<<

Ingolstadt

Strasbourg Reutlingen Ulm Albstadt Sankt Pölten Freiburg München

GERMANY

Besançon Eurac Research Institute for Alpine Environment Drusallee 1 / Viale Druso 1 Bolzano 39100 Bolzano / Bozen, T +39 0471055333 [email protected] www.eurac.edu Udine

Lyon Novara

Milano Services in the : A report Ecosystem Venezia Grenoble Padova

Torino Gulf of Valence Alessandria

Gap Genova Cuneo ITALY

Avignon This project is co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund through the

Ligure Sea Marseille Gulf of Lions TABLE OF CONTENT

1 Introduction 2-3 .1 The AlpES project 4-5 .2 Ecosystem Services: what are they? 6-7 .3 The Alpine Space 8-9 .4 Mapping and assessment of Ecosystem Services

2 Methods 10-11 .1 Selecting Ecosystem indicators

12-13 .2 Data sources and calculation methods

14-15 .3 Mapping Ecosystem Services

16-17 3 Ecosystem Service indicator maps 18-25 .1 Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments

26-33 .2 production from grassland 34-41 .3 Fuel wood 42-47 .4 Filtration of surface water by ecosystem types 48-55 .5 Protection against , mudslides and rockfalls 56-61 .6 CO₂ sequestration by forests and bogs

62-69 .7 Outdoor recreation activities

70-77 .8 Symbolic Alpine plants, animals and landscapes

78-79 Conclusions

80-84 References 1.1

The AlpES project

Ecosystem services provide the foundation upon which human societies are built. To better understand these services in the European Alps, the project “AlpES - Alpine Ecosystem Services - mapping, maintenance, management” was started in 2015. The project aims to collect, analyse and distribute information about the ecosystem services (ES) provided by the unique yet threatened ecosystems of this famed . The AlpES project is carried out by a partners from six Alpine countries (Austria, France, , Italy, Liechtenstein and Slovenia), and is headed by Eurac Research of Bolzano/Bozen, Italy. Co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund through the Interreg Alpine Space programme, the project will end in December 2018. AlpES target groups include public authorities, policy makers, NGOs, researchers and economic actors: in brief, everyone who is involved in the management and protection of ecosystems and their services. The AlpES project’s overall objective is to introduce a common understanding of ecosystem services as a regional and transnational environmental governance framework and to train and support the AlpES target groups in understanding, valuing and managing them.

The specific steps to achieve this overarching goal are:

1. developing an Alpine ecosystem services concept, 2. mapping and assessing ecosystem services for the Alpine Space cooperation including application in selected study regions across the Alpine Space,

3. providing stakeholders with the results through a dedicated wiki (WIKIAlps, 2018) and an interactive WebGIS (WebGIS, 2018),

4. ensuring a multi- and cross-sectoral transfer of AlpES results to a maximum number of stakeholders via a suite of innovative, tailored and transferable learning tools and targeted activities. This report summarizes the outputs of the “Mapping and Assessment” work package, for which Eurac Research, in close collaboration with the , was responsible. The mapping and assessment of multiple ES was carried out at the municipal scale for the entire Alpine Space cooperation area (Fig. 1.1). In total, 21 maps of different ES indicators were produced, which are made available to the reader in the third chapter of this report (and online in the dedicated WebGIS). Each map is accompanied by an individual description to ease its interpretation. Furthermore, the report also includes a brief overview of the concepts of ES and the methodologies used for their mapping and assessment.Furthermore, the report also includes a brief overview on the basic concepts on ES and the methodologies used for their mapping and assessment. 2-3 1.1

The AlpES project

Niederösterreich Grandest Ecosystem services provide the foundation upon which human societies are built. To better Schwaben Wien understand these services in the European Alps, the project “AlpES - Alpine Ecosystem Services - Tübingen Oberösterreich mapping, maintenance, management” was started in December 2015. The project aims to collect, Freiburg analyse and distribute information about the ecosystem services (ES) provided by the unique yet Oberbayern threatened ecosystems of this famed region. The AlpES project is carried out by a group of ten partners from six Alpine countries (Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein and Slovenia), Bourgogne-Franche-Comté NW-Schweiz and is headed by Eurac Research of Bolzano/Bozen, Italy. Co-financed by the European Regional Salzburg Steiermark Development Fund through the Interreg Alpine Space programme, the project will end in Liechtenstein December 2018. Tirol Zentralschweiz AlpES target groups include public authorities, policy makers, NGOs, researchers and economic Kärnten actors: in brief, everyone who is involved in the management and protection of ecosystems and Ostschweiz P.A. di Bolzano their services. The AlpES project’s overall objective is to introduce a common understanding of ecosystem services as a regional and transnational environmental governance framework and to Venezia Giulia Vzhodna Slovenja Région lémanique train and support the AlpES target groups in understanding, valuing and managing them. P.A. di Trento Zohodna Slovenja The specific steps to achieve this overarching goal are: Valle d’Aosta developing an Alpine ecosystem services concept, 1. Auvergne Rhône-Alpes 2. mapping and assessing ecosystem services for the Alpine Space cooperation area including application in selected study regions across the Alpine Space, Piemonte 3. providing stakeholders with the results through a dedicated wiki (WIKIAlps, 2018) and an interactive WebGIS (WebGIS, 2018),

4. ensuring a multi-level and cross-sectoral transfer of AlpES results to a maximum number of Liguria stakeholders via a suite of innovative, tailored and transferable learning tools and targeted activities. This report summarizes the outputs of the “Mapping and Assessment” work package, for which Eurac Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur Research, in close collaboration with the University of Innsbruck, was responsible. The mapping and assessment of multiple ES was carried out at the municipal scale for the entire Alpine Space cooperation area (Fig. 1.1). In total, 21 maps of different ES indicators were produced, which are made available to the reader in the third chapter of this report (and online in the dedicated WebGIS). Each map is accompanied by an individual description to ease its interpretation. Furthermore, the report also includes a brief overview of the basic concepts of ES and the methodologies used for their mapping and assessment.Furthermore, the report also includes a brief overview on the basic concepts on ES and the methodologies used for their mapping and assessment. Figure 1.1 The Alpine Space cooperation area is shown with green , and is further subdivided into its NUT2 regions. 2-3 1.2 Ecosystem Services: what are they?

Ecosystems provide us with innumerable goods and services that support our personal -being and the viability of our societies; these benefits are known as ecosystem services (ES). This term was first coined in 1981 (De Groot et al., 2017), but early references to the concept date back to the mid-1960’s and early 1970’s (De Groot et al., 2002). Over the past decade, the topic of ES has become extremely popular in research, resulting in a variety of definitions and terms. For example, ES are defined as “the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems” (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005) or as the “direct and indirect contributions of ecosystems to human well-being” (Sukhdev et al., 2010), among others. ES can refer to both goods (e.g. timber) and services (e.g. water filtration). The Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) (EEA, n.d.) divides ES into three categories: Provisioning services (that provide food, water, timber, etc.) and maintenance services ((that maintain or mediate climate, water quality, floods, disease, and wastes [e.g. carbon sequestration, surface water filtration]) Cultural services ((that provide recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits) Each of these sections is further split into divisions (e.g. nutrition), groups (e.g. biomass, water) and classes (e.g. cultivated crops, surface water for drinking). The following report adheres to this classification system. As our understanding of ES continues to grow, finding ways to explicitly identify and measure their condition, trends and rate of change is an important step to integrating ES in decision- making. To assess these different types of ES and efficiently communicate information about their characteristics and trends, indicators are used. An indicator is a quantitative measure that represents a complex system or phenomenon. They are used to monitor the state and trends of ecosystems and ES delivery within a determined time interval (Vihervaara et al., 2017). Since ES provide many types of benefits to humans, indicators using biophysical, economic and social valuation methods can all be employed for their measurement (Vihervaara et al., 2017). Biophysical units are used to measure quantities or features directly connected to ecosystem structures, processes and functions. Some examples are the volume of water runoff from subcatchment areas or the amount of nitrogen filtered by the ecosystem. On the other hand, indicators with economic and social units are mainly used to quantify benefits and values that humans obtain from ecosystems, like the monetary value of a certain ecosystem for or outdoor recreation (Vihervaara et al., 2017). These examples illustrate how indicators can simplify the evaluation of a complex system and enable its graphic or spatial representation. Through the calculation and analysis of ES indicators over time, can understand trends in complex ecological processes and monitor sustainable development. 4-5 1.3

The Alpine Space

The European Alps comprise an incredibly biodiversity of the mountains, surrounding instead concentrating in extensive holdings landslides in , and greater variability in diverse and complex web of interconnected foothills and lowlands (Muheim & Meier, found in the lowlands. This change is causing the water supply throughout the year (EEA, natural and human systems. They are the 2017). a loss in biodiversity, as species-rich Alpine 2010). Furthermore, the rising snowline poses highest and most extensive inner-European The Alps are not, however, immune to the pastures are overgrown by forests. Moreover, a serious risk of upward migration of Alpine mountains, spanning 8 countries (France, threats of recent global changes. socio-economic trends such as marginalization plants and the expansion of exotic species, thus Switzerland, Liechtenstein, Italy, Germany, has brought about new opportunities but also and urbanization are changing the population substantially altering plant communities (Pauli , Austria and Slovenia). With their new challenges. Market changes have had distribution and use across the Alps. et al., 2003). A warming has effects considerable differences in altitude and climatic severe social and economic effects and led to Younger people are moving away from remote upon the natural systems of the Alps and every conditions, these mountains contain a dramatic changes in land use. A rapidly changing climate regions to urban settlements with greater day new impacts are being uncovered. variety of landscapes, ecosystems and species. has already begun to impact many facets of life and work opportunities, leaving These diverse processes have become and Moreover, despite the relatively small amount for these mountain populations. Understanding some areas to face ageing, depopulation and more pronounced in recent years, challenging of land that is available for settlement or these complex trends is a difficult process, but isolation. Areas where agricultural land has stakeholders in the region to ensure that agriculture, the Alps are densely populated and certain patterns are already apparent. been abandoned, but neither tourism nor development remains sustainable and further preserve an exceptionally rich cultural heritage. urbanization occurs, risk becoming more and Political and economic processes, together environmental and cultural degradation is Unique traditions of mountain agriculture more marginalized (Tappeiner et al., 2008). On with social changes, are altering many avoided. By the late 1990’s, it became clear have emerged here, where grassland farming the other hand, regions that are easily accessible structures in the Alpine Space. For example, that the effort to mitigate these impacts predominates over , fruit, and vegetable and rich in tourist and cultural attractions are they have resulted in agglomeration processes and to make better use of shared resources agriculture, especially at higher altitudes experiencing growing populations, intensified in the valleys; the average size of farms is has to be coordinated between all Alpine (Tappeiner et al., 2008). These widespread commuter flows and high seasonal tourism. increasing, while their number and diversity countries. Accordingly, the first transnational alpine pastures and are rich in These trends bring a different set of problems are decreasing. Agriculture has slowly vanished EU cooperation programme for the Alps species and contribute substantially to the to sustainable development, such as pollution, from many hillsides and Alpine pastures, was launched in 2000. Since then, two more soil sealing and reduction of open spaces. These editions of the programme, each running for are only some of the socio-economic seven years, have been approved. The third, and trends and changes that the Alps currently current, Interreg VB Alpine Space Programme face, the impacts of which vary greatly across was launched in 2014. With an increasing the diverse countries, regions and communities number of project partners in each iteration, the found here. Alpine Space programme plays a pivotal is another major threat to role in ensuring cooperation between Alpine Alpine ecosystems. One obvious outcome states. It is worth noting that the Alpine Space of climate change is that are melting cooperation area (Fig. 1.1) covers not only the at an ever-accelerating rate. This melting Alps, but also their surrounding lowlands, as results in a cascade of downstream problems, these areas are inextricably linked. such as dwindling -fed rivers and the consequent lack of . Changes in , snow-cover patterns and glacier storage are expected to alter the Alpine water cycle. This could potentially lead to more droughts in , more floods and 6-7 1.4 Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystem Services

Since the development of the Alpine Space program, institutions such as the , the , the and regions, and various NGOs have begun to pool their available capacities more effectively. In doing so, spatially explicit maps of different ES have been identified as a key requirement for their effective management. The European Union’s Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 explicitly encourages member states to “map and assess the state and economic value of ecosystems and their services in the entire EU territory, and to promote the recognition of their economic worth into accounting and reporting systems across ” (EC, 2015). A dedicated working group comprising member states, experts and relevant stakeholders, was specifically established to this call: the EU on Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (MAES) (BISE, n.d.). The MAES initiative produces and distributes annual reports with ES definitions and guidelines for their assessment, mapping and calculation via selected indicators. This initiative is an important model for the AlpES project, which strives to follow its directives and build on its framework at the Alpine level. These concerted efforts aim to provide reliable and rigorous scientific and spatial information about ES that can be used to bolster sustainable, place-based decision making. Management of natural resources, planning of natural areas, and infrastructure and tourism development are deeply interconnected and dependent upon the provision of ES. By mapping ES, an important set of new tools is available to practitioners in each of these endeavours. Thanks to the growing body of research on ES, and as relationships between actions and outcomes become clearer, decision- makers will be more prepared to effectively address the issues they face. 8-9 10-11 Methods Service indicatorsService EcosystemSelecting AlpES projectreport “AlpineEcosystemServices Concept”. a given period, regardless of its origin et (Syrbe al., 2017). For further details, please refer to the is demand the amount of a specific good orservice consumed by society in a particular area over flow is the amount ofanES that is utilized from anecosystem inaspecific time period. The an ESthat is by anecosystemdelivered in aspecific time period, irrespective of its actual use. The their supply, flow (see and demand Fig. 2.1). The project defines the term supply as the amount of For each ofthe eight selected ES, the AlpES teamcalculated three different indicators, to describe understand anduse. groups. Each indicator torepresent the needed related ESinawaythat stakeholders could easily basis the of dataavailabilityandcomprehensibility indicator’s and employability for AlpEStarget and socio-ecological relevance. Then,ESindicators were chosen to describe the selected ES onthe one ESforeach CICES division was selected (CICES, v4.3 upon eight representative ES and their related indicators for mapping and assessment. To doso, the In light by Alps, allparticipating of the ES provided myriad AlpES partnersfirst had toagree 2.1 readers canbefoundinthemetadatapagesof report. The methodological chapter is intentionally kept short; further information for interested calculate and map the ES indicators, which are represented as maps in the third chapter of this The following section aims to inform readers about the methodological approach used to select, WebGIS. ) considering its geographic, political supply, flowanddemand. Figure 2.1ExamplevisualizationsofESindicatorsfor low consumed ES Demand low ofproducedused part ES Flow low produced ES Supply high high high 2.2 Data sources and calculation methods

Once the ES indicators have been selected, be found on the interactive WebGIS, using the “Mapping and Assessment” work package of dependent on specific ecosystems. Tier 2 the relevant data for their calculation have to link provided in its description. The datasets AlpES, the methods and instruments used for builds on the previous approach by linking be gathered. First, the temporal and spatial were obtained from a variety of sources, the indicators’ calculation vary greatly between different indicators with land use data to map scales need to be carefully chosen. Ecological which are either nationally or internationally indicators. GIS-software tools were used to map ES. The output indicator will be more complex, processes are heavily dependent on time organized. For example, data has been acquired and model ecosystem services and to perform depending on different datasets interlinked (e.g. seasons) and space (e.g. global, national, from the national statistical offices of Alpine analyses of remote sensing data. Depending according to known relationships between, municipal scale). The AlpES team mapped the countries, from European institutions like on the nature of the indicator and the type of for example, land use and ES provision. Tier spatial distribution of ES at the municipal level and the European Environment data used for its calculation, the models were 3 is the most refined approach, and consists for over 16.000 throughout the Agency (EEA), and from global datasets, based either on statistical data or on biophysical of modeling biophysical processes in GIS or Alpine Space cooperation area; this scale is such as OpenStreetMap. If the definition or quantifications. Specific software (e.g. InVEST other software instead of linking indicator the finest resolution that is possible across all interpretation of a common concept varied – a suite of free, open-source software models data through simple relationships. The tier selected indicators, while still being useful for between data sources, the collected data was used to map and value ecosystem services) and 1 approach is useful to estimate ES for which management purposes. For the municipalities’ harmonised, which may have led to minor guidelines from scientific and project data are difficult to obtain. Tiers 2 and 3 deliver boundaries we used the EuroBoundaryMap inaccuracies. In general, it is important to reports were consulted for the development a higher resolution of results, however they (v10), kindly provided by EuroGeographics. remember that the characteristics of the input and calculation of indicators. require a higher degree of expert knowledge The selected time scale varied between data (i.e. accuracy, scale, precision, etc.) will The AlpES partnership decided to apply a about modeling and ES provision. indicators and is reported in the individual reflect in the output indicators. Therefore, the three-level “tier approach” to the mapping and maps’ descriptions. resulting indicator values are not absolute or assessment of ES, thus allowing for consistent Data requirements varied greatly from indicator “true” values, but have to be interpreted in the but flexible methods. Tier 1, the most basic to indicator, and encompassed land-cover and light of the available input data sources. approach, uses existing, widely available climate data, statistical information, protected An important part of ES indicator development (large-scale) datasets (e.g. CORINE databases area networks and digital elevation models, just lies in finding appropriate methods and for Europe) as a proxy for the provision of to name a few. Detailed data sources for each procedures for their measurement and certain ES. For example, Corine Land Cover individual ES indicator map (Chapter 3) can calculation (Vihervaara et al., 2017). In the data can be used to quantify ES that are directly 12-13 2.3 Ecosystem Ecosystem Service Indicator type Definition Tier Unit of measure Mapping Ecosystem Services

Supply Water availability 3 m3 ha-1 -1 Surface water for drinking Flow Water use 2 m3 ha-1 y-1 with minor or no treatments Demand Water abstraction 2 m3 ha-1 y-1 Ecosystem service mapping consists of creating cartographic representation of quantified ES indicators in geographic space and time (Burkhard & Maes [Eds.], 2017). It is therefore a method Supply Gross fodder production 3 t DM ha-1 y-1 Biomass production of making the information derived from the assessment process visually accessible and easily -1 -1 from grassland Flow Net fodder energy content 3 MJ NEL ha y understandable, especially to those who are not familiar with the ES concept. For most of the eight -1 -1 selected ES, three different indicators were developed: the maps for ES supply, flow and demand Demand feed energy requirements 2 MJ NEL ha y are identified by a dedicated colour scale, as shown in Fig. 2.2, with darker colour tones meaning higher indicator values. Supply Forest biomass increment 3 m3 ha-1 y-1 All maps were created in a uniform layout, with the external boundaries matching those of the Fuel wood Flow Wood removals 3 m3 ha-1 y-1

Alpine Space cooperation area. National borders are also shown, to help viewers with orientation. Demand Fuel wood requirements 2 m3 y-1 The same projection and scale is applied to all maps. The spatial scale of the maps corresponds to the municipal level; that is, the ES indicator values are calculated for every within the Alpine Space, and each municipality is depicted with a colour tone relative to this value. The Flow and Nitrogen removals 3 t ha-1 y-1 Filtration of surface water Supply temporal scale of each map is described in the related metadata. by ecosystem types Demand Nitrogen loads 2 t ha-1 y-1 The 20 ES indicators assessed by the AlpES project are listed in Table 2.1 and divided into groups relative to the ES that they describe. The unit of measure of the indicator is also shown. Each Supply Site-protecting forest 3 % indicator has a direct link to the relative map in the AlpES WebGIS, from which the indicator’s Protection against metadata can be consulted. avalanches, mudslides Flow Object-protecting forest 3 % and rockfalls Demand Infrastructure in hazard zone 3 index Supply: Flow and CO₂ sequestration by forests 3 t CO₂ ha-1 y-1 CO₂ sequestration supply by forests and bogs -1 -1 Demand CO₂ emissions 2 t CO₂ ha y

Flow: Supply Outdoor recreation availability 3 index Outdoor recreation Flow Visitation rate 3 index activities Demand Beneficiaries 2 index

Supply Habitats of symbolic species 3 index Symbolic alpine plants Demand: 2 and animals, landscapes Flow Occurrence in names nr. of Desired symbolic species Demand 1 index and landscapes

Figure 2.2 Colour scales used for the ES maps. Table 2.1 List of AlpES ES indicators, divided by their relative ES. 14-15 Ecosystem Service

3 Indicator Maps

Spatially explicit maps are perhaps the most direct, efficient and effective way to communicate with decision-makers about the state of ES in the Alpine Space. The EU Biodiversity Strategy to 2020 and the MAES Initiative both call on practitioners to generate such maps for use in advancing sustainable management. The following section includes the maps created through of the AlpES project. The selected ES are each represented by an indicator set comprised of a maximum of 3 indicators (supply, flow and demand). Every indicator that has been evaluated has a corresponding map included below. The different ES are described in a short introductory section preceding their respective maps, in the following :

3.1 Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments 3.2 Biomass production from grassland 3.3 Fuel wood 3.4 Filtration of surface water by Ecosystem types 3.5 Protection against avalanches, mudslides and rockfalls 3.6 CO₂ sequestration by forests And bogs 3.7 Outdoor recreation activities 3.8 Symbolic alpine plants, animals and landscapes 16-17 Surface water for drinking

3.1 3.1 with minor or no treatments

Clean water is a good that is so fundamental in our lives that we often take it for granted. Everyday we drink it, bathe in it, and eat crops grown with it. The Alps are a vital water source in the region, supporting life for millions of people across Europe. The iconic, high elevation mountains here store millions of cubic meters of water in natural and artificial lakes as snow and ice. They also provide a consistent flow of water downstream to the , the Rhone, the , and the . It is for this reason that the Alps are sometimes referred to as Europe’s “water tower”. Understanding just how much we rely on this water, and how much nature provides us with, is a vital undertaking in a changing world. We need this information in order to effectively manage and value Alpine resources as populations grow, technology develops, and climate changes. “Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments” is a set of indicators that measures exactly how much water with drinking quality is supplied for, demanded by and flows into Alpine communities. These three facets serve to inform adaptive, integrated natural resource decision- making. Descriptions of each facet can be found alongside its respective map in the following pages. 18-19 The Alps are widely known as the “water Description tower” of Europe, as their glaciers, soil, artificial and natural lakes are very important This indicator quantifies the for the storage of water. The abundance of annual average available water water is due to a combination of climatic and runoff with drinking-water quality. topographic characteristics: (1) the uplift and COMMENT The model estimates the water subsequent cooling of air which then turns into SUPPLY runoff from subcatchment areas rain, (2) the low rate of net radiation, (3) lower temperatures and frequent snow cover and based on gridded information (4) shorter vegetation periods, which together on climatic, soil, topographic result in lower evaporation and higher annual and land-cover characteristics. runoff (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention, 2009). As a result, the supply indicator map delineates very clearly the Alpine mountain range, which scores high supply values, whereas the peripheral zones of the Alpine Space Cooperation Area, which are mainly flatlands, Definition have a much lower water runoff. Surface Water availability (m3 ha-1 y-1) water is not the only drinking water source in the Alpine countries; in some regions of the Alpine Space, ground water alone meets the demand for drinking water supply (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine Convention, 2009). CICES section The overall high values of this indicator denote Provisioning Ecosystem Service that there is little concern for surface drinking water supply in the Alpine Space, at least in the near future. CICES division

Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments drinking for water Surface Nutrition

Freshwater accounts for only 2,5% of the total water on Earth, whereas the remaining 97,5% is seawater, unfit for human consumption. Earth’s glaciers and ice caps lock away over 68% of this freshwater supply, but climate change accounts for their recent, rapid melting. The vast majority of glaciers in Europe are in retreat. Glaciers in the European Alps have lost approximately half of their volume since 1900, with clear acceleration since the 1980s. Glacier melting contributed to global sea level rise by about 0,8 mm per year in 2003–2009, and also affects freshwater supply and run-off regimes. The European Environment Agency has been monitoring the state of European glaciers in the past decades and has published the data on the

DID YOU KNOW ? KNOW DID YOU change in glacier mass. 20-21 20-21 COMMENT near future. water supply inthe Alpine Space,at least in the that there is little concern for surface drinking The overall high values of this indicator denote Secretariat of the AlpineConvention,2009). demand for drinking water supply (Permanent Alpine Space, groundwater alone meets the the Alpine countries; in someregions of the water is not the only drinkingwater source in have a much lower water runoff. Surface Cooperation Area, which are mainlyflatlands, the peripheral zones of the Alpine Space which scores high supply values, whereas very clearly the Alpine mountainrange, As a result, the supply indicator map delineates Convention, 2009). runoff (Permanent Secretariat of the Alpine result in lowerevaporationandhigher annual and cover (4) shorter vegetation periods, which together snow frequent and temperatures the lower (2) low rateofnetradiation,(3) rain, subsequent cooling of air which then turns into topographic characteristics: (1) the uplift and water is due to a combination of climatic and for the storage of water. The abundance of artificial and naturallakesareveryimportant tower” of Europe,as their glaciers, soil, as the The Alpsarewidelyknown“water

DID YOU KNOW ? change inglacier mass. past decades and has published the data on the monitoring the state of European glaciers in the The European Environment Agency has been affects freshwatersupplyandrun-offregimes. by about 0,8 mm per year in 2003–2009, and also Glacier melting contributed to global sea level rise since 1900,withclearacceleration since the1980s. Alps have lost approximately half of their volume in Europeareretreat.Glaciers intheEuropean recent, rapidmelting.Thevastmajorityofglaciers supply, but climate change accounts for their ice caps lockawayover68%ofthisfreshwater unfit forhumanconsumption.Earth’s glaciers and on Earth,whereastheremaining 97,5% is seawater, Freshwater accounts for only 2,5% of the total water

SUPPLY Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 10500 8001 -10500 6001 -8000 5001 -6000 2501 -5000 1001 -2500 < 1001 Water availability ( m 3 ha -1 -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km 22-23 COMMENT water sources. excessive waterwaste,andmaybecome problematic inthefuture, puttingastrainontheAlpine potentially and consumption water elevated for trend a indicate indicator this of values High population issparsescore farlowervaluesofwateruse. and Milaninthe southareeasytospot. Onthe otherhand, themountainous areaswherethe cities of the Alpine region are highlighted; Zurich and in the north, in the east comprising bothresidentsandtourists.In fact, whenlooking at theflow indicator map, the main In this indicator, drinking water usage is assumed to be proportional to the population numbers, Alpine watersources (EEA,2010). drinking waterintoalong-termproblemforthe regionsthatdependprimarily-orentirelyon ofprovision the transforming potentially changes, such by affected be may quality water its and due toclimate change arethreateningtoaltertheentireAlpinewatercycle. Thewatersupply changes in precipitation (rain, snow and hail) and the concurrent melting of perennial glaciers cities in the Alpine Space is adding pressure on the drinking water resources. Furthermore, water quality of the Alpine springs is excellent. However, the rising number of residents in many taps andfaucets. TheAlpsareamajorproviderofwaterforthewholeAlpineSpace, andthe the totalwaterutilizationthrough the public watersupply systematthepointofdelivery,i.e. The flow indicator for the ES “Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments” measures

FLOW Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments Provisioning Ecosystem Service CICES section Nutrition CICES division Water use(m Definition drinking water permunicipality. total annual consumption of therefore displays approximate the supply system. Thisindicator publicwater the withdrawn from ofwaterannual amount thatis flowThe ofdrinking water isthe Description 3 ha -1 -1 y -1 ) 22-23 COMMENT water sources. excessive waterwaste,andmaybecome problematic inthefuture, puttingastrainontheAlpine potentially and consumption water elevated for trend a indicate indicator this of values High population issparsescore farlowervaluesofwateruse. and Milaninthe southareeasytospot. Onthe otherhand, themountainous areaswherethe cities of the Alpine region are highlighted; Zurich and Munich in the north, Vienna in the east comprising bothresidentsandtourists.In fact, whenlooking at theflow indicator map, the main In this indicator, drinking water usage is assumed to be proportional to the population numbers, Alpine watersources (EEA,2010). drinking waterintoalong-termproblemforthe regionsthatdependprimarily-orentirelyon ofprovision the transforming potentially changes, such by affected be may quality water its and due toclimate change arethreateningtoaltertheentireAlpinewatercycle. Thewatersupply changes in precipitation (rain, snow and hail) and the concurrent melting of perennial glaciers cities in the Alpine Space is adding pressure on the drinking water resources. Furthermore, water quality of the Alpine springs is excellent. However, the rising number of residents in many taps andfaucets. TheAlpsareamajorproviderofwaterforthewholeAlpineSpace, andthe the totalwaterutilizationthrough the public watersupply systematthepointofdelivery,i.e. The flow indicator for the ES “Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments” measures

FLOW Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 400 400 - 301 300 - 201 200 - 81 80 - 36 23 -35 < 23 Water use(m 3 ha -1 -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km 24-25 COMMENT Seasonal water (hm abstraction and biogeographical regionsrelativeto2002-2012.Adapted fromBariamisetal,2016. -) Q3: -March; (Q1: quarters year sector, economic by abstraction water Seasonal 3.1 Figure for agriculture duringthe summermonths,i.e. Q3(Fig. 3.). in waterabstraction rates isevidentacross allregions; thisisduetoincreased waterconsumption biogeographical regions, most of which have much higher water demands. A seasonal difference the ,theCarpathiansandScandinavian Mountains)toits neighbouring Alpine area (which includes the Alps and other European mountain regions like the Pyrenees, The Eurostatdataontotalfreshwater abstraction atEuropean levelinFigure3.1 compares the likely toincrease withclimatechange (LinigerandWeingartner, 1998). unsustainable iftheyexceed theavailablesupply, especially becausetheaforementionedusesare become may indicator this of values High consumption. tourist and at cover snow destinations and ski resorts. Therefore, this high quality water is likely being used for irrigation, irrigated areassurroundingMilan(seetheCLC12layerinWebGIS), andinpopulartourist demand is relativelyhigherthantheflowinareaslikePovalley,especially inthepermanently and other settlements. Nonetheless, the two maps also present interesting differences: the densities arehigher;the municipalities with thehighest demandaremetropolitanareas,cities Similar tothepreviousmap,waterabstraction andusageareelevatedwherepopulation used in the public water system, whether or not this water is then withdrawn at a tap or faucet. amount ofwaterthatisremovedfromsprings, reservoirs,andothersources everyyeartobe represents the total abstraction of freshwater per municipality on an annual timescale. It is the The demandindicator forthe ES“Surface waterfordrinkingwithminorornotreatments” 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 , gas,steam airconditioning and supply industriesService quarrying. and Mining consruction and Mediterranean Q1 Q3 Continental Q1 Q3 3 ) Q1 Atlantic Q3 Q1 Alpine Mediterranean Agriculture, forestry fishing and Water collection, treatment supply and Q3 Atlantic Q1 Pannonian Biogeographical regions: Q3 Alpine Continental Pannonian

DEMAND Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments Provisioning Ecosystem Service CICES section Nutrition CICES division Water abstraction (m Definition its source. as water removed directly from Water abstraction isunderstood water for publicsupplysystem. the totalthe annualabstraction of fordemand drinking water as This indicator quantifiesthe Description 3 ha -1 -1 y -1 ) 24-25 COMMENT Seasonal water (hm abstraction and biogeographical regionsrelativeto2002-2012.Adapted fromBariamisetal,2016. June-September) Q3: January-March; (Q1: quarters year sector, economic by abstraction water Seasonal 3.1 Figure for agriculture duringthe summermonths,i.e. Q3(Fig. 3.). in waterabstraction rates isevidentacross allregions; thisisduetoincreased waterconsumption biogeographical regions, most of which have much higher water demands. A seasonal difference the Dinaric Alps,theCarpathiansandScandinavian Mountains)toits neighbouring Alpine area (which includes the Alps and other European mountain regions like the Pyrenees, The Eurostatdataontotalfreshwater abstraction atEuropean levelinFigure3.1 compares the likely toincrease withclimatechange (LinigerandWeingartner, 1998). unsustainable iftheyexceed theavailablesupply, especially becausetheaforementionedusesare become may indicator this of values High consumption. tourist and resorts ski at cover snow destinations and ski resorts. Therefore, this high quality water is likely being used for irrigation, irrigated areassurroundingMilan(seetheCLC12layerinWebGIS), andinpopulartourist demand is relativelyhigherthantheflowinareaslikePovalley,especially inthepermanently and other settlements. Nonetheless, the two maps also present interesting differences: the densities arehigher;the municipalities with thehighest demandaremetropolitanareas,cities Similar tothepreviousmap,waterabstraction andusageareelevatedwherepopulation used in the public water system, whether or not this water is then withdrawn at a tap or faucet. amount ofwaterthatisremovedfromsprings, reservoirs,andothersources everyyeartobe represents the total abstraction of freshwater per municipality on an annual timescale. It is the The demandindicator forthe ES“Surface waterfordrinkingwithminorornotreatments” 0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000 12,000 Electricity, gas,steam airconditioning and supply industriesService Manufacturing quarrying. and Mining consruction and Mediterranean Q1 Q3 Continental Q1 Q3 3 ) Q1 Atlantic Q3 Q1 Alpine Mediterranean Agriculture, forestry fishing and Water collection, treatment supply and Q3 Atlantic Q1 Pannonian Biogeographical regions: Q3 Alpine Continental Pannonian

DEMAND Surface water for drinking with minor or no treatments View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 900 601 -900 401 -600 201 -400 101 -200 51 -100 < 51 Water ( abstraction m 3 ha -1 -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km Biomass production

3.2 from grassland

The Alpine Space has a long history of grassland production, a history that has shaped the many cultures across this range. In most corners of the Alps, one can still find traditional farms raising livestock such as cows, goats, horses and sheep on alpine pastures. These pastures are fairly common because the high altitudes and steep slopes of much of the Alps make most other means of agricultural production unfeasible in these areas. The milk, , and local varieties of that these operations produce are important for maintaining the cultural integrity of traditional rural ways of life and they all depend on a major ecosystem service: grassland biomass growth. Every year, alpine communities benefit from the fodder that grows freely in high elevation meadows as cows and other livestock transform this grassy material into valuable food products. Assessing this service is done in three ways: by measuring the total amount of grassland biomass that is produced, by measuring the amount of grassland biomass that is actually consumed by livestock, and by measuring the total energetic needs of livestock farmers, to compare with what is provided. Understanding the supply, flow, and demand, on this ecosystem service will help to inform decisions made by natural resource managers, spatial planners, farmers, politicians, and scientists in the Alps. Ultimately, such informed decisions will be vital in protecting traditional ways of life and cultures across the Alpine Space. 26-27 Grassland farming is a dominant factor in the agricultural landscape of the Alps. But not all meadows Description are the same: biomass supply depends firstly on the growth rate of all grassland types that are used as fodder. These can vary between extensive meadows, frequently cut pastures, and natural grassland The supply of biomass production found at high altitudes. Moreover, grasslands also differ in their plant composition, and in the from permanent grasslands is use of fertilizers and management (cutting) levels. Finally, climatic parameters like the number calculated by first assessing the of vegetation days, precipitation and energy budget of the grassland plot strongly influence the COMMENT optimal yield of a municipality productivity of different grasslands. SUPPLY based on land use, climate data, The map shows a hotspot of grassland biomass supply in lower Germany, namely the regions and specific growth functions of Schwaben and Oberbayern, where the lower altitudes and abundant precipitation favour the growth of grassland. This area is indeed rich in pastures, as is observable in the CLC12 layer in of the various plant types. , the AlpES WebGIS. Other lowland areas, like the in Italy, the north of Switzerland the actual local yield per year and eastern Austria, have low values of this indicator, as the land is used for croplands, orchards, is estimated in tonnes of dry vineyards, arable lands and other cultivation types, and little space is dedicated to permanent matter per hectare, based grassland farming. High grassland biomass supply levels are important especially in areas where on the precipitation patterns the agricultural and farming tradition is thriving. and topographic conditions. Recent socio-economic trends saw a drop in the number of Alpine farmers, with about 20% of the agricultural land of the Alps being abandoned (Muheim & Meier, 2017). These plots of land previously managed for grassland farming are lost to scrub encroachment and reforestation, to the Definition detriment of biodiversity and landscape diversity. Indeed, traditionally managed grasslands rank Gross fodder production (t DM ha-1 y-1) among the habitats with the highest species richness in Alpine regions, in terms of both plant fromBiomass production grassland diversity and animal species that use this habitat during their life cycle (Muheim & Meier, 2017). Alpine grasslands are also subject to many threats. Livestock grazing, and in particular trampling and fertilization from accumulated excrement, can cause significant changes in the vegetation. CICES section Another major threat to Alpine grasslands is winter recreation and the related tourism flow. The establishment of ski resorts often affects the phenology of the underlying vegetation and promotes Provisioning Ecosystem Service soil erosion, which may ultimately result in changed plant composition and a higher proportion of unvegetated ground. CICES division Nutrition 28-29 28-29 COMMENT unvegetated ground. soil erosion, which may ultimately result in changed plant composition and a higher proportion of establishment of ski resorts often affects the phenology of the underlying vegetation and promotes Another major threat to Alpine grasslands is winter recreation and the related tourism flow. The and fertilization from accumulated excrement, can cause significant changes in the vegetation. Alpine grasslands are also subject to many threats. Livestock grazing, andin particular trampling diversity andanimalspeciesthatusethishabitatduringtheirlifecycle(Muheim&Meier,2017). among the habitats with the highest species richness in Alpineregions,terms of both plant detriment of biodiversity and landscape diversity. Indeed, traditionally managedgrasslands rank for grasslandfarmingarelost previously managed to scrub encroachment and reforestation, to the the agricultural land of the Alps (Muheim being abandoned & Meier, 2017). These plots of land Recent socio-economic trendssaw a dropinthe of Alpinefarmers,with number about 20% of the agriculturalandfarmingtraditionisthriving. where areas in especially important are levels supply biomass grassland High farming. grassland arable lands andother vineyards, cultivation types, and little space is dedicated to permanent and eastern Austria, have low values of this indicator, as the land is used for croplands, orchards, the AlpES WebGIS. Other lowland areas, like the Po valley in Italy, the north of Switzerland growth of grassland. This area is indeed rich in pastures, as is observable in the where the precipitation lower altitudes abundant Oberbayern, and favourthe of Schwabenand The mapshowsthe ahotspot namely regions of grasslandbiomass supply inlowerGermany, productivity ofdifferentgrasslands. of vegetation days, precipitation andenergybudgetofthe grassland plot strongly influence the use of fertilizers and management(cutting) climatic levels. Finally, parameters like the number found athigh altitudes. grasslands also differintheir Moreover, plant composition, in the and fodder. These can vary between extensive meadows, frequently cut pastures, and natural grassland are the same: biomasssupplydependsfirstly on the growth rate ofallgrasslandtypesthat are usedas Grassland farmingis factor a dominant in the agricultural landscape ofthe Alps. But notallmeadows CLC12 layer in

SUPPLY Biomass production from grassland View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 5 5 4 3 2 1 0 Gross fodder production (tDM ha -1 -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km 30-31 COMMENT tractors). energy-efficient technologies (e.g. mowers and but is vanishing in favour ofmoretime-and (Fig. 3.3) is celebrated as a fascinating tradition, the Nowadays, activity of “wildhaymaking” when they were kept inside the stable. to sustain his animals duringthe wintertime, were fundamental parts of the farmer’s work animals, andits transportation downhill, from meadows that were too steep for grazing mountain ,the In many harvesting of hay a surprise. similarity of the two maps should not come as of the used fraction of the yield, high Swiss . Since this indicator is a measure lowest values appear again in the Italian and whereas rates are observedinGermany, the supply indicator map in that the highest flow The patternofthis map resemblesthe previous grasslands andthequalityofendproduct. also affect both the productivity of extensive nutrient availability anduse of fertilizers, energy content. Differences in the terrain, quality forage of the consumed biomass and its relative total the account into takes which indicator is calculated as an energymeasure, harvesting and storage processes. The flow the of frequency pastures and (3)the loss of material during the cutting the i.e. intensity, grassland from the ecosystem, (2) the usage depends onthree factors: the supply of (1) The consumedamountofgrasslandbiomass

FLOW Biomass production from grassland Provisioning Ecosystem Service CICES section Materials CICES division Net fodder energy content (MJNELha Definition in each municipality. areas dedicated to cultivating them fodder productivity the and ofthe each type ofraw material usedas energy the estimating content of This energy measure by isobtained joulesnet-lactationmega (MJNEL). permanent grasslands in from de facto ofbiomass usedamount This indicator represents the Description -1 -1 y -1 ) 30-31 COMMENT tractors). energy-efficient technologies (e.g. mowers and but is vanishing in favour ofmoretime-and (Fig. 3.3) is celebrated as a fascinating tradition, the Nowadays, activity of “wildhaymaking” when they were kept inside the stable. to sustain his animals duringthe wintertime, were fundamental parts of the farmer’s work animals, andits transportation downhill, from meadows that were too steep for grazing mountain villages,the In many harvesting of hay a surprise. similarity of the two maps should not come as of the used fraction of the the local yield, high Swiss plains. Since this indicator is a measure lowest values appear again in the Italian and whereas rates are observedinGermany, the supply indicator map in that the highest flow The patternofthis map resemblesthe previous grasslands andthequalityofendproduct. also affect both the productivity of extensive nutrient availability anduse of fertilizers, energy content. Differences in the terrain, quality forage of the consumed biomass and its relative total the account into takes which indicator is calculated as an energymeasure, harvesting and storage processes. The flow the of frequency pastures and (3)the loss of material during the cutting the i.e. intensity, grassland from the ecosystem, (2) the usage depends onthree factors: the supply of (1) The consumedamountofgrasslandbiomass

FLOW Biomass production from grassland View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 20000 16001 -20000 12001 -16000 8001 -12000 4001 -8000 1 -4000 0 Net fodder energy content (MJNELha -1 -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km 32-33 COMMENT feed predominantlyonfreshgrassorhay. so-called “hay-milk”, i.e. from cows milk derived that product that is getting considerable attention is the of animal products from Alpine farms. One such those versus a growing desire to recognize and reward the quality products dairy supplied by intensive animal farming,there has been and meat quality With the general increase in the demand of high- DID YOU KNOW ? herds ofanimals. mountains precludethe of large management The steepnessruggedness of the and central transported from other production zones. from local grasslands and imported biomass, multiple sources: concentrated feed, biomass the high for demand fodder is satisfied through numbers of cattle are present. In these areas, of the Alps and in the where Po valley, great demand is located in the northern foothills The resulting map shows that the largest farming aloneisofteninsufficient. nutritional supplements, as local grassland with the consumption of additional fodderand such energetic requirements are largely satisfied milk producedper municipality. Nowadays, calculations, based on the average amount of for milk production were also included in the animals by required costs energetic The herd and the age and gender of the animals. varies greatlywith the composition of the forage for grassland-derived The demand with equinespecies,sheepandgoats. become common in the Alpine landscape, along and meat. Dairy andbeefcows have therefore products of animal-derived like milk,cheese farmers have instead focused on the production with its steep terrain and harsh climate, maintain inthe rough Alpine environment, As most cultivation types are difficult to Cows inhighaltitudepastures, South ,Italy

DEMAND Biomass production from grassland Provisioning Ecosystem Service CICES section Materials CICES division NEL Livestock feed energy requirements (MJ Definition animal products, such asmilk. forand production the ofdesired animals for nourishment their horses, forage other and feeding energy by demanded cattle, calculated by the estimating grassland is production from ofbiomass demand The Description ha -1 -1 y -1 ) 32-33 COMMENT feed predominantlyonfreshgrassorhay. so-called “hay-milk”, i.e. from cows milk derived that product that is getting considerable attention is the of animal products from Alpine farms. One such those versus a growing desire to recognize and reward the quality products dairy supplied by intensive animal farming,there has been and meat quality With the general increase in the demand of high- DID YOU KNOW ? herds ofanimals. mountains precludethe of large management The steepnessruggedness of the and central transported from other production zones. from local grasslands and imported biomass, multiple sources: concentrated feed, biomass the high for demand fodder is satisfied through numbers of cattle are present. In these areas, of the Alps and in the where Po valley, great demand is located in the northern foothills The resulting map shows that the largest farming aloneisofteninsufficient. nutritional supplements, as local grassland with the consumption of additional fodderand such energetic requirements are largely satisfied milk producedper municipality. Nowadays, calculations, based on the average amount of for milk production were also included in the animals by required costs energetic The herd and the age and gender of the animals. varies greatlywith the composition of the forage for grassland-derived The demand with equinespecies,sheepandgoats. become common in the Alpine landscape, along and meat. Dairy andbeefcows have therefore products of animal-derived like milk,cheese farmers have instead focused on the production with its steep terrain and harsh climate, maintain inthe rough Alpine environment, As most cultivation types are difficult to Cows inhighaltitudepastures, ,Italy

DEMAND Biomass production from grassland View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 20000 16001 -20000 12001 -16000 8001 -12000 4001 -8000 1 -4000 0 Livestock feed energy requirements (MJ NEL ha -1 -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km 3.3 Fuel wood

Large swaths of forested land are one of the defining features of the Alps. These numerous forests provide for many social and economic benefits: one of the most significant being timber. Timber can be processed in numerous ways and serves a variety of purposes: from constructing buildings to being burned as fuel. Traditionally, fuel wood was used in homes all across the Alps. Today, the use of fuel wood is less consistent, and varies dramatically by region. However, as alternative and sustainable energy sources become more sought after, fuel wood is again becoming a vital energy source across the region. In order to better understand the benefits humans derive from fuel wood, it is important to identify how much wood ecosystems supply, how much wood humans take from these systems, and finally how much demand exists for heating that could be met by this source. Many factors affect these values, such as the rate at which a forest grows, how accessible wood resources are for extraction, and the caloric content of wood used for heating. This suite of indicators evaluates these three components and maps them across the Alpine Space. By doing so, this ecosystem service can be included in that meets the heating and energy needs of the present and the future. 34-35 36-37 DID YOU KNOW ? COMMENT Adapted fromForest Europe,2015. Figure 3.2Thegrowing stockinforests,subdividedinto conifersandbroadleaves,byregion, 2015(m³/ha). sustainability offorestmanagementandharvestingpossibilities. trees) at the regional scale across Europe, providing basic information for the assessment of the Figure 3.2 provides anoverviewofthe growing stock in forests (i.e. the stem volume ofliving better. Highsupplylevelsallowforproportionallyhighertimberharvestinglevels. highest elevation havealow biomass increment rate, whereas mid- to lower altitude zones fare the climate and altitude of the location. This is apparent when looking at the map, as the areas with The supply for fuel wood is therefore limited to the regrowth rate of the forests, which depends on now andinthefuture. regeneration capacity and its potential to fulfil relevant ecological, economic and social functions as defined bythe , should maintain the forests’ productivity, biodiversity, not exceed the net biomass increment of the forest that supplies it. Sustainable forest management, providing essential goods, like wood. To keepforest inventories stable, the harvested timber should Forests are oneofthe formative landscapes of the Alps, coveringover41% of the Alpine Spaceand and proliferation of pathogens and parasites while also disrupting the development 2015). Climate change accounts for newrisks for Alpineforests: the temperature rise stimulates the growth damage, forest by affected are most often caused by biotic agents, and a further 0,5 million ha are damaged byfire (Forest Europe, 2011 and forests Europe’s of ha million 3,7 about that estimated is it However, 2011. expand. Indeed,in 2015 forests occupied an area of 215 million hectares, about 4 million ha more than in Forests cover 33% ofEurope’s territory (excludingthe Russian their and area continues ) to sprouts, longervegetationperiods)(Zebischetal.,2018). Growing stock inforests South- Europe South-East Europe Central-East Europe Central-West Europe EuropeNorth Growing stock (m³/ha) Broadleaves (%) Conifers (%) 90 m³/ha 45,6% 54,4% 238 m³/ha 53,4% 46,6% 116 m³/ha 54,9% 45,1% 237 m³/ha 55,6% 44,4%

phases of trees (e.g. early 42 m³/ha 74,5% 25,5%

SUPPY Fuel wood Provisioning Ecosystem Service CICES section Energy CICES division Forest biomassincrement (m Definition per hectares peryear. measured ascubicmeters forests, Alpine biomass inthe annualincrementnet ofwood This indicator quantifiesthe Description 3 ha -1 y -1 ) 36-37 DID YOU KNOW ? COMMENT from FORESTEUROPE (2015). Figure 3.2 The growing stock in forests, subdivided into conifers and broadleaves,byregion, 2015 (m3/ha). Adapted sustainability offorestmanagementandharvestingpossibilities. trees) at the regional scale across Europe, providing basic information for the assessment of the Figure 3.2 provides anoverviewofthe growing stock in forests (i.e. the stem volume ofliving better. Highsupplylevelsallowforproportionallyhighertimberharvestinglevels. highest elevation havealow biomass increment rate, whereas mid- to lower altitude zones fare the climate and altitude of the location. This is apparent when looking at the map, as the areas with The supply for fuel wood is therefore limited to the regrowth rate of the forests, which depends on now andinthefuture. regeneration capacity and its potential to fulfil relevant ecological, economic and social functions as defined bythe European Commission, should maintain the forests’ productivity, biodiversity, not exceed the net biomass increment of the forest that supplies it. Sustainable forest management, providing essential goods, like wood. To keepforest inventories stable, the harvested timber should Forests are oneofthe formative landscapes of the Alps, coveringover41% of the Alpine Spaceand and proliferation of pathogens and parasites while also disrupting the development 2015). Climate change accounts for newrisks for Alpineforests: the temperature rise stimulates the growth damage, forest by affected are most often caused by biotic agents, and a further 0,5 million ha are damaged byfire (Forest Europe, 2011 and forests Europe’s of ha million 3,7 about that estimated is it However, 2011. expand. Indeed,in 2015 forests occupied an area of 215 million hectares, about 4 million ha more than in Forests cover 33% ofEurope’s territory (excludingthe Russian their and area continues Federation) to sprouts, longervegetationperiods)(Zebischetal.,2018). Growing stock inforests South-West Europe South-East Europe Central-East Europe Central-West Europe EuropeNorth Growing stock (m³/ha) Broadleaves (%) Conifers (%) 90 m³/ha 45,6% 54,4% 238 m³/ha 53,4% 46,6% 116 m³/ha 54,9% 45,1% 237 m³/ha 55,6% 44,4%

phases of trees (e.g. early 42 m³/ha 74,5% 25,5%

SUPPY Fuel wood View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe Forest biomassincrement (m > 10,4 9,4 -10,4 8,4 -9,3 7,4 -8,3 6,1 -7,3 4,1 -6,0 < 4,1 3 ha -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km 38-39 DID YOU KNOW ? COMMENT Figure 3.3Annualnetforestgain/loss bycountry,1990–2015.AdaptedfromFAO,2016. Net gain Net forest gain/loss(Thousand hay Africa.1990 and2015,theworldlostsome129millionhaofforest,anareasize ofSouth (WWF). to biodiversityloss,soilerosion,disrupted watercycle andthereleaseofgreenhousegases. Indeed, between Southeast Asia,collectively known as the Earth’s lungs (Fig. 3.3). The loss of these pristine forestscontributes major threattothepreservationoftropical rainforestsofCentralandSouthAmerica, CentralAfrica and While foreststocks arestableorevengrowinginmostofthenorthernhemisphere,deforestationremainsa partly becauseoftheremotenessandruggednesstheseareas. mountain ridge score low levels of fuel wood flow,partlydue to already low wood supply rates, and which also have areasonably high supply. The southern areas of the Alpine Spaceandthe central France) parts and of the Alpine Space. Such areas present the most accessible forests, workable and east can beobservedinthe and Austria) eastern and the (Slovenia northwestern (upper Switzerland The resulting map shows a heterogeneous distribution of the flow rates for fuelwood;high values on the forests available for wood supply, were utilized to develop the flow indicator for fuel wood. and the subsequent collection and transportation of the timber. All these factors, together with data Moreover, topographical site conditions affect the technical feasibility of the tree felling activities Forest management is only possible if there is viable infrastructure to reach the felling sites. 50 -250 250 -500 >500 Net loss 250 -50 500 -250 >500 -1 <±50 )

FLOW Fuel wood Provisioning Ecosystem Service CICES section Energy CICES division Wood removals (m Definition conditions. due to topographical site technical feasibility ofharvesting forestthe accessibility the and wood production, considering also on nationalinventories -for fuel annual wood removals -based This indicator measures total the Description 3 ha -1 y -1 ) 38-39 DID YOU KNOW ? COMMENT Assessment 2015”. Figure 3.3 Annual net forest gain/loss by country,1990–2015. Adapted fromFAO2016 “Global Forest Resources Net gain Net forest gain/loss(Thousand hay Africa.1990 and2015,theworldlostsome129millionhaofforest,anareasize ofSouth (WWF). to biodiversityloss,soilerosion,disrupted watercycle andthereleaseofgreenhousegases. Indeed, between Southeast Asia,collectively known as the Earth’s lungs (Fig. 3.3). The loss of these pristine forestscontributes major threattothepreservationoftropical rainforestsofCentralandSouthAmerica, CentralAfrica and While foreststocks arestableorevengrowinginmostofthenorthernhemisphere,deforestationremainsa partly becauseoftheremotenessandruggednesstheseareas. mountain ridge score low levels of fuel wood flow,partlydue to already low wood supply rates, and which also have areasonably high supply. The southern areas of the Alpine Spaceandthe central France) parts and of the Alpine Space. Such areas present the most accessible forests, workable and east can beobservedinthe and Austria) eastern and the (Slovenia northwestern (upper Switzerland The resulting map shows a heterogeneous distribution of the flow rates for fuelwood;high values on the forests available for wood supply, were utilized to develop the flow indicator for fuel wood. and the subsequent collection and transportation of the timber. All these factors, together with data Moreover, topographical site conditions affect the technical feasibility of the tree felling activities Forest management is only possible if there is viable infrastructure to reach the felling sites. 50 -250 250 -500 >500 Net loss 250 -50 500 -250 >500 -1 <±50 )

FLOW Fuel wood View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 2,4 1,8 -2,4 1,3 -1,7 0,9 -1,2 0,6 -0,8 0,3 -0,5 < 0,3 Wood removals (m 3 ha -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km 40-41 COMMENT fuel wood releases more CO several NGOs arechallengingthe assumption environmental of biomasscarbon neutrality,asburning However, generation. power and heating for biomass use to incentives provide policies carbon releasedduringcombustion during tree growth. will bere-absorbed Therefore, EU Biomass is considered to be carbonneutralunderEU legislation, based onthe assumption that Union(2014)“AnEUStrategyonHeatingandCooling”. Figure 3.4 Energyconsumption for heating and cooling by countryandtypeofheating system, 2012. Adapted from (Bourguignon, 2015). Lastly, the sustainability of woodcutting has to becontinuously reassessed forest to avoid loss can air the into have significant effects on human health, increasing the risk of asthma and respiratory diseases. substances other and benzo[a]pyrene benzene, matter, particulate of emission achieving energysavingsof20%ormore. 20% and increase the share of to at least 20% of consumption by 2020, while also With the2020EnergyStrategy,EUaims toreduce its greenhousegas emissions byatleast all renewableheating asof2012. is currently themost widelyusedrenewableenergysource forheating,representingsome90%of whereas intheAlpinecountries thefavoredheatingsource is naturalgas. Nonetheless, biomass countries: fuel wood is the predominant heating system only in , and , Figure 3.4 compares the different heating and cooling systems used in different European consequently highenergydemand. pattern, yet most big cities are easily recognizable due to their large population numbers, and mosaic a has map resulting The municipality. per purposes heating for requirements wood fuel hypotheticalthe estimates indicator scarce.this Hence,is consumption energy on data resolution The demandforfuelwoodasanenergysource ishighlyvariableacross theAlpsandhigh- 100% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Electricity 0%

Waste non-RES Coal Germany

France Italy 2

per unit of energy generated than fossil fuels. Furthermore, the Austria

Slovenia Waste RES fossilOther

Spain

Portugal

Solar energy Biomass

Hungary

Sweden

Geothermal Fuel oil Finland

Latvia

Croatia Ambient heat heating

DEMAND Fuel wood Provisioning Ecosystem Service CICES section Energy CICES division Fuel wood requirements (m Definition across different the regions. alpine annualaveragethe temperature area,building considering also on fuelwood consumption and fuel wood basis onthe ofstatistics potential municipal for demand This indicator quantifiesthe Description 3 y -1 ) 40-41 COMMENT fuel wood releases more CO several NGOs arechallengingthe assumption environmental of biomasscarbon neutrality,asburning However, generation. power and heating for biomass use to incentives provide policies carbon releasedduringcombustion during tree growth. will bere-absorbed Therefore, EU Biomass is considered to be carbonneutralunderEU legislation, based onthe assumption that Innovation Union(2014)“AnEUStrategyonHeatingandCooling”. Figure 3.4 Energyconsumption for heating and cooling by countryandtypeofheating system, 2012. Adapted from (Bourguignon, 2015). Lastly, the sustainability of woodcutting has to becontinuously reassessed forest to avoid loss can air the into have significant effects on human health, increasing the risk of asthma and respiratory diseases. substances other and benzo[a]pyrene benzene, matter, particulate of emission achieving energysavingsof20%ormore. 20% and increase the share of renewable energy to at least 20% of consumption by 2020, while also With the2020EnergyStrategy,EUaims toreduce its greenhousegas emissions byatleast all renewableheating asof2012. is currently themost widelyusedrenewableenergysource forheating,representingsome90%of whereas intheAlpinecountries thefavoredheatingsource is naturalgas. Nonetheless, biomass countries: fuel wood is the predominant heating system only in Sweden, Latvia and Finland, Figure 3.4 compares the different heating and cooling systems used in different European consequently highenergydemand. pattern, yet most big cities are easily recognizable due to their large population numbers, and mosaic a has map resulting The municipality. per purposes heating for requirements wood fuel hypotheticalthe estimates indicator scarce.this Hence,is consumption energy on data resolution The demandforfuelwoodasanenergysource ishighlyvariableacross theAlpsandhigh- 100% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% Electricity Natural gas 0%

Waste non-RES Coal Germany

France Italy 2

per unit of energy generated than fossil fuels. Furthermore, the Austria

Slovenia Waste RES fossilOther Belgium

Spain

Portugal

Solar energy Biomass Poland Romania

Hungary

Sweden

Geothermal Fuel oil Finland

Latvia Greece

Croatia Ambient heat District heating

DEMAND Fuel wood View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 4400 2401 -4400 1601 -2400 1001 -1600 601 -1000 200 -600 < 200 Fuel wood requirements (m 3 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km Filtration of surface water

3.4 3.4 by ecosystem types

Water purification is one of the many regulating services provided by ecosystems. Pollutants such as metals, oils, excess nutrients and sediment are processed and filtered out as water moves through wetland areas, forests, and riparian zones. Water purification depends on filtration and absorption by soil particles and living organisms in the water and soil. As Europe’s “Water Tower”, this regulating function is especially pertinent in the Alps. Nutrient pollution, and especially nitrogen, can have deleterious ecological and biogeochemical effects on the environment. For example, high nitrogen levels are a leading cause of eutrophication of surface waters, as they can induce excessive algal growth. The major causes of nutrient pollution are anthropogenic fertilizers, sewage, and industrial wastewater discharged into the environment. Thus, nitrogen is the focus of this set of indicators: “Filtration of surface water by ecosystem types”. Clearly, we would hope that the areas where nitrogen pollution is highest are also the areas where nature can most effectively filter it out. However, this is not always the case. It is thus important to examine how the two indicators in this set compare with one another. 42-43 This indicator focuses on the filtration of Description nitrogen from surface waters like rivers, lakes and wetlands. The major causes of nutrient This indicator measures the pollution are the anthropogenic input of amount of filtered nitrogen fertilizers, sewage and industrial wastewater from surface waters, and therefore discharges into the environment. The filtration COMMENT describes both the flow and the of pollutants that reach the surface water supply of the ES, as the potential occurs in several ways: vegetation can remove nutrients from water by storing them in tissues, filtration of nitrogen by ecosystems soil can filter and store them, and riparian and the de facto filtered nitrogen vegetation may act as a barrier and prevent are identical pollutants from reaching a stream. The map highlights efficient nitrogen filtering areas in the Po valley in Italy, and in some FLOW and SUPPY FLOW lowland municipalities of France and Germany. These areas are highly exploited for agricultural purposes, and therefore retain higher nitrogen loads compared to mountain or hilly areas. Definition Moreover, as water is the nutrients’ main Nitrogen removals (t ha-1 y -1) vector, its presence and flow are crucial for the filtration of nitrogen: flat areas allow the water to flow more slowly than on steeper terrain, ensuring more effective filtration by the ecosystem. Land use, water presence CICES section

and topography influence the values of this types ecosystem by water of surface Filtration Regulation & maintenance Ecosystem Service indicator, making its interpretation difficult. In fact, although high filtration rates are good, as they mitigate nutrient pollution of waters, they can only occur where the nitrogen loads are CICES division already high. Mediation of waste, toxics and other nuisances As the amount of ES delivered and the de facto utilized amount are , ES flow and supply are represented in the same map.

Nutrient pollution has already contributed to species extinction in the European Alps. Vonlanthen et al. (2012) showed that eutrophication caused a rapid loss in populations of whitefish, a member of the salmon family (Coregonus spp.), from a number of Swiss lakes. Low levels of oxygen at the bottom of eutrophied lakes reduce the number of whitefish eggs that survive to hatching, leading to a substantial decrease in population sizes and diversity among

DID YOU KNOW ? KNOW DID YOU whitefish species. 44-45 44-45 COMMENT already high. can only occur where the nitrogen loads are they mitigate nutrient pollution ofwaters, they fact, although high filtration rates are good,as indicator, making its interpretation difficult. In and topography influence the values of this by the ecosystem. Land use, water presence terrain, ensuring more effective filtration water to flowmoreslowlythan on steeper the filtration ofnitrogen:flatareasallowthe vector, its presence and flow are crucial for Moreover, as water is the nutrients’ main loads comparedto mountain orhilly areas. purposes, and therefore retain higher nitrogen These areas are highly exploited for agricultural municipalities lowland of FranceandGermany. areas in the Po valley in Italy, and in some The maphighlights efficient nitrogen filtering pollutants fromreachingastream. vegetation may act as a barrierandprevent soil can filter and store them, and riparian nutrients from water by storing them in tissues, occurs in several ways: vegetation can remove of pollutants that reach the surface water discharges into the environment. The filtration fertilizers, sewage and industrial wastewater pollution arethe anthropogenic input of and wetlands. The major causes of nutrient nitrogen fromsurface waters like rivers,lakes This indicator focuses on the filtration of

DID YOU KNOW ? whitefish species. decrease in population sizes and diversity among eggs that survive tohatching, leading to a substantial eutrophied lakes reduce the ofwhitefish number Swiss lakes. Low levels ofoxygenatthe bottom of salmon family (Coregonus spp.), from a number of loss in populations of whitefish, a memberofthe (2012) showed that eutrophication caused a rapid extinction in the European Alps. Vonlanthen etal. Nutrient pollution has contributedalready to species

FLOW / SUPPY Filtration of surface water by ecosystem types View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 62 42 -62 29 -41 21 -28 14 -20 7 -13 < 7 Nitrogen removals (tha -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km The demand indicator for this regulating ES gives an impression of where nitrogen loads are highest Description across the Alpine Space. Although Nitrate pollution has several sources: agriculture, transports, industry, and energy, land use is the factor that contributes most substantially, as recognized in The demand indicator the EU Nitrates Directive (EC, 1991). For this reason, the demand indicator scores high values in for “Filtration of surface water the plains, where croplands and other arable land plots are located. The map looks therefore quite by ecosystem types” represents similar to the supply-flow map: montane areas score low values for both indicators, whereas valleys COMMENT the actual annual loads of nitrogen and flat zones, where agricultural use of the land prevails, experience a greater level of nutrient in kg per hectare that are emitted pollution, and therefore have higher demand rates. DEMAND into the environment, regardless The European Commission has selected 50 mg/l of nitrate as the threshold above which water is considered to have excessive nutrients i.e. to be polluted. The values of this indicator should of the current levels of ecosystem therefore be kept as low as possible – and ideally below the aforementioned concentration – to filtration. preserve a healthy ecosystem. Figure 3.5 shows the exceedance of nutrient critical loads across Europe for the year 2010. The Po valley is highlighted once again as a critical spot for nutrient pollution, with serious risk of eutrophication.

Definition Exceedance of nutrient Nitrogen loads (t ha-1 y -1) critical loads (eq ha-1 y-1)

no exceedance

> 0 - 200 CICES section 200 - 400 Filtration of surface water by ecosystem types ecosystem by water of surface Filtration 400 - 700 Regulation & maintenance Ecosystem Service

700 - 1200

> 1200

no data CICES division Mediation of waste, toxics and other nuisances

Figure 3.5 Exceedance of critical loads for eutrophication due to the deposition of nutrient nitrogen in 2010. Adapted from EEA 2010, “EU 2010 biodiversity baseline”. 46-47 46-47 COMMENT from EEA2010,“EU2010biodiversity baseline”. Figure 3.5 Exceedance of critical loads foreutrophication due to the deposition ofnutrient nitrogen in 2010. Adapted eutrophication. is Po valley highlighted once again as a critical spot for nutrient pollution, with serious risk of Figure 3.5 shows the exceedance of nutrient critical loads across Europe for the year 2010. The preserve ahealthyecosystem. therefore be kept as low as possible – andideallybelowthe aforementioned concentration – to is considered to have excessive nutrients i.e. to be polluted. The valuesofthis indicator should The EuropeanCommission has selected 50 mg/l ofnitrate as the threshold which above water pollution, andthereforehavehigherdemandrates. flat zones,where and agricultural use of the prevails, experience land a greater level ofnutrient similar to the supply-flow map:montaneareas score low values for both indicators, whereas valleys quite therefore looks map The located. are plots land arable other and croplands where plains, the the EU Nitrates Directive (EC, 1991). For this indicator reason, the scores demand high values in industry, and energy,landuse is the factor that contributes most substantially, as recognized in across the Alpine Space. Although Nitrate pollution has several sources: agriculture, transports, The demand indicator for this regulating ES gives an impression of where nitrogen loads are highest critical loads (eq ha critical loads (eq Exceedance ofnutrient no data no > 1200 700 -1200 400 -700 200 - 400 > 0-200 exceedanceno -1 -1 y -1 )

DEMAND Filtration of surface water by ecosystem types View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe Nitrogen loads (tha > 101 86 -101 71 -85 56 -70 39 -55 18 -38 < 18 -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km Protection of areas against avalanches,

3.5 mudslides and rockfalls

In mountainous areas characterised by considerable topographic variation and abundant ice, snow and water, one of the most important functions of forests is helping to prevent and mitigate rockfalls, mudslides, and avalanches. The Alps rank amongst the most forested areas in Europe, with about half of their area covered by woodlands. However, not all forests have a protective function to people and human infrastructures.According to Brang et al. (2001), protective forests are identified by the simultaneous presence of (1) people or assets that may be damaged, (2) a natural hazard or a potentially adverse climate that may cause damage and (3) a forest that has the potential to prevent or mitigate this potential damage. This ES is of particular importance in many municipalities of the Alpine Space, where the topographic, geomorphologic and climatic conditions account for an elevated potential for natural hazard events. Accounting for this ecosystem service entails first defining all forests that have a mitigating function in natural hazards, whether or not there are “people or assets that may be damaged”. This way, total potential protection forests are accounted for. Next, only those forests that meet Brang et al’s requirements are considered, in other words, object protecting forests. Finally, calculations are performed to determine exactly how much area of human infrastructure exists in danger zones, and thus requires some form of protection (whether or not it comes from forests). As climatic changes continue to ripple through the Alps, it is necessary for decision-makers to understand trends in these natural hazards and the role of forests in their mitigation. In this indicator set, only protection against avalanches and rockfalls, but not mudslides, was modeled. This is due to the complexity of this natural process, and the lack of suitable datasets for its modeling. 48-49 Protection forests are one of the most inexpensive and environmentally friendly mitigation Description approaches for natural hazards such as avalanches, rockfalls and mudslides. In fact, forests are cheap and self-sustaining, they require little or no management and they do not disrupt the landscape, This indicator quantifies unlike artificial barriers and protection systems. the amount of forests with The map shows that the protection forest coverage is highest in the Alpine mountain range. This a potential protective function.

COMMENT is explained by the very definition of protection forest, as those are the areas with the highest Site protecting forests reduce SUPPLY potential for gravitational hazards and mass movements, due to the slope of the terrain. Flat the impact of natural hazards areas have a very limited potential for such types of natural threats, and therefore have little to no and erosion processes, protection forest cover. regardless of the presence Even in areas where there is no human infrastructure to protect, protection forests can be beneficial of human infrastructure. to counteract soil erosion, soften the impact of rain and reduce run off by water, thus contributing to the preservation of an intact and functional ecosystem.

Forests cover 63% of Slovenia, but only 13,5% of these forests have a protective function (Copernicus High Resolution Layers: Forest Type & Tree Cover Density 2012). Figure 3.6 presents the share of forest cover per municipality. The comparison between this map and the protection forest supply map enables the identification of other highly forested areas that are non-protective. This leads to a better understanding Definition of what topographic features (i.e. slope steepness) determine whether or not a forest is protective. Site-protecting forest (index)

Forest areas (%)

0 - 30 DID YOU KNOW ? KNOW DID YOU 31 - 45 CICES section 46 - 60 Regulation & maintenance Ecosystem Service 61 - 75

76 - 99 CICES division Protection against avalanches, mudslides and rockfalls against avalanches, Protection Mediation of flows

km 0 75 150 300

Figure 3.6 The percentage of each municipality that is covered by forests, as of 2012. Copyright 2018 AlpES 50-51 50-51 DID YOU KNOW ? COMMENT Figure 3.6Thepercentage ofeachmunicipalitythatis coveredbyforests,asof2012.Copyright 2018AlpES of whattopographic features(i.e. slopesteepness)determinewhetherornotaforestisprotective. identification ofotherhighlyforestedareasthatarenon-protective. Thisleadstoabetterunderstanding per municipality. The comparison between this map and the protection forest supply map enables the Resolution Layers:Forest Type&TreeCoverDensity 2012).Figure3.6presentsthe share offorestcover Forests cover 63% of Slovenia, but only 13,5% of these forests have a protective function (Copernicus High to thepreservationofanintactandfunctionalecosystem. to counteract soil erosion, soften the impact of rain and reduce run off by water, thus contributing Even inareaswhere there is no humaninfrastructure to protect, protection forests can bebeneficial protection forestcover. areas have a limited very potential for such types of natural threats, and therefore have little to no potential for gravitational hazards and mass movements, due to the slope of the terrain. Flat is explained bythe very definition of protection forest, as those are the areas with the highest The map shows that the protection forest coverage is highest in the Alpine mountain range. This unlike artificialbarriersandprotectionsystems. landscape, the disrupt not do they and management no or little require they self-sustaining, and approaches for natural hazards such as avalanches, rockfalls and mudslides. In fact, forests are cheap Protection forests are oneofthe most friendly mitigation inexpensive and environmentally 76 -99 61 -75 46 -60 31 -45 0 -30 Forest areas (%) 0 75 150 300 km

SUPPLY Protection against avalanches, mudslides and rockfalls View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe Site-protecting forest (%) > 72 60 -72 46 -59 32 -45 18 -31 7 -17 < 7 0 75 150 300 450 600 km Of all the potential protection forests mapped Description through the supply indicator, the flow indicator considers only those that have a direct This indicator quantifies the share protective function for human infrastructure, of object-protecting forests only. like buildings, road networks and urban

FLOW These are the forests located in settlements. That is why the flow map shows COMMENT areas where potential hazard a similar trend to that of the supply indicator. events could impact human The hotspots in the map coincide with the municipalities where villages have developed infrastructure directly. on or between mountainsides, nestled among the Alps. In these locations, forests a key role in protecting municipalities from the steep slopes that surround, and threaten, them. The protective function of forests in the Alps has been recognized for centuries, as evident from logging bans declared from the 1350s onwards. The more recent Mountain Forest Protocol of the Alpine Convention of 1996 Definition states that “mountain forests…provide the Object-protecting forest (index) most effective, the least expensive and the most aesthetic protection against natural hazards”. As forest cover is constantly evolving, targeted silvicultural management strategies are needed to maintain or increase forests’ protective role Funes, an Italian municipality CICES section nestled between steep mountainsides (Berger et al., 2013). Regulation & maintenance Ecosystem Service

DID YOU KNOW ? CICES division Annual landslide costs in Italy, Austria, Switzerland Protection against avalanches, mudslides and rockfalls against avalanches, Protection and France are estimated at $1-5 billion, or € 0,8-4 Mediation of flows billion (Kjekstad & Highland, 2009). Landslides and rockfalls may become even more frequent in the Alpine Space due to the degradation of permafrost in steep slopes. Increased precipitation might also lead to more frequent and extended slope instabilities in the future (EEA, 2017).

Exposed infrastructures on steep mountain sides are particularly vulnerable to rockfalls 52-53 52-53 COMMENT (Berger etal., 2013). to maintainorincrease forests’protective role silvicultural managementstrategies areneeded As forestcover isconstantlyevolving,targeted aesthetic protection againstnaturalhazards”. most effective, theleastexpensiveandmost states that“mountainforests…provide the Protocol oftheAlpineConvention1996 onwards. The more recent Mountain Forest from logging bans declared from the 1350s has beenrecognized forcenturies, asevident The protective function offorestsin the Alps slopes thatsurround,andthreaten,them. role in protecting municipalities from the steep the Alps. In these locations, forests play a key on or between mountainsides, nestled among municipalities where villages have developed The hotspotsinthemapcoincide withthe a similartrendtothatofthe supplyindicator. settlements. That is why the flow map shows like buildings, road networks and urban protective function for human infrastructure, indicator considers onlythosethathaveadirect through the supplyindicator,the flow Of allthepotentialprotection forestsmapped sides areparticularly vulnerabletorockfalls Exposed infrastructures onsteepmountain the future( in instabilities slope extended and frequent more to steep slopes. Increased precipitation might also lead the in Alpine Spaceduetothe degradation of permafrost in frequent more even become may rockfalls and Landslides 2009). Highland, & (Kjekstad billion and France are estimated at $1-5 billion,or€ 0,8-4 Annual landslidecosts in Italy, Austria, Switzerland DID YOU KNOW ? EEA, 2017 nestled betweensteepmountainsides ). Funes, anItalianmunicipality

FLOW Protection against avalanches, mudslides and rockfalls View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 59 44 -59 33 -43 23 -32 14 -22 7 -13 < 7 Object-protecting forest (%) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km The demand indicator for protection forests is calculated by considering two main factors: (1) the Description natural hazard potential, based on and rock-fall transition zones, and (2) the damage potential, which considers all human infrastructure (i.e. settlement areas, buildings, roads and The demand indicator for the railways). The intersection zones between these two areas identify all infrastructure that is located ES “Protection of areas against in potential hazard zones, and therefore is in need of protection. avalanches, mudslides and

COMMENT The map shows higher levels of demand in the Alpine mountain chain, where the natural hazard rockfalls” quantifies the need for potential is high. In comparing the three maps for this ES, there is great consistency between protection from natural hazards by the supply, flow and demand for protection forests. Indeed, there are only a few municipalities DEMAND showing the percentage of human with high demand and low supply values, such as Saint-Martin-de-la-Porte or . These communities may receive high return on investment for planting protection forests in their infrastructure in potential danger jurisdiction. This relatively small amount of municipalities with a demand exceeding their supply zones. does not necessarily imply that all potential danger zones are completely protected; protection forests may not offer absolute protection from every rockfall and avalanche event, and mudslides were not included in these calculations. Climate change affects the stability of natural and engineered slopes; thus, it has important consequences on the frequency of rockfalls, erosion events and landslides. Recent research suggests that the increasing temperatures will lead to more frequent natural hazard events. Figure 3.7 shows the expected variations in abundance of landslides due to climate change; these changes entail Definition mostly increases of landslide activities across the Alpine Space and the rest of Europe. Furthermore, Infrastructure at risk (index) avalanches, storms, typhoons and other abnormal climate events are also likely to become more common, as a result of a rapidly changing climate.

Expected variations in abundance or activity of landslide types: CICES section

Increase Regulation & maintenance Ecosystem Service

Decrease

No change CICES division Protection against avalanches, mudslides and rockfalls against avalanches, Protection Rockfall / Avalanche Mediation of flows

Shallow landslide

Debris flow

Deep-seated landslide

EAA33

Outside EAA33

Figure 3.7 Expected variations in the abundance of natural hazards due to climate change. Adapted from EEA, 2017. 54-55 54-55 COMMENT “Climate Changeadaptation anddisasterriskreduction inEurope”. Figure 3.7 Expected variations in the abundance of natural hazards due to climate change. Adapted fromEEA 2017 Expected variations types: inabundance oractivity oflandslide common, asaresultofrapidlychangingclimate. climate to becomemore other avalanches, storms,typhoons events arealsolikely and abnormal mostly increases of landslide activities across the Alpine Space andthe rest of Europe. Furthermore, the expected variations in of abundance landslides due to climate change; these changes entail that the increasing temperatures will lead to more frequent natural hazard events. Figure 3.7 shows consequences on the frequency of rockfalls, erosion events and landslides. Recent research suggests Climate change affects the stability of natural and engineeredslopes; thus, it has important were notincludedinthesecalculations. mudslides forests and avalanche event, may notofferabsoluteprotection rockfall and from every does not necessarily imply that all potential danger zonesarecompletely protected; protection jurisdiction. This relativelysmallamountofmunicipalities with exceeding their a demand supply These Hallstatt. communities may receive high return on investment for planting protection forests in their or Saint-Martin-de-la-Porte as such values, supply low and demand high with the supply, flow for protection and demand forests. Indeed, there are only a few municipalities potential is high. In comparing the three maps forthis ES, there is great consistency between The map shows higher in the levels ofdemand Alpine mountain chain, where the natural hazard in potentialhazardzones,andthereforeisneedofprotection. railways). The intersection zones between these two areas identify allinfrastructure that is located potential, which considers all human infrastructure (i.e. settlement areas, buildings, roads and potential, based onavalancheandrock-falltransitionnatural hazard zones, and(2)the damage indicator The demand for protection forests is calculated by considering two main factors: (1) the Outside EAA33 EAA33 Deep-seated landslide Debris flow Shallow landslide Rockfall /Avalanche No change Decrease Increase

DEMAND Protection against avalanches, mudslides and rockfalls View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 60 43 -60 30 -42 20 -29 12 -19 5 -11 < 5 Infrastructure atrisk (%) Infrastructure 0 75 150 300 450 600 km CO2 sequestration

3.6 3.6 by forests and bogs

The vast amounts of fossil fuels being burned around the globe

mean that carbon dioxide (CO2) is one of the most powerful drivers of global climate change. As no major reductions in

CO2 pollution are occurring at a global scale, the capacity of

natural environments to sequester CO2 is becoming more and

more vital. Thus, any large-scale CO2 sinks have a positive regulating effect not just locally, but globally as well. In the Alpine Space, the ecosystems with the largest sequestration capacity are forests and bogs. Every year,

these ecosystems sequester CO2 by storing it in biomass that is created as plants and trees grow. This yearly growth is known as “biomass increment” and is calculated using Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change equations. These equations allow for the prediction of above- and below-ground changes in the amount of biomass, expressed in tonnes of carbon per year. The supply and flow indicators for sequestration are mapped together, because the supply is equal to the flow in this case; all the carbon that these environments can sequester every year is in fact being sequestered. The demand indicator

is calculated by assessing how much CO2 each alpine municipality is emitting. Understanding the alpine contribution

to CO2 emission and sequestration is an important facet in coordinated at local, regional, and global scales in the effort to mitigate global climate change.

In this indicator set, only CO2 sequestration from forests was modelled. This is due to the lack of suitable knowledge about carbon cycling processes in bogs. 56-57 58-59 COMMENT Figure 3.8GloballandCO and CO The contribution of bogs was not evaluated in this indicator, due to lack of data on their distribution management plansfortheworld’sforests. cover globallysince 1990. These findings reaffirm the importance of sustainable and far-sighted of vegetation per hectare of land in the past 50 years (Fig. 3.8), despite a decrease of 2% in forest as much as 30% of annual globalanthropogenic CO and sizeablecarbon sinks. Indeed, recent studies have shown that the world’s forests have absorbed environment through decomposition and burning. Thus, forests act as one of the most effective areas. growing trees is releasedbacktothe Carbon is extended woodlandby and only absorbed biomass increment is the highest, thanks to the optimal altitudinal andclimatic conditions and the northern FranceandSwitzerland.Inthese areas, the increase in biomass carbon stock due to measures ( carbon storage that and their be oneofthe preservation may most cost-effective climate protection This indicator measures the amount of CO Amount of carbon (petagrams per year) Peters et al.(2012) reported anincrease in CO & Luyssaert,2014). The map shows that the highest values of CO ES flowandsupplyarerepresentedinthesamemap. global climate protection. As the amount of ES delivered and the de facto utilized amount are equal, ofbenefit to not only the Alpine population,butrepresent the contribution of the Alpine areato 10 0 2 4 6 8 2 eusrto ptnil Hwvr rcn suis niae ht hy ly ky oe in role key a play they that indicate studies recent However, potential. sequestration 1960 WWF Österreich,2010 Linear trend absorptionLand Anthropogenic emissions 1965 2 sinkcomparedtoanthropogenicemissions. Adapted from Petersetal.,2012. 1970 1975 ). 1980 2 sequestered by Alpine forests, the effects of which are which of effects the forests, Alpine by sequestered 2 2 sequestration occur in Slovenia, Germany, and Germany, Slovenia, in occur sequestration 1985 sequestration levels by forests and other types other and forests by levels sequestration 2 emissions in the past few decades (Bellassen 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

FLOW - SUPPLY

CO2 sequestration by forests and bogs Regulation &maintenance Ecosystem Service CICES section biological conditions Maintenance of physical, chemical, CICES division CO Definition tonnes ofCO This indicator quantifiesthe Description both flow ES. supplyofthe and identical, thisindicator describes defactothe CO municipality. As potential the and annually by forests Alpine ina 2 sequestration (t CO sequestration (t 2 sequestered 2 sequestration are 2 ha -1 y -1 ) 58-59 COMMENT Figure 3.8 Global land CO Figure 3.8 land Global Nature Clim.Change2,2–4(2012). and CO The contribution of bogs was not evaluated in this indicator, due to lack of data on their distribution management plansfortheworld’sforests. cover globallysince 1990. These findings reaffirm the importance of sustainable and far-sighted of vegetation per hectare of land in the past 50 years (Fig. 3.8), despite a decrease of 2% in forest as much as 30% of annual globalanthropogenic CO and sizeablecarbon sinks. Indeed, recent studies have shown that the world’s forests have absorbed environment through decomposition and burning. Thus, forests act as one of the most effective areas. growing trees is releasedbacktothe Carbon is extended woodlandby and only absorbed biomass increment is the highest, thanks to the optimal altitudinal andclimatic conditions and the northern FranceandSwitzerland.Inthese areas, the increase in biomass carbon stock due to measures ( carbon storage that and their be oneofthe preservation may most cost-effective climate protection This indicator measures the amount of CO Amount of carbon (petagrams per year) Peters et al.(2012) reported anincrease in CO & Luyssaert,2014). The map shows that the highest values of CO ES flowandsupplyarerepresentedinthesamemap. global climate protection. As the amount of ES delivered and the de facto utilized amount are equal, ofbenefit to not only the Alpine population,butrepresent the contribution of the Alpine areato 10 0 2 4 6 8 2 eusrto ptnil Hwvr rcn suis niae ht hy ly ky oe in role key a play they that indicate studies recent However, potential. sequestration 1960 WWF Österreich,2010 Linear trend absorptionLand Anthropogenic emissions 1965 2 1970 sinkcomparedtoanthropogenic emissions. Adapted fromG.P.Peters et al., 2012. 1975 ). 1980 2 sequestered by Alpine forests, the effects of which are which of effects the forests, Alpine by sequestered 2 2 sequestration occur in Slovenia, Germany, and Germany, Slovenia, in occur sequestration 1985 sequestration levels by forests and other types other and forests by levels sequestration 2 emissions in the past few decades (Bellassen 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

FLOW / SUPPLY

CO2 sequestration by forests and bogs View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 11,4 10,2 -11,4 9,0 -10,1 7,7 -8,9 6,3 -7,6 4,2 -6,2 < 4,2 CO 2 sequestration (tCO 2 ha -1 y -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km The demand indicator for CO2 sequestration provides an overview of the rate of CO2 emissions Description across the Alpine Space. Unsurprisingly, the values are elevated in and around industrialized and urbanized areas, and the biggest cities are particularly apparent in the map (e.g. Milan, Zurich, The demand indicator for the

Lyon, Munich, Vienna, etc.). The valleys of the and the are also evident, as they cut ES “CO2 sequestration by forests through the Alpine range, which otherwise has low emission rates. and bogs” represents the CO2

COMMENT The levels of atmospheric CO2 are increasing at an unprecedented rate worldwide. This trend is emissions per municipality for effectively described in Figure 3.9, in which the increase in CO2 levels in the last 22.000 years the year of 2010, measured in is compared to that registered in the last decades. Over the past 70 years, the rate of increase of DEMAND tonnes of CO2 per hectare. atmospheric CO2 is nearly 100 times larger than that at the end of the last ice age, accounting

for a vertiginous spike in CO2 concentrations. In an attempt to stop this deleterious trend, the international debate on this matter has become more serious, and binding environmental

commitments to cut CO2 emissions were taken – most notably the Agreement within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Coordinated action at global and regional scales is essential to counteract the effects of these anthropogenic influences on climate. International commitment is needed for the effective preservation of forests and other ecosystems that provide regulation and maintenance services of atmospheric conditions. By comparing the Flow & Supply and the Demand indicators for carbon sequestration, important local and regional sources and sinks become evident. It is vital that the role Definition sequestration by forests and bogs forests by sequestration

certain regions play in carbon sequestration are acknowledged and leveraged in such coordinated 2 -1 CO2 emission (t CO2 ha ) action. CO

CO2 at the end of last ice age Modern CO2 CICES section 280 Regulation & maintenance Ecosystem Service 400

260

380 CICES division 240 Maintenance of physical, chemical, 360 biological conditions (ppm) 2

CO 220

340

200

320

180 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 1960 2000

Thousands of years before present Year

Figure 3.9 Atmospheric CO2 increase in the last 22.000 years () and in the last 50 years (right). The vertical line in the left graph indicates the end of the last ice age, 11,5 thousand years ago. Adapted from World Meteorological Organization, 2017. 60-61 60-61 COMMENT Organization (2017) in the leftgraphindicates the end ofthe last ice age, 11,5 thousand years ago. Adapted fromWorldMeteorological Figure 3.9 Atmospheric CO for avertiginous spike in CO commitments to cut CO international debate onthis matter has become more serious, and bindingenvironmental The demand indicator for CO The demand atmospheric CO is compared tothat registered in the last decades. Over the past 70 years, the rate ofincrease of action. coordinated such in leveraged and acknowledged are sequestration carbon in play regions certain sequestration, important local and regional sources and sinks become evident. It is vital that the role atmospheric conditions. By comparingthe and theindicators Flow &Supply Demand for carbon preservation of forests and other ecosystems that provide regulation and maintenance services of anthropogenic influences on climate. International commitment is needed for the effective Coordinated action at global andregionalscales is essential to counteract the effects of these United NationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange. The levelsofatmospheric CO through theAlpinerange,whichotherwisehaslowemissionrates. Lyon, Munich, Vienna, etc.). The valleys of the Adige and the Inn are also evident, as they cut urbanized areas, and the biggest cities are particularly apparent in the map (e.g. Milan, Zurich, across the AlpineSpace. industrialized and Unsurprisingly, the around values areelevatedinand effectively described inFigure 3.9, in which the increase in CO

CO2 (ppm) 180 200 220 240 260 280 22 2 is nearly 100 times larger than that at the end of the last ice age, accounting 20 Thousands ofyears before present CO2 attheendoflasticeage 2 increase in the last 22.000 in theand last years (left) 50 years (right). The vertical line 18 2 emissions were taken – most notably the Paris Agreement within the 2 2 2 areincreasing at anunprecedentedrateworldwide.This trend is concentrations. In an attempt to stop this deleterious trend, the sequestration provides an overview of the rate of CO of rate the of overview an provides sequestration 16 14 12 10 320 340 360 380 400 2 levelsinthe last 22.000 years 1960 Modern CO2 Year 2 emissions 2000

DEMAND

CO2 sequestration by forests and bogs View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 24,3 13,0 -24,3 8,4 -12,9 5,6 -8,3 3,5 -5,5 2,0 -3,4 < 2,0 CO 2 emission(tCO 2 ha -1 ) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km 3.7 3.7 Outdoor recreation activities

When discussing ecosystem services, most people imagine the material benefits humans receive from nature, such as clean drinking water, wood, and pollination of crops. However, there exists a whole category of ecosystem services concerned with non-material benefits, entitled cultural ecosystem services. This category includes aesthetic appreciation and inspiration, cultural identity, sense of home, and spiritual experience related to the natural environment. Typically, opportunities for recreation are considered within this category. Nature-based opportunities for recreation (e.g. walking and playing sports in parks and urban green spaces or in the mountains) play an important role in maintaining mental and physical health, as many studies have demonstrated (Stigsdotter et al., 2010; Barton & Pretty, 2010). Measuring the potential benefit of outdoor recreation is an important piece in the Alpine Space puzzle. The three indicators for outdoor recreation activities assess the supply, flow, and demand of this service. In other words, they demonstrate how much open, natural, and accessible space exists for recreation, how many people are actually using these spaces, and the potential beneficiaries of outdoor recreation opportunities. In a landscape as beautiful as the Alps, the opportunities for outdoor recreation for both local and visiting populations comprise an enormous benefit. 62-63 Many factors contribute to the nature-related Description recreation potential of a place; the naturalness of the environment, its ruggedness and a This indicator measures the diverse composition of the landscape are all outdoor recreation potential characteristics that increase this potential. of a municipality, taking into Moreover, national parks and nature reserves COMMENT account the natural conditions often attract visitors and can provide many SUPPLY and accessibility of such outdoor opportunities and sometimes even wildlife-watching experiences. recreation opportunities. This indicator is a measure of the naturalness and diversity of the landscape, which add to its recreation potential, and of the accessibility of such outdoor recreational spots. Low values of supply are often related to a strong anthropogenic impact on the territory.

The map shows a heterogeneous spatial activities recreation Outdoor distribution of the outdoor recreational areas; nevertheless, the mountains score medium to Definition high values in their entire range. High supply rates are apparent in renowned mountain areas Recreational offer (index) like, (AT), the ski- of Garmisch (DE) and the (IT). Lakes are also very attractive in terms of recreation activities; this is particularly evident in the case of lake CICES section Garda (the largest lake in Italy and a popular Cultural Ecosystem Service holiday destination) and its surrounding municipalities. The accurate assessment of cultural ES remains challenging because they are strongly CICES division interconnected, depend on human perceptions and preferences, and are not directly linked to Physical and intellectual interactions measurable ecosystem processes (Schirpke et with biota, ecosystems, and land-/seascapes al., 2017). [environmental settings]

Tourists renting boats at Lake Braies, an Italian lake situated in South Tyrol 64-65 64-65 COMMENT al., 2017). measurable ecosystem processes (Schirpke et and preferences, andarenotdirectly linkedto interconnected, dependonhumanperceptions remains challenging because they are strongly The accurate assessment ofcultural ES municipalities. holiday destination) and its surrounding Garda (thelargestlakeinItaly andapopular this isparticularly evidentinthecase oflake very attractive interms ofrecreation activities; (DE) and the Dolomites (IT). Lakes are also like, Styria (AT), the ski-town of Garmisch rates areapparentinrenownedmountainareas supply High range. entire their in values high nevertheless, themountainsscore mediumto distribution ofthe outdoorrecreational areas; The mapshows aheterogeneous spatial anthropogenic impact ontheterritory. values ofsupplyareoftenrelatedtoastrong of such outdoor recreational spots. Low its recreation potential, and of the accessibility and diversity of the landscape, which add to This indicator is a measure of the naturalness wildlife-watching experiences. outdoor opportunities and sometimes even often attract visitors and can provide many Moreover, nationalparksandnaturereserves characteristics thatincrease thispotential. diverse compositionofthelandscape areall of theenvironment,itsruggednessanda recreation potentialofaplace;thenaturalness Many factors contribute to the nature-related an Italianlakesituated inSouthTyrol Tourists rentingboatsatLakeBraies,

SUPPLY Outdoor recreation activities View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe recreational(index) offer > 51 44 -51 36 -43 29 -35 23 -28 16 -22 < 16 0 75 150 300 450 600 km The flow indicator for “Outdoor recreation Description activities” aims to give an idea of the utilization of the recreational opportunities offered by the The flow indicator for the ES ecosystem, i.e. how frequently these spots are “Outdoor recreation activities” visited by residents and tourists. The visitation

FLOW estimates the visitation rates rates have been estimated on the basis of COMMENT of outdoor recreationists in a metadata linked to the photo-sharing social municipality, relying on metadata media platform Flickr, where location, time and date of the shared picture are saved. linked to photographs uploaded The map highlights hotspots that are popular on social media. for outdoor recreation activities: (1) the municipalities located on the seaside, like those along the Ligurian Riviera, or near lakes, such as the communes around Lac Léman, Lake Garda, or Chiemsee; (2) emblematic mountain

locations, like the Dolomites, -Mont activities recreation Outdoor Blanc, and famous ski areas such as Garmisch and Huez. High values are also observable Definition in cities - particularly in big metropolitan Visitation rate (index) ones like Zurich, Munich and Vienna, which form a of “urban recreational areas”. This is due to high population numbers and tourist visitation rates, which account for a proportionally large number of photos shared CICES section on social media, for example in green areas and Cultural Ecosystem Service parks, despite the relatively low naturalness of the environment. Elevated visitation rates can be beneficial for the local economy, boosting the tourism industry. CICES division But they may also have negative effects for Physical and intellectual interactions the environment, like increased pollution Lake , in Slovenia, is a popular spot with biota, ecosystems, and land-/seascapes levels, human disturbance to animal species, for outdoor activities like walks and bike trips infrastructure development (e.g. ski resorts and [environmental settings] mountain huts), and more. In Langnau am , Switzerland, a “forest kindergarten” lets children spend most of their time in the woods, where they learn to start fires, build dens and explore the outdoors. The program is thought to foster self-confidence and an independent spirit, and has been featured in a dedicated short film. The concept of forest kindergartens originated in Scandinavia in the 1950s, and is spreading throughout Europe, also becoming popular in the Alpine Space, where nature offers plentiful outdoor activities. The spread of these schools demonstrates their success and the powerful ways in which nature can teach us and improve our well-being. Outdoor recreation can offer so much to our societies, and it is important to account these benefits as accurately

DID YOU KNOW ? KNOW DID YOU as possible. 66-67 66-67 COMMENT mountain huts),andmore. infrastructure development (e.g. ski resorts and levels, humandisturbance to animal species, the like environment, increased pollution But they mayalso have negative effects for local economy, boosting the tourism industry. Elevated visitation rates can be beneficial for the the environment. parks, despite the relatively low naturalness of on social media, for example in green areas and proportionally largenumberofphotos shared tourist visitation rates, which account for a This is due to high population numbersand form a cluster of “urban recreational areas”. ones like Zurich, Munich and Vienna,which observable also are in cities -particularlyinbigmetropolitan values High Huez. and Blanc, andfamous ski areas such as Garmisch locations, like the Dolomites, Chamonix-Mont or Chiemsee; Garda, (2) emblematic mountain as the Lac communes around Léman, Lake along the Ligurian Riviera, ornearlakes,such municipalities located onthe seaside, likethose for outdoorrecreation activities: (1) the The maphighlights hotspots that are popular and dateofthesharedpicturearesaved. media platform Flickr, where location, time metadata linked to the photo-sharing social rates have been estimated on the basis of visited by residents and tourists. The visitation are spots these frequently how i.e. ecosystem, of the recreational opportunities the offered by activities” aims to give an idea of the utilization The flow indicator for “Outdoor recreation

DID YOU KNOW ? as possible. is important to account these benefits as accurately recreation can offerso much to our societies, and it can teachour well-being.Outdoor usimprove and their success and the powerful waysinwhich nature activities. The spread of these schools demonstrates whereAlpine Space, natureoffersplentiful outdoor throughout Europe, also becoming popular in the in in Scandinavia the 1950s, and is spreading film. The concept of forest kindergartens originated spirit, and has been featured in a dedicated thought to foster self-confidence and anindependent dens andexplorethe outdoors. The programis in the woods, where they learn to start fires, build kindergarten” lets children spend most of their time a “forest In LangnauamAlbis,Switzerland, for outdooractivitieslikewalksandbiketrips Lake Bled,inSlovenia,isapopularspot short

FLOW Outdoor recreation activities View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe < 61 39 -61 23 -38 14 -22 7 -13 4 -6 < 4 Visitation rate (index) 0 75 150 300 450 600 km The demand for nature-based outdoor recreation opportunities is directly proportional to the size Description of local populations and visiting tourists. Therefore, the demand indicator calculates the mean of each municipality, including both permanent residents and visitors. The demand indicator for the ES The indicator’s highest values correspond to the cities, whereas the lowest values are in the remote “Outdoor recreation activities” and sparsely populated mountainous areas of the Alpine range. However, there are some exceptions: estimates the demand for outdoor

COMMENT high visitation rates in certain zones of the and in the northern municipalities of recreational opportunities as an France account for a relatively high value of the indicator, despite small resident numbers. On the index that is proportional to the other hand, the lowest demand rates are found in the southwestern Alps, at the between DEMAND number of potential beneficiaries, France and Italy, and in southern Switzerland. i.e. residents and tourists. Figure 3.10 lists the European regions with the most overnight stays in accommodation establishments in rural areas. Alpine regions like Tirol, the Rhône-Alpes, the Autonomous Province of Bolzano/Bozen, and Veneto rank among the most visited rural locations for holidays: proof that the Alps are a very attractive holiday destination both in the summer- and wintertime. The growing popularity of and of “white weeks”, i.e. winter holidays on the snow, has contributed to a significant rise in visitation rates of the Alpine region. It is unclear what will happen to this trend as the effects of climate change reduce snow-cover and season length in many activities recreation Outdoor areas of the Alps. Definition Beneficiaries (index)

50 CICES section Cultural Ecosystem Service Jadranska Hrvatska (HR) Jadranska (ES) Balears Illes (AT) Tirol Canaries (ES) Rhône-Alpes (FR) (IT) Bolzano/Bozen Aut. Prov. (IT) Veneto (FR) Aquitaine (DE) - Vorpommern Macklemburg (IT) Toscana Notio Aigaio (GR) (AT) Salzburg (DE) Schleswig - (ES) Andalucia (FR) d’Azur - Alpes Côte Provence Kriti (GR) (IT) Trento Aut. Prov.

0 CICES division Physical and intellectual interactions with biota, ecosystems, and land-/seascapes

40 [environmental settings]

10

30

20 Residents Foreigners

Figure 3.10 Number of nights (in millions) spent in tourist accommodation establishments in rural areas in the top 17 EU-28 tourist regions, by NUTS 2 regions, in 2016. Adapted from Eurostat, 2016. 68-69 68-69 COMMENT 17 EU-28touristregions, byNUTS2regions,in2016. AdaptedfromEurostat. Figure 3.10 Number ofnights (in millions) spent in tourist accommodation establishments in ruralareas in the top Residents 0 areas oftheAlps. happen to this trend as the effects of climate change reduce snow-cover and season length in many has contributed to a significant rise in visitation rates of the Alpine region. It is unclear what will The growing popularity of winter sports and of “white weeks”, i.e. winter holidays on the snow, proof that the Alps are averyattractive holiday destination both in the summer- andwintertime. and Venetorankamongthe most Province ofBolzano/Bozen, visited rural locations for holidays: establishments in rural areas. Alpine regions like Tirol, the Rhône-Alpes, the Autonomous Figure 3.10 lists the European regions with the most overnight stays in accommodation France andItaly,insouthernSwitzerland. other the hand, lowest rates are foundinthe demand southwestern Alps, at the between border France account for arelativelyhigh value ofthe indicator, despite smallresident numbers. Onthe high visitation rates in certain zones ofthe in the eastern Alps and northern municipalities of and sparsely populated mountainous areas of the Alpine range. However, there are some exceptions: The indicator’s highest values correspondto the cities, whereas the lowest values areinthe remote population densityofeachmunicipality,includingbothpermanentresidentsandvisitors. of local populations and visiting tourists. Therefore, the indicator demand calculates the mean for nature-basedoutdoorrecreation The demand opportunities is directly proportional to the size

Jadranska Hrvatska (HR) Illes Balears (ES)

10 Tirol (AT)

Foreigners Canaries (ES) Rhône-Alpes (FR) Prov. Aut. Bolzano/Bozen (IT) Veneto (IT) Aquitaine (FR) Macklemburg - Vorpommern (DE) Toscana (IT) Notio Aigaio (GR) Salzburg (AT) Schleswig - Holstein (DE) Andalucia (ES) Provence - Alpes - Côte d’Azur (FR) 20 Kriti (GR) Prov. Aut. Trento (IT) 30 50 40

DEMAND Outdoor recreation activities View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe > 3,2 1,6 -3,2 1,0 -1,5 0,7 -0,9 0,5 -0,6 0,3 -0,4 < 0,3 Beneficiaries (index) Beneficiaries 0 75 150 300 450 600 km Symbolic Alpine plants

3.8 and animals, landscapes

The Alps are one of the richest biodiversity hotspots in Europe and are home to many endemic plant and animal species. These species have become intertwined with the many cultures that have developed here; they have symbolic meaning to people who call the Alps home. A well-known example is the , a beautiful, diminutive white flower found high in rocky mountain environs. The edelweiss has been a symbol for different alpine militaries, represented intrepidness in the mountains, and even been a part of many songs from the region. Many other species have symbolic meaning in the Alps, including ibex, , , alpenrose, larch, and more. Calculating the impacts of ecosystem services with such non- material benefits as symbolic plants, animals and landscapes is no easy task. The intangible nature of symbols, especially their value, use, and extent, render traditional spatial analysis methods exceedingly difficult. This set of indicators thus develops novel methodologies to assess this service. Supply of this service is evaluated by examining the geographic ranges of the selected culturally important plant and animal species. By tracking the use of these species in hotel names per municipality, the flow of this service is mapped. Given the personal, qualitative nature of symbols and their importance, no demand indicator has been mapped for this ecosystem service, although a qualitative evaluation of the population’s demand has been carried out through an online questionnaire. Appraising the value of these symbols proves to be challenging, but is vital in a deeper understanding of the benefits we draw from the environment around us. This is especially true as land- use and climate changes threaten many of the species that are most important to the cultures found in the Alpine Space. 70-71 72-73 remedy againstjoint inflammationandrheumatism. principal ingredient of marmotointment,anatural whereas the oil obtained frommarmotfat is the past for its astringentantimicrobial properties, and medicine. For example,the edelweiss was used in the Symbolic species have beenwidelyused in traditional DID YOU KNOW ? the ESassessment. symbolic Alpinespeciesconsideredin The Alpineibexisoneofthe10highly

COMMENT of ahealthyecosystem. of the ecosystem, which are important features indicator relate to a higher species richness and diversity this of values High species. Alpine southwestern Alps are the richest in symbolic as the resulting map shows. The central and Most of these species live at high altitudes, in thewild(IUCN,n.d.). countries prohibits the picking of such species purposes. Now, legislation Alpine in many in the wild for ornamentalormedicinal and the gentian were all too frequently collected continuous threats: flowers like the edelweiss species too have beensubject to serious and Alpine peaks with these elusive creatures. Plant reintroduction programs have repopulated the Since then, ParadisoNationalPark. in Gran early 19th century, except for the population had alsobeeneradicatedfromthe Alps in the population from extinction. Alpine ibexes a reintroduction program savedthe local and in the province of Trentino, Italy,where extant breeding populations are inSlovenia which covered the entire the Alps. only Today, extirpated from most of its historic range, Space. The for example,has brown bear, been almost completely vanished from the Alpine of them are now threatened, and some have of the Alpine landscape. Nonetheless, many All these species are essential components pine species. and conifers like the European larch and several flowers like edelweiss, alpenrose andgentian, marmot. The plant species comprise symbolic of the most abundant mountain rodents, the one such eagle; and golden as brownbearand ibex and the chamois; charismatic predators, species animal include ungulates like the Alpine index of symbolic species richness. The selected polled bythe AlpES partners,to estimate an on the geographic range of 10 Alpine species, culture traditions. and This indicator is based that they have become a symbolof Alpine these species are so characteristic of the Alps endemic plant andanimalspecies. Many of hotspots in Europe and are home to many The Alps are one of the richest biodiversity

SUPPLY Symbolic Alpine plants and animals, landscapes Cultural Ecosystem Service CICES section [environmental settings] with biota,ecosystems, land-/seascapes and Spiritual, symbolic interactions other and CICES division Habitats ofsymbolic species(index) Definition plants. animals and Space, such asemblematic a symbolic value Alpine inthe of selected speciesthathave This indicator estimates range the Description 72-73 remedy againstjoint inflammationandrheumatism. principal ingredient of marmotointment,anatural whereas the oil obtained frommarmotfat is the past for its astringentantimicrobial properties, and medicine. For example,the edelweiss was used in the Symbolic species have beenwidelyused in traditional DID YOU KNOW ? the ESassessment. symbolic Alpinespeciesconsideredin The Alpineibexisoneofthe10highly

COMMENT of ahealthyecosystem. of the ecosystem, which are important features indicator relate to a higher species richness and diversity this of values High species. Alpine southwestern Alps are the richest in symbolic as the resulting map shows. The central and Most of these species live at high altitudes, in thewild(IUCN,n.d.). countries prohibits the picking of such species purposes. Now, legislation Alpine in many in the wild for ornamentalormedicinal and the gentian were all too frequently collected continuous threats: flowers like the edelweiss species too have beensubject to serious and Alpine peaks with these elusive creatures. Plant reintroduction programs have repopulated the Since then, ParadisoNationalPark. in Gran early 19th century, except for the population had alsobeeneradicatedfromthe Alps in the population from extinction. Alpine ibexes a reintroduction program savedthe local and in the province of Trentino, Italy,where extant breeding populations are inSlovenia which covered the entire the Alps. only Today, extirpated from most of its historic range, Space. The for example,has brown bear, been almost completely vanished from the Alpine of them are now threatened, and some have of the Alpine landscape. Nonetheless, many All these species are essential components pine species. and conifers like the European larch and several flowers like edelweiss, alpenrose andgentian, marmot. The plant species comprise symbolic of the most abundant mountain rodents, the one such eagle; and golden as brownbearand ibex and the chamois; charismatic predators, species animal include ungulates like the Alpine index of symbolic species richness. The selected polled bythe AlpES partners,to estimate an on the geographic range of 10 Alpine species, culture traditions. and This indicator is based that they have become a symbolof Alpine these species are so characteristic of the Alps endemic plant andanimalspecies. Many of hotspots in Europe and are home to many The Alps are one of the richest biodiversity

SUPPLY Symbolic Alpine plants and animals, landscapes View AlpESWebGIS this map inthe Habitats ofsymbolic species(index) > 0,64 0,49 -0,64 0,35 -0,48 0,23 -0,34 0,13 -0,22 0,05 -0,12 < 0,05 0 75 150 300 450 600 km 74-75 COMMENT South Tyrol. Figure 3.11 Number ofhotels holding symbolic species in their names in the central Alpine regions of Tyroland al., 2018). cases many the symbolic valueofananimalorplantcanpersist in case of extinction (Schirpke et a specific region or cultural identity, even in places where such species are not present. Indeed, in to their actual presence in the area, but rather that it is used to reaffirm the sense of belonging to In general,it seems that the representation of symbolicAlpinespecies is not so strongly correlated name occuronlysporadicallyoutsidethemainmountainrange. bottom municipalities Valley have fewer such hotels, and hotels with symbolic species in their scattered along the network ofhiking trails, providing refreshment and shelter to the visitors. are huts mountain Here, Alps. central the in municipalities tourism-prone of many for common at this it map, becomes clear that the habit of naminghotels after symbolic species is particularly basis on anexemplary for the Alpine regions of TyrolandSouth Tyrol (Fig. 3.20). When looking mapped was indicator this map, pan-Alpine a create to scarce too was pool data the as However, facilities whichhadsymbolicAlpineplantsoranimalsintheirnames. automatic routines to scrape online databases (e.g. booking sites) to find alltourist accommodation the symbolic valueof Alpine species. For its calculation, we searched the official registries and used of hotels, guesthouses, restaurants and the like. The flow indicator evaluates this specific usage of rooted these species are in Alpine identities. Symbolic species are also well represented in the names represented on the backside of the two-cent . These examples reflect how deeply on logosofAlpineassociations and inthe coat of armsmunicipalities. The edelweiss is even have becomepartofthe cultural heritage of localcommunities. They appearontraditionaldresses, Iconic animal and plant species are not only important components of the Alpine ecosystem; they < 7 7 5 -6 4 3 2 > 2 Occurrence inhotel (numberofhotels) names di Bolzano/Bozen Tirol Autonoma Provincia

FLOW Symbolic Alpine plants and animals, landscapes Cultural Ecosystem Service CICES section [environmental settings] with biota,ecosystems, land-/seascapes and Spiritual, symbolic interactions other and CICES division Occurrence inhotel (nr. names of hotels) Definition per municipality. symbolic names speciesintheir numberofhotelsthe holding representsanimals, landscapes” plantsand “Symbolic Alpine flowThe indicator ES for the Description 76-77 COMMENT useful foracomparisonbetweenthedistributionsofESdemandwithitssupplyandflow. the different format of measurement and the absence of an indicator map, these findings will be be published by Seppi et al. and Rüdisser, Schirpke, Rampl & Tappeiner(inpreparation). Despite likely will but processing, in still are questionnaire the of results The characteristics. demographic context of respondents,such as residence, birthplace, as well as personal, cultural and socio- personal the considering discussed and analysed are Answers [CES]). services ecosystem cultural have the strongest symbolic character, in which and context they are used (e.g. outdoor activities, plants and landscapes they consider to be symbolic for the Alpine Space, which landscape elements than 500 respondents in all project partners’ countries. Participants were asked which animals, questionnaire. However, This online survey about perception and preferences for symbolic ES. entities had more this for appropriate not was the characteristics for of symbolic demand Alpine entities were assessed through a multilingual demand the mapping spatially setting. environmental reasons, the these in presence For their require necessarily not do and systems natural in and therefore not easy to assess. Their and use demand are often detached from their occurrence The importance and valueofsymbolic Alpine animals, plants and landscapes are highly subjective

DEMAND Symbolic Alpine plants and animals, landscapes Cultural Ecosystem Service CICES section [environmental settings] with biota,ecosystems, land-/seascapes and Spiritual, symbolic interactions other and CICES division Desired symbolic landscapes speciesand Definition nature symbolic their and use. between occurrence the ofentitiesin linkages the and emblems, etc.), different fieldsofapplication(tourism, speciesortypes),certain its its characteristics (e.g. preferences for bylandscapes society. Thisincludes plants,animalsand of Alpine symbolic emblematicuse and A questionnaire isusedto assess Description 78-79 Conclusions osqecs Ti i epcal rlvn in relevant especially is This consequences. changes and act proactively to manage their indicators are useful tools to interpret these and climatic changes at fast a markedly pace. ES experiencing societal, economic, environmental we more importantthan are ever. Indeed, performance metrics. Their use is now processes and canprovidethem with policy in understanding trends in complex ecological Mapping ES indicators aids decision-makers Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity). MAES initiative and the TEEB studies (The such as the Biodiversity Strategy to 2020, the important European directives and programs, the past decades, as proven byits inclusion in widely accepted and has gained momentum in ecosystem services concept. This concept is integrate it into ourdecision-making is the best ways to expand this understanding and natural systems around us. Perhaps one ofthe understand just how much we rely on the society, As we arebeginningto a global opportunities to managersandpolicy-makers. which or overlooked, could open up new services and benefits that are currently unused and assessing ES can also serve to shed light on their Alps and surrounding regions. Mapping are putting strain on the natural of the populations cities in many of the AlpineSpace bourgeoning agricultural exploitation and land flow, tourism high However, sources. external without local demand needing todrawupon a numberofservices at a levelthat meets the Alpine ecosystems are capable of supplying subject. In general, our results show that the and the human pressure to which they are estimate theresources andpotentialoftheAlps The maps provide detailed information to which Alpine Space communities benefit. overview of the state of some of the ES from Assessment” workpackage offeracomprehensive The results of the AlpES “Mapping and severely impactedbysuchchanges. areas like the Alpine Space,which can be more for CO the Flow & SupplyandDemandindicators strategists could evaluate the differences in upon this information. International carbon protection forest mitigation solutions based protection forests invest in relativelycheap and the difference between flow and demand for examine might Hallstatt in managers resource results in the WebGIS. Forexample,natural to those managers who explore the AlpES Many finer-scale insights are also available Furthermore, as much research has thus far state of ES would bea to major boon managers. state of ES; scientifically sound forecasts of the modelling of projected changes and trends in the Future opportunities in this field include the outcomes thisresourcecaninform. surface of the tangible policy and management beginning; we have barely begun to scratch the information presentedinthis report is only the international plans for . The information in the development of regional or 2 eusrto, n icroae this incorporate and Sequestration, ecosystem services. sustainable use and effective management of approach for the dynamic protection, we cancontinue to buildatransnational training of stakeholders. From this foundation, well as a frameworkforthe and involvement ES in the European Alps regions, and nearbyas to andunderstandingof deepen ourknowledge The AlpES project offers a sound starting point all ES,i.e.theirtrade-offsandsynergies. important to analyse the relationships between purposes, it making andmanagement is critically different ES areinterconnected. For decision- future studies should aim to investigate how focussed on single ES supplied an ecosystem, by 80-81 Agency, . Europe: Enhancing CoherenceoftheKnowledgeBase, PoliciesandPractice.European Environment European EnvironmentAgency(EEA) (2017).Climatechangeadaptationanddisasterriskreduction in eea.europa.eu/signals/signals-2010/alps. Accessed15May2018. 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Graphic design: Rachele Carloni Language editing: Samuel Williams

AlpES project partners:

Eurac Research (IT) | Lead Partner University of Innsbruck (AT) Institute for Interdisciplinary Mountain Research - Austrian (AT) Centre For Studies and Expertise­ on Risks, Environment, Mobility, and Urban and Country planning - CEREMA (FR) Safe Mountain Foundation (IT) Veneto Region (IT) Region (IT) Institute of the of Slovenia for nature conservation (SI) Principality of Liechtenstein, Office of Environment­ (LI) Institute for Environmental Planning and Spatial Development - ifuplan (DE)