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VOICES Staff
Editor-in-Chief Alicia Johnson ‘11
Managing Editor Hilary Flowers ‘10
Editorial Staff Lizzie Jekanowski ‘13 Laurel Manlow ‘10 Elizabeth Olson ‘10 Kaelan Sullivan ‘10
Layout design by Hilary Flowers
The information provided by our contributors is not independently verified by Voices. The materials presented represent the personal opinions of the individual authors and do not necessarily represent the views of Voices, the Women’s and Gender Studies Program,or the Boston College community.
Voices, Academic Journal of the Women’s and Gender Studies Program, Volume 1, Spring 2010
The Women’s and Gender Studies Program of Boston College Sharlene Hesse-Biber, Director and Professor of Sociology Sara Calvert-Kubrom, Assistant to the Director
We would like to thank Dean David Quigley and the College of Arts and Sciences for the financial support that made this publication possible.
Women’s and Gender Studies Program Carney 405 140 Commonwealth Avenue Chestnut Hill, MA 02467
Letter from the Editor
As Editor-in-Chief, I am proud to present to you Volume 1 of Voices, the Academic Journal of the Women’s and Gender Studies Program of Boston College. With a new name for our program comes a greater inclusion of the many topics – including literature, GLBTQ studies, race, history, and politics – discussed in and salient to our classes, research and lives. The goals of Voices are to give voice to Boston College students who have given serious attention to topics related to women’s and gender studies, provide a forum for the Boston College community to engage with these issues, and celebrate the interdisciplinary connections that gender studies can create. Over the past year, I have had been honored to lead this publication: recruiting and working with a talented group of editors, collecting and reviewing over twenty submissions of high quality papers, and working with dedicated authors to develop a collection of papers I am proud to publish in Voices. Emma Staffaroni’s paper begins this volume with a call for the contemporary feminists to use new media to counter widespread feminismphobia; as we see from the title of her paper, “This Movement’s Gotta Move.” In “Nationalism and Masculinity in South Korean Cinema,” Alyssa Hughes provides an in- depth analysis of one segment of media that has perpetuated gender constructs in Korean culture. Colleen Maher’s “Unanswered Questions,” Stephanie Keller’s “The Islamic Feminism Question,” and Rachel Siebert’s “The LBQ Peer Support Group at a Catholic University” look at issues related to sexuality and feminism within religious contexts. Voices has a special focus on activism in this issue, recognizing the importance of applying our knowledge to the world around us, of not only acknowledging and researching but taking action to improve the lives of ourselves and others. We hope that this journal can provide you with the inspiration and at least some of the tools necessary to take that action and promote social justice. I am indebted to the guidance and support of Professor Sharlene Hesse-Biber, Director of the Women’s and Gender Studies Program, for making this publication possible. I would also like to thank Natalie Horbachevsky (BC ’09) for having the vision to move Voices from its former existence as a newsletter to an academic journal, as it was published in Spring 2009. This issue provides just a glimpse into the meaningful academic contributions of Boston College students. I hope the vision and hard work of the editorial board and the Women’s and Gender Studies Program will come through in this issue, which we see as a launching ground for a long future for Voices. I especially hope that these papers will inspire you to learn more and respond to gender inequalities and other forms on injustice in our communities and beyond.
Sincerely, Alicia Johnson Editor-in-Chief 4
VOICES
Academic Journal of the Women’s and Gender Studies Program of Boston College
Volume 1, Spring 2010 5
Table of Contents
“This Movement’s Gotta Move” Countering Feminismphobia with New Media and Progressive Thought 6 Emma Staffaroni Nationalism and Masculinity in South Korean Cinema 13 Im Kwon-Taek’s Sopyonje and The Taebaek Mountains Alyssa Hughes
Unanswered Questions Buddhism and Homosexuality 19 Colleen Maher The Islamic Feminism Question Feminisms in Iran 27 Stephanie Keller The Lesbian, Bisexual and Questioning Peer Support Group at a Catholic University 39 Rachel Siebert 6
“This Movement’s Gotta Move” Countering Feminismphobia with New Media and Progressive Thought
Emma Staffaroni Lynch School of Education 2010 English, Secondary Education
On October 26, 2009 at Boston College, accessible, interactive, and global way than ever the campus hosted a panel discussion featuring before. The experience of hearing them speak two feminist writers from the blog Feministing. at BC was formative and inspiring not only in a com. This paper was inspired by their panel, deeply personal way, but also in an urgent one, which took place on a campus that has a lot of because these women and their fellow bloggers anxiety about that seemingly outdated “f-word,” are the role models of young feminism that feminism. Courtney Martin and Miriam Pérez women of my generation lack. “This movement’s sat before us as the embodiment of the feminist gotta move,” Pérez stated matter-of-factly, activist movement of right now and of new media and her point is multi-faceted; not only does and young intellect. “Feministing upholds the feminism benefit from new media that “moves” idea of intersectionality,” Martin began, “or the information in completely new and exciting intersections of gender, race, class, ability, and ways, but the “f-word” must also continue to sexuality in the world.” Their blog, one of the move forward and allow itself to shift and mold most beloved feminist blogs on the internet and into what our generation needs it to be. This may home to 500,000 distinct readers per month, be the solution to our culture’s feminismphobia, redefines consciousness-raising in a more our collective fear of the word and its nebulous
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connotations. that becoming a part of a movement and defining Indeed, both of the Feministing writers our identities can come from “superficial” places admitted that trying on that “feminist” label for like thinking something is “cool”—“Identity size was a challenging process. Martin described movements are attached to aesthetics,” she stated her rebellion against her parents’ “hippie shamelessly. We need to relate to a movement feminism,” and particularly her mother’s weekly in order to truly and passionately support it and consciousness-raising groups. “Somehow I be a part of it. The non-superficial reality—the ended up at an all-women’s college, even though important activism—comes about only after this I was so adamantly ‘not a feminist,’” she joked. crucial recruitment. Secretly though, as a woman with strong opinions This message about aesthetics is arguably and political statements to make, she sought more relevant than ever in today’s society. a group of like-minded, politically concerned The nature of visual media and marketing, the individuals. She hoped that her all-women’s “raunch culture” that Ariel Levy (2006) so aptly school would provide that for her, but yet again captures in her book, Female Chauvinist Pigs, she met a culture resisting the “feminist” label and the subsequent internalized self-image and desperately trying to prove the opposite— problems we face as a culture are all facets of “We’re not feminists, I promise, we’re cool!” a worldview demanding imagery. From my Martin did, however, start to realize that perspective studying in the field of education, I many of her passions around social justice can attest that teachers grapple with this same did directly intersect with feminist issues. challenge; indeed, it no longer suffices to assume “The answers to all of my students will absorb a lecture. questions, lo and behold, Instead, they require and were in the same feminist The “f-word” must benefit from visuals. They books that were sitting on also continue to will learn faster and more my mother’s bookshelf all move forward and comprehensively with multi- along,” she said. Her official allow itself to shift media, PowerPoint, and conversion to the “feminist” and mold into what critical images supporting identity came when Jennifer the content of a lesson. our generation Baumgardner and Amy Martin may have identified Richards, feminist authors needs it to be. a powerful reason why and thinkers, visited her feminism is losing its footing school and spoke. “Jennifer with the young people of the was wearing fishnet tights, and Amy Richards was 2000s. The source of fear around the feminist soooo cool,” Martin recounted. Her message was label is visibility, which Martin asserts we need
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to pursue in an aesthetically appealing way; didn’t want to be her, and I didn’t want to have that is, we need to show women that feminism sex with her, so I figured I was not a lesbian.” is not an outdated term used exclusively by Our popular media and mainstream culture lack older, privileged white women to describe a the visible models of different gender identities movement for “equality,” nor is it only used by and sexualities. Pérez explained that she found unshaven man-haters who scowl and complain. the identification “queer” when she began to Feminism is a physical space and a vocabulary, understand that she needed a community that an opportunity for widespread empowerment does not dichotomize or separate the genders, of all disenfranchised and under-represented but rather embraces a range of fluid and ever- communities and voices. What could be more expanding identities. appealing and powerful than diverse dialogue, “Gender identity is shifting and changing,” open and critical questioning, and new media Pérez asserted. This, she emphasized, is the face interaction, all holding accountable the outdated of new feminism: a worldview that goes beyond juggernaut-monoliths with gray-haired white the rhetoric of equality between the sexes— men for maestros? “which ends up as a ‘separate but equal’ kind of Pérez’s story of identifying with feminism conversation,” she noted. By changing the way resembled Martin’s, though at its roots it asked we view gender, we can change the way we affect different questions in search of different answers. activism and public policy. More specifically, Frustrated from a young age with the purportedly and perhaps more radically, this model and “inherent” and polarized differences between message could expand our rigid definition of the so-called opposite genders, Pérez spent female sexuality. much of her youth asking the questions no one These two articulate women want to save in Cuban Miami wanted to hear: “Why is it like the feminist movement for the sake of dire this? Why do men and women have to be seen gendered issues such as the recognition of gender as so opposite and distinct? Why am I confined identity as a fluid concept. To use Audre Lorde’s to this role?” During boy-crazy adolescence, she (1984) metaphor from her pioneering essay, felt misplaced and unsatisfied. “The thing was, I “The Master’s Tools Will Never Dismantle the had no images of anything but what my friends Master’s House,” I ask: What kinds of structures and family did, which was to organize their lives of power, perhaps earlier unscratched, will these around finding a heterosexual life partner, and new media tools be able to dismantle? Can we see to fantasize about getting married and having new media as a space separate from patriarchal babies,” she said, echoing Martin’s view that institution, and therefore as a way to demolish role model imagery is crucial to identity growth. the master’s house from a striking new angle? “The only lesbian I knew was Ellen Degeneres. I Martin’s and Perez’s commentaries
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Levy’s (2006) work in Female Chauvinist Pigs, We need to show Tolman’s study of adolescent girls revealed women that feminism the challenge of growing up in the midst of the is not an outdated raunchy “porno-ization of the culture.” These all-too-current and pervasive issues make for term used exclusively the kind of double-bind surrounding gender that by older, privileged women from an earlier age of feminism did not white women… address in their edicts and declarations. Today’s Feminism is a double standard demands women be both sexy physical space and and virginal, acting as both wild animals and a vocabulary, tamed domestics. Certainly there is space to an opportunity for embody either extreme. But at one end, we face widespread censure from male counterparts; at the other, empowerment of all we face the same humiliation from our fellow woman. Thus, doubly disdained, we are left in a disenfranchised and sexual vacuum. under-represented The problem is compounded when women communities themselves contribute to an impossible standard and voices. of social performance. More than likely, this moral standard stems from first- and second- hearken back to the work of many contemporary wave liberal feminist ideology, asserting that theorists who write about today’s young woman women are human first, and female second. and her contentious relationship with not only Cognizant of this tradition or not, women inherit gender roles, but also the feminist movement. a franchise that grants us opportunities to join I see a powerful link between Perez’s notion of the system of power. Our destinies are not polarized gender standards and the widespread biologically determined, like those of our sisters disempowerment of women in the realm of of old. Yet faced with a discourse of “hotness” sexual desire. It is a fundamental absence of and compulsory sex appeal, women starve their certain images and models of sexuality that intellects and block out their self-actualities for prevents young girls from finding an honest, the sake of looking, being understood as, and safe, and acceptable form of erotic expression. always feeling “sexy.” Any attempt to preach the Deborah Tolman (1994) explored and challenged old dogma of feminist philosophy is sure to be the socially constructed nature of sexuality in met with either sympathetic smiles or anxious her study, “Doing Desire.” In conjunction with avoidance. People associate feminism with
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images of old women voting and housewives unpack the nature of intimate sexual relationships burning bras; but at least these feminists knew shaped and informed by this “sexual liberation” they were oppressed. Why have we become (read: hegemonic sexual exploitation). “Doing blind to double standards and engaged in the Desire” (Tolman, 1994) presented a qualitative degrading and raunchy objectification of women analysis of the disembodied desire that young through phenomena like Girls Gone Wild, girls experience vis à vis their burgeoning sexual Playboy bunny-hood, cosmetic surgery, and relationships and encounters. Throughout her excessive dieting and exercise? Why do it when interviews with adolescent young women, Tolman we know we are made of so much more? observed patterns of girls learning to “look at” Levy attempts to answer these questions, rather than “experience” themselves; they were explaining the ways in which we have morphed learning to know themselves physically and into female chauvinist pigs, lusting for a false sexually from the perspective of men, thus losing idea of the female body. We have become the touch with their own bodily feelings and desires. very thing our feminist ancestors scorned in their This disconnect has always been a symptom of male peers. Worse, Levy attributes this hyper- patriarchy, as Virginia Woolf (1957) poeticized sexualization standard to the liberal feminist in A Room of One’s Own: “Women have served ideals of yesterday. “Women in America don’t all these centuries as looking glasses possessing want to be excluded from anything anymore,” she the magic and delicious power of reflecting the writes, “not the board meeting or the cigar that figure of man at twice its natural size” (p. 35). follows it or, lately, even the trip to the strip club This vivid image of Woman as empty vessel to that follows that” (Levy, 2006, p. 35). Performing be projected upon by men is a chilling one, and it and internalizing those male activities have absolutely applies to much of intimate sexuality served as a source of empowerment for women today. in the past; we fought long and hard for respect Young girls are socialized to become and dignity in historically male forums. But Levy these mirrors, Tolman (1994) argues, by shows how, in some ways, this liberal feminist internalizing discourses about their bodies and mindset has morphed into self-imposed body sexualities. Taught from a young age to control objectification. Or rather, she sees that the values their sexuality, women understand that by of liberal feminism—the “anything you can do, I expressing desire, they risk a series of cultural can do” equality talk—have made for a twisted indictments: degraded reputation in the eyes form of competition to do, be, and objectify the of their peers and communities, contraction way men do and have historically. If men get to of disease, potential pregnancy, and violence. be chauvinist pigs, women do too, and they’ll do Matched with this ideology of fear is the cut- it well. and-dry solution (presented by media, religion, The issue gets murky when we begin to some sexual education, and cultural authorities
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in general) to abstain from sex until you are a gotta move. Unfortunately, those who pick up member of a heterosexual, monogamous, and a peer-reviewed journal article like Tolman’s, preferably married relationship. Without any or even those who sign up for a Women’s space or “cultural script” for sexual feelings or Studies course, are likely already members of experimentation, women learn instead to react the feminist choir and not feminism-phobic. to the sexuality that men overtly express and Perhaps the sexy silhouette pictured on the enact—desire that is condoned and essentialized cover of Levy’s book has caught a few “agnostic” for their gender. Our sexualities thus become eyes. But it is the progressive space of the blog entrenched not only in a compulsory search that carries the potential to dismantle out-dated for the “safety” of heterosexual monogamy, but views of feminism and propose exciting new also in a mode of experiencing sex that does not perspectives on being a woman in the world. The encourage the body to feel for itself. cozy webpage is a new forum of consciousness- Tolman’s (1994) psychological analysis raising, a space accessible by all discourses and of why “teenage girls need an erotic education” experiences, across geography and society. There also speaks to this tragic lack of diverse role is nothing dusty or out-dated about feminism’s models for young feminists. Demoted to a status original consciousness-raising methodology: of “sub-” or “counter-culture” in the past two face-to-face, safe, caring, candid human sharing decades, feminism as a movement needs visual of life experiences to dialogue about change. But aids—real models of equality and truth-seeking it is time to envision us stepping away from the who stand not in front of the patriarch as his mirror, the one-way conversation dominated by mirror, but rather within a community of like- patriarchy, and stepping toward the “diablog” of minded and validating feminist-activist figures. the young feminist movement. An erotic education cannot look like the raunch culture Levy’s book describes; instead it must provide images of sexual desire and sexual References relationships that promote balanced power, Levy, A. (2006). Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women mutual respect, and agency. Teenage girls need and the rise of raunch culture. New York: Simon & an erotic education and it must be part of a larger Schuster. Lorde, A. (1984). Sister Outsider. Berkeley: Crossing feminist education, one that speaks not from a Press, 110-114. dusty place on Courtney Martin’s mom’s book Tolman, D. L. (1994) Doing Gender. Gender & Society, shelf, but from a very real, very accessible place 8(3), 324-342. for people of all lifestyles and situations. Woolf, V. (1957). A Room of One’s Own. Orlando, FL: Feminism has long been about discussion Harcourt of the personal as political, like Tolman and Levy so successfully achieve—but this movement’s
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Interested in learning more about feminism and new media?
www.feministing.com Feministing, featured in the article, is the most popular feminist blog on the internet and is written by and for young feminists.
www.feminist.com This website has a variety of new media resources for feminists young and old, including a directory of women-owned businesses, anti-violence information, and interviews with inspiring feminist activists.
www.womenactionmedia.org Women, Action, and the Media’s website is an outlet that works to build a movement for gender justice in media. Contact them to get involved with their active listserv, events, chapters, and other resources.
Ready to be a feminist activist at Boston College?
www.bc.edu/wrc The Women’s Resource Center is a great place to start. Located in McElroy 141, the WRC is a safe space for all students, faculty, and staff at Boston College, holds weekly support groups, and organizes campus wide events.
VOICES Spring 2010 13
Nationalism and Masculinity in South Korean Cinema Im Kwon-Taek’s Sopyonje and The Taebaek Mountains
Alyssa Hughes College of Arts and Sciences 2011 History, Secondary Education
“Im’s field of dreams was not the future but the administration, and continues to be a shaping nostalgic past, a premodern universe where force of what critics call New Korean Cinema. the values of tradition, nation and family The movement supporting New Korean Cinema remained intact and united--however illusory that “seek[s] to realize cultural democracy in and fictitious this universe might be.” Korea by searching for a new national identity (James & Kim, 2002, p. 7) and the autonomy of film-making from political control” began in the mid-1990s (Shin & Since his debut with Farewell to the Duman Stringer, 2005, p. 67). The status of Im’s films as River in 1962, South Korean film director Im representative of a South Korean national identity Kwon-taek has directed one hundred films over designates his films as ideal sites of study for the nearly five decades (Rayns & Field, 1996, p. 24). examination of the construction of masculinity His extensive career is reflective of the dynamic in modern South Korea. This paper will analyze social and political changes that occurred in the construction of masculinity in two Im Kwon- South Korea from the 1960s-1990s. Im Kwon- Taek films from the 1990s: Sopyonje (1993) and Taek’s career is unique: it began in the Golden The Taebaek Mountains (1994) and discuss Age of Korean Cinema, endured the stringent how the two works legitimize the formulation of self-promotional demands of the Park Chung Hee South Korean national identity as connected to
Masculinity in South Korean Cinema 14
hegemonic masculinity. critics and the public cited Im’s effective portrayal Im’s Sopyonje features a family of p’ansori of han, a Korean concept of collective suffering artists, practitioners of a genre of nineteenth and oppression, through the use of long takes century Korean vocal and percussional music, and long shots, filming techniques that depart performed by one singer and one drummer. from conventional Western cinematography The family travels the Korean countryside in an (Kim, 2004, p. 2). In her analysis of Sopyonje, attempt to preserve p’ansori in light of growing Chungmoo Choi (2002) argued that the film American cultural imperialism in South Korea. endeavors to “sublimate the national han by Yu-bong, the family head, is convinced that one recuperating a precolonial, aesthetic means day p’ansori will take its place as the supreme of communication, p’ansori, as it highlights art form in Korea, prevailing over the popular the han of a victimized woman who bears the Japanese enka and Western instruments and burden of reclaiming national identity” (p. song. Yu-bong’s conviction inspires him to train 116). In his mutilation of Song-hwa’s body, the his adopted children, Tong-ho and Song-hwa, in character Yu-bong exemplifies the construction p’ansori, despite the art form’s declining stature of masculinity in postcolonial Korea. Traditional and the family’s growing destitution. As the males were judged as being incapable of both children reach adolescence, a conflict between modernizing their nation and challenging the Tong-ho and Yu-bong emerges and Tong-ho, rule of the colonial master (Choi, 2002, p. 116). angered by Yu-bong’s uncompromising faith in Yu-bong suffers from the postcolonial disorder p’ansori’s preeminence and its consequence of of emasculation and ventures to reclaim this lost the family’s poverty, denounces Yu-bong and masculinity by administering violence towards runs away. Song-hwa, the child demonstrating Song-hwa, “the only domain where a fully greater potential for the mastering of p’ansori, repressed and marginalized man like Yu-bong remains with Yu-bong, though the departure can unleash his power” (Kim, 2004, p. 4). Choi of Tong-ho leaves her heartbroken. Sopyonje equates Yu-bong’s exploitation of Song-hwa’s follows the narrative of the adult Tong-ho as he body for the sake of p’ansori to the exploitation searches for his lost sister Song-hwa. In Tong- of the Korean people and landscape, which is ho’s attempt to reconcile his past, he learns romanticized in the scenery of Sopyonje, by that the now-deceased Yu-bong blinded and South Korea’s rapid industrialization. abused Song-hwa so that she would undergo the Though Im’s film is a critique of South suffering he considered crucial to the perfection Korea’s post-colonial construction of national of her art. identity through the construction of the feminine Sopyonje opened in 1993 to an Other, Sopyonje ultimately upholds patriarchal unprecedented domestic reception and ideology. At the conclusion of the film, Yu-bong international critical acclaim. Both domestic film is not capable of recovering his patriarchal
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power—he can neither provide for his family nor The film concerns Tong-ho’s subjectivity and assert his matrilineal power to prevent Tong- the characters are ultimately relieved of their ho’s defiance. A poignant example of Yu-bong’s suffering by Tong-ho’s actions to rectify his failure to repossess his masculine authority is father’s violence (and thus his nation’s history). the scene where a neighbor beats Yu-bong upon Sopyonje maintains that subjectivity is reserved discovering that he stole a chicken from him in for men; the salient task of reconciling a nation’s order to feed Song-hwa. Yu-bong’s death in the violent past is “a struggle that is exercised only forlorn shack which he and Song-hwa occupied in the domain of men” (Kim, 2004, p. 6). The for the bitter Korean winter film’s message ultimately months can be understood reinforces patriarchal as a critique of the retrieval Though Im’s film is gender relations and Im of patriarchal power through a critique of South Kwon-taek’s status as the creation and exploitation Korea’s post-colonial South Korea’s preeminent of the feminine Other, in construction of filmmaker effectively this case, Song-hwa. The national identity constructs national South portrayal of Yu-bong’s through the Korean masculinity as death in Sopyonje, however, essentially patriarchal. cannot fully be accepted construction of the As in Sopyonje, as a condemnation of Yu- feminine Other, reconciliation of the bong’s attempt to assert his Sopyonje ultimately nation’s violent past in masculine authority through upholds patriarchal The Taebaek Mountains is the mutilation of Song- ideology. considered to be the task of hwa, because ultimately the the nationalist man, in this audience, as well as Song- film the protagonist Kim hwa, is sympathetic to Yu-bong’s fate (Kim, Pom-u. The Taebaek Mountains is based on 2004, p. 5). Furthermore, Yu-bong’s failure to the 1948 Yosu-Sunchon Rebellion and depicts assert his patriarchal power can be tied to his the ideological struggles that tormented the lack of legitimacy as a traditional patriarch: he province with violence in the years leading up to is not the paternal father of Tong-ho and Song- the Korean War. Im personifies this ideological hwa. conflict by focusing on the masculinities of two Im Kwon-Taek’s focus on Tong-ho’s brothers, the elder Yom Sang-jin, leader of the narrative ultimately constructs national South communist partisan militia, and the younger Korean masculinity as patriarchal. Sopyonje is Yom Sang-gu, commander of the radical right framed around Tong-ho’s search to reconcile wing Anticommunist Youth League. Throughout his past by reuniting with his sister Song-hwa. the film, Yom Sang-gu leads brutal and violent
Masculinity in South Korean Cinema 16
raids on the townspeople, legitimizing his communist agenda but by her courageous actions by labeling the villagers as communist protection of her husband’s public ideology and sympathizers. Yom Sang-gu’s rape of Oesodaek, her private body against Lim’s threat” (Kim, the wife of Kang Tong-gi, a member of Yom Sang- 2002, p. 209). In aggressively protecting her body jin’s partisan army, epitomizes his brutality. Yom from Lim’s attack, Chuksandaek demonstrates Sang-gu’s acts of violence and rape are products her adherence to the traditional notion of Korean of his feeling of inferiority towards other men, femininity that emphasizes chastity as a woman’s especially his older brother. In one scene, Yom greatest virtue. The nature of Oesodaek’s Sang-gu confesses his jealousy towards Yom victimization, however, departs too much from Sang-jin to his mother. The family could only this national discourse of femininity. There is no afford to pay for one son to attend college and possibility for her to absolve the impurity of her allotted the privilege to Yom Sang-jin, the eldest body, which is adulterated by Sang-gu’s desire to son, forcing the younger Sang-gu to drop out fulfill his masculine authority. In the final scenes of elementary school. Fears concerning the of The Taebaek Mountains, Oeseodaek commits inadequacy of his masculinity as the younger and suicide. uneducated son drive Yom Sang-gu’s campaign Im Kwon-Taek’s fundamental message in of terror and violence as commander of the The Taebaek Mountains concerns his reverence Anticommunist Youth League. for the harmonious family unit, specifically In contrast to Im’s focus on Yom Sang- families headed by a present male authority. In gu’s subjective experiences, the women of The one scene, an anguished woman and her young Taebaek Mountains are son approach their neighbor limited to traditional notions and her children. The former of femininity. Chuksandaek, Although Im has woman angrily accuses the wife of Yom Sang-jin, historically shown the latter of charging her seemingly departs from the sensitivity to the husband as a communist, characteristic behavior of treatment of women’s essentially condemning him passive femininity when she issues in his work, to death by the hands of the bites the ear of her right- Sopyonje and The Anticommunist league. As wing Anticommunist League the two depart, the mother Taebaek Mountains interrogator, Lim. Yet, as tells her child, “You will have Kyung Hyun Kim elucidates each reassert the a hard life because you have in his analysis of The Taebaek importance of the no father.” Her statement Mountains, “Chuksandaek’s traditional Confucian is illustrative of Im Kwon- resistance is not motivated family roles. Taek’s sense of the suffering by a desire to defend her for a number of families such
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as those represented in The Taebaek Mountains. Film director Im Kwon-Taek’s status as For example, Kang Tong-gi’s membership in a renowned national figure in Korean Cinema the communist partisan army leaves his wife and his pursuit in the creation of a national Osaedaek and child vulnerable to Yom Sang-gu’s identity through revival of traditional culture violence. The Yom family suffers from an absent and family merit an analysis of his work when patriarch as well; the death of Yom Sang-gu and considering gender relations in modern Korea. Yom Sang-jin’s father leaves their mother as a The construction of masculinity in two of Im’s sole intermediary force in a fractured family. At later films, Sopyonje (1993) and The Taebaek the end of the film, both Yom Sang-jin and Yom Mountains (1994), has been discussed here Sang-gu are alienated from their family and to determine what gender conventions are natal home. produced on screen as related to South Korean The film’s protagonist, Kim Pom-u, is national identity. Although Im has historically representative of Im Kwon-Taek’s solution to the shown sensitivity to the treatment of women’s ideological struggles of terror and violence. Kim issues in his work, Sopyonje and The Taebaek Pom-u is unique from most of the characters in Mountains each reassert the importance of the The Taebaek Mountains in that he subscribes traditional Confucian family roles and attest neither to communist ideology nor to the that the reconciliation of the nation’s past practices of the radical right wing. Kim Pom-u suffering will be enacted by the male patriarch. offers an alternative to the tenets held by the Furthermore, in Sopyonje and The Taebaek radical Yom brothers and his promulgation of Mountains, the importance of the male patriarch humanism and liberal nationalism stem from in the maintenance of harmonious traditional his filial relationship with his father and the families under the tenets of liberal nationalism stability of his home rather than a particular and humanism portray the future of Korea. This ideology. The violence suffered by families with future will be determined by men—the male absent patriarchs in The Taebaek Mountains is patriarch will ultimately reconcile and absolve indicative of Im Kwon-Taek’s mourning of the the suffering of Korea’s modern history. In the deterioration of the traditional Confucian family. words of Kyung Hyun Kim: “Instead of fighting The harmonious family structure can only be against the Confucian virtues, [Im Kwon-Taek] restored by the presence of a patriarchal father. refined and sentimentalized them, conjuring Kim Pom-u represents Im Kwon-Taek’s hope up exhaustive images of contaminated women for Korea’s future and further illustrates Im’s to symbolize a victimized nation in the midst imagined nation as one “guided by phallocentric of the ongoing process of modernization and liberalism, where the harmonious, traditional globalization” (Kim, 2002, p. 37). Considering universe of the prewar period can be restored” the cultural weight of Im Kwon-Taek’s work in (Kim, 2002, p. 216). the construction of a Korean national identity, it
Masculinity in South Korean Cinema 18
is beneficial to examine his films’ legitimization Arts. of hegemonic masculinity as part of South Shin, C. & Stringer, J. (Eds.). (2005). New Korean Cinema. Korean national identity. Edinburgh University Press. Tae-won, L. (Producer), & Kwon-Taek, I. (Director). (1993). Sopyonje [Motion picture]. South Korea: Taehung Pictures. References Tae-won, L. (Producer), & Kwon-Taek, I. (Director). Bowyer, J. (Ed.). (2004). The Cinema of Japan and Korea. (1994). The Taebaek Mountains [Motion picture]. South London: Wallflower Press. Korea: Taehung Pictures Choi, C. (1998). Nationalism and the Construction of Gender in Korea. In E. Kim & C. Choi (Eds.) Dangerous Women: Gender and Korean Nationalism. Routledge. Choi, C. (2002). The Politics of Gender, Aestheticism, and Want more context to better understand Cultural Nationalism in Sopyonje and The Genealogy. the role of gender in Korean films? In D. E. James & K. H. Kim (Eds.) Im Kwon-Taek: The Making of a Korean National Cinema. Detroit: Wayne www.koreanfilm.or.kr State University Press. The Korean Film Council is a body founded in Flubacher-Rhim, A. (1998). “Reflections in a Mirror.” order to improve the quality of Korean films and Cinemaya: the Asian Film Quarterly, 42, 45-52. to promote the Korean film industry. James, D. E., & Kim, K. H. (Eds.). (2002). Im Kwon- Want to learn more gender equality in Taek: The Making of a Korean National Cinema. Detroit: Korea? Wayne State University Press. Kim, K. H. (2002). Is This How War is Remembered? english.mogef.go.kr Deceptive Sex and the Re-Masculinized Nation in The The Ministry of Gender Equality and Family Taebaek Mountains. In D. E. James & K. H. Kim (Eds.), Im operates as a governmental body seeking to Kwon-Taek: The Making of a Korean National Cinema. promote women’s rights and enhance the Detroit: Wayne State University Press. position of women in Korean society. Kim, K. H. (2004). The Remasculinization of Korean www.kigepe.or.kr/usr/eng/sub01/intro.asp Cinema. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. The Korean Institute for Gender Equality Kwon-Taek, I. (Director). (2000). Chunhyangdyon Promotion and Education is an organization [Motion picture]. South Korea: CJ Entertainment. working for gender equity through policy Lee, H. (2000). Contemporary Korean Cinema: Identity, advocacy and education organization. Culture and Politics. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Interested in a global perspective on the status of gender equality? Lent, J. (1995, winter). Lousy Films had to Come First: Interview with Im Kwon-Taek. Asian Cinema, 7(2), 86- www.un.org/womenwatch 92. The United Nations Inter-Agency Network on Rayns, T., & Field, S. (Ed.). (1996). Seoul Stirring: Five Women and Gender Equality provides resources Korean Directors. London: Institute of Contemporary regarding the status of women across the globe.
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Unanswered Questions Buddhism and Homosexuality
Colleen Maher College of Arts and Sciences 2011 Psychology, American Studies, Pre-Law
For many world religions, moral teachings anyone, and harm no living creature” (“The Five are discussed explicitly in texts; for example, Precepts,” 2009). The ideal of right conduct the central guidelines for Buddhist moral living complements this notion, advocating that are found in the teachings of the Eightfold Path followers “do not destroy any living creature… and the Five Precepts (“The Five Precepts,” take only what is given… [and] do not commit 2009). Interestingly, the Buddha’s discourses any unlawful sexual act” (“The Five Precepts,” do not make explicit statements regarding 2009). Similarly, the third precept simply states, homosexuality. This fact, along with the generally “I undertake to observe the precept to abstain independent nature of Buddhist devotion, from sexual misconduct” (“The Five Precepts,” leads to an uncertain religious outlook on this 2009). contentious issue. In one view, both heterosexual and Though no direct reference is made to homosexual intimacy are thus proscribed. homosexual behaviors in these texts, generally Ajahn Brahmavamso and Ajahn Nanadhammo applicable principles can be derived. The (2010) cite the Buddha’s teachings to support Eightfold Path outlines right resolve. To achieve this perspective in The Simile of the Snake. this ideal, followers are advised to “renounce the The Buddha said, “I have stated how sensual pleasures of the senses… harbor no ill will toward pleasures provide little gratification, much
Unanswered Questions 20
suffering, and much despair, and how great is acts are or are not proscribed in Buddhism. the danger in them. But you, misguided man, The sutras, collected in the first century have misrepresented us by your wrong grasp and BCE, are the earliest Buddhist writings that injured yourself and stored up much demerit; expound on the vagaries of the prohibition for this will lead to your harm and suffering for against sexual misbehavior. This work a long time” (Brahmavamso & Nanadhammo). exclusively identifies adultery as an act of Brahmavamso and Nanadhammo view this misconduct (Cabezon, 2009). Later scholarly text as an admonishment, urging all people commentaries provide much lengthier and more to abstain from sexual activity and expressing detailed lists of unacceptable sexual acts. A the sentiment that only fifteenth century Tibetan celibate life can lead scholar, Tsongkhapa, to true enlightenment. Different modern offered an extensive Others disagree with set of concrete rules for this extreme view, scholars thus hold Buddhist followers. His citing other teachings a wide range of work seems especially of the Buddha in their relevant, as the Dalai support, including a beliefs in what Lama specifically surprising text in which sexual acts are or referenced his teachings he reportedly taught that are not proscribed during a talk at a 1997 men may orgasm up to conference (Cabezon, five times in one evening in Buddhism. 2009). In his work, (Cabezon, 2009). A. L. Tsongkhapa described De Silva (n.d.) explains prohibitions against that in his view the third precept is not violated various forms of sexual action. Forbidden deeds when two lay individuals, either heterosexual or include oral and anal intercourse, masturbation, homosexual, mutually consent to a sexual act sexual intercourse during daylight hours, and as an expression of love, respect, loyalty, and intercourse between two men. Similar writings warmth. To him, violation of the third precept from other scholars of the period display a entails promiscuity, adultery, or disregard for general consensus. Jose Cabezon (2009), the the feelings of another. Such action is “unskillful” XIV Dalai Lama Professor in Tibetan Buddhism because it “requires subterfuge and deceit, it and Cultural Studies at the University of means that solemn promises made at the time of California, Santa Barbara and a former Buddhist marriage are broken, and it amounts to a betrayal monk, described the origin of these rules and of trust” (De Silva). Different modern scholars their apparent departure from earlier freedom thus hold a wide range of beliefs in what sexual from sexual guidelines. He explained that the
VOICES Spring 2010 21
authors were celibate monks and scholastic consensual homosexual relationship, he humbly philosophers—men accustomed to thinking replied, “Then I don’t know. It’s difficult to say” in terms of lists. Theologians like Asanga, (Peskind, 1998). In the February/March issue Vasubandhu, and others broke down proper of OUT magazine, the Dalai Lama was quoted behavioral rules into certain partners, organs, as giving a much more tolerant response. The orifices, times, and places because these terms quote read, “If someone comes to me and asks were part of the Vinaya, the monastic code whether it is okay or not, I will first ask if you have (Cabezon, 2009). Cabezon’s response to these some religious vows to uphold. Then my next teachings is an attitude of skepticism. He wrote question is, what is your companion’s opinion? that no scriptural justifications exist for the more If you both agree, then I think I would say, if two restrictive, scholastic doctrinal formulation. He males or two females voluntarily agree to have asserted that celibate monks inappropriately mutual satisfaction without further implication read monastic norms into lay society and sexual of harming others, then it is okay” (Peskind, practice. As he stated, “The individuals who 1998). Though this statement seems clear, the did this were great scholars and saints, but on matter was clouded in 1996 when North Atlantic this issue, they simply got it wrong” (Cabezon, Books published Beyond Dogma: Dialogues 2009). and Discourses, a collection If this argument holds of talks and discussions true, Buddhist followers “I asked him, from the Dalai Lama’s 1993 are left with little guidance ‘If the Buddha is visit to France. In this text, regarding their sexual our teacher, the Dalai Lama is quoted as lives. The current Dalai where and when saying that proper sexual Lama, regarded by many did he teach that action requires the use of as a strong, spiritual, but homosexual part- sexual organs and nothing fallible leader, has provided else. While homosexuality is ners are inappro- some commentary on this not inherently unacceptable, dilemma. In 1993, the Dalai priate, that homo- its use of organs defined Lama outlined his sentiment sexual behavior is as inappropriate for sexual that nature had made male sexual misconduct?’ contact is considered and female organs “in such a The Dalai Lama improper. manner that is very suitable... responded, ‘I don’t The response to Same-sex organs cannot know.’” this apparent discrepancy manage well” (Peskind, 1998). was strong. Steve Peskind, When questioned about the coordinator of the Buddhist legitimacy of a non-abusive, AIDS Project in San
Unanswered Questions 22
Francisco and editor of the anthology Heart issue at this conference, the Dalai Lama said, Lessons from an Epidemic: Buddhist Practice “We have to make a distinction between believers and Living with HIV (Berkeley, CA: Parallax and unbelievers. From a Buddhist point of view, Press), took an active approach. As he recalled in men-to-men and women-to-women is generally a 1998 article, “On the basis of the discrepancy considered sexual misconduct… From society’s between the OUT article and Beyond Dogma, I viewpoint, mutually agreeable homosexual wrote an open, public letter to the Dalai Lama relations can be of mutual benefit, enjoyable and in January of 1997, noting that many of us who harmless” (Peskind, 1998). so admired him were confused and distressed The notion of a Buddhist/non-Buddhist by the inconsistency of his statements and their divide appears here as a novel and incongruous worldwide ramifications. I respectfully requested idea in moral teaching. No other question that he ‘in whatever manner and venue he could be subject to such a distinction. Murder chooses, speak to… the truth of homosexuality would certainly not be condoned or free of and homosexual behavior’” (Peskind, 1998). As karmic consequence if committed by a non- a result, the Dalai Lama arranged to speak with believer. Adultery is viewed as no less harmful if seven gay and lesbian leaders at a conference in committed by nonreligious members of society. San Francisco. Karma applies to all people (“What is Karma?”). At this conference, the Dalai Lama candidly To suggest separate karmic criteria for believers responded to questions. Peskind (1998) narrates, and unbelievers appears unfounded in the “I asked him, ‘If the Buddha is our teacher, Buddhist tradition. where and when did he teach that homosexual A brief overview of legal and cultural history partners are inappropriate, that homosexual in Buddhist nations provides some additional behavior is sexual misconduct?’ The Dalai Lama insight into the conflicting attitudes toward responded, ‘I don’t know’” (Peskind, 1998). homosexual practice fostered by members of The Dalai Lama received another challenging this faith. None of the legal codes of traditionally inquiry from Cabezon who was also present at Buddhist nations penalize homosexuality except the conference. Cabezon asked, “If the purpose in cases of rape or when involving minors. One of the proscriptions is to reduce sexual activity, finds no laws against homosexuality between how does it make sense to allow a man to have consenting adults in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, sex with his wife up to five times a night, while Vietnam, Mongolia, Japan, or South Korea. Only saying that it is sexual misconduct for a man to Burma and Sri Lanka penalize homosexuality, have sex with another man even once in his life?’” likely because their legal codes were created In response, the Dalai Lama reportedly laughed during the colonial era (Dhammika, 2008). and said, “You have a point there!” (Peskind, In medieval Japanese monastic tradition, for 1998). In his most outright commentary on the example, homosexual relationships between
VOICES Spring 2010 23
spiritual guides and young acolytes, or chigo, first century BCE, specifically states that certain were common (Janavira, 1997). The abundance groups, such as pandakas (described by one of these relationships led to the development of a source as “males who lack conventional qualities series of stories known as the Chigo monogatari, of ‘maleness,’ such as those who suffer temporary or ‘Tales about Acolytes.’ These stories often told impotence, satisfy their own sexual desires by of a Buddhist deity who took the form of a young watching others engage in sexual behavior, or acolyte and was ultimately led to Enlightenment fellate other men” [Numrich, 2009, p. 70]) and by a charming, older monk. As Dharmachari ubhatobyanjanakas (‘hermaphrodites’), are not Janavira (1997) illustrated, “In the fourteenth- only prohibited from entering monasteries (as century Chigo Kannon engi, Kannon [a Buddhist discussed in the Vinaya) but also are considered deity] takes the form of a beautiful novice to inherently unable to fully comprehend Buddhist become the lover of a monk who is longing for teachings. Scholarly commentators on this text companionship in his old age. After a few years of have gone so far as to label such people “morally close companionship, however, the acolyte dies, and spiritually deficient” (Numrich, 2009, p. 70). leaving the monk desolate. Kannon then appears One Mahayana text describes “endless varieties to the monk, reveals that he and the acolyte were of punishments... for the wrong deed of sexual one and the same and delivers a discourse on intercourse between two men. The one who impermanence” (Janavira, 1997). Though this commits misconduct with boys sees boys being practice is no longer accepted today, Janavira swept away in the Acid River who cry out to him, outlines an interesting theory regarding the and owing to the suffering and pain born of his influence of such practices on modern Buddhist deep affection for them, plunges in after them” monastic culture in Japan. Janavira stated, (Numrich, 2009, p. 70). “Despite painstaking regulations in the Vinaya Recent writings of Thai monks in the against any kind of sexual activity on the part of Theravada school express a similarly caustic monks, including many forbidding homosexual attitude. Phra Ratchaworamuni, a philosopher encounters, Buddhism in Japan developed a monk, theorizes that homosexuality is the result very lax attitude towards sexual expression of an overly lusty disposition unsatisfied by on the part of monks, which has resulted in traditional male-female intercourse (Jackson, the curious anomaly that because most monks 1995). His Dictionary of Buddhist Teachings now marry…it is only Japanese nuns who live a gives a far more critical definition of pandaka celibate lifestyle today” (Janavira, 1997). than typically expressed. Phra Ratchaworamuni In contrast to the accommodating views defines an individual in this group as “someone at work in Japanese monasteries, some ancient born as a kathoey [defined by Peter Jackson Buddhist writings outline far harsher positions. (1995) as a ‘transvestite, transsexual, male The Milindapanha, a Burmese text from the homosexual’ (Jackson, 1995)], a castrated man
Unanswered Questions 24
called a eunuch, and a man with strong sexual Though outdated, the story of Vakkali desire who behaves outside of sexual conventions provides an example of tolerance still revered in and who incites other men to be likewise” Theravada societies. Numrich (2009) described (Jackson, 1995). As Peter Jackson notes, “In this Vakkali as “a monk who sought ordination view homosexual men are considered immoral because he was smitten by the Buddha’s physical because they do not contain their sexual urges appearance and then neglected his monastic within normal heterosexual limits” (Jackson, duties by following the Buddha around in order 1995). to gaze at him, a fairly clear case of same-sex However, until recently, a karmic attraction” (p. 70). In response, the Buddha theory of homosexuality’s origin led to a more ridiculed Vakkali for his obsession with the compassionate outlook in Thai culture. Because temporal body and ultimately dismissed Vakkali individuals cannot control the karma that has from his presence. Vakkali became upset to led to the struggles in a current life, they are the point of acting suicidal. In response, the typically shown sympathy rather than hatred Buddha saved him with reassuring words. for any hardship viewed as karmic consequence. Vikkali then achieved Enlightenment and won Bunmi details the presently outdated view in the Buddha’s praise. Though the commentary which karma is the cause of an individual’s on this work is more critical of Vakkali, scholars homosexuality. In a 1995 paper, Jackson admit he ultimately does achieve Enlightenment discusses Bunmi’s teachings, which include (Numrich, 2009, p. 70). a belief that sexual misconduct in a past life, The general inconsistency in the approach such as adultery, can cause homosexuality in a to homosexuality in the Buddhist tradition future life. With this belief, Bunmi countered may stem from many causes. One interesting contemporary Thai ideas regarding the origins of theory posits that a divide between “ethnic” and homosexuality (i.e., that a kathoey results from “universal” religion could explain the conflict. In raising a boy with girls or raising a girl with boys). the words of Winton Higgins, “Ethnic religion In his mind, individuals in the class of “lower seeks to regulate many civic aspects of a particular level spirits” are born as kathoeys because of tribe or people, and especially to regulate the contributory factors in their past lives (Jackson, biological and cultural reproduction of the tribe. 1995). Further, Bunmi stated that actions that It thus stipulates all sorts of rules to do with are caused by previously accrued karma do marriage, family, sex roles, bringing up children” not themselves beget karmic consequence in a (Higgins). In contrast, “A universal religion… is future life. In other words, individuals who feel a indifferent to ethnic civic life, transcends cultural homosexual inclination as a result of past karma particularism, and stands aloof from issues to would not be punished for that inclination in the do with the reproduction of the tribe” (Higgins). next life. Perhaps the adoption of Buddhism as an ethnic
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religion, as structured in the writings of monks Articles. Buddha Dharma Education Association. Web. 4 like Tsongkhapa, paved the way for concrete Jan 2010.
Unanswered Questions 26
Gays, Lesbians and the Definition of Sexual Misconduct. Shambala Sun. Shambhala Sun Foundation. Web. 4 Jan 2010.
Where can I find more information about Buddhism and homosexuality and related issues?
libguides.bc.edu/glbt Boston College Libraries provides an online resource for LGBT studies, including links to articles and other academic texts regarding Buddhism and homosexuality.
Are there other online resources to learn about and connect with the GLBTQ Buddhist community?
groups.yahoo.com/group/gbof The Gay Buddhist Open Forum describe themselves as “an international, minimally moderated online forum for the discussion of Buddhist teachings and practices for the LGBTQ community.”
www.gaybuddhistsangha.com This website is run by and for lay Buddhist LGBT people with a variety of backgrounds and beliefs. Through education and communication, they seek to better individuals’ lives and teach others how to serve their own communities.
VOICES Spring 2010 27
The Islamic Feminism Question Feminisms in Iran
Stephanie Keller College of Arts and Sciences 2010 Political Science, Psychology
This paper has been adapted from an article previously published in Al-Noor.
Feminism is a term and a movement that What is an Islamic Feminist? has become increasingly linked with the Islamic Feminism is defined as “the theory of Republic of Iran since the 1979 Revolution. political, economic, and social equality of the Both inside and outside the country, academics, sexes, and organized activity on behalf of women’s activists, and journalists have brought the rights and interests” (Merriam-Webster). ideas and theories of feminism into the debate However, although the movement is growing in surrounding Iran’s perilous “woman question.” popularity, because of a diversity of voices and However, Iranians have not merely adopted experiences there is no one singular formulation Western or American feminism. Rather, there is of “Islamic feminism.” Rather, descriptions uniqueness to Iranian feminism and its adherents extend across a gamut of women with differing have been hailed as “Islamic feminists.” But what political positions and backgrounds: devout and does it mean to be an Islamic feminist? Is such a secular women, women who work in politics and thing even possible as a construct? And has this political institutions, women who abstain from development of a kind of Islamic feminism been formal politics, elite women, as well as women beneficial to the cause of women in the Iranian who are located on the lowest rungs of society. context? Some of the women who are called Islamic feminists accept this label, while others claim
Islamic Feminism 28
it is oxymoronic and prefer a different term for their particular brand of feminism. For example, The Negotiating Opposition Shahla Sherkat, the editor of the most acclaimed There is a wide diversity amongst the women’s rights newspaper in Iran, Zanan, prefers negotiators ranging from conservative to liberal to be called an “indigenous feminist.” She says, women. Some strongly believe in Islam and others “I prefer the term feminism bomi, indigenous hold more secular beliefs. Their diversity is best feminism, because it relates women’s rights exemplified by highlighting three prominent issues to the social and cultural specifics of Iran” feminists who, in their profound differences, (Rostami, 2001, p. 64). Responses to Islamic reveal the variety of women considered Islamic feminism as a label have varied considerably, feminists. because the women who supposedly typify the Azam Taleghani. movement are themselves incredibly diverse. Azam Taleghani exemplifies the firm So what can be made of this burgeoning believers among Iranian women who try to Islamic feminism, with its seemingly contested reconcile Islam and women’s rights under definition and broad spectrum of diverse the Iranian regime. She is the daughter of the members? Feminists in Iran can be characterized well-known Ayatollah Muhmud Taleghani and into two relevant categories: the negotiating is a former member of the Islamic Republic’s opposition and the uncompromising opposition. Parliament (Majles). Conservative negotiators The uncompromising such as Taleghani are opposition is usually pious, from comprised of women Despite her disagreements the upper echelons who do not attempt with the current of society, and to change Iranian life government, Azam Taleghani often work directly within the current has worked within it to with or within political, social and encourage dialogue on state institutions. religious institutions. Taleghani is one of They view the current women’s issues and to many feminists who system as inherently improve the condition originally supported anti-woman and of women in Iran. the Iranian therefore believe that Revolution but no real change can be became disillusioned made within it. Conversely, the negotiators are once discriminatory and patriarchal policies women who, in some manner, work to create were imposed shortly thereafter. Despite her change within the current Iranian system, disagreements with the current government, she including Islamic feminists. has worked within it to encourage dialogue on
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women’s issues and to improve the condition of relationship, especially that the role of women in Iran. She was the director of the Islam mother in the family is very important. I Women’s Institute and editor of the journal believe we women can change our society, Payam-e hajar (‘Hajar’s message’). In Payam- we have the power but we have to e Hajar, conservative negotiators like Taleghani understand how to exercise that power, demonstrate that they believe in the compatibility taking into consideration the cultural of men and women as well as the notion that issues. (Rostami, 2001, p. 3) each sex has its own distinct role. As each sex Conservative negotiators, including Azam has a role that only it can fulfill (women are seen Taleghani, have a strategic advantage in fighting as pacifiers and bearers of tranquility), it has an the patriarchy of the Islamic Republic because intrinsic importance, and therefore each sex is they are adherents to Islamic faith, they speak equal and necessary (Nakanishi, 1998). In one within the same frame of language, and their article entitled “Are Men Superior to Women?” arguments are consistent with the version of the journal examined passages from the Quran Islam promoted by the Islamic Republic. that are usually interpreted to demonstrate male Mehrangiz Kar. domination over women and then presented At the other end of the spectrum are alternative interpretations debunking that notion women like Mehrangiz Kar, a prominent (Sciolino, 2000). Conservative negotiators also human rights lawyer. Kar is often categorized believe that the hijab is crucial to a Muslim as an Islamic feminist despite proclamations woman’s identity. They contest that the hijab is of her personal secular beliefs. She actually has not an intrinsic part of Islam, but if women only stated that she believes “Muslim feminism” is a understood human nature then they would accept contradiction in terms (Rostami, 2001, p. 64). it. Conservative negotiators like Taleghani have Unlike her conservative counterparts, Kar has fought polygamy and temporary marriage. They said that the Islamic dress qualifies as a form argue that the Islamic Republic claims to uphold of “violence against women” (Sciolino, 2000 the family and the notion that motherhood is p. 129). She also believes that there are serious a woman’s primary role; therefore, the state injustices imbedded within the system of Islamic is responsible for securing her economic and jurisprudence in Iran. Kar observed that “even matrimonial rights. Taleghani summed up her if the husband insults his wife or beats her, the position: judge demands a witness” as an example of such I believe the heterosexual family relation injustice (Sciolino, 2000). She advocates for the ship is necessary for the continuation of a separation of mosque and state within Iran: healthy society but I also believe thatthere The Muslim reformers who believe that should be equal relationship between men Islam is a dynamic religion and are in and women within this family favor of modification of the Islamic law,
Islamic Feminism 30
don’t really believe in equality between on the Quran, regardless of whether or not men and women. They believe that they believe it is a legitimate basis for law. For women and men have been born to play instance, Kar was influential in the reform of the different roles in life and therefore they 1985 education law that stipulated that Muslim must be subjected to different laws and women students could not study abroad without regulations within family and society. the accompaniment of a husband or male family (Rostami, 2001, p. 55) member. She also made suggestions to reform Kar exemplifies a category of liberal Iranian family law to be in accordance with the feminists in Iran who are often urbanites from the UN Convention on Elimination of All Forms middle or elite classes. They are lawyers, judges, of Discrimination Against Women. Liberal filmmakers, artists, journalists, and professors. feminists within Iran recognize that debating These women appear quite divergent from the regime based on its own premises is an conservative feminists like Taleghani, especially effective strategy. Thus, Kar and other liberal when beyond the watchful eyes of the Islamic feminists work together with their more religious Republic. At a Berlin conference in 2000, Kar counterparts on the issues most palatable denounced the slow process of reform in Iran and within the Islamic Republic. Kar described her the religious domination over civil law, claiming strategy: that it threatened the process of democratization As a lawyer, I do not agree with the con- and women’s rights (Rostami, 2001, p. 66). stitution but within my work I struggle to Upon her return to Iran, she was imprisoned change the Islamic law and hopefully the for two months, though she had breast cancer constitution…Until we achieve the separa- at the time. Her imprisonment exposed a divide tion of politics from religion, we need to between conservative and liberal negotiators— overcome obstacles and in this way I wel as her fellow liberal feminists clamored for her come cooperation with Muslim feminists. release, feminists from the conservative camp (Rostami, 2001, p. 65) would not do so publicly. Shahla Sherkat. Nonetheless, if feminists like Taleghani If Azam Taleghani and Mehranguz Kar and Kar were judged by their actions alone (at represent opposite ends of the political and social least within the Islamic Republic), they would spectrum in Islamic feminism, Shahla Sherkat be difficult to distinguish. Though their beliefs represents how those two extreme positions can may vary considerably, the tactics of liberal and be joined. She plays a connective role between conservative negotiators have been markedly conservative and liberal negotiators in the Islamic similar. Both focus on the most fundamental Republic as the editor of the most influential issues facing Iranian women like family law and women’s publication in Iran, Zanan (‘Women’). education. They both present arguments based The brand of feminism Sherkat employs is quite
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unique not only in Iran, but throughout the Yet, with such brazen and inventive approaches, world. Unlike conservative negotiators, Sherkat Sherkat became a leader in breaking the taboo keeps her distance from official involvement surrounding feminism in Iran. Moreover, her in the government. But she, like conservative magazine had one of the longest lives in post- feminists, also refrained from publicly defending revolutionary Iranian journalism because she Kar after her arrest and does not support secular avoided direct engagement in contentious attacks on the government’s existence. Sherkat political issues, yet knew just when to push the does not denigrate tradition, but she calls for envelope on certain social issues. some progressive changes especially within Sherkat’s public finesse and political savvy family dynamics. She said, “Our aim is not to make it difficult to decipher her precise position destabilize families and family relationship(s). on some feminist questions. Yet, it is exactly Our aim is to bring about equality between this opacity and discretion that has allowed her women and men. If men are oppressive in a to be successful in the Iranian context, where variety of ways, that does not mean that women the government suppresses dissident voices must be silent” (Rostami, 2001, p. 59). and the culture dictates that direct speech on While Sherkat is well versed in the Quran certain private issues is impolite. As prominent and frequently cited it in her magazine, Zanan sociologists Verta Taylor and Leila Rupp said, was also openly affiliated with Western feminism “the meaning of feminism has changed over time and in it she translated articles by famous feminist and from place to place and is often disputed… scholars like Simone de Beauvoir and Virginia in every group in every place, in every time, Woolf. Zanan provided a forum for discussion the meaning of ‘feminism’ is worked out in the about different forms of feminism and liberated course of being and doing” (Moghadam, 2002, that discussion from Western phobia. Sherkat p. 1164). also published secular feminist lawyers in Zanan, Despite the diversity amongst these three including Kar, providing a means for ordinary women called Islamic feminists, they all believe women to understand their rights under the law. in elevating women’s status to that of men’s She even published articles with such titles as, and actively work toward this end. They are “Why Should Only Women Be Receptionists?” labeled Islamic feminists because they do this “Is Your Baby Sitter Your Husband’s Doll?” work within the Islamic system in Iran, even and “Sir, Have You Ever Beaten Your Wife?” in if they do not personally believe in Islam, as which average Iranian men gave surprisingly demonstrated by Mehrangiz Kar. Thus, despite blunt answers regarding the treatment of their some inconsistency in their beliefs, they can be wives (Sciolino, 2000). For such expositions considered negotiating feminists. of the social life in Iran, Zanan was eventually closed in 2008 after sixteen years of operation. The Uncompromising Opposition
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Alternatively, there are non-negotiators, proven true, as many of the legal gains made by important thinkers who are not called Islamic Islamic feminists are negated in practice, and feminists; in fact, many of them are self- sometimes women are not even aware of the proclaimed atheists and claim that the construct rights that they have gained (such as prenuptial “Islamic feminism” is oxymoronic. Most are agreements). Therefore, it is important that academics and émigrées who currently work these uncompromising feminist voices exist, in the United States or Canada and have not as they serve to counter any illusions that all returned to Iran since the Revolution. The most women and Iranians in general are content with prominent of these non-negotiators, Haideh the regime. Moghissi, argues that there cannot be “Islamic feminists” for Islam intrinsically negates the Is Islamic Feminism an Oxymoron? equality of women to men and therefore cannot Although the uncompromising opposition be compatible with feminism (Moghissi, 1999). makes valid points, some of its arguments are Non-negotiators also argue that any kind of contestable. Multiple scholars have argued that Islamic feminism in Iran is nonsensical, because Islamic feminism is an oxymoron because Islam the Islamic Republic is inherently incompatible is inherently hostile to women (Moghissi, 1999). with individual choice, cultural pluralism, and Some “uncompromising” atheist feminists feminism. They contend that by working with and believe that all religion is anti-feminist; by within the government system, Islamic feminists their measure, feminism cannot be discussed are reinforcing the legitimacy of the Islamic in relation to religion at all. However, this regime, and their use of the Quran as the basis would mean that the majority of the women in of argument only further legitimizes the state. the world cannot be feminists, for most do not Moreover, non-negotiators believe that Islamic reject codified or organized religion altogether. feminist efforts undermine secular alternatives One scholar, Margot Badran, rebuts the and divert energy away from true forms of generalization that religion is inherently anti- feminism and feminist movements (Moghissi, feminist. She argues that it is not the religion of 1999). Lastly, opponents of Islamic feminism Islam, but Islamism – the theocratic patriarchal contend that any small gains made by Islamic state – that is hostile to women (Badran, 2001). feminists are insignificant and exaggerated. Therefore an Islamist feminist, or a woman who They state that small legal reforms, for example, accepts the patriarchal state as just, cannot truly are meaningless in a patriarchal society because exist because she would simultaneously believe even if law upholds women’s rights the judiciary in equality for women and a system which makes and law enforcement agencies are comprised that impossible. On the contrary, most Islamic of men who will abuse and circumvent those feminists in Iran either denounce the regime rights (Moghissi, 1999). Unfortunately this has outright or imply that it is illegitimate through
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their publications, speeches, etc. It seems then scholars argue that it is wrong to suggest that that just as Christian and Jewish feminists may Anglo-American feminism is the only feminism, exist, so do Islamic feminists. for it does not address capitalism, class, or imperialism (Moghadam, 2002). To equate Refuting the Opposition Anglo-American feminism with all feminism is The uncompromising opposition are critics to misunderstand the concept. Feminism is an more than activists. They claim that Islamic intrinsically fluid concept, and it can and should feminism is an oxymoron and that small gains be adapted to particular cultures. made by women within the regime are no gains at Non-negotiators’ rigidity harms them all. Yet, they do not provide a viable alternative. because it often leads to complete exclusion from They would overthrow the regime if possible, but the dialogue. They are immediately silenced as they have been advocating overthrow since 1979 heralds of “Westoxification,” a term coined by and have yet to see their wish fulfilled. They seem the first Supreme Leader Ayatollah Komeini to offer no tangible means for change within the to signify the Western influence considered current system. As the prominent pro-Islamic poisonous to Islam, because they argue based feminist Nayereh Tohidi put it: on completely different premises than those An overwhelming majority of women in presented in the Islamic Republic (Tohidi, 1998). Muslim societies are concerned with Therefore, they are not allowed in the debate at workable formulas in their daily battles all, and their arguments have no effect on the against oppressive rule. To them, the minds and laws of patriarchs. Non-negotiating argument that ‘Islamic feminism is an feminists also negate the agency of women oxymoron, hence useless,’ may sound like currently living in Iran from the perspective secular arrogance or an irrelevant of outsiders looking in (Ahmadi, 2006). They academic concern. (Tohidi, 1998, p. 287) declare that the situation is hopeless until the Another Iranian feminist said that such non- regime is toppled, but such declarations are not negotiating feminism is neither “adequate” nor practical for women currently struggling inside “widespread” enough in Iran to be relevant the country. (Ahmadi, 2006). Change, she says, will come from the “voices within.” The Case for Negotiating and These non-negotiators, other feminists Islamic Feminists contend, are blinded by Anglo-American Negotiating feminists succeed where feminism to the point where they become their uncompromising sisters fail. They provide exclusive. Many Iranian women, especially of hope; foster unity; build feminist consciousness, the lower and middle classes, are alienated by popular bases, and reform movements; and strictly secular and Western feminism. Some open up dialogue and debate within the
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Islamic Republic. To of interpretation and effect these changes, to begin to interpret negotiating feminists Negotiating feminists primary texts on their have employed two own. Historically, main strategies. First, provide hope; foster the clerics were they reinterpret Islamic unity; build feminist deferred to on all texts themselves, matters of religious emphasizing the consciousess, popular interpretation in historical context bases, and reform the Shi’i culture, and the egalitarian despite the teaching tendencies of Islam movements; and of ijtihad. Thus it was in order to debate open up dialogue a new assertion that patriarchs on their own ordinary people, and premises. They also and debate within especially women, appeal more broadly the Islamic Republic. could interpret the to postmodern ideas, texts on their own and invoking evidence debate them in public outside the Quran and forum. Negotiating introducing the language of human rights and feminists, consequently, became leaders of a civil society. Negotiating feminists have achieved new post-fundamentalist trend that challenged a small but increasing number of victories in this who may interpret the Quran and how it may be way. interpreted. Much of the strength behind their Opening the Dialogue arguments can be attributed to a prominent Negotiating feminists use some of the most thinker of the twentieth century, Abdolkarim prized tenets of Islam in order to fight their Soroush. Soroush argued that all history is case. They emphasize ijtihad, which encourages contingent. Therefore, even religious texts the individual investigation of religious sources; cannot be wholly objective or absolute because tafsir, the interpretation of the Quran; and they were written in a certain time period with fegha poya, the teaching that Islam can be specific characteristics that may be different in adapted to the modern world. Negotiating later time periods (Moghadam, 2002). Soroush feminists argue that ijtihad is the obligation of left a new impression in Iran that religious texts any responsible adult Muslim (Ahmadi, 2006 p. should be considered in light of their historical 43). Since the Revolution, they have used ijtihad context and subsequently reinterpreted to fit to challenge the Islamic Republic’s domination the current circumstances and needs of the day.
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Implicitly, he also suggested that the state is not to discuss women’s issues and Islam. It would the sole authority of religious interpretation and have been unthinkable in a previous era for a that there should be separation of mosque and woman to question religious leaders on matters state. of faith and especially the status of women in Although Soroush was not a self- Islam. By claiming the right to interpret and proclaimed feminist, he did say that the issue of directly question clerics, negotiating feminists women’s rights in Islam is not a matter of dogma challenged one of the foundational concepts of but subject to change. Thus, the negotiating the Islamic Republic, velayat-e faghih, which feminists quickly adopted Soroush’s new flexible stipulates deference to the rule of the supreme and inclusive philosophy of interpretation. They jurisprudent. Practically speaking, they forced employed teachings already within the existing clerics to answer to their people (Hosseini, religious texts, like ijtihad and fegha poya, to 1999). As feminist journalist Faezeh Hashemi legitimize their own egalitarian and woman- aptly stated, friendly interpretations (Ahmadi, 2006). In These issues were traditionally discussed one example of this, Azam Taleghani ran for and debated by the clergy. We have the presidency of Iran, challenging sharia broken this tradition and have dared article 115 of the constitution and the Islamic to challenge them by arguing about whose Guardian Council’s interpretation of rajol. interpretation are they? If they are against In the traditional Arabic interpretation, rajol women’s interests in the family and signifies ‘man’; however, Taleghani contended society they have to be changed…We that in Persian the term can be understood as discuss many real problems raised by ‘mankind’ and therefore not exclude women. ordinary people at the level of society and Although Taleghani was officially disqualified, we argue that Islamic laws are dynamic she won a symbolic victory. She summed up and changeable. This way we make the event: “I was told I wasn’t a religious and ordinary people aware of these problems political personality and that was why I could not and we demand from the specialists and run for President. But it was a victory. I was not the clergy to resolve these issues as social disqualified because I was a woman. That proves problems. (Rostami, 2001, p. 58) that a woman can run for President” (Sciolino, 2000, p. 113). A Unified Front Another watershed example of negotiating Raising awareness of women’s issues feminists opening the dialogue occurred when in Iran has had other spillover effects. female sociologist Ziba Mir-Hosseini was Negotiating feminists have built a popular base, granted entry into the homes of clerics all across fostered unity, and provided the impetus for a Iran, even in the most traditional city of Qom, universal human rights and reform movement.
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Despite their historical mistrust of each the pioneering efforts of negotiating feminists in other, conservative Islamic and liberal secular building the foundations of the reform movement feminists have put aside their differences in are especially significant. order to lead the effort to unite Iran in reform. For example, by publishing important secular Legal Successes negotiating feminists like Mehringaz Kar, Shahla Negotiating feminists have succeeded Sherkat fostered cooperation between the two in changing legislation regulating divorce, extreme camps of feminists. She emphasized the polygamy and temporary marriage as well as importance of unity, stating, “Women’s rights birth control, personal status law, and family issues in Iran are so complicated that we must code laws (Moghadam, 2002). For example, in start from somewhere that we could agree with a 1986 law, the court decreed that a wife should each other and work through until we arrive at receive the equivalent of half of her husband’s areas of disagreement” (Rostami, 2001, p. 62). property in a divorce, provided that she had In Iran, feminism used to be taboo and represent done her wifely duties and there were no charges the divide between East and West, between of immorality proven against her. No such law culture and “Westoxification” (Ahmadi, 2006). existed previously in the Islamic Republic. In However, over the last thirty years, negotiating the 1990’s, negotiating feminists won further feminists have made inroads opening up the victories over the institutions of mahr (‘bride public dialogue around this forbidden topic and price’) and nafaghe (‘maintenance’). The new have focused on issues that both pious women laws stipulated that if men wished to divorce, and secular elites can agree need to be changed. they would be required to pay dowries as well By breaking taboos and challenging as maintenance or compensation fees for their authority, negotiating feminists have built a spouses’ work as wives and mothers. The amount reform movement and inspired other reform- mandated was indexed for inflation and living minded groups such as gay rights groups. standards. Negotiating feminists won on other The advocacy of women’s groups was largely fronts. For example, prenuptial agreements have responsible for the surprising election of been legal since 1991 and a 1987 law established reformist President Mohammad Khatami a Cultural and Social Council on Women’s (Rostami, 2001). Negotiating feminists have even Affairs that was to ensure women’s welfare by shaped the official political debates over the last expanding their understanding of their rights twenty years. Whereas parliamentary debates in and increasing their protection under law the 1980’s primarily focused on social control, (Moghadam, 2002 p. 1140). Lastly, the legal the debates of the 1990’s and 2000’s have taken age of marriage was raised to 14 for girls and a decisive turn in the direction of reform. In light 17 for boys unless special permission was given of the events after the 2009 summer elections, by the courts. The Islamic Republic created
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these new laws due to persistent pressure from For, ultimately, change must come from within. negotiating feminists and the indisputability of Negotiating feminists are fighting and providing their argument that Islam upholds the family the best defense for women’s rights against the and, therefore, the state should too. tyranny of the Islamic Republic today, and as the cries of reform rise once again in Iran, these Concluding and Looking Ahead persistent and experienced women will be called Negotiating feminists have been influential upon to lead the fight. in sustaining hope in a country where sometimes hope is lost. Some have been imprisoned and others have had their lives threatened. Some References have been advocates since the Revolution Ahmadi, F. (2006). Islamic Feminism in Iran: Feminism and have only seen marginal change. Their in a New Islamic Context. Journal of Feminist Studies in sentiment was summed up by one feminist and Religion. 22(2). Bardan, M. (2001). Understanding Islam, Islamism, and local councilwoman, Marzieh Mortazi, who Islamic Feminism. Journal of Women’s History, 13(1). said, “I believe that the foundation of Islam is Bodman, H. L., & Tohidi, N. (1998). Women in Muslim not anti-woman. The male interpretations…are Societies: Diversity Within Unity. London: Lynne Rienner anti-women… I am not pessimistic, our society Publishers, Inc. will change but through a long and hard process” Fawzi El-Solh, C., & Mabro, J. (1994). Muslim Women’s (Rostami, 2001). Choices: Religious Belief and Social Reality. Oxford: Berg Certainly, this analysis shows that Islamic Publishers. feminism does exist, its proponents fight for Milani, F. (1992). Veils and Words: The Emerging Voices of Iranian Women Writers. New York: Syracuse University women’s rights by negotiating with the regime Press. in Iran, and their efforts continue to benefit the Mir-Hosseini, Z. (1999). Islam and Gender: The Religious cause of women there. Although both negotiating Debate in Contemporary Iran. New Jersey: Princeton Islamic feminists and uncompromising feminists University Press. are vital in the struggle, negotiating feminists Moghadam, V. M. (2001). Feminism and Islamic including Islamic feminists have achieved and Fundamentalism: A Secularist Interpretation. Journal of will achieve the greatest gains towards women’s Women’s History, 13(1), 42-45 equality in Iran, at least as long as the government Moghadam, V. M. (2002). Islamic Feminism and Its Discontents: Toward a Resolution of the Debate. Journal maintains its current structure. They have laid of Women in Culture and Society, 27(4), 1135-1171. the groundwork, introduced and legitimized the Moghissi, H. (1999). Feminism and Islamic debate, and built the momentum for change. The Fundamentalism: The Limits of Postmodern Analysis. task that remains for these negotiating feminists New York: Zed Books. is to increase unity amongst all Iranians in the Sciolino, E. (2000). Persian Mirrors: The Elusive Face of fight for equality, freedom, and democracy. Iran. New York: The Free Press.
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Sedghi, H. (2007). Women and Politics in Iran: Veiling, Unveiling, and Reveiling. New York: Cambridge University Press. Rostami, E. P. (2001). Feminist Contestations of Institutional Domains in Iran. Feminist Review, 69, 43- 72.
Want to learn more about issues related to Islamic Feminism on campus?
www.bc.edu/schools/cas/ics/about-ics.html The Islamic Civilization and Societies Program offers a variety of programming and courses related to women’s lives and equality in Muslim states.
How can I get involved with or learn more about the movement for Muslim women’s rights?
www.irangenderequality.com Visit this website to help support Iranian women’s struggle for equality by signing a statement of support and learning how to organize on this issue.
www.wisemuslimwomen.org The Women’s Islamic Initiative in Spirituality and Equality (WISE) empowers Muslim women to reclaim their legacy and rights and participate equally in their communities. Their website provides a directory of activist women’s organizations, educational resources, etc.
VOICES Spring 2010 39
The Lesbian, Bisexual and Questioning Peer Support Group at a Catholic University
Rachel Siebert Graduate School of Social Work 2010
Universities and colleges host support a lesbian, bisexual and questioning (LBQ) group groups for gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgendered, specifically for the young women on campus. and questioning students nation-wide. This paper will formulate a theoretical basis for Religiously affiliated institutions from traditions the LBQ group and discuss both the advantages that teach against homosexuality do not escape and disadvantages of the peer support drop-in this trend. In spite of and sometimes because model. It will outline the therapeutic value of of the repercussions from morality teachings this group based on the culture of this particular against homosexual activity, some Catholic university, and the themes that developed during colleges provide support services especially the course of an academic year as they pertain to for their GLBTQ students often in the form of the theory and practice. peer social groups (AACRAO Survey Results, 2005). There is a dearth of literature about the Theoretical Framework and intersection of women’s sexuality and the role of Cultural Context the support group at the college level, especially LBQ is an open drop-in group that meets at Catholic institutions. At one particular New weekly in the campus women’s center. It was England Catholic university, the culture of the designed as a support group for the young college inspired a handful of students to establish women at the university who identify as lesbian
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or bisexual, or are questioning their sexuality. co-facilitator of LBQ. Informed consent was Ten women attended regularly over the last obtained from all participants. year, and about fifteen others attended only Three theoretical frameworks will once, out of a total undergraduate population of come into discussion when examining LBQ: approximately 10,000. The core members of the developmental theory, feminist groupwork group self-selected over time. Those members theory, and coming out theory. When speaking of evolved into a few young women who were no this group, the primary theoretical framework is longer questioning their sexuality, but were in developmental because the developmental tasks the middle and late stages of integrating their at this age, accompanied by specific difficulties sexuality into the whole of their identities. Many posed by the coming out process, determine why of them emerged at the end of the year as leaders groupwork is beneficial and how it is utilized. in the student government for GLBTQ advocacy Feminist groupwork reflects the value structure that in turn serves over a hundred other students used by LBQ and the support needs of young through hosting campus-wide events and women in the context of a Catholic college. advancing policy that expands their visibility on campus. Developmental Theory The group is traditionally led by two female The primary developmental tasks at the graduate student co-facilitators recruited out of college level are a blend of both early and late the Counseling and Social Work schools. The adolescence: identity formation, peer relations, co-facilitators have two orientation meetings: and intimacy (Erikson, 1980). College students one with the director of the women’s center to who are in a new environment without their be familiarized with the history and purpose of parents have more freedom to explore different the group, and another with the psychotherapist aspects of who they are. This time period often assigned to the group from the university involves and/or is characterized by integrating counseling services, who explains potential their sexual selves into their identity. Although mental health concerns and situations or signals most young people develop their sexual selves that necessitate referral, and also supports the throughout late adolescence and may face facilitators when any other concerns arise. The difficulty, this process is even more tenuous LBQ is formally hosted by and embedded in a for students who have a sense that they are not pre-existing program at the university. Preferably heterosexual like the majority of their peers. the leaders are lesbian, bisexual, or questioning Homophobia is prevalent throughout their own sexuality so that they can contribute American culture and is doubly so in a Catholic personal experience to group conversations institution (Love, 1998; Jurgens, Schwitzer, & that helps maintain the cohesion of the group. Middleton, 2004). Although many students This paper draws from my experiences as the at this institution do not identify as Catholic
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or strictly practice Catholicism, there is limited acceptance of The tasks of forming a positive Feminist Theory expression of gender self-identity and being socially Rather than or sexuality outside accepted are directly at odds assuming there is of heterosexual for the student questioning something flawed in standards in the homosexuality and can create how young women university’s social develop a sense of self an enormous amount of stress space. Christian through their internal values invoke and rely and anxiety if left unresolved. socio-emotional on the heterosexual configuration, norm of getting feminist groupwork married and having children. In addition to being theory asks if there is something amiss with supported by the hierarchy and institutional how they are perceived through institutional structure of the Catholic Church itself, the school value systems. Feminism considers the power raises a lot of funds from conservative Catholic dynamic within marginalization and builds families who hold these conservative values, strength through women supporting each other and the school therefore cannot directly validate from a mutual experience of repression (Mizrahi, homosexuality without threatening its financial 2007). At this university in particular, the support. The children of donor families often administration has denied the queer community attend this college, so more students come from funding, endorsement, and visibility. (The backgrounds with traditional Christian family definition of queer in this usage is an affirmative value systems. Therefore, questioning one’s reclamation of a once derogatory term, now sexuality means putting oneself at risk of being inclusive of anyone who is gay, lesbian, bisexual, socially ostracized. Yet, to not be true to oneself transgendered or questioning their sexuality.) at this developmental stage is hypocritical and The absence of GLBTQ activities and support equally difficult to face. The tasks of forming a networks throughout years past has been a positive self-identity and being socially accepted conspicuous deficit for the queer identified are directly at odds for the student questioning students on campus who are in the crux of forming homosexuality and can create an enormous positive self-perceptions in a moral environment amount of stress and anxiety if left unresolved that does not approve of homosexuality. The (Potoczniak, Aldea, & DeBlarere, 2007). A repression that GLBTQ students endure comes new question emerges for the student in this in the form of both covert absence of support environment as she wonders how she can be and overt homophobia. Sandra Butler and Claire true to herself and be accepted by her peers. Wintram outline the many ways in which feminist
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groupwork can meet the needs of women facing co-facilitators. The advantage of the feminist repression: model is that every woman is considered an For women, the group is (1) a source of expert of her own experience. The group could immediate support, where the knowledge function outside of the conventional hierarchy that the meeting will take place at all based on age and education, so that the co- provides them with a sense of security; facilitators were acknowledged as learners while (2) a place to recognize shared also possessing their own expertise. Each young experiences and the value derived from woman was the authority in her own story, which them; (3) a way of breaking down fostered a sense of ownership of the group by the isolation and loneliness; (4) the source young woman as well as cultivated self-esteem in of a different perspective on personal each young woman’s identity as they explained problems; (5) a place to experience power their story to the group. over personal situations with the capacity to change and have an effect on them; Coming-out Theory and (6) a source of friendship. (1991) Queer youth have the highest suicide rate The primary goal of feminist groupwork of any adolescent group (Suicide Prevention then is to support individuals through the Resource Center, 2008). One valuable protective processes of changing their interpretations factor against suicide is the development of a of events as they relate to the building of their strong identity within a sympathetic community identity, and changing their environments where (Suicide Prevention Resource Center, 2008). The possible. In this particular cultural context any support group model is appropriate for queer theoretical model that originates from a system adolescents looking to normalize their sense of of correcting pathology reinforces a notion that self because it provides a common ground for the young women are somehow “wrong” and sharing personal experience through the shared need therapy in order to be “fixed.” Although queer youth can benefit from psychotherapeutic models and feminist group work can facilitate The advantage of the deeper understanding of the self through psychotherapy, it is important that the feminist feminist model is that group work is interpreted here as a secure every woman is support system in which they are held in high considered an expert regard so that students have the opportunity to independently develop strong and integral of her own experience. identities. Feminist theory also frames the role of the
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process of coming out. The largest obstacles in conveys the message that new participants are the coming out process are isolation, finding a always welcome, which is necessary because peer group, normalizing social and individual there is a fundamental understanding that ‘gay’ behavior, dating, individuating from the the purpose of the group is to be a friendly beliefs of their families of origin and reconciling place on campus for women to navigate the expectations from their culture of origin (Savin- coming out process. Because queer students Williams, 1995). All of these obstructions can be have a sense that they are denied access to reconciled through meeting simple social needs so many other areas of “normal” adolescent in a homogeneous setting. socialization, creating an exclusive environment Maintaining a group on campus that meets would somehow be hypocritical and potentially once a week, in which the only parameter is the harmful. Realistically the group could not be a willingness of each participant to talk about mandatory weekly meeting because academics sexual identity and marginalization, lends the are an obligation for the majority of students subject credence just by virtue of its existence. at this university. This particular university Consistent face-to-face contact with invested has a culture of high expectations for academic participants establishes community and group achievement, so if schoolwork demands extra belonging, based on the homogenous experience time it must be attended to. of gender and the examination of sexual The drop-in feature of this group model orientation. Bonding over these two interlocking is utilitarian, but posed some barriers to the facets of identity creates a microcosm of what it is consistency and cohesion of the group. The like to be comfortably queer, in part by handing coming out process is inherently emotional down templates of viable social interactions as a person relinquishes the privileges of and representations of the queer self from the heterosexuality. Since the group remained person who has mastered a sense of self to the permeable, confidentiality was not guaranteed, new participants seeking a model of how to be and because the group had inconsistent queer. As social norms developed in the LBQ attendance, building the trust necessary to meet group on campus, friendships arose naturally, deeper emotional challenges did not happen. and then the young women extended their social Trust grew throughout the academic year, but interactions outside of LBQ to incorporate other did not secure enough to allow for difficult queer students on campus, as well as extending internal experiences to surface. The drop-in themselves to form better friendships with model helped young women on campus feel students outside of that community. comfortable about attending meetings, but was not contained enough to facilitate deeper Drop-in Model investigations or sharing of the more difficult The open accessibility of the drop-in model emotions about coming out.
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lest their own sexuality be questioned. In order Themes and Therapeutic Factors to avoid other people’s discomfort or possible The therapeutic factors at play in LBQ are rejection, passing serves a purpose. However, if similar to the therapeutic factors Yalom (1985) a young woman passes all the time, how do her outlines for psychotherapy, but need to be lesbian peers recognize her? How does she find redefined some in order to fit the goals of a support someone she can relate to or someone to date? group (Peters, 1997). For example, corrective Coming out requires similar decision- emotional experiences may have happened for making. Coming out surfaced as a topic often the young women in the group, mostly because because it never happened just once for each they were able to relate to each other’s stories member. Stories were exchanged of coming out while spending time together. Throughout the first to close friends, then to roommates, later year, we reassessed the goals developed by the to parents, and finally to professors, classmates group. The students were consistently content and teammates. Simply walking into LBQ was a with the social and unstructured format. The form of coming out. Coming out reaffirmed each co-facilitators would have a topic prepared if young woman’s identity but also came with the the group wanted one, but more often than burden of being considered a representative for not, the conversation centered on an issue one all gay people in a community where bias and of the students brought up. An intentional misinformation is extensive because exposure to therapeutic approach was not employed. The and knowledge of queer culture is intentionally students were not taught how to examine their minimal or fragmented. Some of the group inner experience or comment on process as is members weighed the costs and benefits, chose common with intentionally therapeutic groups, to pass, and came out only to the group and a but they did benefit from being able to relate to few close friends in order to satisfy the need and share stories with a group of women who to be recognized as both a friend and possible shared similar concerns. girlfriend. Three themes developed over the Regardless of the degree to which each course of the year: whether or not to “pass” as woman chose to pass or come out, installation heterosexual, whether or not to come out as a of hope and universality developed immediately lesbian or bisexual, and what it means to have upon contact with the group. The hope each any of these identities. The ability to pass has woman was searching for was that she could both benefits and drawbacks. In a culture that be accepted for her sexual identity. The shames homosexuality, passing means being homogeneous LBQ group, coupled with a few able to function in circles one may otherwise stories from some of the more “out” students be rejected from. Straight students hesitate to of what it was like to be lesbian or bisexual socialize with women who may look like lesbians on campus, showed the universality of their
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concerns and instilled the hope that they could and are just there to have fun.” Discussions in remain intact individuals while navigating the LBQ that delineated “us vs. them” became the dilemma of remaining true to themselves while collective development of new socialization seeking social acceptance and intimacy. Catharsis techniques. The young women began to define occurred as they witnessed each other struggle how they wanted to relate with each other. with the same questions. Cohesion formed as Other women in the group, particularly they shared in their dilemma, which in turn those that were younger, did not speak much began to dissolve the fear of not belonging. during these conversations. This was a conscious In the middle stage of the group, their decision for one first-year student who said identities, now held in a place of growing she preferred to be quiet because she had a lot acceptance and security, could be tried on in to learn from the upperclassmen on campus. different ways. How However, after a group would the women choose conversation about how to separate themselves Three themes developed to identify a lesbian from the status quo? over the course of the by how many tattoos Some of the young year: whether or not or piercings she has, women found strength the first-year student to “pass” as heterosexual, in recognizing they had proudly showed off her the choice and the skill whether or not to come tattoo and told the group to determine how much out as a lesbian or the story of its meaning. they would pass in any bisexual, and what it Being able to observe given setting. They means to have any of and learn behaviors that imparted information, these identities. echoed the value system sometimes in the form of the group made her of direct advice, about more comfortable in her how to fit into a particular situation while role in the group. simultaneously defending the idea that they did Altruism developed as a final therapeutic not have to be like every other girl on campus factor as opposed to one that was integrated whom they described as all having long hair, into ongoing conversations. Being there for and tight jeans, and North Face jackets. By passing, supporting the other women in the group was they could go to “normal” parties, but then a given for all participants: each student came decided that the parties were disappointing. As to satisfy her own needs but also understood one girl described it, “all [the straight students] how important it was to show up for her peers. do is get drunk and try to hit one each other; at Sharing stories, opinions and advice are part of least when we hang out, we all dance together the feminist groupwork model. At a basic level,
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doing good for others congers feelings of positive college life thereby developing healthy identities self worth. However, these young women were and paving the way to a successful college career. relatively high functioning and self-confident. More research can be done about the benefits of So, relative to the high-functionality of the peer support groups on college campuses. In this women in the group, the most demanding form particular example, a grassroots peer support of altruism they could invest in was to recognize group hosted by the college women’s center and the personal as political. By outing themselves to led by graduate students has become a gathering the whole school, they could help the nameless spot for young women interested in dialoging others too scared to do so. They became willing about sexual identity. The LBQ group provides to let go of any kind of passing status in order some insight into how a queer support group for to instill hope in people, some they had never women can operate. met, by showing that being gay and living a full life is possible. At the end of the year, a small and discrete gathering was held in order to References toast the graduating GLBTQ student leaders. AACRAO Survey Results: Campuses Provide Supportive One professor succinctly stated that to go to Environments for Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, Transgender this school and be out on this campus, when (GLBT) Community. (2005). Journal of American College Health, 192. there were so many easier places to be gay, was Butler, S., & Wintram, C. (1991). Feminist Groupwork. truly an act of courage and a gift to the entire Newbury Park, CA: Sage. community. Erikson, E. (1980). Identity and the life cycle. New York: The process of defining one’s sexuality Norton. never really ends. It is a broad conversation Jurgens, J. C., Schwitzer, A. M., & Middleton, T. (2004). rarely contained in, or adequately expressed Examining attitudes toward college students with minority by, binary terms such as gay or straight. It sexual orientations: Findings and suggestions. Journal of affects gender, identity, and a sense of well College Psychotherapy, 19, 57-75. Love, P. G. (1998). Cultural barriers facing lesbian, gay being and belonging. Research in the field of and bisexual students at a Catholic college. The Journal of higher education is giving more attention to the Higher Education, 69, 298-323. developmental needs of college students and Mizrahi, T. (2007). Women’s ways of organizing: Strengths thus more is being demanded of universities, and struggles of women activists over time. Journal of especially when considering the needs of its Women & Social Work, 22, 39-55. minority student population. Particularly at Peters, A. J. (1997). Themes in groupwork with lesbian and risk are queer students in Catholic universities. gay adolescents. Social Work with Groups, 20, 51-69. Although the culture of a school can be difficult Potoczniak, D. J., Aldea, M. A., & DeBlaere, C. (2007). Ego identity, social anxiety, social support, and self- to change, simple supportive mechanisms can be concealment in lesbian, gay and bisexual individuals. put into place to help queer students acclimate to
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Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 447-457. Savin-Williams, R. C. (1995). Lesbian, Gay Male, and Bisexual Adolescents. In A. R. D’Augelli & C. Patterson (Eds.), Lesbian, Gay & Bisexual Identities Over the Lifespan. Oxford University Press: New York. Suicide Prevention Resource Center. (2008). Suicide risk and prevention for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth. Newton, MA: Education Development Center, Inc. Yalom, I. D. (1985). The Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy. 3rd ed. New York: Basic Books Inc.
Where can LBQ women find support at Boston College? www.bc.edu/wrc The Lesbian, Bisexual, Questioning Group (LBQ) is hosted by the WRC and supports women on campus by fostering a better understanding of sexuality and women’s issues through weekly meetings. Also hosted by the WRC, Queer Peers is a student-led group that serves as a safe space and support resource for GLBTQ and allied students (office hours three days a week). www.bc.edu/offices/odsd/meta-elements/pdf/GLTBQ-booklet-edited.pdf The Office of the Dean for Student Development publishes this extensive resource guide for GLBTQ students, including student groups, individuals in a wide range of offices, and off-campus resources.
How can I help fight for the equality of GLBTQ people? www.bcglbt.org/Home.htm Join the GLBTQ Leadership Council (GLC), a student group that works to increase the visibility and better the quality of life of the GLBTQ community at Boston College.
Where else can I find information and support for LGBTQ youth? www.amplifyyourvoice.org/youthresource YouthResource, hosted by Advocates for Youth, is a website written by and for GLBTQ youth to provide information and support through online peer education and other resources.
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CALL FOR SUBMISSIONS
We are now accepting submissions for next year’s publication of Voices on a rolling basis. We welcome all original academic papers written by Boston College undergraduate and graduate students on topics within the broad spectrum of women’s and gender studies. We gladly accept papers from students in any school or department, including those previously written for a class.
Manuscript style should follow the guidelines of the American Psychological Association (APA) with a complete reference list and no footnotes (i.e., use only citations incorporated into the text). Please submit in Microsoft Word format. Include your paper title, full name, school, major(s) and minor(s), and contact information. Please do not submit a paper that is being considered for publication by another journal.
For more information or to submit a paper, email [email protected].
Want to get involved with Voices?
We are looking for creative, hard-working undergraduates with an interest in women’s and gender studies to join the team next year! We need people interested or skilled in editing, website design, and graphic design.
For more information, email [email protected].
VOICES Spring 2010 Copyright © by the Women’s and Gender Studies Program of Boston College