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High-Rise Social Housing in Hot-Humid Climates: Towards an ‘Airhouse’ Standard for Comfort

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High-Rise Social Housing in Hot-Humid Climates: Towards an ‘Airhouse’ Standard for Comfort applied sciences Article High-Rise Social Housing in Hot-Humid Climates: Towards an ‘Airhouse’ Standard for Comfort Cristina Gonzalez-Longo * and Mohd Firrdhaus Mohd Sahabuddin Department of Architecture, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow G1 1XJ, UK; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +44-7973418279 Received: 20 October 2019; Accepted: 16 November 2019; Published: 20 November 2019 Featured Application: The results of this research can be applied to the ongoing social housing construction program in Malaysia. Abstract: The pressure to provide social housing in a fast and economic way, as well as outdated regulations, constrain the design of these buildings, having serious implications for the comfort of occupants and the environment. This becomes more critical in hot-humid climates, such as Malaysia, with uniformly high temperature and humidity and low wind speeds. In its capital, Kuala Lumpur, an extensive program of construction for high-rise social housing is being carried out, however, shortly after the flats are occupied, or as soon as they can afford it, the residents fit wall mounted air conditioning units. This research started by looking at Malay vernacular architecture and the traditional strategies for ventilation and cooling. After a review of current building regulations and green tools employed in the country, two campaigns of fieldwork were carried out to assess the actual indoor and outdoor thermal and air quality conditions in the buildings, which were found to be inadequate for both the local regulations and international recommendations. The fieldwork also allowed the identification of the critical design issues to address. A ventilation and filtering ceiling system has been identified as one of the possible solutions for the current situation and has been tested through physical and computer models. The system improves comfort by reducing the air temperature, humidity, and amount of airborne particles and gases, as well as constantly providing an adequate airflow rate. It is the first attempt to develop what we have named the ‘airhouse’ standard for tropical countries. Keywords: high-rise; social housing; hot-humid climate; comfort; thermal comfort; indoor air quality; dynamic insulation; ‘airhouse’ standard; Malaysia 1. Introduction The health and comfort of humans in urban areas are both compromised by high carbon emissions. In the Southeast Asia (SEA) region, these have increased rapidly. Malaysia is one of the five countries that have collectively contributed to 90% of the carbon emissions in the region, which is directly linked to an increase in temperature, projected to be in the country between 1.1 ◦C and 3.6 ◦C by 2095 [1]. The carbon emissions from the building sector have doubled from the 1970s, now representing 25% of the total country’s emissions. The construction of residential buildings has quintupled during the last four decades [2]. In order to address this problem, the government has recently signed the Paris Agreement, committing to reduce 45% of carbon emissions by 2030, in accordance to the 2005 baseline. The ongoing People’s Housing Programme (PPR) involves the construction of one million high-rise social housing units in Malaysia, but it does not addresses the comfort of the occupants and the wider environmental issues in full [3]. The local hot-humid climate, dense urban environment, layout and Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4985; doi:10.3390/app9234985 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 4985 2 of 20 and orientation of buildings, materials used for the building, and human behaviour contribute to a highorientation indoor of air buildings, temperature materials and usedhumidity. for the Heavyw building,eight and construction human behaviour with contributeconcrete panels to a high or brickworkindoor air temperaturewithout insulation, and humidity. which are, Heavyweight at the moment, construction the common with concrete systems panels of construction or brickwork in withoutMalaysia insulation, for these types which of are,buildings, at the moment,store heat the and common release it systems at night of [4]. construction This gives no in option Malaysia to the for occupantsthese types but of buildings,to use individual store heat air and conditioning release it at nightunits [to4]. achieve This gives thermal no option comfort, to the having occupants the implicationsbut to use individual of high-energy air conditioning consumption units and to carbon achieve emissions, thermal as comfort, well as havingunattractive the implications urban facades of (Figurehigh-energy 1). consumption and carbon emissions, as well as unattractive urban facades (Figure1). Figure 1. High-rise social housing in Kuala Lumpur. An additional problem is the outdated regulations. The current building regulations (UBBL) in Malaysia (a(a BritishBritish colony colony until until 1957), 1957), were were implemented implemented in 1984, in 1984, based based on the on recommendations the recommendations given givenby the by United the United Kingdom’s Kingdom’s Building Building Research Research Station (BRS),Station currently (BRS), currently known as known the Building as the ResearchBuilding ResearchEstablishment Establishment (BRE). The (BRE). UBBL The 1984 UBBL does 1984 not does take not Malaysia’s take Malaysia’s hot-humid hot-humid climate andclimate the and current the currentissues concerning issues concerning carbon emissions carbon inemissions full account in [3full]. Two account main natural[3]. Two ventilation main natural strategies ventilation are used strategiesfor the design are ofused these for buildings: the design Temperature-induced of these buildings: Temperature-induced stack ventilation using stack lightwells, ventilation air-wells, using or lightwells,atria, and wind-induced air-wells, or atria, single and sided wind-induced ventilation for single external sided rooms. ventilation The building for external regulations, rooms. which The buildinghave not regulations, been revised which for 35 have years, not only been have revised requirements for 35 years, for theonly sizes have of requirements openings (Clause for the 39) sizes and oflightwells openings (Clause (Clause 40) 39) [5 ].and The lightwells regulations (Clause establish 40) [5]. that The the regulations minimum sizeestablish of openings that the forminimum natural ventilationsize of openings purposes for natural in residential ventilation buildings purposes should in residential not be less buildings than 10% should of the not total be less clear than area 10% of ofthe the room. total clear area of the room. There havehave beenbeen recent recent developments developments concerning concerning the the use use of green of green rating rating tools intools Malaysia, in Malaysia, which whichhave encouraged have encouraged a number a number of thermal of thermal comfort comfor strategies,t strategies, helping helping to improve to improve the sustainable the sustainable design designof buildings of buildings [3]. However, [3]. However, they have they not have been not able been to acknowledgeable to acknowledge the current the andcurrent future and climatic future climaticconditions conditions of Kuala of Lumpur Kuala Lumpur and address and address the required the required improvements improvements in terms in of terms occupant’s of occupant’s health healthand comfort, and comfort, as well as as well the reductionas the reduction of carbon of carbon emissions. emissions. There are many challenges concerning the provisio provisionn of conventional natural ventilation in dense urban areasareas suchsuch as as Kuala Kuala Lumpur, Lumpur, including including the the problems problems associated associated with with the urbanthe urban heat islandheat island effect effectand air and pollution air pollution (Figure (Figure2). Considering 2). Considering the standard the standard flat layout flat inlayout these in buildings these buildings (single-sided), (single- sided),and the and high the humidity high humidity and air and pollution, air pollution, cross-ventilation cross-ventilation driven driven by ambient by ambient air movement air movement is not isan not eff ectivean effective strategy strategy for providing for providing evaporative evaporativ cooling.e cooling. Effective Effective ventilation ventilation is also is also hampered hampered by byinsu insufficientfficient wind wind movement: movement: The The average average wind wind movement movement in in Kuala Kuala Lumpur Lumpur isis 1.11.1 mm/s/s atat 1010 m of elevation [6] [6] and and 4.4 4.4 m/s m/ sat at 42.8 42.8 m mof ofelevation elevation [7]. [There7]. There are no are measurements no measurements at higher at higher levels levelsin the city,in the but city, we buthave we data have from data Bangkok, from Bangkok, another mega anothercity megacityin the SEA in region, the SEA where region, the wind where movement the wind wasmovement 6.13 m/s was at 6.13a 65 mm/ selevation at a 65 m [8]. elevation Based [on8]. that, Based we on can that, plot we the can possible plot the possiblewind movement wind movement (Figure (Figure3, dotted-blue3, dotted-blue line). A line). high Awind high velocity wind velocity (over 1.5 (over m/s) 1.5 is monly/s) acceptable is only acceptable in very inhot very and hot humid and conditionshumid conditions when no when other no otherrelief reliefis available is available [9]. [However,9]. However, 6.0 6.0m/s m /ofs ofwind wind speed speed will will cause uncomfortable conditions conditions for for
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