Art and Identity

Art and Identity: Visual Culture, Politics and Religion in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance

Edited by

Sandra Cardarelli, Emily Jane Anderson and John Richards

Art and Identity: Visual Culture, Politics and Religion in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Edited by Sandra Cardarelli, Emily Jane Anderson and John Richards

This book first published 2012

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2012 by Sandra Cardarelli, Emily Jane Anderson and John Richards and contributors

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-4438-3628-1, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-3628-9

For Emma

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Illustrations ...... ix

Foreword ...... xv

Acknowledgements ...... xvii

Introduction ...... xix

SECTION I: PARADING IDENTITIES ? VISUAL CULTURE , CIVIC RITUALS , RELIGIOUS PRACTICES AND THE CELEBRATION OF SAINTS

Chapter One...... 3 Images of Saints and Political Identity in Late-Medieval Italy Brendan Cassidy

Chapter Two ...... 19 Civic Identity, Sanctity and Gender in Trecento Florence Catherine Lawless

Chapter Three ...... 45 The Cathedral, the Church and the City: Celebrating Saints in the Statutes of Southern Tuscan Cities Sandra Cardarelli

Chapter Four...... 71 Death and Disruption: Social Identity and Representation in the Medieval English Funeral Sarah Schell

Chapter Five ...... 97 Memorare Novissima Tua . The Iconography of the Last Four Things as a Representation of Religious Identity Jacek Kowzan viii Table of Contents

SECTION II: AFFIRMING IDENTITY AND IDENTITY CRISIS : EXPLORING ARTISTIC , POLITICAL , NATIONAL AND PERSONAL IDENTITIES

Chapter Six ...... 127 Being Florentine: A Question of Identity in the Arte della Lana , Florence Jill Harrison

Chapter Seven...... 149 Maintaining Identity: The Fifteenth-Century Renovation of St Lebuinus in Deventer Kees van der Ploeg

Chapter Eight...... 167 The Political and Cultural Influence of James V’s Court on the Decoration of the King’s Fountain in Linlithgow Palace Giovanna Guidicini

SECTION III: ASSUMED , MISTAKEN AND ESTABLISHED IDENTITIES : INVESTIGATING ICONOGRAPHY , STYLE , PATRONAGE AND AUTHORSHIP

Chapter Nine...... 193 The Dedication Illustration of the Passional of Abbess Cunegund – and Questions of Identity Jennifer Vl ček Schurr

Chapter Ten ...... 219 Negotiating Carmelite Identity: The Scuola dei Santi Alberto e Eliseo at Santa Maria dei Carmini in Venice Joseph Hammond

Chapter Eleven ...... 243 Finding Fialetti: Examining the Oeuvre of Odoardo Fialetti through the Sources Relating to His English Patronage Laura Walters

Further Reading...... 269

Contributors...... 271

Index...... 277 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Fig. 1-1. Giovanni di Balduccio and assistants, Tomb of Azzo Visconti , marble, c.1340-44, Milan, S. Gottardo in Corte (Photo: Author).

Fig. 1-2. Arnolfo di Cambio, Madonna and Child with Saints Reparata and Zenobius , marble, c. 1300, Florence, Museo dell’Opera del Duomo (Photo: Author).

Fig. 1-3. Emperor Constantine’s Donation to St Sylvester , fresco, c.1245, Rome, Quattro Santi Coronati (Photo: Author).

Fig. 1-4. Gano di Fazio, attributed, Two Scenes from the Tomb of Beato Gioacchino Piccolomini , marble, 1308-11, 45 x c.112 cm. Siena, Pinacoteca (Photo: Author).

Fig. 1-5. Bonino da Campione, Tomb of Cansignorio della Scala (detail), marble, c. 1375, Verona, S. Maria Antica (Photo: Author).

Fig. 1-6. Marco Romano, attributed, Madonna and Child with Saints Himerius and Homobonus , marble, c. 1310 , Cremona, Cathedral facade (Photo: Author).

Fig. 2-1. Bernardo Daddi, Virgin and Child with angels and Sts Zenobius, Pancras, John the Evangelist, John the Baptist, Minias and Reparata , c. 1330- 48, tempera on panel. Florence, Uffizi, 8345. Reproduced courtesy of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, Soprintendenza Speciale per il Patrimonio Storico, Artistico ed Etnoantropologico e per il Polo Museale della città di Firenze. Any further reproduction by any means is strictly forbidden.

Fig. 2-2. Bernardo Daddi, The Arrival of St Ursula at Cologne , c. 1333, wing of triptych, tempera and gold leaf on panel, 60.5 x 62.9 cm. The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles, A.70, PB-53. Reproduced courtesy of The J. Paul Getty Museum.

Fig. 2-3. Master of St Ursula, St Ursula rescuing Pisa from the flood , c. 1380- 1400, tempera on panel, 3. 58 x 1. 88 m. Pisa, Museo Civico. Seat Archive/Alinari Archives, Florence. Photo Tatge, George for Alinari.

Fig. 2-4. Orcagna, St Anne protecting the city of Florence , c. 1343-1363, detached fresco. Florence, Palazzo Vecchio. Reproduced courtesy of the Musei Civici Fiorentini. Any further reproduction by any means is strictly forbidden. x List of Illustrations

Fig. 2-5. Jacopo di Cione, Niccolò di Pietro Gerini and Simone di Lapo di Nuccio, Coronation of the Virgin Surrounded by the Protector Saints of Florence , 1372-3, tempera on panel. Florence, Accademia, 456. Reproduced courtesy of the Ministero per i Beni e le Attività Culturali, Soprintendenza Speciale per il Patrimonio Storico, Artistico ed Etnoantropologico e per il Polo Museale della città di Firenze. Any further reproduction by any means is strictly forbidden.

Fig. 3-1. Matteo di Giovanni, Vergine Assunta , also known as Madonna delle Grazie , c. 1470-75. Tempera and gold on panel, 98 x 60 cm. Grosseto, cathedral of S. Lorenzo. © Photo Lensini, Siena. Reproduced with the permission of the Diocese of Grosseto, Ufficio Beni Culturali Ecclesiastici.

Fig. 3-2. Antonio Ghini, Altar of the Madonna delle Grazie , marble, 1474, Grosseto, cathedral of S. Lorenzo. Courtesy of the Diocese of Grosseto. (Photo: O. Bruschettini).

Fig 3-3. Hypothetical reconstruction of the route of the Madonna delle Grazie during the processions in her honour. After L. Viviani, Prospettiva della piazza di Grosseto, 1733. Acquisti Diversi, 142.II, c. 95. Courtesy of the Biblioteca Moreniana, Florence (Photo: D. Pineider).

Fig. 3-4. Cristoforo di Bindoccio and Meo di Pero, detail of the fresco cycle with the story of the life of the Virgin, 1393, church of S. Maria Assunta, Campagnatico. Courtesy of the Diocese of Grosseto (Photo: Author).

Fig. 3-5. Cristoro di Bindoccio and Meo di Pero, detail of fresco decoration with the arms of the commune of Campagnatico and the Opera of the church. Courtesy of the Diocese of Grosseto (Photo: Author).

Fig. 4-1. Funeral scene, c. 1260-c. 1270. London, © The British Library Board, Egerton 1151 , fol. 118, detail.

Fig. 4-2. The Three Marys at the Tomb, Resurrection of Christ; Deathbed and funeral scene , 1361?-1373. London, ©The British Library Board, Egerton 3277, fol. 142, detail.

Fig. 4-3. Funeral Scene , c. 1360. Liverpool, University Library, F. 3.14, fol. 180, detail. By courtesy of the University of Liverpool Library.

Fig. 5-1. Woodcuts from Cordiale (here wrongly attributed by L. Malke, 1976, to Dionysius Carthusianus). Courtesy of Deutscher Verein für Kunstwissenschaft.

Fig. 5-2. Anton Wierix in Stephanus Luzvic, Cor Deo Devotum , Antverpiae 1628. Glasgow University Library, Department of Special Collections (Sp Coll S.M. Add. 422).

Art and Identity xi

Fig. 5-3. Boëtius à Bolswert in H. Hugo, Pia desideria , Antverpiae 1636. Glasgow University Library, Department of Special Collections (Sp. Coll. S.M. 623).

Fig. 5-4. John Payne in F. Quarles, Emblemes , London 1635. Glasgow University Library, Department of Special Collections, (Sp. Coll. S.M. 882).

Fig. 5-5. The Four Last Things , Polish anonymous painter after Hieronymus Wierix, Bazylika Trójcy Przenaj świ ętszej, Krosno, Poland, mid 17 th century, photographed by M. Bronarski. Reproduced by courtesy of Zamek Królewski w Warszawie.

Fig. 6-1. The trecento Audience Chamber of the Arte della Lana , fresco, Florence. Photo: David Clarke. Reproduced with the permission of the Società Dantesca Italiana.

Fig. 6-2. The four patron saints of the Wool Guild convents. Left to right, San Martino, San Pancrazio, San Pietro, Sant’Agostino. Below are the symbols of the convent districts, the keys of San Piero in Porta, the scarlet claw of San Pancrazio, the wheel of San Pier Scheraggio and the arches of the Oltrarno, fresco, east wall. Photo: David Clarke. Reproduced with the permission of the Società Dantesca Italiana.

Fig. 6-3. Brutus, the Good Judge Supported by the Four Cardinal Virtues . Allegorical political fresco by a follower of Giotto, Audience Chamber of the Arte della Lana , c. 1340, fresco, west wall, Florence. Photo: David Clarke. Reproduced with the permission of the Società Dantesca Italiana.

Fig. 6-4. Fortitude, wearing a lion skin and holding a shield depicting the symbol of the twelve winds of antiquity. One of the four cardinal Virtues in the ceiling vault of the Audience Chamber of the Arte della Lana , fresco, Florence. Photo: David Clarke. Reproduced with the permission of the Società Dantesca Italiana.

Fig. 7-1. Deventer, Church of St Lebuinus , second half of the fifteenth century (photo: Rijksdienst Cultureel Erfgoed, Amersfoort, 1952). The south tower is the only element realized of the intended twin-towered façade.

Fig. 7-2. Deventer, Bergkerk (St Nicholas), twin-towered façade, late twelfth century (photo: Rijksdienst Cultureel Erfgoed, Amersfoort, 1959).

Fig. 7-3. Deventer, Church of St Lebuinus , crypt, c. 1040 (photo: Rijksdienst Cultureel Erfgoed, Amersfoort, 1958). xii List of Illustrations

Fig. 7-4. Deventer, Church of St Lebuinus , interior, towards east (photo: Rijksdienst Cultureel Erfgoed, Amersfoort, 1953). The main altar was always at the very end of the high choir, whereas since the 1240s at the latest the choir-stalls were relocated into the crossing, which is at a much lower level.

Fig. 7-5. Deventer, Church of St Lebuinus, reconstruction of liturgical arrangement in crossing and chancel (drawing by author, 2011, based on a plan by R. Glaudemans, 1992). Figures indicate main altar of St Lebuinus (1), chapter’s altar of St John Chrysostom (2), altar of the Holy Cross (3) before roodloft, north entrance crypt (4), south entrance crypt (5). The number of choir stalls is approximative, as are the dimensions of the roodloft.

Fig. 8-1. An overall view of Linlithgow fountain from East (Photo: Author).

Fig. 8-2. Heraldic statues from the bottom level of Linlithgow fountain. From top left clockwise, lion, stag, unicorn, and another unicorn. (Photo: Author).

Fig. 8-3. BNF, Melusine as a nursing siren in one of sixteen pictures painted by master Guillebert de Mets 1410-1420 (Bibliothèque Nationale de France, manuscript fr 12575 f° 89).

Fig. 8-4. (Top) CH AEG, Archives de Familles, 3e série Delamare, Coat of arms with a Melusine granted to Etienne de la Mare by Charles III of Savoy (Société d'Histoire et d'Archéologie de Genève). (Bottom) The Palace of Linlithgow in Timothy Pont’s map, c. 1583-96, West Lothian and Linlithgow. NLS, Adv.MS.70.2.9 (Pont [36]v). Reproduced by permission of the Trustees of the National Library of Scotland.

Fig. 8-5. Statues from the middle level of the fountain. From top left clockwise: wise man (A), young hunter (B), drummer (C), Melusine (D), elder hunter (E), wine carrier (F), sailor (G) and St Michael (H). (Photo: Author).

Fig. 9-1. Dedication Illustration , Passional of Abbess Cunegund , NK ČR, XIV.A.17, fol. 1v, parchment, 1312, 30 x 25 cm. National Library of the Czech Republic, Prague. (Reproduction courtesy of the National Library of the Czech Republic).

Fig. 9-2. Supplicant nun with Christ, Passional of Abbess Cunegund , NK ČR XIV.A.17, fol. 7v, parchment, 1312, 30 x 25 cm. National Library of the Czech Republic, Prague. (Reproduction courtesy of the National Library of the Czech Republic).

Fig. 9-3. Guide Letters, Passional of Abbess Cunegund , NK ČR XIV.A.17, fol. 24r (detail), parchment, 1312, 30 x 25 cm. National Library of the Czech Republic, Prague. (Reproduction courtesy of the National Library of the Czech Republic). Art and Identity xiii

Fig. 9-4. Scribal notation, Passional of Abbess Cunegund , NK ČR XIV.A.17, fol. 15r (detail), parchment, 1312, 30 x 25 cm. National Library of the Czech Republic, Prague. (Reproduction courtesy of the National Library of the Czech Republic).

Fig. 9-5. Christ’s seamless robe, Passional of Abbess Cunegund , NK ČR, XIV.A.17, fol. 3r (detail to left), fol. 8r (detail to right) parchment,1312, 30 x 25 cm. National Library of the Czech Republic, Prague (Reproduction courtesy of the National Library of the Czech Republic).

Fig. 10-1. Cima da Conegliano, Lamentation over Dead Christ with St Albert and the Prophet Elisha oil on canvas, c. 1512, 199 x 148 cm. Moscow, Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts. Reproduced with the permission of the Archivio della Curia Patriarcale di Venezia.

Fig. 10-2. Pietro Liberi, St Albert Curing the Sick, 1664, oil on canvas, Venice, Santa Maria dei Carmini. Reproduced with the permission of the Archivio della Curia Patriarcale di Venezia.

Fig. 10-3. Alvise dal Friso, Lamentation over the Dead Christ with St Albert and Confraternity Members , c. 1580, oil on canvas, Venice, Santa Maria dei Carmini. Reproduced with the permission of the Archivio della Curia Patriarcale di Venezia.

Fig. 11-1. Odoardo Fialetti, Venus Punishing Cupid from the Scherzi d’Amore , 1617, etching, 17.8 x 9.3 cm. London, British Museum, Department of Prints and Drawings. [Italian XVIIc Mounted Roy, 1925,0331.10] © Trustees of the British Museum.

Fig. 11-2. Odoardo Fialetti, after Pordenone, Diana from the Four Divinities Series , 1614, etching, 14.5 x 20.6 cm. London, British Museum, Department of Prints and Drawings. [Italian XVIIc Mounted Roy, X,2.57] © Trustees of the British Museum.

Fig. 11-3. Odoardo Fialetti, Title Page from Il uero modo et ordine , 1608, etching, 11.0 x 14.9 cm. London, British Museum, Department of Prints and Drawings. [Italian XVIIc Mounted Roy, U,5.44] © Trustees of the British Museum.

Fig. 11-4. Sir Anthony van Dyck, Study of a Leg from the Italian Sketchbook , c. 1614-1641, pen and brown ink drawing. London, British Museum, Department of Prints and Drawings. [Flemish c.204 XVIIc, 1957-12-14-207, f. 48] © Trustees of the British Museum. xiv List of Illustrations

Fig. 11-5. Odoardo Fialetti, Plate of the Upper Thigh from Il uero modo et ordine , 1608, etching. 9.3 x 13.9 cm. London, British Museum, Department of Prints and Drawings. [Italian XVIIc Mounted Roy, U,5.47] © Trustees of the British Museum. FOREWORD

Three years ago, a group of doctoral researchers and established academics took part in the “Art and Identity” conference at the University of Aberdeen (26- 27 June 2008), with the desire to explore how art production and visual culture contributed to the construction of local, national, personal, and collective identity in Medieval and Renaissance times. The conference was sponsored by the College of Arts and Social Sciences and the School of Divinity, History and Philosophy of the University of Aberdeen, and included a wide range of papers relating to the visual arts and their relationship with religion, politics and cultural identity . The conference was organised by Sandra Cardarelli (University of Aberdeen), Emily Jane Anderson (University of Glasgow), and Joanne Anderson (University of Warwick). In the course of developing this book Dr John Richards (University of Glasgow) joined Sandra and Emily Jane on the editorial board.

This volume includes a selection of papers from the conference and further papers, such as Dr Catherine Lawless’ (University of Limerick), and Dr Kees van der Ploeg’s (University of Groningen), which were developed by their authors specifically for this publication.

This book combines a thorough interdisciplinary approach with new archival research and the examination of visual evidence, as well as careful consideration of social, historic and economic factors. Overall it questions how artistic output influenced the rituals and practices that affirmed the interests and aims of a society, a group, or individuals, but also addresses the visual arts as a vehicle for the expression of emotion, behaviour, customs and traditions. Artistic identity, through the analysis of authorship, attribution and modes of representation is also investigated, with reference to civic, lay and religious patronage, art theory and practice.

This study is of significant interest for academics and students alike, as well as being accessible to the wider public audience interested in the fields of art and cultural history. The volume is concerned with a wider analysis of the overall context from a historical and sociological viewpoint. The topics outlined combine an attention for less researched geographic xvi Foreword areas with an interest in the relationships between centres of power and peripheries. Global and local influences and artistic production are investigated in the volume, making it particularly relevant to a variety of research fields in the humanities.

Sandra Cardarelli, University of Aberdeen Emily Jane Anderson, University of Glasgow John Richards, University of Glasgow

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this volume would have not been possible without the help, support and expertise of many people. First of all I would like to thank my co-editors, Emily Jane Anderson and John Richards, who shared with me the editorial work.

A wholehearted thank you goes to all our contributors, who worked with the editors in the preparation of this volume and have enthusiastically taken part in this adventure. This project started in 2008 with the Art and Identity conference in the department of History of Art at the University of Aberdeen.

A number of library, archives, institutions in the U.K. and abroad assisted by providing access, expertise, images or funding to individual contributors for this volume, thus making possible the research for the articles outlined here. In particular, we would like to thank the Arts and Humanities Research Council; the Museo dell’Opera del Duomo (Florence); the Pinacoteca Civica (Siena); the Soprintendenza ai Beni Culturali and the Polo Museale Fiorentino (Florence); Alinari Archives; the Musei Civici Fiorentini (Florence); the British Library; the University of Liverpool Library; the Diocese of Grosseto and particularly Monsignor Franco Cencioni, Dr Olivia Bruschettini and Don Ivano Rossi; the Biblioteca Chelliana of Grosseto; Dr. Marta Gori at the Biblioteca Moreniana (Florence); the Archivio di Stato of Siena; the Archivio di Stato of Grosseto; the Archivio Segreto Vaticano and the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana; the Deutscher Verein für Kunstwissenschaft (Berlin); the University of Glasgow Library (Department of Special Collections); the Zamek Królewski w Warszawie (Poland); the Società Dantesca Italiana (Florence); the Rijksdienst Cultureel Erfgoed (Amersfoort); the Bibliothèque Nationale de France; the Société d'Histoire et d'Archéologie de Genève; the National Library of Scotland; the National Library of the Czech Republic; the Archivio della Curia Patriarcale (Venice); The Catherine and Alfred Forrest Trust, the Diana Kreble Delmas Foundation; The British Museum; The Russell Trust; the Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana (Venice), and the Archivio di Stato di Venezia. xviii Acknowledgements

The editors and authors are particularly grateful to the University of Aberdeen; the University of St Andrews; the University of Glasgow, the University of Edinburgh, the Open University; the University of Groningen, and the University of Limerick.

Special appreciation is due to the staff at Cambridge Scholars Publishing, and we are particularly grateful to Amanda Millar for her help, support, and patience throughout the preparation of this volume. We would also like to extend our gratitude to Carol Koulikourdi for her help in the final stages of the preparation for this publication, and to Soucin Yip- Sou, for designing a most attractive cover.

Sandra Cardarelli University of Aberdeen

INTRODUCTION

In the last decades scholarship has become increasingly concerned with questions of identity in relation to the visual arts. A number of publications exploring the ways in which art conveyed and embodied the identity of patrons, artists, social groups, cities or nations in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, have offered new focus and rekindled the interest of art historians in the fields of visual culture and social art history. Martin Wackernagel’s volume “The World of the Florentine Renaissance Artist” was first published in German in 1938. 1 His seminal study on 15 th-century Florentine artistic output in context, did not only detail the mechanics of some important public and private commissions, but it also revealed how these commissions reflected the ethos of Florentine society, civic, lay and religious patrons, and the artists who were engaged to carry out these commissions. 2 Crucially, Wackernagel also underscored the changes that concerned the status of the artist and the relationship with patrons in the course of that century. 3 Different aspects of the artist’s life, the environment in which he operated, and the type of commissions he faced, are the objects of Hayden Maginnis’ volume “The world of the early Sienese painter” (2001). His study provides, by means of archival research and analysis of visual evidence, a vivid picture of the way in which Sienese artists gained commissions, established workshop practices and consolidated their position within society and, by doing so, built their identity. Maginnis documented the multi-faceted reality of a rigidly structured society, whereby the artist-citizen’s existence was inextricably tied to his affiliation to the guild, the government, or confraternity. However, the emergence of the artist’s own individual identity is examined alongside a variety of lay, civic and religious commissions within the historic and social context of medieval Siena. In more recent years, other scholars have looked at the commissioning of artworks as a means of establishing identities. 4 In particular, Carol Richardson has highlighted how medieval cities were linked to each other by trade, banking and commercial routes. These connections enriched local cultures and became part of the construction of local identities (Richardson 2007, II: 15). Her study suggests that the influence of major cities towards minor centres constituted only one aspect of a more xx Introduction complex relationship whereby influences in the construction of local and common cultural identities were reciprocal (Richardson 2007, II: 15-22). Richardson details the relationship between Florence and Rome, and the role that Florentine artists had in the construction of visual imagery, and thus of the identities, of these two cities. One of the issues that she explores looks at how the artists’ exposure to classical antiquities and the cosmopolitan cultural environment of Rome reflected on their work, and ultimately contributed to the construction of their own artistic identity (Richardson 2007, II: 25-61). Further to these studies, this volume proposes an overview of different aspects of the relationship between art and identity between the 13 th and early 17 th centuries in Europe. It explores how modes of creation, circulation, reception and perception of visual imagery contributed to the establishment, development, and endurance of artistic, social, political, and religious identities. The book is divided into three sections. Section One seeks to elucidate questions related to art as a means of political propaganda, or as a way of promoting personal and family status and values. This section also aims to identify how social groups defined themselves through the commissioning of imagery that aimed to portray ideals the patrons could aspire to. The relationship between secular and religious powers, and how these shaped the cult of saints, and how and to what extent the agendas of rulers or civic governments were reflected in the creation of art, or aimed to maintain power, are also discussed here. Brendan Cassidy (Chapter One) explores the relationship between power and visual imagery and how this shaped the cults of patron saints in a series of inter-locking case studies including Naples, Siena, Florence and Milan. It shows the way in which monarchic, republican and seigniorial governments sought validation of their authority through the commissioning of visual imagery depicting locally venerated saints, the establishment of ceremonies to celebrate them, and the performance of their piety in a public context. Cassidy further differentiates between imagery and rituals implemented by monarchic or seigniorial rulers, such as in the case of the Angevins in Naples and the Visconti in Milan, and those promoted by Republican governments as in the case of Florence and Siena, whose ideology endorsed the benefits of communalism over individualism. 5 The veneration of saints as an expression of collective civic identity is the object of Catherine Lawless’ contribution (Chapter Two). Her study suggests that gender, social and historical factors influenced and ultimately decided upon the prominence and popularity of the saints that represented the Florentine state and its values. The author offers a nuanced overview Art and Identity xxi of the relationship between gender, religion and politics in medieval Florence. The cases of Saints Reparata and Anne are examined here in light of documentary and visual evidence, to show that, although they benefitted from civic and popular devotion over a lengthy period of time, they eventually fell out of fashion as they embodied virtues that were considered an unsuitable match for the Republican government. The cult of Reparata as protectress of the city of Florence developed also in other northern Tuscan cities, and it is interesting to note that although the old cathedral of Florence was dedicated to Reparata, originally there were no relics of this saint in that church. Since the early years of Christianity it became customary to dedicate churches to the saint whose relics were housed in that church. Williamson (2004, 354-355) has pointed out, how according to the Fifth Council of Carthage (401) and the Second Council of Chelsea (816), when the relics of the saint martyr were not available, the Eucharist had to be placed in the altar. This might have been the case for the church of S. Reparata in Florence, as an attempt to acquire a relic of this saint was made only in 1352. As noted by Goldthwaite, the veneration of relics is a long-standing tradition that dates back to St Augustine, and this increased dramatically by the early 13 th century, as a result of the conquest of Constantinople (Goldthwaite 1993, 112). According to Canon law, all altars needed a titulus or dedication and these were defined either by an inscription or an image, so relics became increasingly exposed to popular devotion beneath or on altars in richly decorated reliquaries (Durand 1995: I, iii: 26-27; 31). As far as Marian relics are concerned, in some instances the scarcity of them corresponded to stronger devotional focus on Marian-related icons. These images were pivotal to the veneration of the Virgin and compensated for the lack of relics (Goldthwaite 1993, 113). Marian imagery, devotional practices and civic rituals, are the object of my contribution to the volume (Chapter Three), which examines two case studies in the southern Tuscan cities of Grosseto and Campagnatico that were part of Sienese controlled territories in Medieval and Renaissance times. Their scope is two-fold: firstly it reassesses the commission for the panel representing the Assumption and known as Madonna delle Grazie for the cathedral of Grosseto, and secondly it challenges existing scholarship that considered the panel to be the remnant part of a larger altarpiece. In this chapter I argue that the painting was conceived in the present form to suit its dual function as an altarpiece and as a portable icon that was used in both religious and civic rituals and processions. This chapter also considers the frescoes in the chapel dedicated to the Virgin in the church of S. Maria Assunta in Campagnatico, xxii Introduction as the settings for civic and religious rituals alike. Moreover, this study suggests that the political relationship and cultural exchange that occurred between these two cities and the dominant commune of Siena was far more varied than previously envisaged, and calls for reconsideration of the role of Siena in the construction of local identities. In Chapter Four, Sarah Schell explores the ways that representations of medieval funerals in the prayer cycle of the Office of the Dead underscored social differentiation and functioned as both a reminder of the dead, and a depiction of the rituals that accompanied the dead in their journey to the afterlife. As Binski observed, death and its representation in the medieval world were codified through the culture of penance to win salvation as reported in the Ars Moriendi, two Latin texts that appeared between the early and mid-15 th century (Binski 1996, 42 and ff.). He shows how the attitude to the body and soul changed in the course of time, and how burials and visual imagery related to death underpinned the passage between life and death, and were strictly related to the social status of the deceased. In the wake of Binski’s study, Schell’s contribution argues that the depiction of funerals in the Office of the Dead did not have a mere decorative function, but were devised as part of the provision for the salvation of the soul. Indeed, from the 14 th century, last wills show that people became increasingly concerned with how to dispose of their soul as well as their material possessions. An increasing number of donations and legacies to churches, religious orders and other pious institutions appear in medieval wills as a means to gain salvation. Moreover, as Schell points out, these images provide visual evidence of belonging to a specific social group through the grand display of lights on the structure of the hearse. 6 The theme of salvation is also underlined in the last chapter of this section. Jacek Kowzan (Chapter Five) examines how the iconography of the Last Four Things—Death, Last Judgement, Heaven and Hell— reflected and shaped religious identity in both, pre and post-tridentine times. His study shows how meditation on the Last Four Things to gain salvation became exemplified in literature and imagery to fulfil the increasing popular focus on piety and devotion. This study provides an overview on how these developed between the 15 th and 17 th centuries, including an analysis of the controversial painting of The Seven Deadly Sins and the Last Four Things , by Hieronymus Bosch. 7 This surge in popular piety may be related to the development of a new religious movement founded by Gerard Grote and known as Devotio Moderna , in the Low Countries. 8 The movement took shape within Roman Catholicism from the late 14 th century and focused on the rediscovery of spiritual Art and Identity xxiii meditation, methodical prayer and the imitation of Christ, attracting followers from different Christian faiths. However, in the course of the following two centuries literature and imagery of the Last Four Things gradually underwent a series of changes. These can be ascribed to the affirmation of the doctrine of Purgatory and thus of the idea that souls that are not completely free from sin may reach salvation in Heaven through a temporary process of purification. This intermediate passage between Heaven and Hell was not contemplated in the Last Four Things, albeit the transitional condition of Purgatory was rooted in ancient traditions, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church. The notion of Purgatory was developed through the medieval period and was further defined as a doctrine by the Council of Trent (3 rd -4th December 1563). The Council reaffirmed the reality of Purgatory and the efficacy of suffrages for the souls of the dead. On the basis of visual evidence and relevant literature Kowzan maintains that the religious and cultural differentiation created by the Reformation and consequent Counter- Reformation, often translated only in modest changes in the iconography of the Last Four Things that was available to the wider audience. The Second Section of this volume examines how architecture and fresco cycles embodied the ethos and values of individual patrons or entire communities, and how these works could help in merging conflicting interests and dealing with internal struggles. The issue of how governments and, more generally, civic offices such as the guilds developed, maintained, or changed their identities alongside political struggles and social and economic changes is investigated here. In particular, Jill Harrison (Chapter Six) investigates a little known fresco cycle that decorates the former Guild Hall of the Arte della Lana building in Florence. The Arte della Lana was one of the major guilds, established around 1266 by a group of laymen known as Padri Umiliati , who were skilled in the making of wool cloths. The guild quickly became one of the most powerful in the city, and in 1331 it was appointed to manage the financial resources granted by the government for the building of the new cathedral of S. Maria del Fiore, through the appointment of three builders in chief or Operai .9 The role of the guild as patron of art in relation to the fresco cycle in the Guild Hall is reconsidered here in light of the figures represented in the cycle, their iconography, and the historic and social context in which this commission took place. This chapter suggests that the fresco is a carefully devised display of sacred and allegorical figures whose aim was, on the one hand, to show the attitude of contemporary society to wealth, and on the other, advise that wealth cannot be separated from common good and justice. 10 Harrison goes back to the roots of xxiv Introduction medieval political ideas and how this reflected on the development of the fresco cycle in the Guild Hall of the Arte della Lana by means of visual analysis and examination of relevant literature. In recent years, Quentin Skinner substantially dismantled previous theories on their direct reference to Aristotelian or Thomist ideals of good government, when referring to the political significance of the frescoes of the Buon Governo in the Palazzo Pubblico of Siena (Skinner 1991, 98: 3-5).11 In his revision of duecento and trecento political theories regarding the government of city- states, he suggests that pre-humanist political ideals theorized by writers such as Orfino da Lodi, Giovanni da Viterbo and Brunetto Latini were the reference texts upon which the frescoes of the Buon Governo were developed. However, Harrison challenges this view and proposes that scholars such as Brunetto Latini were in fact acquainted with and influenced by Cicero and Aristotle. According to their ideas the ultimate aim of good and successful governors was the common good, harmony, and peace, and this was the message that the fresco in the Palazzo of the Arte della Lana in Florence aimed to convey.12 How local traditions impacted the construction, decoration and maintenance of major religious buildings is one of the key concerns of Chapter Seven. Here, Kees van der Ploeg examines the architectural development of the church of St Lebuinus in Deventer, in the heart of the Netherlands, from its foundation in 1046 through the two renovation campaigns in the 13 th and 15 th centuries. The author explores how local identity was defined through the building and re-definitions of the church space of the collegiate church of the city. The various phases of construction and the changes that followed, suggest a connection between the city of Deventer and its founder, Bishop Bernold. Several comparisons are provided on the significance of the construction of the twin towers and the maintenance of the crypt after this had fallen out of use. This chapter sheds light on neglected but crucial aspects of church architecture, and how these were shaped by local values, practices and traditions. It becomes apparent how these renovations strove to preserve original architectural features—such as the crypt—and how these became the setting for religious rituals once they were no longer the location of the patron saint’s relics. With this further contribution the author continues his extended study of the relationship between architecture and liturgy, and how these changed through time. 13 This section of the book is concluded by Giovanna Guidicini’s paper (Chapter Eight). She argues that the fountain at Linlithgow Palace had multiple functions other than mere decoration, and that symbolism, heraldry and narrative suggest that this was not conceived only as a Art and Identity xxv celebratory monument to the house of Stewart, or to King James V and his new wife, Mary of Guise. Since antiquity fountains had been viewed as sources of life and wisdom, however, their decorative programme could also be devised to celebrate the power and authority of a ruler, as well as his wealth and his ability as a soldier. The name of the bride, Mary, and the fountain itself may also be linked to a passage from the Song of Songs that recites: “Hortus conclusus soror mea, sponsa, hortus conclusus, fons signatus ”14 , thus associating the bride with the Virgin Mary.15 In the case of Linlithgow, Guidicini makes clear that the fountain decoration is inextricably linked to the cultural environment and political issues of the time. The fountain exudes the ideals and values of the house of Stewart in the first half of the 16 th century. However, it is also part of a wider European tradition of welcoming royal brides. The imagery of the middle level of the fountain functioned as both a liminal and a more overt message to the new Queen, Mary of Guise, to remind her of her privileges and duties through the representation of the characters of the Legend of Melusine. At the time of the royal wedding, the fountain would have been an important part of the settings for the celebrations. An interesting comparison can be drawn with other contemporary royal brides, and how art was used to convey values and expectations for the bride’s private and public persona. A decorative arch was commissioned to welcome Eleonora of Toledo to Florence on 29 th June 1539, on the occasion of her marriage to Duke Cosimo I. Alongside the narrative that celebrated the military victories of the Medici family, allegorical figures that represented Fecundity, Security, Eternity, and Time, were carved specifically to suit Eleonora’s new role as Duchess and her duties as a member of the Medici. The message to Eleonora was made explicit by a Latin inscription in the frieze that welcomed her to the city and wished her to continue the family lineage by producing suitable offspring. 16 Contemporary literature and visual imagery however, suggest that the role of the royal bride was far more complex than generally allowed to their gender, and this particular aspect is also touched by Guidicini. 17 The third and final section of this book is concerned more closely with issues of iconography, style and patronage, and what they can tell us about the identity of patrons, artists and audiences through the presentation of some relevant case studies. The first contribution to this section (Chapter Nine) delves into the authorship of a medieval Passional, while providing a fully contextualised analysis of its patronage. Jennifer Vl ček Schurr, challenges recent art historical debate on the identity of the artist responsible for illustrating the Passional of Abbess Cunegund . This manuscript, originally from the xxvi Introduction

Convent of St George in Prague, was written in the early 14th century, and its scribe, Beneš, is currently considered to have been the illuminator of this work. Schurr questions these past assumptions and proposes that style, iconography, and historic context provide compelling evidence of a new, distinctive artistic identity as the illuminator of the Passional. The chapter also offers useful insight on medieval female patronage, the mechanics of manuscript illumination and the artistic environment in medieval Czech lands. It is particularly interesting to note how the manuscript closely reflects the devotional preferences of the patroness for the Passion of Christ and for St Mary Magdalene. The latter represented an example of redemption acquired through penitence that must have been part of the early background of Abbess Cunegund. 18 Albeit she was a member of the Benedictine community at the time of the commission for the Passional, she had spent her early years in a convent of the Poor Clares in Prague, and thus the manuscript is also revealing of the core values that stood at the basis of her faith. 19 In the following chapter (Chapter Ten) Joseph Hammond focuses on aspects of Carmelite patronage and its relation to devotional practices, the representation of saints as means of corporate identity, and on specific iconographic developments. In the wake of recent scholarship on specific issues of Carmelite iconography and devotion in the medieval period, Hammond proposes that the contribution of the Order to Renaissance art should also be considered. 20 His study shows that the early history of the Carmelites was merged with more recent tradition, and translated into an increased devotional focus on one of the founders of the Order, the prophet Elisha, and a more recent Carmelite member, St Albert. As often happened in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the presence of a relic of this latter saint in the Carmelite church of Venice, might have strengthened his cult. The author suggests that the image of the saint and the saint’s iconography were developed to suit the requirements of the lay confraternity dedicated to Albert in the church. While Cima da Conegliano’s painting (c. 1512) shows St Albert simply as a witness to the death of Christ, Alvise dal Friso’s (c. 1580) and Pietro Liberi’s (1664) panels underscore St Albert’s thaumaturgical and protective powers. Ultimately, although Elisha represented the ancient history of the Order, his importance in the representations of the period was subdued by Albert. The fact that Elisha was never canonised might have played a part in the surge of devotion for St Albert. The example of St William of Malavalle, founder of the Williamite Order, in spite of the fact that he too was never canonised, shows that variations in devotional responses to the Art and Identity xxvii cult of saints often took place depending on location, historical context and local values. 21 The last chapter (Chapter Eleven) features the contribution of Laura Walters on the early modern Italian painter, draftsman and printmaker Odoardo Fialetti. Walters investigates the dichotomy between Italian scholarship that dismisses Fialetti as a minor artist, and his English patrons, who held him in higher regard. Fialetti was a prolific artist, whose output included printed material as well as anatomical drawings and paintings. He was apprenticed to Cremonini, and could claim collaboration with artists such as Carracci, Guercino and Tintoretto. Nonetheless, his fortune was mainly linked to foreign connoisseurs. Fialetti was in fact appreciated mostly by English aristocratic patrons, particularly by Sir Henry Wotton, the English ambassador in Venice, and his circle. The Earl and Countess of Arundel were also active patrons in Venice, and it was in this rich multi-cultural environment that Fialetti developed his work. The commissions that Fialetti received in this context were varied. While his English patronage and the reception of some of these works is documented, it is not so for his Italian output, and Walters’ research aims to shed light on some well and other less well-known aspects of the work of this artist in relation to his patrons, and how ultimately, they contributed in shaping his artistic identity. Recent scholarship has focussed attention on 17 th century patrician patronage. In particular, the house of the Medici and its circle, and the influence that they had on patronage, conception and reception of contemporary art has been the object of an international conference entitled “Florentine Patricians and Patrons, Collectors, Cultural Brokers under the Medici Rule 1530-1743”, which was held at the University of Groningen in March 2011. In particular, the contribution of Francesco Freddolini suggested that collectors sought to promote their status and values through collection and patronage. 22 The cultural exchange that involved artists, patrons, and collectors particularly in England and Italy in this period functioned in both directions. The cases of the patronage of the Medici family, particularly of the first Grand-Duke Cosimo with English artists, and the artist Fialetti’s work in Venice for English patrons, demonstrate that a culture of exchange between England and Italy flourished well before the era of the Grand Tour. This volume adopts an interdisciplinary approach and delves into the history, cultural development and social changes that occurred in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, and provides a fully contextualised overview on specific aspects of artistic output as a means for establishing individual and collective identities across the European continent. xxviii Introduction

Iconography, style and patronage are explored here together with the dynamics that underpinned the establishment and development of artistic, social and cultural identities, and ultimately questions the way in which these responded to local and wider influences.

Sandra Cardarelli University of Aberdeen

Notes

1 The original title was: Der Lebensraum des Künstlers in der florentinischen Renaissance: Aufgaben und Auftraggeber, Werkstatt und Kunstmarkt (Leipzig: Verlag E. A. Seeman, 1938). 2 Wachernagel examined the pivotal projects for the decoration of the cathedral and the baptistery, the Dominican complex of Santa Maria Novella, and Palazzo Vecchio , the seat of Florentine secular power. 3 The author casts light on the patronage of the Medici and other prominent families of the Florentine elite, such as the Portinari and the Sassetti, in both public and private settings. 4 The bibliography is wide, for an overview see Cassidy (2007). 5 On this aspect see Skinner (1991). 6 These grand displays transcended geographical boundaries and we find records of them also in 15 th century Italy. The chancellor of the curia of Grosseto Francesco Anichini for example, details that at the funeral of Bishop Giovanni Pecci on 13 th August 1426, “[...] he was given great honours, and a castle of 84 lights [was made] to receive the honours of the citizens”. BCS, Anichini (1741, fol. 38v). 7 For an overview see Gelfand 2007. 8 On this see Van Hengen 1988. See also Chapter Seven in this volume. 9 On this see BMF, Viviani (1733, I: ff. 183r-188r). See also Hoschino (1980) and Haines (1996). 10 There is wide literature on medieval political thought and how this related to secular contemporary art. For an overview see Rubinstein (1958, 21: 179-207). More recently see: Feldges-Henning (1972, 35: 145-162); Frugoni (1980, 43: 239- 241); Norman (1997, 4: 310-342). See also Harrison’s Bibliography in Chapter Six. 11 Cf. Smart (1978) and Borsook (1980). 12 Skinner (1991, 98: 1-28). 13 See Van der Ploeg 1993, 1996 (1997); 2004; 2006. 14 Song of Songs 4; 12: “A garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse; a garden enclosed, a fountain sealed up”. 15 On the Hortus Conclusus and the Sealed Fountain see Daley (1986). 16 See Watt (2004, 27). 17 There is wide literature on this. For an overview see the essays in Women in Italian Renaissance Culture and Society , edited by Letizia Panizza (2000). Art and Identity xxix

18 On this aspect Cf. Jansen (2004, 101-152). 19 For other examples of female Franciscan patronage see Wood (1996). See also Radke (2001, 54: 430-459). 20 See Hammond’s References for full list of titles. 21 On St William see Elm (1962). 22 Freddolini (2011).

References Manuscripts

BCS. Anichini, Francesco. 1741. ms. A.III.5, Cronologia dei Vescovi di Grosseto , Biblioteca Comunale, Siena. BMF. Viviani, Luigi. 1733. Ms. Acquisti Diversi, 142.I, Compendio istorico del governo economico e militare della Toscana , Biblioteca Moreniana, Florence .

Unpublished Sources

Freddolini, Francesco “Courtiers’ Identity: Collections, Patronage and Strategies of Self-promotion at the Florentine Court”, paper presented at the conference Florentine Patricians and Patrons, Collectors, Cultural Brokers under the Medici Rule 1530-1743 , University of Groningen, 3-5 March, 2011.

Published Sources

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Elm, Kaspar. 1962. Beiträ ge zur Geschichte des Wilhelmitenordes . Köln: Graz. Feldges-Henning, Uta. 1972. “The Pictorial Programme of the Sala della Pace: a New Interpretation”, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes , 35: 145-162. Frugoni, Chiara. 1980. “The Book of Wisdom and Lorenzetti’s Fresco in the Palazzo Pubblico at Siena” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 43: 239-241. Gelfand, Laura D. 2007. “Social Status and Sin: Reading Bosch’s Prado Seven Deadly sins and Last Four Things”, in The Seven Deadly Sins: From Communities to Individuals , edited by R. Newhauser, 229-257. Leiden: Brill. Goldthwaite, Richard A. 1993. Wealth and the Demand for Art in Italy 1300-1600 . Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press. Haines, Margaret. 1996. “L’arte della Lana e l’Opera del Duomo a Firenze, con un accenno a Ghibert tra due istituzioni”, in Opera: carattere e ruolo delle fabbriche cittadine fino all'inizio dell'età moderna , edited by M. Hines and L. Riccetti, 267-294. Florence: Olschki. Hoschino, Aidetoshi. 1980. L’Arte della Lana a Firenze nel Basso Medioevo. Il commercio della Lana e il mercato dei panni fiorentini nei secoli XIII-XV . Florence: L. Olschki. Jansen, Katherine L. 2004. “Mary Magdalene as a model for Uncloistered Religious Women in Late Medieval Italy”, in Donne tra Medioevo ed Età Moderna in Italia: Ricerche , ed. Giovanna Casagrande, 101-152. Perugia: Morlacchi Editore. Maginnis, Hayden B. J. 2001. The World of the Early Sienese Painter . Pennsylvania State University Press. Norman, Diana. 1997. “Pisa, Siena and the Maremma: A neglected aspect of Ambrogio Lorenzetti’s paintings in the Sala dei Nove”, Renaissance Studies , 4: 310-342. Panizza, Letizia, ed. 2000. Women in Italian Renaissance Culture and Society . Oxford: European Humanities Research Centre. Richardson, Carol M. 2007. Locating Renaissance Art , 2 vols. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. Radke, Gary. 2001. “Nuns and Their Art: The Case of San Zaccaria in Venice”, Renaissance Quarterly , 54: 430-459.