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There Were Five Passport-Sized Colour Photographs Media Representation and Democracy in Africa: ‘Why there are no skyscrapers in Nigeria’ -A critical analysis of UK news media’s representation of Nigeria’s democracy, 1997 - 2007 Patrick Oluwaniran Malaolu Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Stirling Department of Film, Media and Journalism July 2012 (c) Patrick O. Malaolu 2012 Abstract This thesis investigates the representation of Nigeria in the British news media. Using a multi-disciplinary approach, it examines the interplay of culture, race, ideology and geo-political power relations in the production of news. It interrogates the influence of sources, the impact of sources-media relations and their direct consequences on the construction as news of Nigeria’s socio-economic and human development indices, which further signpost the direction of representation of the world’s most populous black nation. By considering the coverage of Nigeria in the UK news media between 1997 and 2007, a period which marked a watershed in the democratic evolution of Nigeria, this thesis contributes to the on-going debates regarding cultural understanding in a globalized community. First, the research is based on a content analysis of the coverage of Nigeria in five UK quality newspapers at a period marking the end of the political logjam that engulfed the country following the annulment of the June 12, 1993 elections; the return to democratic rule and the early years of democracy, which witnessed the successful transfer of power from one civilian administration to another for the first time in Nigeria’s history. Second, a critical discourse analysis of a sample of the coverage of the most mentioned issues in the reportage, and third, on a small set of interviews with some of the journalists involved in the coverage. As a framework for its analysis, this thesis focuses on the theories of cultural politics, representation and news discourse. It finds that the coverage of Nigeria does not just follow the pattern of a distant and differentiated ‘Other,’ but is also significantly influenced by pre-colonial cum colonial i history and geo-political power relations. Though news media outlets and individual journalists do try, within their own powers, to make a difference but the fact that the myths supporting these assumptions have been institutionalised over time presents a huge challenge. The issues in the coverage are discursively constructed from western point of view with greater access to shape the news clearly domiciled in the pouch of European or western sources rather than the Nigerians who should have a better appreciation of their local circumstance. This kind of coverage informs the idea of applying western solution to Africa’s problem, which further compounds the crisis. The fact that this manifest pattern of representation obfuscates the real issue behind Africa’s situation and presents imminent dangers to our common humanity are the core concerns contextualized within the thesis. It is negotiated with references to relevant dimensions of culture, politics, news discourse and interpreted in the light of geo-political power relations. ii Acknowledgments I am immensely grateful to Graham Meikle, my supervisor for the whole duration of this project, for all his incisive comments, guidance and unflinching interest; and to Richard Haynes, my second supervisor, in the final year for his support and kind words of encouragement. I am also immeasurably indebted to Jairo Lugo, my first supervisor for his invaluable insights, comments, encouragement and friendship. Their support has been hugely significant. I would also like to thank Neil Blain, head of Film, Media and Journalism department and Katharine Reibig of the Stirling Graduate Research School. I am also indebted to Jonathan Dimbleby, Vivienne Parry, Jonathan Clayton, Michael Peel, Jerry Timmins, Isa Abba Adamu, Suzy Angus, Malcolm Fleming, Robin Denselow and Nick Cull of the University of Southern California, USA; some of the journalists, journalism teachers and activists who kindly agreed to offer their precious time and insights and to be interviewed for this project. Also, I would like to thank members of the Stirling Media Research Institute for the opportunity to present my research both within and beyond the department. I also want to express my gratitude to Louise Womersley, Marie O’Brien, Kalene Craig, Jane Campbell, Suttanipa Srisai, Margot Buchanan, Soha Elbatrawy, Zeti Ahmad, Indrani Lahiri, Isabelle Gourdin-Sangouard, Jason Bergen, Thomas Beke, Talal Almutairi, Che Lai, Billy Crosgray, Helen Hallier, Michael Mcdonald, Oron Joffe, Helen and (Late) Jim Taylor, Liz and Peter Clarke, David Frasser, Robert W. Dardenne of the University of South Florida, USA; Pastor Sola John and the management and staff of Rockcity FM, Abeokuta, Nigeria. iii Finally, I would like to thank my dear wife, Christiana Oluwabukola and my children, Oba-biolorunkosi, Ore-ofeluwa and Oluwatise for their love, support and understanding have been very crucial in making the journey a worthwhile experience. iv Dedication To those who suffered imprisonment. To those who lost their lives. To those involved in the struggle to restore democracy. To God, be the glory. v Table of Contents Volume 1 Preface 1 1. Introduction 4 i) Britain and Nigeria: Historical perspective 8 ii) Nationalists Struggle and the Nigerian press 11 iii) Framing: Between the colonizer and the colonized 14 2. Review of Literature 18 i) The influence of culture 19 ii) Images of representation 23 iii) Representation of Otherness 26 iv) Representation in international news 31 v) Critical analysis of media representation 42 3. Methodology 48 i) The researcher’s personal location and the topic 50 ii) The approach of investigation 53 iii) Multiple methods 54 iv) Aims and Limitations 60 v) Research process 62 vi) Content analysis 64 vii) Population and samples 66 viii) Unit of analysis 70 ix) Critical discourse analysis 76 x) Account of procedure followed 81 xi) The specific analytical tools for CDA 83 xii) The corpus for CDA 93 vi xiii) Interviews 95 xiv) Procedure followed, quality and ethics 96 xv) Validity and Reliability 99 xvi) Limits of the methods 100 4. The Texts and the Numbers: When the frequency of occurrence counts 103 i) Focus of interest on the battle to return Nigeria to democracy 105 ii) Interest wanes and a pattern of coverage emerges 107 iii) The individual newspapers’ performance and the emerging pattern of coverage 112 iv) The pattern of coverage: Comparison of three countries 126 v) Conclusion 136 5. Current News, Yesterday’s History – How the past intervenes with news construction and presentation 138 i) Method of analysis 143 ii) Democracy: Is this virtue congenial with the African culture? 144 iii) Infrastructure: Describing the African landscape 162 iv) Sport: Telling the story of the ‘Other’ culture 171 v) Conclusion 179 6. News as divine message - written by the ‘Hand of God’ 183 i) Method of analysis 186 ii) Corruption: Amplifying a discourse position 189 iii) Portrait of corruption 190 iv) Looking at the same news differently: Comparison of how UK and Nigeria are represented 197 v) News, myth, reality and the notion of representation 213 vi) Representing Sodom and Gomorrah 220 vii vii) Nigeria: Between the UK and Nigerian press 226 viii) Conclusion 229 7. Sources and the News – The Influence of Travel guide, Experts’ views, and others 232 i) Assignment briefs: How reporters are primed for the task 238 ii) Nigeria: Whose voice is in the news? 242 iii) Sources: The discourse of colonial texts and NGOs 249 iv) Between informative and evaluative coverage: More news, muted voices 256 v) Why the news is the way it is: The insights of the interviewees 265 vi) Conclusion 278 8. Conclusion: Why there are no skyscrapers in Nigeria 280 i) Nigeria and the pre-existing news frame 285 ii) Nigeria’s image problem 291 iii) Hope of advance lies in thinking outside the box 299 Volume 2 1. Bibliography 305 2. Interview 342 2. List of newspapers articles in CDA corpus 343 3. Appendix 1: Content Analysis 347 4. Appendix 2: Interviews Guide 363 5. Appendix 2: Interview Transcription 366 Word count of Thesis: 88,756 viii List of tables Chapter 3 Table 1. Characteristics of samples 68 Chapter 4 Table 2. Overall Coverage 105 Table 3. Average coverage per category 105 Table 4. The Times’ coverage in numbers 112 Table 5. The Telegraph’s coverage in numbers 115 Table 6. Financial Times’ coverage in numbers 118 Table 7. The Guardian’s coverage in numbers 122 Table 8. The Independent’s coverage in numbers 124 Table 9. Anova table of articles/number of years covered 133 Table 10. Anova table of articles reported in the three countries 134 Table 11. Total per category 135 Chapter 7 Table 12. Distribution of sources in the five UK samples 243 Table 13. Distribution of coverage in the individual UK samples 244 Table 14. Distribution of coverage in the individual UK samples 246 Table 15. Distribution of coverage in the individual UK samples 246 ix List of figures Chapter 3 Figure 1. - 72 Chapter 4 Figure 2. - 106 Figure 3. - 106 Figure 4. - 107 Figure 5. - 107 Figure 6. - 109 Figure 7. - 109 Figure 8. - 114 Figure 9. - 114 Figure 10. - 116 Figure 11. - 116 Figure 12. - 117 Figure 13. - 118 Figure 14. - 118 Figure 15. - 119 Figure 16. - 119 Figure 17. - 120 Figure 18. - 120 Figure 19. - 121 Figure 20. - 121 Figure 21. - 123 Figure 22. - 123 x Figure 23. - 124 Figure 24. - 124 Figure 25. - 125 Figure 26. - 125 Figure 27. - 127 Figure 28. - 128 Figure 29. - 129 Figure 30. - 131 Figure 31. - 132 Chapter 7 Figure 32. - 255 Figure 33. - 255 xi Author’s declaration This thesis represents the original work of Patrick Oluwaniran Malaolu unless explicitly stated in the text.
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