates a his analysis less deep (less makes him come off as more “sincere.” This social intelligence shot of the latrine at one of “schoolmasterly”) than he might sincere. Then he says to the is important to get through life, these monasteries. He laments otherwise want to do. Irwin’s Man, “I hope they’re paying even if it’s a bit shallow. It’s that, for many tourists, “the speech about the toilet touches you well,” and asks who gave suggested that the Man is a monastic life only comes alive on the same theme. In order to him the idea. The Man says former student, and that he has when contemplating its toilet make history accessible and TV- that he has a “counsellor,” or a grown to understand Hector’s arrangements.” Then the friendly, he has to focus on the psychiatrist, who thought that philosophy about Oxford and Director comes out to tell him sensational or provocative this project would help him. Cambridge as he got older. In this that he sounds a bit too elements of it. Irwin asks, “What happened at scene, Hector’s way of looking at “schoolmasterly.” They begin Oxford?” and the Man says the world seems to have staying the narration again. Irwin 1 2 4 that he actually went to power, while Irwin has begun to describes the many other Cambridge, but “it didn’t work distrust his own philosophy, even aspects monastic life that a out.” He says he spent all his though it helped him get ahead visitor might conceivably enjoy energy trying to get in, and “I in life. thought I’d got somewhere, learning about, but concludes, 1 2 4 “God is dead. Shit lives.” He then I found I had to go on.” says that scraps of fabric, once used as toilet paper, now inhabit the abbey museum.

Replying to Irwin’s question The Man seems to be using social The Man says that it won’t go Irwin here overcomes his desire about the money, the Man says acceptance and success (in the to print without a comment to maintain his image. He knows that his counsellor told him form of money) to deal with from Irwin, and that it’s a that he didn’t grope the boys like payment would be internal turmoil (he has a chance to tell his side of the Hector did, and he doesn’t need a “therapeutic.” Irwin says he’s therapist). However, he has just story, to avoid looking like newspaper article to say so. This surprised anyone is interested said that Oxford and Cambridge Hector. Irwin says, “I wasn’t suggests a growing in the story, and we gather that failed to make him happy—this like Hector. Now fuck off.” He understanding that there is some the Man is writing some sort of journalism strategy might be wheels back towards the kind of personal truth that isn’t journalistic piece. He says that doomed, too. Irwin, as usual, is Director, and the Man calls dependent on other people’s because Irwin is a celebrity, concerned with appearances. He after him, asking if he can sign perceptions of you. It’s also the story doesn’t have to be a wants to come off well in the a book. Irwin takes it, and asks finally evr ealed that the Man is big one. Irwin asks if the Man piece, but he also wants to know whom to make it out to. The Posner—who is still dwelling on wrote the piece, and the man how Hector looks. Man says it’s for him, David. the past social dynamics of the says “yes,” then clarifies that he Irwin says that he only knows school. He seems to have had help from someone at the 4 the Man as Posner. He says remained an outsider, and is still paper. He says that Irwin looks that he’s going to inscribe the unhappy, despite his intellectual good in the story. Irwin asks book “To Posner,” and that he aptitude. how Hector comes off. The means it to be “unfriendly.” man doesn’t reply. Posner briefly protests, but 1 2 3 4 then he is hurried away by a Then the Man says that the The Man here shows how Make-up Assistant. piece doesn’t mention shallow Irwin’s beliefs about anything about Irwin and truth can seem. Of course, it’s Irwin goes back to the lighted Irwin is still using his old Dakin. Irwin says that nothing very important to Irwin whether area to film his narration. He intellectual formula, making happened with Dakin, and the or not he truly had sex with says that nowadays, people counterintuitive claims to sound Man says he doesn’t believe Dakin—but he often argues that care more about things than smart. In fact, the Director thinks that. Irwin says “it’s not true,” truth isn’t at issue in history. We they do about people, and that that he sounds a little too smart, and the Man says, “you used to also begin to sense in this this is why they find Henry a reminder that Irwin isn’t purely say that wasn’t important.” He moment that Dakin and Irwin’s VIII’s dissolution of the an entertainer at heart. In fact, says that Irwin “liked” Dakin, relationship is personally monasteries shocking. It Irwin’s point about the and asks if he wants to talk important to the Man (giving meant the destruction and loss monasteries rings true in this about it. Irwin repeats that more hints to his identity as of things. He says that people scene, especially in the context of nothing happened. The man Posner). Even after many years, don’t focus on a loss of the play’s overall argument asks if Dakin liked Irwin—he the Man feels a personal stake in community or on the loss of a about history. Bennett has says, “I need to know.” Irwin the sexual relationship of two spiritual practice. This is ironic, suggested that historical stories asks why. Then Irwin asks if the other men. Irwin says, because the can never encompass the whole Man is recording this monasteries were meant to be truth of an experience, and Irwin conversation, and the Man 2 3 4 a place to escape things. He makes that point here, saying doesn’t reply. Irwin realizes (or ends with the counterintuitive that people focus on the wrong assumes) that he is, and asks, conclusion that the dissolution things when they look back at “how did you come to this?” of the monasteries thus the story of the monasteries. brought them to their purpose and their “apotheosis” by 1 2 allowing an escape from worldly objects. The Director says that sounds good, though “apotheosis” might still be too erudite. Irwin responds that this is “BBC Two,” which is a place for British television’s more highbrow shows.

The scene flashes back again, This scene transition makes the Hector tells them all to get Hector’s breakdown is the to Hector’s classroom. Hector point that Hector’s classes teach back to reading. Akthar and clearest evidence we have that seems “somber and distracted.” people more, at least in some Lockwood complain that that’s he feels, at least in some ways, Posner steps up to define ways, than Irwin’s historical no fun. Hector, becoming more that his life has been a failure. apotheosis: “a perfect example broadcasts do. Posner is worked up, asks if they think His classes include fun and of its type. Moment of highest expected to know and define the his classes are just fun. Posner silliness, which he usually seems fulfillment.” It takes Hector a word “apotheosis,” which is too tries to say that they’re more to feel serve an important moment to realize what he has difficult for the TV audience. This than just fun, and Akthar asks purpose, but here he questions said, but then he says that this scene also reminds us of Mrs. if Posner singing will cheer that assumption—or at least is is “very good.” He calls the Lintott’s point that students Hector up. Then Hector loses frustrated by his own past class’s attention, and says that don’t tend to see teachers as his temper. He tells them to happiness. The play as a whole he has something to tell them. people—the boys focus on their “shut up,” calling them never lets the audience get too Akthar and Dakin cut him off, own jokes rather than on the “mindless fools.” He asks, “what comfortable with any one saying that they know: Hector important talk that Hector wants made me piss my life away in interpretation of events, and is now going to share his to have with them. They are this god-forsaken place? that’s part of Bennett’s argument lesson times with Irwin. looking with hope towards their There’s nothing left of me.” He about history—it’s impossible to Hector begins to say that that own lives and futures, and they dismisses the class and puts tell a complete story that takes wasn’t what he was going to don’t necessarily notice that the his head on his desk. At first every nuance into account. In the tell them, but Timms, teachers might have their own the boys think that he’s joking, previous scene, we saw that Lockwood, Crowther, and hopes, dreams, and troubles. but when they realize he’s Irwin has in some ways come to Akthar are busy quipping with serious, they don’t know what think of his own educational each other about how 1 4 to do. Scripps is closest to philosophy as false and showy, different Hector’s lessons are Hector, and he motions to and here we see that Hector from Irwin’s. Hector says that Dakin that Hector is crying. doubts his, too. The play doesn’t he’s not in the mood for this. Neither boy moves to comfort hold either of the men up as the Dakin jokes, “what mood is him. Eventually, Posner comes true path to success and that sir? The subjunctive?” up and pats him on the back. happiness. Scripps, narrating to the audience, says that he should 1 2 4 have been the one to do this, or Dakin, but that they didn’t. He says that he later wrote the scene down. Hector begins to recover. He The image of Hector alone at the says that he doesn’t know table when the boys have left what he was crying about. reminds us of his status as a Timms, trying to bring things social outsider. After all the noise back to normal, says that and silliness have cleared out of Dakin and Scripps have a his classroom, he’s alone with his scene from a film for him. own thoughts. In this moment, Hector says that’s good, as the fact that we don’t hear there are currently twenty- Hector’s internal dialogue (a three pounds up to be won if device Bennett often uses to he can’t guess it. The two boys portray his characters’ unique do a portion of a scene from inner lives) reminds us that we the movie The Seventh Veil. can’t always know the full Hector pretends not to know it personal story behind any series at first, but then gets it on his of events. third try. The boys pay up, and the bell rings. They all clear 2 4 out, and Hector is left alone on stage, “sitting at the table.”

The scene changes. The The Headmaster articulates a Mrs. Lintott asks Irwin if he Hector uses poetry as a buffer Headmaster asks Mrs. Lintott vision of the modern British thinks that Hector is a good against his own failures, and whether Hector told her the education system, which is teacher, and Irwin says he perhaps he is teaching the boys reason for his departure. She results-driven. He wants to be supposes that he does. Mrs. to lead a life somewhat like his. says, “more or less.” The able to “categorize” his teachers’ Lintott says that she does not. Because we know that Hector’s Headmaster is surprised. He impact on their students. This She thinks that he inspires life is marked by difficulty and says that he hasn’t told anyone, vision of education demands a some students to think, loneliness, this may not be in the and adds that he hopes Hector clear set of goals and standards, unrealistically, that they can be students’ best interests. Mrs. will decide to leave on his own. and it therefore relies on the idea artists. She wonders what Lintott’s insight here thus links Mrs. Lintott says that Hector that there is a certain clear, learning poems and songs by the theme of hope and failure wants to stay, and that she’s correct “truth” that the teachers heart is “except as some sort of with that of one’s educational here to ask about that. The can impart to students—and insurance against the boys’ philosophy. Irwin’s teaching style Headmaster launches into a Hector’s teaching style doesn’t ultimate failure.” But she says seems more appropriate to those long explanation of Hector’s conform to these ideas (but that it doesn’t matter now, and who hope to avoid failure and shortcomings as a teacher. He neither does Irwin’s). Hector’s Irwin asks her what she means. find success, while Hector’s is says that there’s no way to sexual acts with the boys She doesn’t tell him. She asks appropriate for those who think concretely measure Hector’s become, in this scene, another why Irwin is here at the time of that failure and suffering are results, and that his classes are thing to “categorize.” We see Hector’s lesson, and he inevitable. too wide-ranging. Then he again that the Headmaster’s reminds her that they are says, “so the upshot is I am glad outlook on life is not emotional, sharing. Mrs. Lintott assumes 1 4 he handled his pupils’ balls and instead is all about results. that this was the Headmaster’s because that at least I can idea. She exits, calling the categorize.” It is clear that Mrs. 1 2 3 4 Headmaster a “twat” as she Lintott did not know this, and goes. the Headmaster says that he The boys and Hector enter the This shared lesson dramatizes assumed she did. He asks her room. Irwin asks Hector how the clash between Irwin’s and to be discreet with this they should start, and he says Hector’s educational information, and tells her that that he usually has the boys philosophies. The boys’ main it happened on the motorcycle, decide. They are silent when difficulty seems to be that they and that he finds it completely Irwin asks them for ideas, and don’t know how to act when both unacceptable. when Hector encourages them teachers are present—they adapt The Headmaster exits, and Again, the narrative aside calls to respond and not to “sulk,” their behavior depending on the Mrs. Lintott begins narrating attention to the way that the Dakin says that they’re not class. This reminds the audience to the audience. She says that story is being told—this time to sure how to act, because they of the play’s argument that she has so far not been given point out that we have been act differently in Irwin’s and neither Irwin’s nor Hector’s way an inner voice in the play, but hearing only a male perspective Hector’s classes. Timms says of thinking about knowledge is rather has been a witness to on these events. The Headmaster that they’re not sure if they inherently better. They simply the “predilections and didn’t imagine that Mrs. Lintott should be “thoughtful” or create different outcomes, and preoccupations of men.” She would call him a “twat”—he “smart.” Hector says they lead the boys to behave (and, says that it is condescending of thought because she’s a woman, should be “civil,” and hits taking the long view, to live their the Headmaster to assume so she would be deferential and Timms. Timms lodges a mock lives) differently. much discretion on her part. discreet. complaint to Irwin as a He is treating her as a safe “witness,” and Irwin tells them 1 2 person to confide in because 5 all to “settle down.” He says she is a woman. Irwin enters, that he thinks they should talk and Mrs. Lintott says to him about the Holocaust. Hector that the Headmaster is “a asks, nonplussed, how you can twat.” teach the Holocaust. Irwin takes this as their first question—can you and should you teach a class about the Holocaust?

Akthar says that it is “a subject This section extends the play’s Timms recalls a time in class The distinction here between like any other,” and Scripps arguments about our limited when Hector said that one making a point and speaking protests that it’s “not like any understanding of history. death can be more instructive from the heart gets at the tension other at all.” Hector says that Hector’s view is that in telling a than many deaths. Timms between the two educational concentration camps are now story about the Holocaust, or quotes Hector back to himself: philosophies in the play. These destinations for school trips, viewing it as a tourist attraction, “when people are dying like approaches seem to be at odds, and that he has always we fail to fully recognize the flies, ouy said, that is what they but Posner is able to make an wondered where students “eat human suffering involved. This are dying like.” But Posner original and compelling their sandwiches.” Crowther recalls Irwin’s discussion about objects that in the Holocaust, argument about the Holocaust, says that it happens in a monasteries at the beginning of people were “processed” and and he does so because of his “’visitors’ center. It’s like the act, when he argued that we killed, and that this makes it emotional connection to the anywhere else.” Hector further can only relate to monks’ toilets, different. Irwin says this is subject matter. Dakin, on the wonders whether they take and not to their spiritual beliefs. good, and Hector objects, other hand, uses Irwin’s pictures there, and says that In these cases, both teachers saying, “Posner is not making a formulaic approach, and comes there would be no appropriate suggest that we are too pre- point. He is speaking from the up with an argument that even expression in a photo, much as occupied with our own small, heart.” Dakin says that this Irwin finds distasteful. an exam question is everyday concerns to be able to doesn’t matter. He turns to inappropriate. He says that empathize fully with people in Irwin, and reminds him of his 1 any answer will “demean the the past. idea that Hitler is not a crazed suffering involved.” Irwin says lunatic, but a politician that “tone” or “tact” is the 1 2 “discernibly operating within issue, and Hector calls it the framework of traditional instead “decorum.” German foreign policy.” Dakin asks whether, within that Lockwood suggests that they This exchange points to the argument, they could say that could write that the Holocaust difficulty of applying Hector’s “the death camps have to be is so far beyond their life educational philosophy in the seen in the context of this experience that they must real world. The boys must take policy.” Irwin calls this line of remain silent on the topic. the exam if they want to go to argument “inexpedient.” Dakin counters that this good universities, but in doing so, Hector repeats the word answer could apply to many they have to ignore some of the incredulously. different topics. Hector ways that Hector has taught agrees, earnestly. Dakin then them to understand and quotes the philosopher Ludwig empathize with people through Wittgenstein: “whereof one history and literature. Hector cannot speak thereof one must here suggests that Dakin is not be silent.” Irwin says this is accessing to full truth of good, but Hector says it’s “flip” Wittgenstein’s statement, but is and “glib.” He calls it, instead reducing it to a formula groaningly, “journalism.” Dakin that he can use to pass an exam. protests that it’s Hector who To Hector, this is not what taught him this quote, and education should be about—but Hector says, “I didn’t teach you Dakin is now rebelling against his and Wittgenstein didn’t screw teacher’s views. it out of his very guts in order for you to turn it into a dinky 1 2 formula.” He says he thought Dakin would see that, and Dakin says that he does understand, he no longer agrees.

Irwin starts to say that for one Here, Irwin undercuts his own Scripps objects to the word The idea of stripping emotion thing, the argument isn’t true. argument from previous classes “proportion” and Dakin calls it from academia is a major feature But Scripps cuts in to remind when he suggests that the boys “context.” Posner says that of Irwin’s philosophy, and a major him that they’ve already should be looking for some sort putting something in context is way in which it differs from discarded truth as a major of “truth” in history. This suggests on the road towards explaining Hector’s. This points to the ways factor in crafting their that he understands the it away, and forgetting its true that these two teachers see examination answers. It’s shortcomings of his gravity. Rudge speaks a French education functioning in life. practically just “another point approach—or at least proverb meaning “to Hector views education as a part of view.” Hector asks, “why can acknowledges them when understand all is to forgive all,” of one’s personal life, while Irwin you not simply condemn the dealing with a sensitive subject and Hector is again views it as wholly separate. This camps outright as an like the Holocaust. Though there discouraged by the shallow use partly points to the age unprecedented horror?” A is no one historical truth, it is still of this quote (he groans). Irwin difference between the two “slight embarrassment” follows possible to misinterpret events says Posner’s point is “good” teachers. For Hector, education these words, and Lockwood by approaching them in a way and Posner counters, “It isn’t is inseparable from life, and this replies that it won’t set them that is too detached or ‘good.’ I mean it, sir.” Dakin says is not always for the best (his apart, because every student formulaic—and Irwin’s approach that putting the Holocaust in marriage may have suffered for will take this line: “evil always runs this risk. context is the same as putting it). Irwin, on the other hand, may unprecedented, etc.” Hector the Dissolution of the not yet understand that it’s says that “etcetera” is what the 1 2 Monasteries by Henry VIII in usually impossible to keep one’s Nazis would have said, and context, but Posner says that emotional life and career that reading George Orwell the Holocaust is different completely separate. should have taught them to because his relatives were treat language with more care. killed. Irwin says “good point” 1 2 4 Lockwood revises his wording, and Scripps objects that Irwin but still suggests that the sees the Holocaust as just camps could be put “in another topic for the exam. proportion” in an examination Irwin says this isn’t true, but answer. that as historians, it is important to find distance, even on a subject like the Holocaust.

The bell rings. Irwin tells This moment, when Hector Scripps teases Dakin for Dakin here suggests that he Hector that he thought the reveals that he also wants the flirting with Irwin. Dakin says views sex as a performance, lesson went well. Hector says boys to compete on the exam, that he wants to impress Irwin much in the same way that Irwin that it was discouraging to suggests that Mrs. Lintott’s idea in a way that surprises even views academics. We have hear the boys use his about “insurance against himself. Scripps says that what already seen ways in which knowledge in that way. He had ultimate failure” might be he doesn’t like about Irwin is Irwin’s philosophy is shallow, and hoped to be “lining their minds correct. Hector does want the the way he argues for things Dakin’s sexual philosophy seems with some sort of literary boys to be successful, but his that he doesn’t even believe in, similarly shallow as well. It insulation, proof against the style of teaching does not have and Dakin says that sex is like doesn’t take emotions into primacy of fact.” But the boys that as its goal. Yet Hector also that—just “making it up all the account, and Dakin also doesn’t have been drawn to use that fails to recognize that the class time. Being different, describe Fiona as a person. The literature as part of Irwin’s period was intellectually outrageous.” Then Dakin says boys are also flippant about examination game. The worst stimulating and challenging for that Hector no longer seems Hector’s groping, while for part of it, he says, is that Irwin the boys because it involved a to like him as much. Scripps Hector, the groping is very “wanted them to show off, to clash between his teaching style says that he’s stopped taking serious—both as an expression of come up with the short and Irwin’s, both of which have anyone on his motorcycle. repressed desires and as the act answer, the handy quote.” He some intellectual value. The play Dakin says that’s because he’s that has destroyed his career. says that it’s time for him to go, has argued that adulthood been fired—he found out and Irwin asks where, but involves balancing competing through Fiona. Scripps is 2 3 5 Scripps and Dakin enter, so values, and this class on the surprised, but they both agree Hector says that he just means Holocaust suggests that the boys that they won’t miss the he has to go home. He exits. should, in fact, draw from both “genital massage.” Dakin asks if Hector’s and Irwin’s teachings if they are “scarred for life,” and they want to have happy and Scripps says that he hopes it successful lives. will “turn me into Proust.” 1 4 Dakin tells Irwin that he and Irwin’s statement that “art is Scripps were just discussing different” affects our reading of whether Irwin is the play, which, of course, falls disingenuous—insincere—or into the art category. Even Irwin meretricious—falsely believes that literature can attractive. Dakin says that contain emotional truths that Irwin is not disingenuous. He endure over time. Thus the play asks whether Irwin’s idea that suggests that it is not always our perspective changes on possible to know the factual history as time goes on also truth of events, but it may be applies to literature. Irwin says possible to communicate that it doesn’t—art is different. emotional truths through art. Dakin says, “we still love you, even if you are a bit flash,” and 2 Irwin exits.

The scene changes to the The Headmaster is, as usual, only In a new scene, Irwin is passing In this scene, sexual attraction Headmaster’s study. He tells concerned with image. He back essays. Dakin boasts that leads to social conformity, as the Irwin that he’s gotten a letter doesn’t object to Irwin’s he’s getting the hang of Irwin’s boys end up having similar from Posner’s parents, who argument on intellectual or expectations—“it’s like a writing styles because of their are Jewish, and object to moral grounds: he is just game”—but it turns out that desires. Posner even points out Irwin’s ideas about putting the concerned that it made some Irwin has given him a low this specific connection, Holocaust in “proportion.” parents angry. This conversation grade. Scripps tells Dakin that suggesting that he writes like Irwin says that they did discuss reminds us of the need to his handwriting is starting to Dakin because he likes Dakin, the Holocaust, and “ways of balance social convention with look like Irwin’s, and that while Dakin writes like Irwin discussing it that went beyond intellectual exploration. Irwin Posner’s is too. Posner because he likes Irwin. Dakin also mere lamentation.” The makes a similar argument to responds that Dakin writes like flaunts his sexuality, gratuitously Headmaster doesn’t want to Posner—that Posner’s status as a Irwin, while he writes like bringing up his relationship with hear this argument. He says Jewish student means that he Dakin. Dakin says that he talks Fiona, and also assuming that he that Irwin must write a letter has the ability to make different about Irwin so much now that can make Irwin happy just by of apology to the Posner arguments about the Holocaust Fiona has to have sex with him sleeping with him. parents, and suggests again than other students could. Irwin to get him to stop talking. that Irwin grow a moustache. counsels Posner to use a mix of Scripps asks if Dakin has 1 2 3 4 Then the scene changes. social finesse and intellectual considered sleeping with Irwin, Posner tells Irwin that he ability to be successful on the and Dakin says that he’s suggested to his family that exam—essentially to exploit any thought about it, to “bring a the Holocaust is “a historical advantage possible. little sunshine into [Irwin’s] fact like other historical facts,” life.” and Irwin apologizes for being 1 2 Scripps begins to ask Dakin Posner’s question about delaying “too dispassionate.” Posner about having sex with Fiona, the gratification of sex recalls his asks what he should do if the and Posner asks whether conversation with Hector at the Holocaust comes up on the Dakin is ever worried about end of act one. Posner is inclined exam. Irwin says that, because not having sex to look forward to stay on the edges of life, not he’s Jewish, Posner can get to anymore. Dakin says he jumping fully into anything, and away with more on the exam looks forward to more this will likely lead to frustration. than other students can. He sex—and he just wishes that it Posner’s comments about pain concludes, “but…say what you could be with Irwin. Dakin also remind us that the think.” exits. Posner tells Scripps that emotional education that Hector he knows Irwin likes Dakin. wants to give the boys doesn’t Posner always looks at Dakin lead to any external validation, in class, so he sees Irwin doing even if it does strengthen them so, to. Scripps comforts Posner emotionally. that his feelings “will pass.” Posner says he’s not sure he 1 3 4 wants them too, but they’re painful. Scripps reminds him that Hector considers pain the best education. Posner says he wishes he could get graded for it.

The scene changes. Hector, In this scene, Irwin teaches the Mrs. Lintott says that there Mrs. Lintott’s story about history Irwin, and Mrs. Lintott are boys to portray an image of truth are no women historians on TV takes a different set of events sitting behind a table, giving rather than truth itself, as he because they “don’t get carried into account. Usually, stories the boys mock admissions believes that truth is not always away” promoting whatever focus on the conference table interviews. They ask the boys the most effective way to get new thought comes into their where decisions are made, not on about their interests, but when ahead. Hector, on the other heads. The other reason, she a person “following behind with Crowther begins to mention hand, thinks that it’s more says, is that history is more the bucket.” Her point is similar acting, Irwin says that he important to be yourself than it is painful for women than it is for to Irwin’s point about how the shouldn’t emphasize that. The to get into a good university. men, because they “never get boys should tell an university professors will look These mock interviews show that round the conference table.” unconventional story about down on it. Hector says, wryly, the boys will have to be History, therefore, is made up history, but Irwin has been acting “so much for Shakespeare,” and particular versions of themselves of men’s mistakes and from a male perspective of power encourages the boys to talk if they want to get into Oxford “incapabilities.” She says, “what and privilege—being able to about what they enjoy. When and Cambridge—and the is history? History is women shape history however he wants Posner says he like Mozart, implication here is that worldly following behind with the to. Mrs. Lintott also includes Irwin tells him to say success leaves little room for bucket.” They don’t need to emotion in her argument, which something more unusual. personal expression. argue this on the exam, she is more in line with Hector’s style, Hector says that they should says, but they might allude to it and she adds an understanding tell the truth. Irwin agrees, 1 2 4 briefly. The boys meet this of gender that neither man has provided that they can “make it tirade with silence. Mrs. incorporated. seem like [they’re] telling the Lintott notes that the other truth.” teachers, and some of the 1 2 5 boys, seem to “find this Hector asks Mrs. Lintott what Mrs. Lintott points out that the undisguised expression of she thinks. She reminds them men in the room have been blind feeling distasteful.” that one of the dons to one factor that affects interviewing them might be a admissions: gender. She suggests woman. She says she doubts that Irwin’s way of looking at the they have considered this. She world — it is “everything that can catches Dakin yawning as she be made to seem the case” — is speaks. Timms says that this typical of straight male privilege. line of conversation is Each of the teachers on the panel embarrassing to the boys, has a different view of reality and because the inequality is “not how the boys should best express [their] fault.” Lockwood quotes it. In the context of history Wittgenstein to back up this admissions interviews, this point: “the world is everything reminds us that there is no one that is the case.” Mrs. Lintott historical truth. It all depends on asks if Wittgenstein was gay perspective, and perspective (“did he travel on the other includes gender. bus?”) and Hector confirms that he was. She says this 1 2 3 5 makes sense, as the quote Lockwood has offered actually shows a “rueful, accepting” stance toward the world, while a straight man would say, “the world is everything that can be made to seem the case.”

Irwin calls Rudge for a mock Rudge here brings up class as Dakin and Irwin are left on Sexuality, like class and gender, interview. Mrs. Lintott asks another hidden aspect of the stage. Dakin asks how Irwin also influences how people’s lives him how he defines history. He admissions process. Irwin has did at Oxford, and he says that unfold. Dakin suggests that he answers, after asking been coaching the boys to he got a second degree (not has a better chance at happiness permission to swear, that “it’s present a certain image, and that top honors). He says that he given that he is straight, but he just one fucking thing after image is also of someone who was at Corpus college. Dakin also (rather naively) says that he another.” She asks him why he isn’t “dull and ordinary”—who is, notes that none of the boys are sometimes wishes his life had wants to come to Christ or has the potential to be, an applying there. He asks if Irwin more pain in it—a reminder of Church, the smaller college upper-class person. Rudge says thinks they’ll be happy at Scripps’s statement that pain is within Oxford University that that he can’t project that image, university, and Irwin says that the best education. Happiness he has chosen to apply to. and doesn’t want to. He also Dakin will be. Dakin fills in the and intellectual growth seem to Rudge says that he thought he offers a different view of history: reason: he is “uncomplicated,” be at odds in this scene, but of had the best chance of he’s arguing that it doesn’t have a “outgoing,” and “straight.” He course the reality is always more acceptance there. He wants to story, it’s just a random collection says he might prefer to be complicated. The long- talk about sports, but of events. This is actually very “complicated.” Irwin asks how anticipated affair between Dakin eventually says that he also close to the play’s overall Posner is doing, given that he and Irwin now seems practically likes movies. They discuss this argument about history. Rudge likes Dakin. Dakin says that inevitable. briefly, then Rudge says again proves to have more Posner’s affection is “boring” bluntly that he’s “shit at this,” intellectual ability than most and that he wouldn’t do 2 3 4 but maybe they’ll accept him people give him credit for. anything about it, because because he’s “dull and Posner is “too young.” The ordinary” and pleasant to 1 2 5 sexual charge has been spend time with on the golf building throughout this scene, course. He “may not know and then Dakin tells Irwin, “you much about Jean-Paul Sartre,” still look quite young.” There is but he is good at golf. The bell a long pause. goes off, ending Rudge’s interview. The boys file out.

Dakin asks Irwin how history Posner previously said that he Irwin and Mrs. Lintott wait for In Mrs. Lintott’s opinion, Hector’s happens, then fills in the stands at the edges of life the Headmaster. They are not wife is probably aware of her answer: people “make moves.” without taking bold action, and sure what he wants to discuss husband’s homosexual Irwin responds that “others here Irwin seems to have a with them, but they assume inclinations, and may even react to events.” They banter similar tendency. Dakin, on the that it has to do with Hector. welcome them. Mrs. Lintott’s briefly about whether olandP other hand, is drawn to action. Irwin asks if Hector’s wife analysis gives Hector’s wife a was “surprised” by Hitler’s This scene uses the sexual knows what’s going on, and perspective and an opinion, advances, then turn to Dakin’s tension between Dakin and Irwin Mrs. Lintott says that Hector something that the male essay, which is about “turning to make a point about how doesn’t think so. Mrs. Lintott characters in the play have not points” in history. Irwin history unfolds. Actions have herself suspects that his wife yet done. Mrs. Lintott’s suggests a few major ones, and unintended consequences, and does an idea of the truth, and comments about the Dakin agrees that he has actions that aren’t taken can may even have married Hector randomness of history also written about them, but he has also be crucial. In this moment, a for his “lukewarm attentions.” remind the audience that it is also written about two sexual affair between Dakin and Mrs. Lintott muses on the useless to try to look for a clear moments when chance or Irwin seems probable, but hasn’t randomness of Hector’s fate, narrative to explain events. randomness came into play happened yet. After the fact, the “the junction of a dizzying There’s no one true explanation. and led to drastic story will seem set, but this scene range of alternatives any one consequences. Irwin says that serves to remind us that history of which could have had a 2 5 this essay sounds “first class.” is actually fluid and andom.r different outcome.” She says Dakin says it’s like a game, and that analyzing this incident Irwin reminds him that 2 3 with the students would teach thinking about history this way them more about history than makes him take another look at she has “managed to do so far.” what actually happened. Dakin Irwin wonders aloud how the Here, we learn more about calls this “subjunctive history,” boys will do at University. Mrs. Irwin’s hopes and dreams. He and says Hector is crazy about Lintott asks him if he wishes wanted to make academic the subjunctive, the “mood you he could go back, and he says breakthroughs so that he could use when something might or that he’s “not clever enough. feel successful—and also achieve might not have happened.” Not…anything enough really.” a kind of revenge. Mrs. Lintott In a new scene, the boys and Hector’s line of poetry here calls He says that he fantasizes reminds him that success in teachers are all taking a attention to the sense of hope about making a big research other realms of life might also photograph. Posner, squatting that this moment contains. The breakthrough to “fling it in earn him the acclaim that he in front, jokes that he’d “just boys are celebrating the end of a their faces,” and Mrs. Lintott wants. Irwin is young, but he like to graduate to a chair.” major life chapter, but their life in suggests that Oxford just already feels that he has failed, Mrs. Lintott and the the future will contain mostly cares that he make a lot of and he wants to find ways to Headmaster arrange the boys, small moments—not big ones like money. Hector and the redeem himself. His academic and then the Headmaster asks this. The photo will also be a Headmaster emerge from the bravado is one of those ways. Hector to take the photo. Mrs. “true” image of this moment, but office, and the Headmaster Lintott objects, but the it won’t express all of the calls Mrs. Lintott in with him. 4 Headmaster says the photo is complicated dynamics that we’ve The Headmaster and Mrs. “for the school.” He tells them come to understand throughout Lintott exit. to “look like Oxbridge the play. material,” As Hector takes the photo, he quotes a line of 1 2 4 poetry: “magnificently unprepared for the long littleness of life.” The boys do a “farewell song and dance” to a Gracie Fields song, and then they all exit.

Hector tells Irwin that the Irwin just expressed a desire for a Mrs. Lintott re-emerges from Hector argues that he wasn’t discussion will be about his grand self-image as an academic, the office. Hector says that he looking for sexual gratification, “marching orders,” and Irwin but here Hector muses on the assumes she knew, and the and was instead acting in the says that Dakin has already fact that this kind of image is boys too. Mrs. Lintott jokes way that a priest might, trying to told him. Hector asks if Irwin shallow and ultimately false. that “they had it first hand.” confer a blessing on the boys. knows why he has been asked Hector wants students to Hector begins to say that it This sounds far-fetched, and Mrs. to leave, and Irwin says yes. actually live better, not to simply was “more in benediction than Lintott is practical about it. She Hector says that he has an idea use literature as a way to make gratification,” but Mrs. Lintott suggests that no matter how it to make a mobile library and themselves appear smarter or says that she loves Hector, but felt to Hector, the way that other drive around on “the open more successful. Now that he “a grope is a grope. It is not the people understand his actions road.” Then he says that he himself is old and facing failure, Annunciation.” Then she says has greater effects. didn’t want to teach students he simply wants to experience that the Headmaster is hoping who, in middle age, would talk more of life by traveling. Irwin will take over her 1 2 3 4 grandly (and, he implies, position when she leaves next shallowly) in middle age about 1 2 4 year. The Headmaster comes their “love of words.” He tells out and calls Irwin in. Irwin that that’s why he In a narration to the audience, Scripps’s relationship to religion includes so much “sheer Scripps, Dakin, and Posner in this scene reflects the tension calculated silliness”— to fight describe their visits to Oxford between personal fulfillment and against that self- and Cambridge. Scripps says success that has been building aggrandizement. that he took communion there throughout the play. Balancing Irwin asks if a student has ever Hector and Irwin are here as a “genuine act of worship” these two demands is a big part made Hector “unhappy,” and discussing the ways that they but that he also “really wanted of Scripps’s transition to the next Hector says that he’s over that can deal with sexual attraction to to get in.” Looking back on his phase of his life. Like Scripps, phase. He sees pain as an students. Hector tells Irwin that past self at that moment, he Posner has to balance emotional “inoculation” which will it might be painful to ignore it, says, “fills me now with longing truth with playing the academic “provide immunity” for future but he should—it won’t bring the and pity.” Dakin says that he “game.” He ends up impressing situations. Irwin calls this happiness that he seeks. Hector stayed with a pitiable host and the dons by acting in a way that “love,” and Hector says that no also suggests that some of his that he looked at a list of we know doesn’t fully express one could love him because he “wisdom” is actually just fatigue. college alums, visited Irwin’s how he feels. Scripps’s “longing talks too much. Then Hector He doesn’t necessarily have the college, Corpus, and didn’t and pity” reflect the big, outhfuly tells Irwin not to keep key to life, even if some students have sex. Posner says that he hopes of this moment, and also teaching. Irwin says that he think that he does. Teachers can’t “can see why they make a fuss imply that they won’t all come didn’t “intend” to, and Hector rely on students for fulfillment, about it,” because the college true. says that most people end up and students can’t rely on was beautiful. He says that he doing it without intending to. teachers, either. Hector thus downplayed the Holocaust on 1 2 4 He expected teaching young suggests that you have to find his exam, and that the people to “renew” him and fulfillment for yourself, and that interviewers “praised what provide “vitality,” but instead it neither sex nor philosophy is a they called my sense of creates “a fatigue that passes shortcut to happiness. detachment.” for philosophy but is nearer to indifference.” Hector cautions 1 2 3 4 Irwin not to “touch him” (implying Dakin). He says it will make the boys think Irwin is a “fool,” as they now think that Hector is.

Following this narration, “the Irwin’s philosophy downplayed In a new scene Dakin and Here we see the depth of Irwin’s boys erupt onto the stage.” The personal truth, and it achieved Irwin are alone together. insecurity. He projects himself as Headmaster says that all of its intended results: the boys Dakin tells Irwin that he the kind of person who went to them have received places at have all been accepted. Both looked up his name at Corpus Oxford for his undergraduate Oxford and Cambridge, with Posner and Dakin learned to play while visiting Oxford, and that degree, when in fact he didn’t. special honors for Posner and Irwin’s game, and this has led to Irwin wasn’t listed. Irwin plays This reminds us that Irwin’s Dakin. He congratulates Irwin success and the fulfillment of this down, but Dakin persists, philosophy is all about image, and Mrs. Lintott. Mrs. Lintott their immediate hopes. In this saying that it matters “because and not about truth. He has used reminds him that Rudge didn’t scene, we also see the teachers I imagined you there.” Irwin a lie to make himself seem like an get a place, and the underestimating Rudge yet admits that he didn’t get into expert—but in fact, his lessons Headmaster says this is a pity. again, and assuming he could Oxford for his undergraduate actually worked. Telling the truth Then Rudge enters. He tells never get in to Oxbridge. degree—he only went for “a doesn’t necessarily guarantee a them that the examiners teaching diploma.” He asks good outcome, and lying can already told him his fate during 1 4 5 whether this “makes a work. But lying about who you the interview—he got in. Irwin difference,” and Dakin shrugs. are can also mask unhappiness is surprised, and Rudge says He says that they’ve without actually solving it. Irwin that he “had family established that lying works, may appear successful, but he connections.” The Headmaster but Irwin should learn to be a feels like a failure. asks whether someone in his better liar. Then he casually family really went to Christ suggests that they get a drink. 1 2 4 Church. Irwin says that he can’t After all their flirting, here Dakin Rudge says that his father was Rudge’s path to admission shows tonight. Dakin suggests finally asks Irwin directly for a servant there, and this came the randomness of history tomorrow. Irwin can’t. Dakin what he wants—he’s no longer up during his interview. One of (especially the way Rudge says that the drink is a playing that kind of game. This the older interviewers asked himself described it), and also the euphemism, and that he’s reminds the audience that there him about it, and then said that way that class can affect actually wondering “whether are often invisible dynamics this was what they were events—in this case, it has a there were any circumstances playing out beneath events, and looking for as “evidence of how positive effect for Rudge, though in which there was a chance of that what is on the surface far they had come, wheel come he also has to deal with being your sucking me off.” Irwin says doesn’t convey the full truth of full circle and that.” He says underestimated throughout his that he didn’t know Dakin was the situation. Dakin’s comment that he also played the game school career. It also suggests “that way inclined,” and Dakin about Irwin’s timidity also by saying that “Stalin was a that Irwin’s methods alone may says that he isn’t, but he highlights the fact that Irwin’s sweetie”—and that they not have ensured the boys’ thought it would be a fun academic philosophy is partly a accepted him then and there admission. They tried to control celebratory measure for the way for him to deal with his as “plainly someone who the results, but a lot of it still end of the year. As he is feelings of insecurity in life. thought for himself and just comes down to luck. leaving, he turns to Irwin and what the college rugger team says that there’s a distinct 1 2 3 4 needed.” 1 2 4 5 difference between the way he lives and the way he teaches. In argument, he is bold and reckless, but “when it’s something that’s actually happening, I mean now, you’re so fucking careful.”

Irwin protests that Dakin has Dakin reminds Irwin here that his Dakin tells Scripps that he Dakin here believes that he has already had to endure philosophy of always taking an made Irwin this offer as a way found a way to control events Hector’s gropings, but Dakin unconventional approach might of saying thank you. Scripps and affect the outcome of says that Hector is “a joke” and be good for exams, but it isn’t the jokes that this seems history, but the motorcycle that Irwin couldn’t be like him. best way to live—many excessive. Then Dakin says accident will prove him wrong. Irwin says Hector isn’t a joke, conventional approaches come that he talked to the This moment of the play sets up but Dakin says “that side of out of true feelings and desires. Headmaster. He asked him the ultimate lesson that history is him is.” Irwin says that the Dakin’s comments about Hector pointedly whether there’s any random and unpredictable, and situation is a cliché, and Dakin also show that the boys in some difference between Hector’s Dakin’s attempts to make Irwin says that while clichés don’t ways pity their teacher. They see gropings and the and Posner happy by fulfilling play well on exams, “in this his loneliness as a failure, and Headmaster’s own pursuit of their sexual desires are similarly subject there are no they don’t want to end up like his secretary, Fiona. The doomed to fail. Finally, Dakin’s examiners.” He says that Irwin him. Dakin’s parting statement Headmaster eventually agreed reminder that the Headmaster should give in to the fun of a ultimately ends up highlighting to give Hector another chance. tolerates his own gropings of cliché. Irwin agrees. He takes the fact that certainty in life is Scripps says that “everybody’s Fiona and not Hector’s of the out his calendar and suggests impossible—this supposedly- happy.” Dakin says, “I hadn’t boys calls attention to a next week. Dakin makes fun of inevitable sexual liaison does not realised how easy it is to make hypocrisy that has not been his crowded schedule and his come to pass, despite these plans things happen.” Then Scripps noted until now in the play. This tight-laced demeanor, saying and promises. steps in with some reminds us again of the role of that they’ve “got a long way to foreshadowing narration. He gender in how history plays out. go.” He suggests Irwin take his 1 2 3 4 says, theatrically, that glasses off. Irwin, flirting suggesting everybody was 2 3 4 5 openly now, says “taking off my happy made everything glasses is the last thing I do.” unravel. Dakin showily gives Dakin leaves, saying, “we’re not Posner a hug of “reward.” in the subjunctive either. It is Posner says that it was going to happen.” disappointing—“too fucking brief.” Dakin hugs him again. Then he puts on his motorcycle helmet, saying that he’s going to ride with Hector “for old times’ sake.” Hector enters, cheerful and Rudge wins the guessing game wearing his motorcycle outfit. because he knows a popular song Rudge asks him whether that no one else does. Hector’s they’re still playing the statement that both kinds of guessing game for money, “crap” are equal also recalls the because he has something. play’s argument that old things Rudge sings a verse of a aren’t inherently worth popular modern song. Timms celebrating. You have to decide says that he can’t expect for yourself what is important Hector to know such a “crap” and what isn’t—time or external song,” and Rudge says that validation aren’t sufficient Gracie Fields is also crap, “only guides. that’s his crap.” Hector reminds them of his presence and says 1 2 4 that he doesn’t know the song, but “his crap or my crap, it makes no difference.” He says that Rudge wins the money.

The Headmaster enters and We see in this moment that the The whole staff, including The Headmaster’s eulogy proves sees Dakin in the motorcycle motorcycle accident was the Irwin in his wheelchair, and the that he doesn’t understand helmet. He immediately result of the random entrance by students sing the song Bye Bye Hector’s philosophy of education protests, and then Irwin walks the Headmaster. This is Blackbird while photos of a at all. In this moment of suffering in. Scripps says, “and here Bennett’s biggest point about young Hector flash across a and sadness, however, the boys history rattled over the history: it doesn’t have one true screen. The Headmaster internalize Hector’s lesson about points…” and the Headmaster narrative, and it unfolds through begins a eulogy. He says that how to deal with life’s difficulties tells Hector to take Irwin a series of random events. Hector “loved language. He through the power of art and instead. Irwin says “why not.” Scripps’s narration then shows us loved words.” He helped literature. It is impossible to Dakin hands Irwin his helmet, that there is no way to be sure students to gain enthusiasm avoid suffering, and so they turn and tells him to hold on to his what happened in this life- about literature. Timms to Hector’s lessons when his briefcase. Scripps then begins changing accident. He suggests remembers Hector saying, or death disrupts their lives. to narrate. He says that they that some of the simpler stories quoting, that “one person’s don’t know what happened, don’t take enough nuance into death will tell you more than a 1 4 but there are many theories account, but he also thousand.” Lockwood about why Hector crashed his acknowledges that it would be remembers the time that motorcycle. Some suggest that impossible to tell the full story. Hector put his head down on he wasn’t used to driving with the desk in despair, and says, two hands, and therefore went 1 2 “it was the first time I realised too fast, but Scripps find this a teacher was a human being.” too obvious, and says Irwin Akthar says that there was an would disapprove. His own inscrutable “contract” between theory is that Irwin didn’t Hector and his students. know how to ride a Crowther says that, though he motorcycle, and leaned the was “stained and shabby,” he wrong way, unbalancing “led you to expect the best. His Hector. He says that this death brought a lesson.” would be more appropriate. Irwin begins narrating from his Again Rudge articulates the wheelchair. He says that he play’s major argument about doesn’t remember anything history, reminding us that Irwin’s after his conversation with search for a historical narrative is Dakin. He says that they never inadequate. Rudge, who has got their drink. Dakin, rejected the typical rules of the narrating, says that he academic game at several points “couldn’t face the wheelchair,” throughout the play, nevertheless but that it’s good he asked. He has one of the clearest views says, “barring accidents, it about how history actually would have happened.” Rudge works. then comes in to narrate, saying that you can’t ignore 1 2 accidents. He repeats his theory: “history is just one fucking thing after another.” Scripps says that a person dying at school can affect your whole life.

Mrs. Lintott says that Hector Mrs. Lintott’s reminder that Hector comes back into the Hector’s reappearance is then a didn’t have an agenda about Hector didn’t care about the scene. He tells Mrs. Lintott to reminder to the audience and the where each boy would end up. boys’ ultimate success points out finish, saying, “the bright day is boys that this list of She then gives details about that we, the audience, do care, at done and we are for the dark.” accomplishments isn’t what life where the boys do end up. least about learning the facts. Irwin says that Hector’s is about. All of the boys are going Crowther and Lockwood This list then offers a sense of teaching was not suited to this to die, just as Hector has. Also become judges. Akthar is a closure, and emphasizes the time period. Scripps disagrees: like Hector, they too will have no headmaster. They are all ways that people must “love apart, it is the only control over the random events “pillars of a community that no constantly seek to balance education worth having.” of their lives, or how their longer has much use for personal fulfillment with xternale Hector says, “Pass the parcel, “histories” are told by others. pillars.” Timms runs a dry- markers of success. The list also that’s sometimes all you can Hector’s final statement suggests cleaning business and does serves as another reminder of the do. Take it, feel it, and pass it that his teaching was a way to drugs. Dakin is a highly paid randomness of history. Each of on…that’s the game I wanted get the boys to savor life while tax lawyer. Rudge is a builder the boys took different paths, you to learn. Pass it on.” The they can. of “handy homes.” Rudge ones that they couldn’t have play ends. himself protests to this anticipated while they were in 1 2 4 characterization, saying, “like school. Rudge then claims that them or not, Rudge Homes are even in death, people try to cling at least affordable homes for to a certain narrative about HOW TO CITE first-time buyers.” Rudge says history and life. He suggests that It's easy to cite LitCharts for use in academic papers that death is “another excuse in his own case, this narrative and reports. to patronise,” something he’s has to do with class. endured too much of. Mrs. Lintott says that she has, too. 1 2 4 5 MLA CITATION Scripps, she says, became a Ben Florman and Justin Kestler, LitCharts Editors. journalist, but is always saying "LitChart on The History Boys." LitCharts.com. 11 Mar he will someday “really write.” 2016. Irwin, Mrs. Lintott says, was a Posner’s fate is the culmination journalist, too—first at the of the play’s theme of frustrated CHICAGO MANUAL CITATION school, and then on TV. Now expectations. Posner tries to Ben Florman and Justin Kestler, LitCharts Editors. Irwin is in politics, she says. achieve personal fulfillment, and Irwin clarifies that he is in in fact, he does understand "LitChart on The History Boys." LitCharts.com. 2016. “government.” Mrs. Lintott literature and Hector’s teachings http://www.litcharts.com/lit/the-history-boys. says that either way, he hasn’t in a way that the other boys do gone on to an academic career. not—yet this alone isn’t enough APA CITATION Then she turns to Posner, who to give him a happy life. He she says is the “only one who remains an outsider, and doesn’t Ben Florman and Justin Kestler, LitCharts Editors truly took everything to heart.” balance the drive for worldly 2016. LitChart on The History Boys. Retrieved March Posner lives a reclusive life in a success that Irwin tried to instill 11, 2016 from http://www.litcharts.com/lit/the- cottage, having “periodic in him. Irwin, on the other hand, history-boys. breakdowns.” He reads a lot at has had a “successful” life, but the library, and follows his not one that fulfills his dreams. classmates’ careers. He lives a These two characters thus once shadow life online, and has again illustrate the play’s many friends, though “none in argument that adulthood his right name or even gender.” involves a balance of different He “has long since stopped demands. Neither Hector’s nor asking himself where it went Irwin’s philosophy is a sure-fire wrong.” path to success and happiness. 1 3 4