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Marine Animals and Human confinement. When applied to public aquaria or Care Toward Effective zoos, this term has recently been changed to Conservation of the Marine human care, since “captivity” had a rather nega- Environment tive charge to it. Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture João P. S. Correia concerned with animals that are raised for meat, Instituto Politécnico de Leiria & Flying Sharks, fiber, milk, eggs, or other products. It includes Peniche, Portugal day-to-day care, selective breeding, and the rais- ing of livestock. The collection of marine animals is the act of Definitions removing them from nature and placing them under human care. There are multiple methods A public aquarium (plural: public aquaria or for doing so safely, the majority of which public aquariums) is the aquatic counterpart of a described by Correia and Rodrigues (2017). zoo, which houses living aquatic animal and plant specimens for public viewing. Most public aquaria feature tanks larger than those kept by Introduction home aquarists, as well as smaller tanks. Since the first public aquaria were built in the mid- Zoological parks (i.e., zoos and public aquaria) nineteenth century, they have become popular, emerged at the end of the nineteenth century as and their numbers have increased. Most modern “windows” into the natural world, at a time when accredited aquaria stress conservation issues and the general public had no means to access, or visit, educating the public (AZA 2007). such wonders. One century later, these institutions Animals that are held by humans and pre- face growing controversy, and an increasing choir vented from escaping are said to be in captivity. of voices that beckon for their immediate termi- The term is usually applied to wild animals that nation and release of all captive animals back to are held in confinement but may also be used the wild. While some institutions have indeed generally to describe the keeping of domesticated failed in complying with modern legislation animals such as livestock or pets. This may (e.g., the European Union’s “Zoos Directive,” include, for example, animals in farms, private regulated by Council Directive 1999/22/EC of homes, zoos, and laboratories. Animal captivity 29 March 1999), the vast majority have adopted may be categorized according to the particular this directive and, in fact, surpassed its scope. motives, objectives, and conditions of the

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 W. Leal Filho et al. (eds.), Life Below Water, Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71064-8_64-1 2 Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment

Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment, Fig. 1 Oceanário de Lisboa. Photo by Michał Maćkowiak

Quoted directly from the European Commis- calls on Member States to adopt measures for the sion, “The Zoos Directive seeks to promote the licensing and inspection of zoos in order to ensure protection and conservation of wild animal spe- that zoos respect certain conservation and protec- cies by strengthening the role of zoos in the con- tion measures, including appropriate accommoda- servation of biodiversity. In practice, the greatest tion of the animals. efforts for the conservation and sustainable use of Member States are responsible for applying the biodiversity need to focus on measures in the provisions of the Zoos Directive and ensuring wild. This is the primary focus of the EU’s policy: their necessary enforcement. There is a very lim- through the Birds and Habitats Directives, the EU ited EU role in implementation as the Directive Biodiversity Strategy, the Regulation on Invasive does not foresee the need for a committee or Alien Species and EC wildlife trade regulations reporting obligations to the Commission. How- implementing CITES, all of which contribute to ever, a lot of good practice approaches have achieving objectives of the Convention on Bio- been developed to help zoos increase their contri- logical Diversity & other international bution to biodiversity conservation. agreements.” It is this chapter’s objective to demonstrate However, protecting wild animal species out- how these goals are being met – and surpassed – side their natural habitat is also important for by a vast number of public aquaria, most likely the biodiversity conservation. In this context, the EU majority. adopted Council Directive 1999/22/EC of For more information visit https://ec.europa. 29 March 1999 on the keeping of wild animals eu/environment/nature/legislation/zoos/index_ in zoos. The Zoos Directive aims to strengthen the en.htm. role of zoos in the conservation of biodiversity. It Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment 3

Those who do not secure a job in the zoological every oral presentation done in specialty confer- parks world – which includes zoos, aquaria, shel- ences themed on captive care held around the ters, rehabilitation centers, etc. – are often sur- world. While access is not free, the content of prised by two main traits that are personified by these thousands of talks, given by professionals all individuals that work in this field. The first is an in this field, offer valuable insight into state-of- unwavering respect – indeed passion – for animal the-art husbandry practices, including the trials life and the well-being of all organisms, both and errors that come with pushing boundaries on captive and wild. The second is the lengths to a new subject. which these professionals will go to ensure the Multiple professionals involved in this field quality of the lives of those animals under their have written memoirs in which the constant strug- care, which includes complete and utter sharing of gle for the improvement of the well-being of the information among all who work in this field. This animals under their care is blatantly patent, such openness is unparalleled in any other industry, as Clark (1969), Powell (2001), and Correia with companies typically striving to get ahead of (2015, 2016, 2017, 2019), among others. Like- others while protecting their secrets. Nothing wise, the transport of marine animals from their could be farthest from this philosophy when it collecting grounds to their end destination, and comes to the human care of wild animals, with also between institutions that strike breeding platforms such as ZIMS (Zoological Information loans among each other, is subject to a myriad of Management System – www.species360.org) technical and operational difficulties, with those linking (electronically) hundreds – indeed thou- involved in this field freely sharing their expertise sands – of zoological institutions around the with their peers. Some examples include Smith globe, who freely share husbandry information (1992), Correia (2001), Young et al. (2002), Smith regarding the animals under their care with each et al. (2004a), Correia et al. (2008, 2011), Rodri- other. Such information ranges from dietary needs gues et al. (2013), and Correia and to pathology, medications, and surgical events, in Rodrigues (2017). a rare display of selfless distribution of informa- Modern zoological parks have put a healthy tion, the likes of which are not easily found in distance between themselves and “old” zoos and other areas. As an example, Conde et al. (2019) aquaria that offered little more than (literally) a recently reported on the need for demographic window into exotic species. At the dawn of the data – namely, birth and death rates – to be incor- twenty-first century, these institutions are at the porated in effective conservation policies for wild forefront of conservation and educational efforts animal populations throughout the world. Regret- throughout the world, and this chapter will pro- tably this data is quite often inexistent, but zoos vide multiple examples of these efforts while and aquaria – mostly through the aforementioned debating their significance in the struggle to pre- ZIMS link among institutions – provide such serve natural habitats. information on an increasing scale. It is therefore the objective of this chapter to The Elasmobranch Husbandry Manuals I and demonstrate how public aquaria all over the world II (Smith et al. 2004b, 2017) are another prime may assist the UN’s Sustainable Development example of an impressive compilation of informa- Goal (SDG) 14, specifically in bringing it to the tion, specifically on sharks and rays, covering attention of the public’s eye while, simulta- every conceivable aspect of elasmobranch hus- neously, funding activities in each of these areas. bandry techniques. These books are distributed freely throughout the Internet by their editors and also the authors of nearly 100 chapters, who UN’s Sustainable Development Goal generously donated their time and expertise to favor better husbandry practices worldwide. The UN’s Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) “Animal Professional” (www.animalpro 14 consists of Conserve and sustainably use the fessional.com) also offers electronic access to oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable 4 Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment development (SDG14). These are broken down Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technol- into ten separate areas of action, listed below: ogy, in order to improve ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiver- 14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce sity to the development of developing coun- marine pollution of all kinds, in particular tries, in particular small island developing from land-based activities, including marine States and least developed countries. debris and nutrient pollution. 14.b Provide access for small-scale artisanal fish- 14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage and protect ers to marine resources and markets. marine and coastal ecosystems to avoid signif- 14.c Enhance the conservation and sustainable icant adverse impacts, including by strength- use of oceans and their resources by ening their resilience, and take action for their implementing international law as reflected in restoration in order to achieve healthy and pro- the United Nations Convention on the Law of ductive oceans. the Sea, which provides the legal framework 14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean for the conservation and sustainable use of acidification, including through enhanced sci- oceans and their resources, as recalled in para- entific cooperation at all levels. graph 158 of “The future we want.” 14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate harvesting and end overfishing, illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing and destructive fishing Conservation “Powered by” Zoos and practices and implement science-based man- Aquaria agement plans, in order to restore fish stocks in the shortest time feasible, at least to levels As stated by Penning et al. (2009), “There are well that can produce maximum sustainable yield as in excess of 300 substantial public aquariums in determined by their biological characteristics. the world and more than 100 have been opened 14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 per cent of since 1990. Collectively, including those operated coastal and marine areas, consistent with within zoos, they may attract as many as 450 mil- national and international law and based on lion visitors each year, and therefore have a very the best available scientific information. large educational and economic impact. This rap- 14.6 By 2020, prohibit certain forms of fisheries idly growing ‘Aquarium Industry’ (ranging from subsidies which contribute to overcapacity and commercial businesses through to municipal insti- overfishing, eliminate subsidies that contribute tutions, research establishments and charitable to illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing trusts) is often associated with economic regener- and refrain from introducing new such subsi- ation projects to revive socially impoverished, run dies, recognizing that appropriate and effective down docklands and industrial areas.” These special and differential treatment for develop- authors compiled a lengthy 90 pages report that ing and least developed countries should be an comprehensively lists multiple conservation integral part of the World Trade Organization efforts conducted by zoos and aquaria throughout fisheries subsidies negotiation.(1) the world and the impact that a strong education 14.7 By 2030, increase the economic benefits to message may have in over an estimated 650 mil- small island developing States and least devel- lion annual visitors worldwide. One decade after oped countries from the sustainable use of publication, these numbers are expected to be marine resources, including through sustain- substantially larger, particularly with the tremen- able management of fisheries, aquaculture dous increase of new public aquaria in Asia, spe- and tourism. cifically in China. 14.a Increase scientific knowledge, develop Only 1 year after, Gusset and Dick (2010) research capacity and transfer marine technol- compiled valuable information from 113 in situ ogy, taking into account the Intergovernmental conservation projects funded by zoos and aquaria. Oceanographic Commission Criteria and According to these authors, “Our results show that Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment 5 thanks to the investment made by zoos and aquar- are best choices or good alternatives and which iums, particularly financial, these projects reached ones should be avoided. overall impact scores of a magnitude suggestive The Oceanário de Lisboa, Portugal’s largest of an appreciable contribution to global biodiver- public aquarium and voted “Best Aquarium in sity conservation. The present first global the World” by TripAdvisor users in 2015, 2017, appraisal of the contribution of the world zoo and 2018, features an impressive list of projects and aquarium community to in situ conservation that the institution is currently funding – or funded from a supported project’s perspective thus sug- in the past – under its “Conservation” webpage: gests that zoos and aquariums are on track for ‘Building a Future for Wildlife’.” The projects “Rebreath” monitors the effect of climate change examined by these authors were categorized in juvenile fish and invertebrate communities under “Education,”“Training,”“Habitat protec- in intertidal areas. tion,” and “Research.” Covering a wide range of The “Angelshark Project” monitors Squatina taxa, such as mammals, birds, reptiles, amphib- squatina populations (a critically endangered ians, invertebrates, and non-taxon specific, the species) in the Canary Islands. financial expenditure of projects was typically in “Manta Catalog Azores” monitors mobulid occur- the range of US$10,000–100,000 year (41%), rences in the Azores islands and the impor- with the duration of projects often being longer tance of preserving their habitat. than 10 years (46%). “Fly with Bull Rays” has similar objectives with A quick search through the “Conservation” Pteromylaeus bovinus, also a critically endan- and “R&D” areas of websites from the largest gered species, along Macaronesia, West and most prominent public aquaria worldwide Africa, and East Africa up to Mozambique. will reveal a multitude of in situ (and ex situ) “Octoparque” monitors Octopus vulgaris in the conservation efforts throughout the globe, with Luiz Saldanha Marine Protected Area, a local literally millions of dollars – and euros – involved. marine reserve which was in fact founded – Below is a brief list of such examples. and originally monitored – thanks to the joint The Monterey Bay Aquarium’s (MBA) page efforts of the Oceanário and the Gulbenkian “Conservation & Science” features research pro- Foundation (see “Margov” in this list). jects on the population biology of great white “Fish and Aquatic Invertebrate Taxon Advisory sharks, bluefin tuna, and sea otters. This aquarium Group” comprises multiple groups that operate operates with its sister research institution, the under the European Union of Aquarium Cura- Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute tors (EUAC; www.euac.org) and the European (MBARI), and their joint efforts have allowed, Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA; among many other aspects, to identify what has www.eaza.net). These groups monitor captive become known as the “White Shark Café,” an area populations from a diverse array of marine in central California where large amounts of great creatures, ensuring they are genetically viable white sharks congregate (Chapple et al. 2011; within and between institutions, while promot- Jorgensen et al. 2012). This institution also started ing captive breeding and minimizing collec- the “Seafood Watch” card initiative, which has tions from the wild. been replicated throughout multiple public “Sea Turtles in São Tomé and Príncipe” actively aquaria worldwide. This card is offered freely promotes the conservation of these animals in not just to aquarium visitors but also to patrons this West African archipelago, with an empha- eating at nearby restaurants, and helps consumers sis on educating local populations and shifting and businesses choose seafood that has been their hunting activities to ecotourism and other fished or farmed in ways that support a healthy non-detrimental practices. ocean, now and for future generations. The card’s “Project Piaba” focuses on studying and pro- recommendations indicate which seafood items tecting ornamental fish species in the Amazon 6 Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment

and Black Rivers, also with the involvement of partnership with Guylian chocolates that brought local native populations. the plight that seahorses face to the public’s eye. “Shark Tag” focuses on monitoring Sphyrna The ZSL was created in 1826 with the objective of zygaena populations and migrations through- creating a zoo in London, with the intent of “inter- out the Atlantic Ocean, through telemetry and est and amuse” the public (Scherren 1905). Need- tagging. less to say that, one century later, modern zoos and “Behavior, Predator-Prey Interactions, and Inter- aquaria have placed a healthy distance between action with Fisheries of Mola mola” focuses on the objectives they boast now, and those from tagging and tracking oceanic sunfishes while older times, and the ZSL, in particular, has been attempting to study their feeding, migrations, the main driving force for countless in situ and ex and how does climate change affect its migra- situ research and conservation programs. tion patterns, among a myriad of other objec- While attempting to list those zoological insti- tives about this intriguing species. tutions that are actively engaged in conservation “Adopt a Marine Prairie” focused on monitoring and education of the public, the New England marine prairies in the south of Portugal, since Aquarium offers a rather unique tale of political these are tremendously endangered habitats lobbying, since it successfully managed to divert a due to urban development and fishing, among shipping lane – in the Bay of Fundy – to protect other factors; this project was the first of its southern right whales (Vanderlaan et al. 2008). kind in Portugal and in fact turned the tide on This is but one example of a multitude of other the constant scenario of degradation that was research efforts conducted by this institution and seen before, with multiple recent examples of its scientific counterpart, the Anderson Cabot recovery. Center for Ocean Life. “Distribution of river lamprey” focused on study- The more than 50 Sea Life Centres around the ing this extremely endangered species in Por- world (www.visitsealife.com), particularly in the tuguese rivers. UK, have long held a mutually beneficial partner- “Protection and Integrated Management of Sea ship with Shark Trust (www.sharktrust.org)a Turtles in Cabo Verde and Program Sada in charitable organization founded in the UK in the Island of Príncipe” encouraged local 1997, which is dedicated to promoting the study, populations to protect sea turtles, rather than management, and conservation of sharks, skates, hunting them, thus profiting from ecotourism and rays in the UK and internationally. Some of ventures while sparing the lives of countless the more recent campaigns promoted by Shark individuals from these critically endangered Trust include “The Great Egg Case Hunt,” where species. children and adults alike are encouraged to comb “Margov” was a co-management project that beaches for shark and ray egg cases and then log brought multiple stakeholders together with them into an app. This is a perfect example of the objective of effectively managing the “popular science” that is both financed and dis- newly created Luiz Saldanha Marine Reserve. seminated by public aquaria worldwide, particu- “Clean Eel” focused on studying severely declin- larly those belonging to the Sea Life Centre chain. ing European eel populations. These institutions’ mother company, Merlin Entertainments (www.merlinentertainments.biz), While the list above features an impressive also recently funded a study that involved the number of projects that have been supported by Portuguese University of Aveiro, which focused the Oceanário de Lisboa along its two decades of on developing a relatively quick and non-intrusive existence, the list pales in comparison with that of method for detecting cyanide traces in ornamental the Zoological Society of London (www.zsl.org), fish imported from worldwide distributors. While with its most prominent example undoubtedly it has been commonly believed that cyanide fish- being the acclaimed “Seahorse Project,” a brilliant ing for ornamental fish – which supplies both the aquarium and hobbyist trades – was a thing of the Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment 7 past, this study demonstrated that, regrettably, the Dubai Aquarium and Underwater Zoo, UAE, presence of cyanide in fish imported into the www.thedubaiaquarium.org European Union is a more common occurrence Aquamarine Fukushima in Iwaki, Japan, www. than earlier anticipated (Vaz et al. 2012). aquamarine.or.jp The Ozeaneum (www.ozeaneum.de)and Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium in Motobu, Japan, ZooAquarium Madrid (www.zoomadrid.com) http://churaumi.okinawa are both actively engaged in an in situ coral prop- Osaka Aquarium Kaiyukan in Osaka, Japan, agation project that’s occurring in the Maldives, www.kaiukan.com with massive funding by the European Union of Ocean Park in Hong Kong, China, www. Aquarium Curators and other aquarium-related oceanpark.com.hk institutions. The purpose of this project, and Planet Neptun in St. Petersburg, Russia, www. others similar to it, also funded by the public saint-petersburg.com/museums/oceanarium/ aquarium industry, is to actively promote propa- Two Oceans Aquarium in Cape Town, gation of corals in the wild, therefore minimizing South Africa, www.aquarium.co.za collection of specimens from nature for both AquaRio in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, www. aquarium collections and the hobbyist trade, aquariomarinhodorio.com.br while assisting in the recovery of coral reefs throughout the world, which have been suffering Among the millions of dollars and euros spent greatly with climate change, something that has by the institutions listed above (and many others been reported in scientific literature as far back as not listed here), professional organizations that 1999 (Hoegh-Guldberg 1999; Hoegh-Guldberg regulate the activities of zoological parks around et al. 2007). the globe attribute, themselves, sizeable funding The list of other zoological institutions that to conservation and education initiatives, such as: offer on their webpages a diverse range of conser- vation programs currently being supported The European Union of Aquarium Curators includes, but is certainly not limited to: (www.euac.org), which funds conservation and education projects around the globe. Nausicaá in Boulogne-sur-Mer, France, www. The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria nausicaa.fr (www.eaza.net), which has now donated mil- The Monaco Blue Initiative, promoted by the lions of euros to conservation programs cover- Museé Océanographique de Monaco, www. ing bushmeat, rainforest, tigers, shellshock, oceano.mc rhinos, Madagascar, amphibians, carnivores, L’Oceanogràfic in Valencia, Spain, www. apes, and Southeast Asia, to name a few. oceanografic.org Its American counterpart, the Association of Zoos Chester Zoo in Chester, United Kingdom, and its and Aquariums (www.aza.org), has also very relevant in situ work done in defense of donated millions of dollars to conservation orangutans in Borneo. efforts covering groups as diverse as amphib- Vancouver Aquarium, Canada, www.vanaqua.org ians, apes, Asian horses, citizen science, cli- Aquarium of the Pacific in Long Beach, USA, mate change and wildlife, elephants, marine www.aquariumofpacific.org mammals, oceans, pollinators, and tigers. The Florida Aquarium in Tampa, USA, www. Likewise, the World Association of Zoos and flaquarium.org Aquariums (www.waza.org) offers freely pub- Georgia Aquarium in Atlanta, USA, www. lications – translated to ten languages – georgiaaquarium.org highlighting conservation efforts that are Shedd Aquarium in Chicago, USA, www. underway throughout the world, financed by sheddaquarium.org zoos and aquaria alike. Tennessee Aquarium in Chattanooga, USA, www.tnaqua.org 8 Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment

Zoos, aquaria, and professional organizations conjunction with a Portuguese governmental don’t hold a monopoly on funding conservation agency, this company published Portugal’s efforts, because multiple private organizations first underwater bilingual photo identification affiliated with the public aquaria industry do so book, Marine Fishes of Portugal (Rodrigues as well, such as: 2015). In 2018, with the support of the afore- mentioned European Union of Aquarium CLEAR REEF (www.clear-reef.com), a private Curators, Flying Sharks sponsored the travel- company that builds public aquaria, awards ing required for the production of the first book funding to individuals and organizations with on fish identification in the West African archi- projects that focus on conservation. The Fund pelago of São Tomé and Príncipe, as well as a is totally philanthropic and exclusively poster highlighting species that are locally financed by CLEAR REEF’s income. No addi- exploited by commercial fishermen tional contribution is requested from other (Rodrigues et al. 2018). partners. The Fund is also meant to be at the Dynasty Marine (www.dynastymarine.net) and crossroads of individuals’ social/self- Cairns Marine (www.cairnsmarine.com) both development needs, marine research, and con- share similar focus to Flying Sharks’ while servation issues. It is intended to promote local promoting captive breeding and sustainable initiatives being brought forward by regular collections from the wild. These two collection citizens (students, researchers, unemployed, companies, based in the USA and Australia, retirees, or any person of good will) seeking a respectively, additionally fund small research financial help to run a project directly or indi- projects as well. rectly related to marine research and/or conser- vation. It is also intended to improve the personal situation of an individual and promote Impact of Collections marine research/conservation at the same time. Flying Sharks (www.flyingsharks.eu), a collec- Adams et al. (1999), Ziemann (2001), and multi- tions and consulting company, has also been ple other authors report on the impact of collec- awarding small research grants mostly to stu- tions driven by the aquarium and food industries dents and researchers throughout the globe. on some fish populations. The latter author, how- The Flying Sharks Research Fund began in ever, further mentions how both public aquaria 2008 and quickly developed to include, pro- and hatcheries are successfully breeding an mote, and finance the “Portuguese Week of increasing number of fish species, which not Shark Protection,” which consists of 1 week only significantly reduces pressure from wild packed with lectures about sharks in schools, populations but may also contribute to their recov- universities, and public aquaria all over the ery through controlled – and approved – releases Portuguese mainland. These weeks dedicated of captive bred animals. Tlusty et al. (2012, 2014) to shark protection also include an annual also address this issue and provide insight into the shark tag and release tournament, with tags impact such collections have in the environment, generously donated by the American National but it’s important to note these authors are them- Marine Fisheries Service. Thus far, the Portu- selves part of the aquarium community, while guese Association for the Study and Conserva- being actively involved in initiatives that focus tion of Sharks (www.apece.pt), which has on minimizing the impact of collections in the received financial support from both the wild environment, mostly through captive breed- Oceanário de Lisboa and Flying Sharks since ing and ensuring fisheries are conducted in a sus- its inception in 1997, has tagged and released tainable fashion. Earlier than these authors, more than 500 blue and mako sharks while Calado (2006) offered a wide range of possible promoting this practice among Portuguese management strategies for this trade, to ensure sports-fishing companies. In 2015, in sustainable and “eco-friendly” collection Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment 9 practices. Rhyne et al. (2014), all public aquarium The Jaws of Death (Maniguet 1996) echoing that professionals, suggested the creation of a Coral sentiment. Movies such as the “Sharknado” saga, Reef Socio-Ecological System (CRSES), which which began in 2013 and is now on its sixth would encourage sustainable collection practices, edition, do little to deviate the public’s eye from with benefits for local native communities and such a gory perspective. However, the role public also the trade itself. aquaria have played in elucidating the public about the true nature of sharks, including televised “Old-School” Public Aquaria efforts from the Discovery Channel – and others – While North American and European public such as its acclaimed annual “Shark Week,” has aquaria, with a few notable exceptions in other played a definitive role in significantly improving continents – listed above – boast a predominantly sharks’“image” near the public. Social media is conservation-oriented mission, with matching also behind what almost feels like a concerted funding, that is not the case in other areas of the “PR” campaign focused on the betterment of planet, particularly in Asia’s rising economies, sharks’ image. Consider the effect a video on a including China, Vietnam, and Russia. Again, shark culling has on social media users these days, with a few exceptions, these countries mostly which are welcomed with outrage and contempt exhibit a more outdated approach, overly focused by the general public, who demand authorities to on the display of live “colorful,”“large,” and immediately cease all culling activities, even “exotic” animals, with factors such as well- when these were triggered by an incident involv- being, conservation, and education relegated to ing sharks, usually with detrimental results for second place. But one shouldn’t succumb to the humans. Conversely, social media is populated temptation of “pointing our fingers” in accusation with bold initiatives of concerned citizens who to these institutions because, after all, they are bravely do their best to return beached large merely following the steps the “western world” sharks to the ocean, putting their own lives at dictated for one century, until multiple organiza- risk. It seems therefore that sharks’ image has tions drove public opinion to demand an improved considerably in recent years, and main- eco-friendlier approach. It is therefore “our” job, stream media is most certainly not the cause for it, as “westerners” who have walked the same path since well over half of all shark-related stories are for far longer than we should have, to ensure that focused on their perilous nature and only 11% on our “rising” neighbors adopt the same practices conservation aspects (Muter et al. 2012), such as we now consider to be acceptable, preferably in a the plight they face due to overfishing and finning. much shorter time interval than the one “we” took This full shift in perception has been echoed in to change our formerly ignominious behavior. government policy, namely, in Australia, where a culling is no longer the immediate and standard- ized form of response to an incident involving Shifts in Perception “Powered by” Public sharks and humans (Gibbs and Warren 2015). As Aquaria mentioned, while mainstream media is most cer- tainly not behind this shift in perception, public In recent years, particularly since the dawn of the aquaria are undoubtedly driving this new way of new millennium, two groups have seen a major looking at sharks. shift in the public’s perception, unlike any other One notable exception, however, merits some before. Those groups are sharks and cetaceans. distinction, and that is the role the National Geo- graphic Society (NGS) has played in shaping Sharks readers’–and more recently viewers’–minds Vilified by the popular press since Peter for over 120 years. As far back as 1932, Ellison Benchley’s Jaws (1974) was released, sharks reported on the Australian shark fishing industry have been the object of pet hatred from most but focused on the role these animals play in members of the public, with publications titled oceanic food webs and how perilous it could be 10 Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment to overfish them to the point of disrupting those Cetaceans same food webs. Over the years, the NGS regu- Unlike sharks, cetaceans – namely, whales and larly published stories that depicted sharks in a dolphins – have always enjoyed enormous popu- positive and ecologically sound fashion, unlike larity within the public that visits public aquaria. their counterparts in mainstream not-science- Interestingly, even orcas, often referred to as based media. In fact, La Gorce (1952) wrote “killer whales” and known for the aggressiveness about Marineland, then known as “Florida’s with which they hunt – and kill – newborn baby giant fish bowl,” where sharks were brought to seals, have always welcomed nothing but warm the public’s eye for the first time. But few articles and radiant affection from the general public. The have (positively) influenced the public’s percep- release of the 1993 movie “Free Willy,” however, tion as gloriously as Eugenie Clark’s(1981) impacted negatively – and quite strongly – against “Sharks: Magnificent and Misunderstood.” This the maintenance of whales and dolphins in cap- is the “same” Eugenie Clark who had published tivity. This animosity grew stronger over the fol- her iconic memoir The Lady and the Sharks in lowing two decades, fuelled by other dramatic 1969, where she narrated the beginnings of her documentaries, such as “The Cove” (2009) and work with sharks in a rudimentary research facil- “Blackfish” (2013), which depict the “less color- ity (Cape Haze Marine Laboratory) which would ful”–and often cruel – side of keeping cetaceans later become the world-famous Mote Marine Lab- under human care. While the release of “Free oratory. This prestigious institution has played a Willy” led to an outcry from the public, demand- key role in clarifying the (wrong) notion that ing Keiko – the “actor” orca – to be released, the “sharks don’t get cancer,” published by Lane and latter two, especially “Blackfish,” rippled beyond Comac (1992), and indeed focusing its research all expectations, driving Anheuser-Busch, the on the physiological mechanisms that sharks use owner company of SeaWorld parks, to immedi- to eliminate tumors from their organisms more ately cease their in-park orca breeding program efficiently than other vertebrates while attempting and eventually phase out their theatrical orca to medically administer that ability to humans whale shows altogether (due to state legislation (Ostrander et al. 2004; Walsh et al. 2006). After in California that banned shows using orcas) keeping sharks in captivity for research purposes starting in San Diego (ABC News 2016). It was for decades, the Mote Marine Laboratory opened announced, later in the same year, that SeaWorld its own aquarium in 2017 and now offers deeper would build their first park without killer whales insight to its visitors about the marvels of shark and outside of the USA, in Abu Dhabi, UAE. physiology while alerting the public for the dan- Wearing et al. (2011) present an interesting gers of pseudo-science, which is what analysis on the “Free Willy” effect, which has (mistakenly) drove thousands to purchase shark driven the whale (and dolphin) watching indus- cartilage pills, believing they would “cure” can- tries to grow exponentially, with the public avid cer. This had dire consequences to shark for an opportunity to witness these majestic ani- populations worldwide and did little, or nothing, mals in the wild, not in captivity. Likewise, to “cure” anyone who ingested them. Brammer (2015) categorizes the “Blackfish” Interestingly, over recent years, the notion that effect as a rather adverse reaction from a more “live sharks” are financially worth significantly enlightened public, which prefers to see large more than dead ones has been finding increasing animals in the wild, rather than in captivity, and evidence, and lest we not ignore the role that much less in “shows” where they are forced to public aquaria have played in pushing that shift perform acrobatics. in perception (Anderson and Waheed 2001; Topelko and Dearden 2005; Clua et al. 2011). Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment 11

Conclusions vast majority of the hundreds of zoological facil- ities that are functioning today are enforcing their While addressing a large crowd mostly comprised mission more than adequately, through bringing of aquarium curators at the EUAC’s scientific the dangers of microplastics, climate change, annual meeting, Smith (2017) coined the role deforestation, overfishing, and so many other ail- played by modern public aquaria as “The Altruis- ments that plague the world’s oceans today, to the tic Genie,” meaning that zoological institutions public eye, and actively funding research and may have fulfilled their mission “too well,” driv- conservation efforts that strive to right these ing the public to appreciate wildlife to such an wrongs. And this is indeed why public aquaria extent that observing it in captivity may no longer actions are fully aligned with the UN’s SDG14. be tolerated within a relatively short time interval. It falls therefore on public aquaria to demonstrate the value in displaying live animal collections, Cross-References which will help drive hundreds of millions through admission gates, after which they may ▶ Economic Value be “indoctrinated” with powerful conservation ▶ Higher Education and Sustainable Develop- messages. In this author’s words, “To remain ment of Marine Resources effective and relevant aquaria must: (l) Set an ▶ Marine Animals and Human Care Towards example of sustainability; (2) Continue to opti- Effective Conservation of the Marine mize industry best practice; (3) lncrease pure and Environment applied research activities; (4) lncrease conserva- ▶ Marine Protected Area and Biodiversity tion activities, especially in situ; (5) Advance Conservation well-researched and practical advocacy; and ▶ Public Awareness of Marine Biodiversity (6) Augment up, to date and effective education. Functions Aquaria must actively advance each of these domains, more coherently police the industry’s best practice, better connect their visitors to the References wild spaces they represent and work together to more effectively communicate their value to the ABC News (2016) SeaWorld to end killer Whale breeding environment and society” (op. cit.). program. Retrieved 4 June 2016 https://abcnews.go. com/US/seaworld-end-orca-breeding-program/story? id=37712730 Public Aquaria and SDG14 Adams CM, Larkin SL, Lee DJ (1999) Volume and value While public aquaria worldwide may not play a of marine ornamentals collected in Florida, 1990–98. – direct role in fulfilling the ten action points Aquar Sci Conserv 3(1):25 36 ’ Anderson C, Waheed A (2001) The economics of shark and highlighted under the UN s Sustainable Develop- ray watching in the Maldives. Shark News 13. Newslet- ment Goal 14 – listed in the beginning – the ter of IUCN Shark Specialist Group, New York, 3 p former examples demonstrate beyond any doubt AZA (2007) Visitor impact, AZA official website. the profound indirect impact they play in these, Accessed 3 Feb 2007 https://www.aza.org/partner fi ships-visitor-demographics speci cally through these two major roles: (1) edu- Benchley P (1974) Jaws. Random House, New York. 320 p cating the public about these issues, through a Brammer R (2015) Activism and antagonism: The ‘Blackfish’ concept commonly referred to as “edutainment,” effect. Screen Education 76: 72–79. and (2) actively contributing financially toward Calado R (2006) Marine ornamental species from European waters: a valuable overlooked resource or a research groups that are directly involved in future threat for the conservation of marine ecosys- these ten action points listed under SDG14. tems? Sci Mar 70(3):389–398 Society is evolving in the direction of banning Chapple TK, Jorgensen SJ, Anderson SD, Kanive PE, fi zoological parks, which is a natural progression in Klimley PA, Botsford LW, Block BA (2011) A rst estimate of white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, the evolution of human consciousness and its abundance off Central California. Biol Lett. https:// appreciation for the natural world. However, the doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2011.0124 12 Marine Animals and Human Care Toward Effective Conservation of the Marine Environment

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