From Salmonberry to Sagebrush Exploring Oregon’S Native Plants

Home , Botanophila, Botanophila seneciella, Iris tenax, Luetkea, Samara (fruit), Tepal

From Salmonberry to Sagebrush Exploring Oregon’s Native Plants

An ecoregional curriculum for grades 9-12

Written by Jennie Cramer, Jody Einerson

Significant contributions from: Carolyn Menke, Ian Silvernail, and Sarah Stevens

Cover Art by: Paula Fong

Illustrations by: Amanda Devine Jody Einerson Barbara Gleason

Graphic Design by: BGleason Design

© 2011 Institute for Applied Ecology P.O. Box 2855 Corvallis Oregon 97339-2855 • 541–753-3099 • www.appliedeco.org ii Acknowledgements We would like to thank the following people for their contribution in producing From Salmonbery to Sagebrush: Exploring Oregon’s Native Plants.

Special thanks to the following for their vision in making this curriculum possible Peggy Olwell—Bureau of Land Management, Plant Conservation Lead, BLM National Program Joan Seevers—Bureau of Land Management, Plant Conservation Lead BLM, Oregon/Washington Nancy Sawtelle—Bureau of Land Management, Plant Ecologist, Eugene District, Oregon

In addition we have had numerous people who have acted as advisors and have contributed botanical, ecological, or educational expertise, and painstakingly edited and re-edited materials. Thank you all, your contribution has been important and appreciated. Advisory Council Teresa Matteson, Benton Soil & Water Melissa Kirkland, USFS Botanist Conservation District Jenny Lippert, USFS Botanist Heath Keirstead, Benton Soil & Water Holly LeMasurier, Middle Fork Willamette Conservation District Watershed Council Maggie Livesay, OSU Extension Faculty Tim Whitley, Rachel Carson High School 4-H Youth Development Loren Gerig, Woodburn High School Jeff Mitchell, Philomath High School Elly Veyera, Wy’east Middle School Paul Bradley, Wilson Elementary School Mary Ann Schmidt, Oregon Trout Healthy Dan Bregar, Crescent Valley High School Waters Institute Holly McRae, Willamette Resources & Jennifer Martin, Owyhee Watershed Council Education Network Jon Souder, Coos Watershed Association Sujaya Rao, OSU Faculty Rural Science Education Susan Sahnow, Oregon Natural Resource Kendra Mingo, Willamette University Botanist Education Program Brad Withrow-Bobinson, OSU Extension LeeAnn Mikkelson, Oregon Natural Resource Faculty Forestry Education Program Andy Moldenke, OSU Botany & Plant Pathology Nancy Sawtelle, BLM Plant Ecologist Dio Morales, Curriculum Design Consultant Joleen Schilling, OSU Graduate Student Eve Montanaro, Middle Fork Willamette Watershed Council Content Reviewers and Resource Experts Tom Kaye, Institute for Applied Ecology Director, Melanie Gisler, Institute for Applied Ecology, Botany & Plant Pathology Restoration Ecologist Carolyn Menke, Institute for Applied Ecology, Matt Blakeley-Smith, Institute for Applied Plant Conservation Biologist Ecology, Restoration Biologist Rob Fiegener, Institute for Applied Ecology, Amanda Stanley, Institute for Applied Ecology, Native Seed Network Ecologist

iii Content Reviewers and Resource Experts, continued Stacy Moore, Institute for Applied Ecology, Douglas Kendig, BLM Medford District, Botanist Environmental Education Director Teresa Matteson, Benton Soil & Water Berta Youtie, Eastern Oregon Stewardship Services Conservation District Tim Rodenkirk, BLM Coos Bay, Botanist Kathy Pendergrass, NRCS Plant Material Laura Potash Martin, Mt. Baker Snoqualmie Specialist—Oregon National Forest, Botanist Marcia Wineteer, BLM Medford District, Botanist Kristi Mergenthaler, Siskiyou Field Institute, Botanist Robert Kentta, Cultural Resources Director, Gene Yates, Wallowa-Whitman National Forest, Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians Botanist Wenix Red Elk, Public Outreach & Education Katie Grenier, Deschutes/Ochoco National Coordinator, Confederated Tribes of the Forests, Botanist Umatilla Indian Reservation Reid Schuller, Botanist Misty Thorsgard, Cultural Resources, The Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde Marty Stein, Siuslaw National Forest, Botanist Mary Van Brocklin, Falconproof Susan Fritts, BLM Medford Distric, Botanist

Piloting Teachers April Fong, Linda Wolf, Sean Kenna, Loren Gerig, Edith Moore, Kevin Celtura, Tim Whitley, Jonathan Pope, Michelle Barray, Lacy Beahm, Brian Wach, Jeff Michell Thank you to our funders USDA Bureau of Land Management—vision and creation National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, Native Plant Conservation Initiative—printing and distribution

Special thanks to Earth Partnership for Schools Program for acting as a model in developing place- based curriculum and for allowing us to adapt some of their materials for Oregon. University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum, 1207 Seminole Highway, Madison WI 53711. www.uwarboretum.org About Institute for Applied Ecology Founded in 1999, the Institute for Applied Ecology (IAE) is a non-profit organization established to provide a service to public and private agencies and individuals by developing and communicating information on ecosystems and effective management strategies. IAE offers habitat restoration services complete with habitat management plans, site preparation, maintenance and monitoring. Our Native Seed Network connects buyers and sellers of native seed while our Conservation and Research division conducts native ecosystem research and monitoring and provides surveys for rare plants. The Ecological Education Program provides opportunities for K-12 students, teachers and the adult community in place-based education and service learning projects. For additional copies of the curriculum contact: Institute for Applied Ecology P.O. Box 2855, Corvallis Oregon 97339-2855 541-753-3099 • www.appliedeco.org

iv From Salmonberry to Sagebrush: Exploring Oregon’s Native Plants Table of Contents Acknowledgements...... iii Introduction...... ix

SECTION 1: PLANT IDENTIFICATION Section1: Plant Identification Section Divider...... xii 1. Botany Bouquet ...... 1 Explore and become familiar with plant names, and the usefulness of a common plant language. 2. Botanical Terms Challenge...... 5 . A plant structure and function vocabulary-building lesson using vocabulary sheets or a crossword puzzle. 3. The Secret Life of Flowers...... 14 An art-based activity using the flower paintings of Georgia O’Keefe for inspiration. Students dissect, observe, and record flower anatomy. 4. Drupes, Pomes, & Loculicidal Capsules: A Botanist’s Lingo for Describing Native Fruits....22 Understand the different types of native fruits and learn to categorize them. 5 . What’s in a Name?...... 27 A technology-based lesson on the importance of using scientific names. 6. Plants Have Families Too...... 33 Learn nine common Oregon plant families and explore the science of taxonomy. 7. Mechanics of a Key ...... 39 Learn the basics of how a dichotomous key works and how to construct one by keying out the students in the classroom. 8. Make a Field Guide for Your School ...... 45 . Construct a dichotomous key and field guide to a natural area near the school grounds. 9. Make Your Own Plant Collection ...... 5 .0 Make a herbarium of local species. Learn proper technique for collecting, pressing, labeling, mounting, and storage of the collection. 10. Create-a-Plant ...... 5 6 . Create a fictional plant and field guide entry to demonstrate understanding.

v SECTION 2: ECOREGIONS OF OREGON Section2...... 64 11. Explore Oregon’s Ecoregions...... 65 . An overview of Oregon’s eight ecoregions. Learn about the biological, climatic, and geographical diversity of the state. 12. The Place I Call Home...... 74 Explore what makes your or each ecoregion different from its neighbors, find out about human influences, land use, and a few of the special species that live there. 13. Ecosystem Comparisons...... 81 Collect data to compare and contrast different native habitats in their ecoregion.

14. An Ecosystem through an Artist’s Eye...... 89 Explore the concept of ecological scale through art to encourage aesthetic appreciation of natural landscapes.

SECTION 3: Ecology of Native Plants Section3...... 93 15 . What’s Goin’ Down Underground?...... 94 Explore two important biotic interactions in the soil—nitrogen fixation and mycorrhizae. Study how plants, bacteria, and fungi work together. 16. Survival Quest: A Pollination Game...... 102 Explore the relationships between flowers and pollinators, gain a basic understanding of co- evolution, and study local native flowers and their pollinators. 17. Plant Wars: A Tale of Offense and Defense...... 111 Learn about secondary chemicals that plants produce to protect themselves, and how other organisms counteract these chemicals in the intricate dance of co-evolution of species. 18. What is a Plant?...... 118 Explore other plant-like organisms, such as lichens, mosses, and fungi and learn what makes a plant a plant. SECTION 4: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Native, Non-native, and Invasive Plants Section 4...... 127 19. Field Journaling: Observations from a Special Spot...... 128 Introduction to the use of a journal for making field observations, and recording seasonal activities and our reactions to them. vi 20. Nurture a Native Garden Project (three part lesson)...... 132 Research, plan, and grow a native plant wildflower garden as a school project. Part I: Research and Planning Part II: Starting Seeds and Growing Plants Part III: Planting and Celebrating 21. Weed Explosion...... 15 1 . A math-based lesson that introduces the characteristics of invasive plants and how quickly they can impact ecosystems. 22. Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations...... 162 Learn three common techniques used by researchers for collecting data on plant populations.

SECTION 5 : . Ethnobotany Section 5 ...... 171 23. Who Walked Here Before Me...... 172 Learn about American Indian culture both past and present by studying tribal use of native plants for food and fiber. Weave a plant story incorporating the land, its natural resources, and the people who use them. 24. My Burden Basket: How Native Plants are Used for Fiber...... 181 Hands-on activity to explore American Indian uses of native plants for cordage and basketry. 25 . Plants as Medicine: Make Your Own Herbal Salve...... 190 Learn about the modern application of plants as medicines and make a healing plant-based salve.

SECTION 6: Climate Change & Phenology Section 6...... 198 26. Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World...... 199 Use a journal to record seasonal changes, explore climate change, and participate in a citizen science program to contribute to a national database. 27. Plant Migration Game: A Race Between Plants and Climate Change...... 206 Play a climate change simulation board game exploring the different ways life history influences how species react to a changing climate.

SECTION 7: The Future of Oregon’s Native Plants Section 7...... 216 28. Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game ...... 217 Through a role-playing scenario, explore three current Oregon ecosystem management issues: ranching and riparian areas, endangered species and land use, and forest issues.

vii 29. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Can’t Live Without ‘Em...... 229 Explore biodiversity, global endemic hotspots, and ecosystem services and how they apply to Oregon. Conduct a schoolyard plant biodiversity survey. 30. Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants...... 236 Participate in a jigsaw activity to learn the basics of the Endangered Species Act and use computer research skills to learn about the rare plants of Oregon. 31. Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan ...... 248 Explore the components of restoration ecology, including economic and ethical issues, and develop decision-making tools using design principles. Make teh connection to a community service project.

APPENDICES References...... 25 9 . Glossary ...... 262 Oregon Education Standards Correlations...... 273 Appendix I: Recommended Botanical Field Guides for Oregon Ecoregions...... 281 Appendix II: Schoolyard Species List...... 283 Appendix III: Oregon Ethnobotany Plants and Their Uses...... 304 Appendix IV: Ethnobotany Plant Lists and Resources...... 306 Appendix V: American Indian Ethnobotanical Resource Materials...... 313 Appendix VI: Tribe Contacts...... 316 Appendix VII: Contacts For Service-Learning Partners and Field Sites ...... 317 Appendix VIII: Make Your Own Quadrat Frame...... 331

viii Introduction Getting Started The Institute for Applied Ecology is a non-profit organization with the mission to conserve native ecosystems through restoration, research and education. This high school curriculum, From Salm- onberry to Sagebrush; Exploring Oregon’s Native Plants, was developed working with students through our in-school programs to meet a need for science based lessons focused on native plants. The goal of the curriculum is to introduce students to the wondrous biodiversity of flora, and the connections between plants and their ecosystems. It is designed specifically for Oregon’s native plants and can be adapted to different ecoregions within the state. The lessons encourage students to study what is outside their door, or if adventuresome, learn about plants across the state. Along with the knowledge gained through these lessons, students will gain the skills to be informed and active citizens in local natural area issues and decisions in their future. Development of the lessons followed the principles of North America Association of Environmen- tal Educators (NAAEE) Guidelines for Excellence incorporating; fairness & accuracy, depth, emphasis on skills building, action orientation, instructional soundness, and usability. The overall curriculum goal is to lead students in the exploration and wonder of Oregon’s plant life. It is not intended to teach general skills such as photosynthesis, plant growth, evolution, and natural selection that high school students receive in biology class. Throughout the development, this project has had expert guidance and insight from a twenty-five member advisory council made up of teachers, students, science curriculum developers, natural resource agency educators, and field scientists. Much of the subject matter and organization of the curriculum comes from their collective suggestions. Our guiding principles of lesson development: 1. Place-based: The local community is the starting point for teaching concepts in science and culture; students learn about where they live 2. Hands-on: Students actively use all of their senses to explore nature, stewardship, and science 3. Inquiry-based: Students learn science by asking and answering questions as a guide to discovering the world around them 4. Experiential: Students don’t just learn, they DO 5 . Service-learning: Learning activities directly benefit community, motivating students by giving extrinsic value to their work 6. Education Standards: Aligned with Oregon Department of Education high school standards and incorporates service learning methods 7. Fosters community partnerships: Students forge relationships with peers and professionals by taking part in their community 8. Interdisciplinary: Curriculum pieces integrate across disciplines teaching about native plants through science, math, social studies, art, and literacy 9. Developed within the framework of the NAAEE Guidelines for Excellence: Fairness and accuracy, depth, emphasis on skills building, action orientation, instructional soundness, and usability

ix Anatomy of a Lesson

x Organization of Curriculum: Lessons progress from basic plant identification into more advanced topics; the curriculum is designed to be a complete unit of study. We also understand that many teachers are unable to commit to the entire unit of study, so lessons can also be used individually. All lessons start with a Teacher Page; check there for the Teachers Hints and Additional Information sections to find any essential skills or background needed from earlier lessons. Addition background information, study topics and curricula are included with each of the lessons for further study. Student pages are written for the students to be self guided in their studies. What better way for them to practice their literacy skills than to read, interpret, and follow written directions. As the teacher, you will need to be familiar with the background information and reflection activities found on the student pages. Of course as the teacher, you maintain the control to use this student directed learning feature as it works best in your classroom. All lesson data or work sheets provided will follow the Student Pages. Occasionally lessons will ask students to create their own data collection sheet. Lessons suggest ways to integrate student studies into service-learning and community projects. Appendix VII will guide you to possible partners in your ecoregion for such projects.

Making the Most of This Curriculum: 1. Create a student field journal at the beginning of the study. Encourage students to use them throughout the course of study. Allow time for students to observe, explore, and document their discoveries in their field journals each time you take them outdoors. Over time their journal will become a handy reference for them to check back to when they are in the field. You will find the “In the Field” sections often reference journals. In addition, the journal can be used throughout the curriculum as an assessment tool and portfolio. See the activity Field Journaling; Observations from a Special Spot to get you started.

2. Purchase field guides specifically written for your ecoregion. Check Appendix I for our recommended list of guides for your ecoregion. Field guides are an essential part of becoming familiar with local plant identification. Several of the lessons reference students using these field guides. Ideally your classroom will have one available for each pair of students. Grants are available to purchase field study equipment, including field guides. Oregon teachers and students can apply for the Diack Ecology Education Program, a division of Oregon Science Teachers Association, among others. Challenge a group of your students to write a grant; this is good experience for the students and gives them buy-in on future projects.

xi Section 1: Plant Identification Botany Bouquet All of us are watchers—of television, of time clocks, of traffic on the freeway—but few are observers. Everyone is looking, not many are seeing. —Peter M.Leschak (1951-present) Overview Time Estimate: This activity awakens basic plant observational skills as students examine 30-45 minutes and describe plants collected by the teacher. Students have fun making up descriptive common names for their species and getting up close and personal with their species to make a great description. Students present their species to their class. The activity is followed by a discussion on the Best Season: usefulness of a language of plant terminology to help with plant description. Spring/ Summer/Fall Teacher Preparation • Prepare bouquets of wild plant or magnifying glass and instruct species (native or non-native) them to use it to get intimate with their plant. Teacher Hints from your area. You will need one bouquet for each group of • If you can, be prepared with • This activity is a good starting students. Each bouquet needs to the common and scientific name point to a plant studies unit be- be made up of the same plants of the plants used in the bou- cause it highlights for students and contain one plant for each quet for sharing at the end of that specialized terminology person in the group. this activity. Be able to supply might be useful in attempting to • Divide the class into groups the real name and description describe plants and that a sys- (adapt to fit your classroom, of each plant that the students tem for identifying plants would making groups of 3-5 students) can’t identify. Add an additional be handy. and give each group one of the ecological or human use for each • This activity also works as an bouquets. plant to make it memorable. “ice-breaker” among a group of Hand the students a hand lens students who do not know each • other.

Assessments Look for detail in group description of the plant, and for names that 1 are creative. 2 Did students make observations about every visible part of the plant? Did students make any creative interpretations about parts of the 3 plants they cannot see or habitat, pollinations, or uses?

1 Botany Bouquet All of us are watchers—of television, of time clocks, of traffic on the freeway—but few are observers. Everyone is looking, not many are seeing. —Peter M.Leschak (1951-present) Overview Explore the usefulness of a common plant language. Use your observational skills to examine and describe plants by getting up close and personal. Give your plant a made up name using theri plant characteristics to guide you. Then share your new plant with your classmates. Background Information Learning Objectives How can you tell one type of your eyes for your observations, plant from another? If you were use touch and smell. Feel the Develop and use botanical • texture of your leaves and stems. observational skills a trained botanist (person who studies plants) you would already Crush the leaf tip and smell it. Examine different plants • have the skills needed to identify However, please do not taste and compare how they your plant! You do not know its differ structurally from one the plant through descriptions, another keys, botanical drawings or identification and natural history, and it may be poisonous. Once Increase understanding of photographs, and habitat • you are an adept botanist, the plant diversity knowledge. The first step for you to obtain these skills is develop world of edible wild plants will be Materials Needed your observation skills. more accessible to you. • sample plant cuttings that Observation is the act of noticing. Use your observations to write a are representative of the Observational skills are very description of your plant. Draw native plants in or around your plants. Describe your plant your school grounds important in all fields of science and in all aspects of life. In this with enough detail that someone • hand lenses or magnifying could pick it out of a field of glasses activity we are going to stretch hundreds of other plants. Lastly, several plant identification/ our plant observational skills, • choose a name for your plant that field guides (see Appendix using them to differentiate among will help describe something about I for suggestions for your examples of local plants. Carefully its appearance or natural history. region) examine the plant you have been V ocabulary Words given. Use your hand lens or When you observe plants closely magnifying glass to observe fine you will begin to notice how botany different they are. Scientists • details. Notice not only the flower estimate that there are 300,000 color, but the size, the numbers species of plants in the world. of different parts. Are their other Oregon has 3,161 known native colors inside the flowers aside plant species(1). This doesn’t include from the color of the petals? Do landscape plants from other parts you see hairs on your plants? If of the world, agriculture plants so, where? When observing the developed for food use, or invasive 1 leaf, compare the top and bottom. plants that were accidentally or Look at the shape, number, edges purposely introduced to the state. of your leaves. In addition to using The term native plant is usually used 2 Botany Bouquet

to describe a plant that naturally grew in its current the name of your plant. If you do know the name, habitat prior to European settlement. keep it to yourself until the very end of the activity, As you work through this activity you will get a better when you can share it with your classmates. For now, understanding of the need for a system of sorting examine your plant as if you are a pioneering botanist and naming plants. It is not necessary for you to know who has never seen it before.

Directions If you know names of the plants being passed out Designate a representative(s) from your group to 1 please do not share that information until the end 8 present the name and description of your plant of the activity. to the rest of the class. The other members of Have each member of your group take one plant your group should stand and hold up the plant 2 from the bouquet. and pass it around to other students so they can examine your plant. Take 3 minutes to look at your plant closely and If your group knows the real common and scien- 3 give your plant a descriptive name (for example: 9 tific name of your plant, you can share it now with wooly, tough-stemmed daisy). the class (you do not need to know this piece of Move around the room finding others that have information). 4 the same plant as you and form a new group. If your small group does not know the name, ask Introduce yourself to the new members of your 10 the class if anyone knows it. Your teacher can help group if you do not already know them. with this if needed. Use your hand lens or magnifying glass as well as 5 all your senses (except taste) to get to know your plant. Take turns pointing out your observations to others in your small group. As a group, come up with a creative name for 6 your plant based on your close observations. In addition, designate one member of the group to write a description you come up with as a Critical Thinking group. Make your description detailed so a Explore the need for botanical terminology: stranger could pick out your plant from a field Did anyone have trouble describing any part of of many plants. Be sure to describe all the parts a their plants for lack of a word to describe what of the plant if they are present, including: roots, they were observing? What parts of the plants leaves, stem, flowers, fruits, seeds. were hard to describe? If you have time, flip through a field guide and Did the class understand the small group presen- 7 try to find the real name of your plant. Look at b tations? Is there anything else they would have the description and see if you can learn some- liked to know about the plants they met? thing about the uses of your plants or something Discuss the need for a common plant vocabulary you did not notice in your observations. What c that all can understand. Would it be helpful to kind of habitat does your plant live in? have another way to identify plants other than flipping through the pages of a field guide? 3 Botany Bouquet

Critical Thinking Do you have any ideas of another way to identify d plants that would work for them? Based on your observations, do you think any of Do you think any of the plants from the bouquet f the plants perform similar functions? What makes e are closely related to one another? What makes you say this? (For example, perhaps there were you think that? (Point out similarities on the two sticky plants.) plants.)

Taking it Further • Collect other plant samples and complete this report to the class and conduct peer reviews of activity with additional plants from a different these reports. ecosystem or area. • Develop a web page on the plant species from • Research a plant species; describe its character- this activity using photos, drawings, and life his- istics, habitat where the species is most likely to tory information. be found, and common human uses. Make an oral

In the Field! Try this activity when working in a new outdoor area. It will help you to improve your observational skills and improve your identification skills, all which will help you know the plants in your local area.

Reflection Write a short story or poem that describes your plant, its characteristics, human and/or wildlife uses, adaptations related to habitat, and the root words of the plant’s scientific name.

Self Assessments 1 Look for details in group descriptions of the plant, and for names that are creative. 2 Did you make observations about every visible part of the plant? Did you make any creative interpretations about parts of the plants you cannot see or habitat, pol- 3 lination, or uses?

4 Botanical Terms Challenge Learn a new language and get a new soul. —Czech Proverb

Overview Time Estimate: Students gain an understanding of plant structure and descriptive bo- 20 – 30 minutes tanical terminology required for advanced botanical studies.

Best Season: Any Preparation • The crossword included in • Assemble sufficient references this lesson is designed to be a for student teams to work on review of botanical terminol- definitions independently. ogy. Some students may have Field guides, internet resources, learned these terms in grades and biology/botany textbooks Teacher Hints K-8 while others may be learn- listed in the “Resources” sec- ing them for the first time. The tion below are good options. • Include this activity in students’ words learned in this section are Discuss how to determine if a field journals for a vocabulary used throughout the curricu- source of information is reliable, reference on field trips and lum. If students do not have any especially if students are using during outdoor activities. experience with plant terminol- the internet. ogy or need more than a quick • For the “In the Field!” section, review, use the included Bo- collect twigs with more than Assessments tanical Terms Self-Study sheet one leaf to show twig attach- to review or introduce basic Give students a stem with ment patterns. Each team botanical terminology. 1 leaves, flowers, or fruits at- should use a different species. tached and ask them write a description using at least 4 new vocabulary words. Read students the description Additional Information 2 of a particular plant species from a field guide. Have stu- • Harris, James G. and Melinda Woolf. 1994. Plant Identification Terminol- dents sketch the whole plant ogy: An Illustrated Glossary. Sixth Edition. Spring Lake Publishing, Spring or plant part with only the Lake, Utah. description to guide them. • A discussion of leaf form and function; includes possible journaling topics: http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/tulips/FormFunction.html • A long list of botanical terminology and definitions : http://www.calflora. net/botanicalnames/botanicalterms.html • Most field guides contain glossaries of plant terminology. Check out Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast by Pojar and MacKinnon. • A teacher resource with techniques for teaching new vocabulary to students : http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/publications/ reading_first1vocab.html 5 . Botanical Terms Challenge Learn a new language and get a new soul. —Czech Proverb Overview Overview This lesson will teach basic and advanced botanical vocabulary so that users can identify and describe plant anatomy and function. This will ease identification and lead to a better understanding of plant biology. The vocabulary list below contains essential plant terminology for activities in this curriculum. Background Information Learning Objectives One of the most formidable tasks light environments so they do not • Understand basic botani- of the aspiring botanist is gaining burn. Scabrous leaves may serve cal terminology required a working knowledge of the vast to deter insect predators and for high school level terminology required to use a herbivores. When you are learn- activities typical plant identification guide. ing these new terms, try to think • Increase botanical vo- Botanists love to make up new a bit about how the form you are cabulary to assist with words that are rarely used outside learning about may serve a useful describing and identify- of the world of botany! The experi- function to the survival of a plant. ing plants ence of trying to properly identify Often, botanical terms can be • Relate plant structure to a plant without a working botanical best described with a simple function vocabulary can be challenging and illustration rather than words. Materials Needed frustrating for the beginning plant Utilize the websites and books lover. The purpose of this lesson is colored pencils for listed in the “Resources” section to • to teach you basic botanical terms drawings (optional) find pictures of the words in your and introduce some more compli- vocabulary list. V ocabulary Words cated terminology. It is important that everyone in Basic plant anatomy: Botanists commonly use several your group develop a similar basic root fibrous root different words to describe similar foundation in plant anatomy and taproot stem things. For example, if a plant has vein petiole terminology. This activity is self axil leaf margin hair on its leaves, there are several guided—you can proceed at your bud flower possible words that you may use own speed, or you may choose fruit seed to describe the type of hair you to work with a partner. Your goal node internode see. A leaf that is tomentose would should be to become familiar with Leaf shapes & patterns: have lots of short, wooly hairs; a all the terms listed in this activity. simple compound leaf that is pubescent would have opposite alternate short, soft hairs; a scabrous leaf whorled basal would be rough to the touch, palmate pinnate resulting from the presence of lobed stiff short hairs. And the list goes Basic flower and fruit parts on… One might question why sepal petal we need to differentiate between tepal bract types of hair. The easy answer to pistil ovary carpel style this is that different hairs serve stigma peduncle different functions. For example, stamen filament tomentose leaves are nearly white anther receptacle in appearance, making them able to reflect solar radiation in high

6 Botanical Terms Challenge

Directions Option 1: Vocabulary Building Sheet

Work individually or in pairs. Use your completed sheet to test yourself. Fold 1 3 the paper so that the vocabulary word and draw- 2 Complete vocabulary sheets by writing one new ing are visible. Can you give a definition and func- word in each box. In the appropriate columns, tion for this plant part? If you need a clue, uncover write a definition and the knowledge connection. the knowledge connection column. Check your The knowledge connection should be a reference answer by uncovering the written definition. to the function of the plant part or something else about the word that will help you to remember it. Option 2: Crossword (use for terminology review) Fold your paper to cover all but the word column; this will line up a drawing box on the back of the Work individually or in pairs to complete the sheet with each word. In this box, draw a simple 1 Botanical Terminology crossword. The words illustration of the vocabulary word. Use field in this puzzle are basic terms that you will need guide glossaries, textbooks, or internet sources to in future lessons. Use the glossary, field guides, complete the definition and knowledge connec- textbooks, or internet sources to complete your tion boxes. crossword.

Taking It Further • Build your botanical vocabulary by using the vocabulary sheets to learn the lingo in “The Secret Life of Flowers” and “Drupes, Pomes, and Loculicidal Cap- sules: a Botanist’s Lingo for Describing Native Fruits” lessons. If you are a real plant nerd (an excellent thing!), make your own vocabulary lists! Look through the glossary section of your favorite local field guides and add words that you feel are important in your plant study.

7 Botanical Terms Challenge

In the Field!

[Note to Instructor: Each team should collect a plant with leaves attached (be sure your students are aware of poison oak!) and attach a number label to it. Each team should work with a different species.] • Use unlined paper and fold in half widthwise to make two 5.5” x 8.5” sections. Record team member names and twig number on the back of your paper. • On one half of the front of your paper, sketch your twig and leaves showing important details. Be sure to show the leaf attachment, shape, margin, and anything that would help others to identify your plant. • On the other half of the front of your paper, write a detailed description of your plant. Make sure the description matches your drawing and is as complete as possible. Use terminology from the vocabulary list. • Make a classroom identification game. Display the twigs with the numbers visible so that teams can rotate around to view them. Fold the description papers in half. Shuffle and hand out the description papers to the teams with the description side visible and the drawing hidden. Try to match the written descriptions to the numbered twigs. • Critique your description. Did it make matching the twigs easy or difficult? If some of the twigs were similar, how much detail was needed to make a correct match? What else could have been included that could have made matching easier? Would measurements help? Science Inquiry For each of the following growing conditions, make a list in your field journal of the leaf characteristics that you think would help a plant thrive: windy, very dry, very wet, low light (shade), and high light (full sun). Keep your list for testing in future lessons. As you explore different habitats, take note of the leaf characteristics. Do leaves in a sunny meadow tend to look different than the leaves that you find near the heavily shaded forest floor? How might those leaf characteristics help the plant thrive in that particular habitat? Reflection Make a journal entry about leaf shapes or margins. Make a sketch or leaf rubbing of two leaves that have different shapes. Why do you think leaves come in so many different shapes and with so many different types of margins? Put on your analytical hat and brainstorm. How might those differences benefit the plant?

8 Botanical Terms Challenge

Self Assessments Resources Examine a plant specimen. Write a thorough de- • Harris, James G. and Melinda Woolf. 1994. Plant 1 scription using the vocabulary words in this lesson. Identification Terminology: An Illustrated Glossary. Sixth Your description should include the shape and ar- Edition. Spring Lake Publishing, Spring Lake, Utah. rangement of the leaves, flowers, and fruits as well • A long list of botanical terminology and definitions: as any other key characteristics that would help http://www.calflora.net/botanicalnames/botanical- someone identify the plant you are describing. terms.html Use your Vocabulary Building Sheet and quiz • Most field guides contain glossaries of plant termi- 2 yourself. Keep your sheet and refer to it through- nology. Check out Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast out your study. by Pojar and MacKinnon. Work with a partner. One partner will read a • A discussion of leaf form and function; includes pos- 3 plant description from a field guide aloud. The sible journaling topics: http://www.learner.org/jnorth/ other partner will sketch the plant from the writ- tm/tulips/FormFunction.html ten description only. The reader will need to give • Hough, John. 1953. Scientific Terminology. New York: detailed and complete descriptions. Rhinehart & Company, Inc.

9 Botanical Terms Challenge V ocabulary Building Sheet

Name ______

Word Knowledge Connection Definition

10 Botanical Terms Challenge

Picture

11 Botanical Terms Challenge

2 3 4 5

7 8 9

11 12

13 14 15

16 17 18

23 24

25 26 27

28 29

30 31

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41 42 43

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12 Botanical Terms Challenge

Across Down 4. Ripened flower part that contains the seeds 1. Undivided leaf 5. Undeveloped stem or flower; covered with scales 2. Positioned at the base 7. Portion of pistil receptive to pollen 3. Blade; primary site of photosynthesis . 9 Whorl of modified flower leaves, between sepal and 5. Small, leaf-like part at the base of a flower stamens 6. Leaves or veins emerging from a central stalk or vein 11. Unbranched inflorescence with single, unstalked 8. A primary thick root flowers 10. One leaf growing from alternating sides of stem 12. Above-ground part that supports leaves and flowers 15. Fruit not opening on maturity 13. Thread-like stalk that supports the anther 16. Unbranched inforescence with single, stalked flowers 14. Edge of a leaf 18. Anchors the plant and takes up nutrients and water 17. Often colorful and showy; reproductive unit 19. Numerous small flowers on a single base 19. Heart-shaped 21. Green, leaf-like part of a flower, whorl below petals 20. Margin with teeth like a saw 22. Three or more leaves arising from the same spot on stem 23. Female reproductive structure of the flower 24. Cluster of flowers 26. Possessing rounded segments on the margin 25. Short, vertical, thickened underground stem, not a root 28. Umbrella-like inflorescence with multiple small flowers 27. Fruit opening on maturity 31. Oval or egg-shaped 29. Division of a compound leaf 32. Without stalk, stem, or petiole 30. Enlarged base of the pistil; contains developing seed 33. Leaf pattern that is divided from a central point into lobes 34. Leaf divided into two or more leaflets 35. Margin that is not toothed, notched or divided 37. Structure sitting atop the stem where flower parts attach 36. Single flower and not in cluster 40. Two leaves growing directly across from each other 38. Part that connects the stigma to the ovary on a stem 39. Stalk that attaches a leaf to a stem 42. Branched inflorescence; central stalk with side stalks 41. All the petals of a flower containing multiple flowers 44. Enlarged, pollen-bearing part of the stamen 43. Male reproductive structure of the flower 45. Branching root system 46. Transports water, sugars, and minerals within the leaf 47. Small swelling or knob where new growth originates 48. Lance-shaped, much longer than wide 49. Underground stem

V ocabulary Words root lobed sepal inflorescence stem cordate petal spike leaf lanceolate pistil raceme flower simple (leaf) ovary panicle fruit palmate style solitary bud compound stigma umbel vein pinnate stamen indehiscent petiole alternate filament dehiscent leaflet opposite anther node margin whorled receptacle bulb entire basal bract rhizome serrate taproot corolla sessile ovate fibrous composite

13 The Secret Life of Flowers Nobody sees a flower really; it is so small. We haven’t time, and to see takes time— like to have a friend takes time. —Georgia O’Keefe (1887-1986)

Overview Time Estimate: Students will dive into the inner workings of a flower and put their own 1 class session, additional time for creative spin on their findings, combining science observation with art project artistic appreciation and expression. In the process, they will learn flower anatomy, function, and inflorescence type. Best Season: Spring Teacher Preparation • Set up a classroom display • Choose large solitary flowers of inflorescence types for for students to dissect. Flowers students to view. Use live in the lily family are especially flowers, if available, labeled useful for this activity because and in water. If live flowers are their floral anatomy is generally Additional Information not available, use photographs. well developed and easily viewed. • Visit your local farmers market • An overview of co-evolution or ask a florist to donate with many examples: http:// slightly wilted flowers to use in biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/ this activity. Bio303/coevolution.htm • Advanced flower dissection lesson: http://www. fairchildgarden.org/uploads/ docs/Education/teacher%20 Teacher Hints training/flower%20power/ • Divide students into teams and classroom viewing. Take a minute Flower%20Dissection%20LabII. give each team a flower in water. to point out the parts of the pdf Give students time to explore flower. Explain that it can be • called a perfect flower with both Nature’s Partners: Pollinators, their flowers. Hand out a flower • male and female parts, or an Plants, and You; a pollinator anatomy diagram sheet or imperfect flower with only male curriculum, with excellent project on an overhead for or female parts. background information: http:// www.nappc.org/curriculum/

Assessments 1 Label the parts of a flower and name the function of each. 2 Define perfect and imperfect flower. 3 Describe inflorescence types. 14 The Secret Life of Flowers Nobody sees a flower really; it is so small. We haven’t time, and to see takes time— like to have a friend takes time. —Georgia O’Keefe (1887-1986)

What skills do scientists and artists share? Although artists are thought to be more intuitive and subjective, and scientists are often associated with being rational and objective, both utilize a keen sense of observation in their work. In this lesson, you will immerse yourself in the inner workings of a flower, using your creative skills to record your findings. In the process, you will learn flower anatomy, function, and inflorescence types.

Background Information

Some flowers announce their Learning Objectives presence with bold and vibrant hues, • Name and locate the parts while others remain modest and of a flower drab. Some are simple and open • Discuss flower anatomy in form, but others feature tricky and function entries or convoluted mazes. • Define the difference Flowers have long inspired humans between a perfect and an with their beauty and fragrances, and imperfect flower we’ve bestowed them with symbolic • Describe a flower using meanings. Myths and symbolism inflorescence type aside, the real job of flowers is to • Understand the role of ensure that plants produce offspring. pollinators in shaping Animals can roam about and seek flower anatomy mates with whom to reproduce, but • Understand plant imagine the challenge for a plant, reproduction and the role rooted firmly to the ground, to of pollination and animals use two methods of achieve the same end. Over millions • Connect left brain and of years, flowers have evolved a reproduction—sexual and asexual. right brain processes of remarkable range of strategies Sexual reproduction is the more science and art to guarantee that male pollen is common form of reproduction. It transferred to female flower parts involves the fusing of genes from Materials Needed so fertilization and seed production two partners. Asexual reproduction • large flower for dissecting can occur. Together, these processes doesn’t require a second partner. (one per student pair) of pollination and fertilization Vegetative reproduction is a form • Exacto knife that occur within the flower to of asexual reproduction in plants, labeled flower diagram produce seeds are a type of sexual where parts of the plant fall off and • 11x17 white paper reproduction, ensuring that genes develop into new plants. Potato • from parent plants are recombined tubers are one example of a plant • hand lens in novel ways. This diversifies the that uses this form of reproduction. genetic composition of the resulting Since asexual reproduction doesn’t offspring (seeds). To ensure the require another partner, or pollen continuation of the species, plants transfer, it doesn’t require flowers 15 . The Secret Life of Flowers

Background Information, continued and it is very quick and is guaranteed. is shared by the two gametes in sexual The main disadvantages of this form reproduction, variety is produced in V ocabulary Words of reproduction is that the new plants the species. In the long run, this will • sepal will all grow very close to each other create a species better at survival in • perfect flower and to the parent, and no new genes a changing environment. Of course, • spike enter the gene pool. This will cause a sexual reproduction has won out • bract struggle for soil, nutrients and light, in this day and age of flowering • imperfect flower and will consequently cause the plants plants, which is why we have such • raceme to be less healthy. beautiful and amazing floral diversity • receptacle Fragmentation is another form of throughout the world. anther asexual reproduction in plants, Since so many plants produce • panicle • and is very similar to vegetative flowers, a basic understanding petal • reproduction. This is when an of floral anatomy will aid you • filament organism is broken into 2 or more tremendously in the proper • solitary flower pieces, and each one grows into a identification of plants. In learning • pistil new individual. For this type of to identify plants, it is important • stamen reproduction the plant must have to understand that • umbel good powers of regeneration. flower anatomy • ovary This could be a disadvantage and structure is • stigma if the plant is in poor directly linked to • composite flower conditions, as it pollination. This • style wouldn’t have plant-pollinator • inflorescence strong powers of relationship is • nectary regeneration, and one of the best • corolla so it wouldn’t be able to examples of co- • ovule reproduce. On the positive side, it evolution in nature. • peduncle can produce many new individuals Were it not for the process of • calyx very quickly. pollination, flowers as we know • pedicel Each method of reproduction has them might look dramatically advantages and disadvantages. different, perhaps more different Overall, asexual is faster and easier than we can imagine! than sexual reproduction because Relying on wind to move pollen, as another partner is not needed and grasses, some wildflowers, and many doesn’t have to be found. Another trees do, is the oldest method of advantage of asexual reproduction ensuring pollination. In these cases, is that pollinators and pollen don’t plants produce massive quantities have to travel in order to propagate of pollen, with only a small amount the species. This means the plants reaching its destination on another can conserve energy and be more flower of the same species. These discreet. Because genetic information species often have small or no petals 16 The Secret Life of Flowers

Background Information, continued

so as not to block the wind and are rarely showy in any receptacle; the receptacle in way since they do not need to draw in any animals. They turn attaches the remainder of also commonly have feathery stigmas that aid in combing the flower to the rest of the plant by a pollen from the air. But a more efficient— and fantastic— stalk called a peduncle. The center of a flower usually means of pollination, observed widely among flowering contains the female, pollen-receiving pistil. The stigma plants, is by luring unsuspecting animal partners to at the pistil’s tip is often sticky, feathery, folded, or inadvertently transfer pollen from one flower to another otherwise designed to trap pollen. When they’re ready as they search for food. to accept pollen, stigmas prepare themselves for the Insects — especially beetles, ants, flies, bees, wasps, transfer. They may be pushed upward by the long style butterflies, and moths — are the predominant animal that supports them, lean toward the male parts, or pollinators. They have physical characteristics that become stickier. At the base of the pistil, the frequently make them extremely efficient in locating flowers and hidden ovary protects ovules (eggs), which become transferring pollen from one flower to another. Flowers seeds when fertilized. and their pollinators have evolved together throughout The male parts, or stamens, typically surround the time, frequently engaging in relationships in which the pistil, forming the next whorl out from the center of the two depend on each other for survival. flower. They can be quite long to maximize exposure to Of course, animals don’t do the work of pollination for wind and pollinators, hidden inside the flower to force nothing (or even realize they are doing the work in the pollinators to touch the stigma on their way in or out, first place), so plants offer rewards to attract pollinators. or able to lengthen and shorten over time, as needed. Animals use flowers as sources of food for themselves The stamen is made up of the filament that is a thread- and their offspring. First of all, animal-pollinated flowers like stalk that supports the anther, which produces and produce nectar, a sugary substance that also contains releases pollen. Animal-pollinated plants have large, vitamins, amino acids, and other nutrients. The amount irregular pollen grains with lots of tiny hooks, spines, and of nectar a flower typically produces relates to the craters on the surface. A rough texture and sticky surface needs of its pollinators. Second, pollen itself is a good ensure that the pollen will stick to a visiting animal’s hair, source of protein for many animals. Finally, a few plants scales, feathers, or appendages and then stay there until reward their pollinators with fatty oils, resins, or wax. the animal visits another flower. At the next flower, the pollen will be rubbed off onto the strategically placed A typical flower contains the necessary anatomy to stigma. If the conditions are right, the pollen grain support transferring pollen and producing seeds. germinates and sends a tube down the style of Flowers come in a broad range of sizes, shapes, the stigma and fertilizes an ovule, leading to seed and colors, from beautiful and showy to the production. Once fertilized, the ovary wall takes modest and plain, but most flowers are made in moisture and swells, becoming the fruit, which up of basically the same parts arranged in surrounds and protects the developing seeds. the same order. Flowers parts are commonly described as occurring in whorls, or rings, The next whorl out from the stamens is with different anatomical parts usually usually made up of the petals. The petals occurring in the same order, regardless are typically the most noticeable parts of species. The part of the flower where the of flowers, and are designed to attract and provide reproductive parts are attached is called the platforms for insects, bats, birds, and other roving

17 The Secret Life of Flowers

Background Information, continued pollinators. All of the petals of a flower are a group of flowers. Sometimes plants have flowers collectively referred to as the corolla. At that are found singly on the plant. These are the base of many flowers are nectaries, called solitary flowers. More commonly, which produce the nectar. Since this food flowers are found in clusters, called an treasure is typically tucked deeply in inflorescence. Like the anatomy of a flower the flowers, pollinators are coaxed into itself, the arrangement of flowers in a cluster touching the flower’s reproductive organs, varies widely, a testament to the diversity of thus transferring pollen in their search for pollinators and plant adaptations that ensure nourishment. healthy reproduction. A cluster of small flowers in a The sepals commonly make up the final whorl in the flat to rounded shape, such as Queen Anne’s Lace, is flower’s anatomy. Collectively, they are referred to called an umbel. A cluster comprised of a long central as the calyx. They form a protective, petal-like layer stalk with flowers attached directly to the stalk is called that covers an unopened bud, and are usually small a spike. A spike with flowers attached by short stalks and inconspicuous when a flower is open. The sepals (pedicels) is called a raceme. A raceme that is further are usually green and peel back as the flower opens; branched is called a panicle (many grasses, but not sometimes they will even fall off as the bud opens. In nearly all!). Flowers in the Sunflower family (Asteraceae) some flowers, there is an additional whorled ring outside may look like single flowers; however, if you look closely, of the sepals. This ring is made up of bracts, or modified each flower head is actually composed of numerous leaf-like structures. A common individual flowers, sometimes hundreds. These are example of bracts in a flower is called composite flowers. in the Pacific dogwood Cornus( One explanation for the vast and varied differences of nuttallii). What may appear as large, flower shapes, sizes, colors, and smells is that flowers white petals are actually bracts. The have co-evolved with their pollinators. When you are petals on this species are actually observing your flower, ponder how the design might tiny. best be suited to a specific pollinator. The stigma is As is always the case in nature, often sticky. Can you guess why? The ovary is often there are exceptions to the rule. hidden. Why? The stigma generally appears sturdy Many plants produce flowers compared to other parts. Why? The stamens are containing both male and female often frail and in great numbers. Why? Why are petals parts. These are referred to as perfect flowers. But colorful? Some plants have scented flowers. Why is this? some plant species have flowers that contain only male Why are some flowers showy and some very plain? parts and some that contain only female parts, both In this indispensable partnership, flowers and referred to as imperfect flowers. In these cases, one pollinators are utterly dependent on one another for of the whorls described above will be absent from the survival. In turn, we depend on this process for much flower’s anatomy. In some species, these flowers are of the food we enjoy. In the process of exploring flower located on the same plant; in others they are found on anatomy, you gain the skills to understand not only how separate plants. to identify plants, but also to observe nature’s diversity There is a long list of vocabulary that is used to describe in greater detail (1). the way in which flowers are attached together to form

18 The Secret Life of Flowers Directions one or the other. The parts are easy to find on Work with a partner on this activity. You will be some flowers, such as a lily. On some flowers, such 1 sharing a flower, but each of you will turn in your as a sunflower, the parts are very difficult to see. own 3-panel sheet. Help each other to locate the If the male and female parts are not visible, gently flower parts. move or remove a petal or two. In the second Observe your flower closely without touching it. panel of your data sheet draw the inner whorls of 2 Can you see all of the reproductive parts or does your flower (pistil(s) and stamen(s)). Is your flower the plant hide the flower parts? Take note of the perfect or imperfect? size, showiness, color, aroma, and anything else Carefully use your knife to cut a cross section interesting that you observe. Use a hand lens to 5 through the center of your flower. Try to slice observe closer. Can you see nectar or pollen? through the ovary to show the inside. This will take Take a couple minutes to brainstorm with your a steady hand as the ovary is often quite small. partner why your flower is designed the way it is. Use your hand lens to view the inner parts of your Think of where it might grow and how it might be flower closely. What does the inside of the ovary pollinated. Write down your ideas. look like? Fold and crease a 11x17 inch paper into three In the third panel of your data sheet, draw an 3 equal parts (like a brochure). Open the paper 6 extreme close-up of the inner flower parts. Be as and in the first panel, draw your flower. Include accurate as possible, use your hand lens and fill the pedicel (flower stem) and how it is attached to your drawing panel with what you see. the flower. Draw the flower as accurately as you Using the flower diagram as a guide, label the can, showing all the different parts that are visible 7 parts of your flower. Use the panel(s) that best without touching your flower. shows the parts you are referencing. 4 Compare your flower to the diagram of “parts of Label your flower with the inflorescence type. the flower”. Look for the reproductive parts of 8 Compare to the flower diagram or classroom your flower. Most flowers have both; some have display and to your vocabulary words.

Taking It Further Turn your drawings into an art project: • Portray your flower in an alternate artistic medium of your choice from the perspective of a pollinator. Paint, • Color your 3-panel sheet and use shading techniques sculpt, design a video game, film, poetry/creative to show depth. Cut out the panels and mount them writing, music, dance; the options are limitless. on a complementary color background. • Design a flower for a specific new pollinator (you • View your flower like a pollinator might see it could use a black bear!). What kind of characteristics and draw a part of your flower that you find most will this flower need to attract the pollinator? What interesting. Draw the piece in great detail, large like shape, size, and smell will the flower have? Include a Georgia O’Keefe would have. Fill the page or even drawing and description of your new flower. larger, letting parts of the flower trail off the page. Use your hand lens to look for subtle vein patterns, hairs, color variations, nectar droplets, etc. and Reflection include these observations in your drawing. The great Georgia O’Keefe had a unique way of viewing flowers American artist Georgia O’Keefe painted flowers like and was drawn to their beautiful flowing lines. Pick this. View some of her works online for inspiration. your favorite flower and write as if you are looking at 19 The Secret Life of Flowers

Reflection, continued a section of your flower through a microscope. Make the box; what are ways you could make your writing the lines of your writing flow like the lines of the “flow”? Use your creativity. You might also write a flower in one of O’Keefe’s paintings. Think outside of poem to accompany your illustration.

In the Field! Go outside to draw flowers in the field. Discover the nuances of different flowers. • Many of our native wildflowers are small and take close observation to note their beauty. View flowers with a hand lens to look for the fine details you learned about. Visit a field of wildflowers. Look for different types of inflorescences. Is one type • more common than others? See if you notice flowers on more cryptic species such as grasses and sedges, or willows. Visit the same site over time. Does the type of dominant inflorescence change? Could inflorescence type be linked to pollination? Is one type of inflorescence more common at specific times (March compared to May)? Why? Remember that flowers must be open at the same time that their pollinators are active in order to reproduce. How might climate change affect the plant-pollinator relationship? Science Inquiry Study a native flower. Draw the flower in your field journal and identify the parts, • making notes about the color, scent, nectar, pollen, and anything else you observe. Be sure to date your journal entry. Use your observations and the background information to hypothesize how or who pollinates this flower. Keep your prediction and re-visit your journal entry after studying pollinators in the Native Plant Ecology section. Re-evaluate your original hypothesis. Do you want to make changes? How would you test it? In the spring and summer, do a comparative study between two habitat types, analyzing aspects of • floral structure that you learned in this lesson. Choose two habitat types that are readily accessible near your school (i.e. edge, prairie, woodland, wetland). In each habitat, choose ten plant species and make notes about important aspects of their floral structure. Record the plant form (herb/forb, shrub, or tree), inflorescence type, whether it has perfect or imperfect flowers, and whether it is wind or animal pollinated. It is not necessary that you know the name of the plant for this exercise, though it should be recorded if you know. Do you notice any trends? Is one inflorescence type more common in one habitat type than another? Is there a difference in the abundance of perfect or imperfect flowers between habitats? Are wind or animal pollinated plants more common in one habitat type? Make these comparisons across different plant forms (tree, shrub, herb, grass, etc.) and see if you notice any trends. Speculate as to why you observed these trends.

Self Assessments Resources Overview of co-evolution with many examples: http:// Label the parts of a flower and name the function biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/Bio303/coevolution.htm 1 of each. Harris, James G. and Melinda Woolf. 1994. Plant Define perfect and imperfect flower Identification Terminology: An Illustrated Glossary. 2 Sixth Edition. Spring Lake Publishing, Spring Lake Utah. 3 Describe inflorescence types. 20 The Secret Life of Flowers

Resources, continued This source lets you view many of Georgia O’Keefe’s Kew Gardens definitions and diagrams of flower flower paintings: http://www.artst.org/okeefe/ ; and here structure fact sheet: http://www.kew.org/ksheets/ is a brief biography of the artist: http://www.pbs.org/ pdfs/b4flower.pdf wnet/americanmasters/episodes/georgia-okeeffe/about- the-painter/55/ Flower Structure from Merriam Webster online visual Exploratorium Website—cool interactive dictionary: http://visual.merriam-webster.com/plants- website, esp. “secret life of flowers” : http://www. gardening/plants/flower/structure-flower.php myexploratorium.org/gardening/index.html

Inflorescene Type

spike composite raceme umbel panicle solitary

A Perfect Flower

Stigma anther Stamen Style Pistil filament Ovary

Petal Sepal

Receptacle Peduncle (or pedicel, if raceme or panicle) 21 Drupes, Pomes, and Loculicidal Capsules: a botanist’s lingo for describing native fruits Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like a banana. —Groucho Marx (1890-1977) Overview Time Estimate: In this hands-on lab, students learn about the basic parts and development 45-60 minutes in of fruits. By classifying familiar fruits using observable characteristics and fruit the classroom type vocabulary words, students familiarize themselves with the botanical origins of fruits and the adaptations of different fruit types. Following the lab experience, students can extend their new knowledge of fruits to native Best Season: plants by collecting fruits of native species in the field and comparing them Fall , Winter to familiar fruits to understand their botanical relationships. This is a great winter activity, as many native fruits can be foraged easily in the wintertime and many tropical examples are available in the grocery store.

Teacher Hints Preparation Let students sample store-bought • Collect fruit from a local market Supplies needed for set-up: plates, • fruits by having bite-sized sam- and set up about ten stations cho- cutting boards, and knives for ples at each station. sen from the list below. Number the slicing and displaying fruits. Towels stations, and include at least two or for clean-up. Hand-clippers for • Encourage students to use hand more of each suggested fruit (when collecting native plant materials. lenses to examine fruit carefully. possible) at the station. Include one For native fruit, set up the lab that is whole and one cross section with wild fruit and have students Assessments for each different fruit used. repeat the activity. Field guides • pome: apple, pear can help you classify wild fruit Students use a key to classify • berry: tomato, grape, avocado, types. Some suggestions: 1 common grocery fruits and ap- pomegranate, banana, date ply to native fruits. • drupe: peach, plum, nectarine, • pome: crab apple, rose hip, hawthorn, mountain ash Through observation, students apricot, cherry, olive, walnut (including hull and shell), almond • berry: Oregon grape, huckleber- 2 make inferences to seed dispersal ry, manzanita, honeysuckle, many methods by analyzing fruit types. (including hull and shell) • nut: hazelnut, acorn, chestnut Lily family plants Identify and name the three • caryopsis: corn, wheat, barley, • drupe: bitter cherry, elderberry, 3 parts of a fruit as applied to oat, rice Indian-plum common fruit types. • legume: bean (in pod), peanut • nut: hazelnut, acorn, chinquapin (in shell), snow pea (in pod) • legume: lupine, vetch Additional Information • achene: sunflower seed in shell • samara: maple, ash • multiple fruit: blackberry, rasp- • caryopsis: the fruit of any grass • Plant Genome Research, Boyce berry species Thompson Institute for Plant • pepo: cucumber, pumpkin, squash • achene: wild sunflowers, dande- Research. Lesson—Tomato DNA • aggregate fruit: pineapple, mulberry lion, thistles, burdock (Arctium) Extraction and Dissection. Students Include for “expert” level • capsule: bedstraw, iris, willow, violet learn the parts of a fruit by dissect- • aggregate fruit: blackberry, ing a tomato: vocabulary salmonberry, thimbleberry, http://bti.cornell.edu/pgrp/pgrp. • hesperidium: orange, lemon, php?id=302 lime, grapefruit brambles, and their relatives 22 Drupes, Pomes, & Loculicidal Capsules: A Botanist’s Lingo for Describing Native Fruits Time flies like an arrow, fruit flies like a banana. —Groucho Marx (1890-1977)

In this lab, you will learn how to classify fruits and understand their development. You will have a chance to familiarize yourself with the botanical origins of fruits and the adaptations of different fruits types. Compare what you learn in the lab to the fruits of native plants to understand their botanical relationships. V ocabulary Words Learning Objectives Amateur Botanist legume pericarp • Develop and use observa- drupe berry seed tional skills on multiple scales pome indehiscent nut • Understand how fruits are achene dehiscent ovule categorized botanically locule simple fruit ovary hip • Increase understanding multiple fruit carpel capsule aggregate fruit of plant diversity • Increase botanical vocabulary Expert Botanist exocarp hesperidium nutlet • Apply knowledge of familiar mesocarp follicle samara fruits to local native plants endocarp silique caryopsis Materials Needed pepo schizocarp accessory fruit • magnifying or hand lens Professional Botanist • key for common fruit parthenocarpy circumscissile capsule poricidal capsule types handout funiculus loculicidal capsule septicidal capsule

Background Information If a friend asks you for a piece a fruit contains other parts of layers are easy to see in some of fruit, they might give you a the flower as well. Fruits develop fruit, such as the apple, which has strange look if you hand them a after a flower is pollinated and skin, flesh, and a core. In other cucumber. Or perhaps you have the ovules inside the flower’s plants, the pericarp layers are heard people argue as to whether ovaries are fertilized. Every fruit very hard to see, such as in the a tomato is a fruit or a vegetable. contains at least one or more grasses. Fruits with similar forms seeds inside (with the exception are often evolutionarily related, In the grocery store, things that of some commercial fruits that are such as cucumber and zucchini. are sweet and potentially used in intentionally bred to be seedless). However, other fruits that may desserts are generally labeled as Fruits come in many shapes and appear to look nothing alike, such fruits. In the world of botany, the sizes and are divided into different as strawberry, raspberry, apple, term “fruit” means something else, fruit types with fancy botanical and cherry, may be lumped into and encompasses many things names to describe their form and one plant family, in this case the that are commonly referred to as function. As the seed develops Rosaceae or Rose family. vegetables, nuts, and even grains. or matures, the ovary tissue Why is it important to be familiar From a botanist’s perspective, undergoes changes that result in with the different types of fruit? a fruit is the ripened (mature) fruit. This ovary-turned-fruit is Field guides often use fruits as an made up of three layers, together ovary of the flower, containing important feature for identifying called the pericarp. These three one or more seeds. Sometimes plants. Being able to distinguish 23 Drupes, Pomes, & Loculicidal Capsules: A Botanist’s Lingo for Describing Native Fruits

Background Information, continued fruit type will get you one step and jays to eat later in the winter, section is related to our Oregon closer to proper identification. but many are never found and from native bitter cherry Prunus( Also, plants from the same family them sprout new trees. Light seeds emarginata), which has a fruit so will frequently have the same may be dispersed by wind or water, bitter that it is inedible for humans. type of fruit, another hint to their and often have special appendages If you look at native plants, you identification. Fruit type can also on them such as wings, parachutes, will find that many of them have give you a hint as to how the or corky floats to aid in the process. fruits that are similar to ones you seeds are dispersed, an important Some fruits also have hooked barbs are familiar with from the grocery window into the ecology of the on them that adhere to animal fur store. However, many fruits that are plant and the animals that may for dispersal. During this exploration, popular to eat are shipped from depend on it. you will have an opportunity to think subtropical and tropical areas, such The method by which a fruit critically about the mechanisms of as bananas, pineapples, and citrus, is dispersed can generally be dispersal of native fruits. and have no local relatives. determined by examining the What do the fruits you find in the In this lab you will be looking at structure of the fruit itself. Fleshy, grocery store have in common with fruit from the grocery store as sweet fruit is likely to be eaten, with our native plants? Many of our well as fruits from local native the seeds transported inside of an native plants have domesticated ecosystems. Use your observation animal, to be deposited somewhere relatives that have delicious edible skills to examine the structure and else with a ready-made packet of fruit. For example, the delectable characteristics that are used to fertilizer to get it started. Hard nuts cherry you find in the produce classify fruit into categories or types. are cached (buried) by squirrels

Directions You and your classmates should fruit? Note anything else that 5 After you have visited all of the 1 divide yourselves evenly across may be an important identifying stations with commercial, grocery the stations. You will begin by feature. Use the magnifying lens store fruits, visit the native, visiting only the stations with to look closely. wild fruits stations. Follow the same directions for the native commercial, grocery store fruits. Rotate to the next fruit station; fruits stations as you did for the Native, wild fruits will be exam- 3 write the station number and grocery fruit. Use a hand lens to ined later. continue to sketch and gather ob- examine the fruits carefully, as servations. Be sure to visit all the Spend 3-5 minutes at each sta- wild fruits are often much smaller 2 stations (or the number specified tion. Note the number of the than their grocery store cousins. station on your paper (use a half by your teacher). Apply what you have learned. sheet of paper for each station). Once you have observed the 6 Can you match the wild version Sketch a cross section of the fruit 4 fruit at all the stations, use the with fruit types you eat? In all and write a description in words. Dicchotomous Key for Common likelihood you will discover some Observe closely all the small Fruit Types to determine what new fruits that do not fall into the details you find in each group type of fruit is at each station categories that you have worked of fruits. Is the fruit soft, fleshy, you visited. Fill in the fruit type with so far, as they do not have a dry, hard? How many seeds are in the top right corner of your domestic equivalent that we eat there? What is the arrangement data sheet. and texture of the pericarp? Are (e.g. samara). there any chambers within the

24 Drupes, Pomes, & Loculicidal Capsules: A Botanist’s Lingo for Describing Native Fruits

In the Field! Take an outing in the fall to see how many different wild fruit types you can collect. When collecting, if you know the name of the plant, write it down. Take your collection back to the classroom. Dissect your wild fruits and use your observation skills to classify them by fruit type. How many different types of fruit did you find? If you were able to identify any of the plants when collecting, look in the field guide to see what type of fruit it has. Does your plant name and fruit type match what is found in the field guide? When you are finished with this activity, dispose of the seeds in the trash can. Invasive plants are common and it is likely that you have them in your collection. Don’t take a chance of spreading them—act responsibly and dispose of the seeds properly. Science Inquiry Are certain types of fruits more common in a specific ecosystem? Do comparative studies in the late summer or early fall to find out. Choose two ecosystem types that are easy for you to access. Riparian, woodland, forest, shrubland, wetland, and prairie are all reasonable choices. Determine some simple parameters to follow. An example would be to collect fruits from 10 species in a riparian area and 10 in a prairie. Determine the fruit types found in each ecosystem and compare. Does one fruit type predominate? Are the types of fruits found between the two ecosystems different? Do the types of fruits found in the ecosystems reflect some advantage related to habitat (e.g. corky, buoyant fruits in the riparian area that float well on water, or light and airy seeds in prairies that can be dispersed by the wind)?

Reflection Use your imagination. Invent a fruit and draw it inside and out. Describe it in detail. Write a story or poem about you and your fruit, or from a fruit’s perspective. Describe its habitat and how the seeds are dispersed. Hypothesize about why this fruit looks, tastes, smells, and lives as it does.

Taking It Further Self Assessments Some fruits are designed to literally hurl the ripe • Use observational skills to identify fruit types us- seeds at you when you touch them, while others ing a dichotomous key. Apply the knowledge to hold their seeds deep within fleshy layers. Take this native plant fruits. lab one step further by making observations and • Through observation, make inferences to seed inferences as to what method of seed dispersal dispersal methods by analyzing fruit types. (water, animal carried). Examine the structures of • Identify and name the three parts of a fruit as ap- the fruit and make your best guess as to how the plied to common fruit types. fruit may be dispersed to new sites. Refer to the Resources paragraph in the background information for clues. Harris, James G. and Melinda, Woolf Harris. 2001. What structures on the fruit lead you to think that it Plant Identification Terminology: An Illustrated Glossary is dispersed in that way? (2nd ed.). Spring Lake Publishing, Spring Lake, UT. 25 . Drupes, Pomes, & Loculicidal Capsules: A Botanist’s Lingo for Describing Native Fruits

Dichotomous Key for Common Fruit Types 1a. Fruit from one ovary of one flower (simple fruit).....2 1b. Fruit from more than one ovary but from a single flower…..Aggregate fruit 2a. Fruit fleshy at maturity…..3 3a. Single large, hard seed, (a “stone” fruit)…..Drupe 3b. More than one seed; seed not enlarged and hardened….4 4a. Seeds in a single linear order, separating from ovary wall; forming a pod…..Legume 4b. Seeds not in a single linear order…..5 5 .a. Inner layer of ovary (endocarp) papery, forming a core…..Pome 5 .b. Endocarp fleshy and not papery…..6 6a. Outer layer (exocarp) thin, easily peeled off, not leathery…..Berry 6b. Exocarp thickened and leathery (modified berries)…..7 7a. Fruit interior divided into sections w/ cross-walls; citrus…..Hesperidium 7b. Fruit interior not divided; exocarp a rind….. Pepo 2b. Fruit dry at maturity…..8 8a. Dehiscent (splits open at maturity); usually many seeds…..9 9a. Fruit contains only one distinct chamber (locule)…..Legume 9b. Fruit contains more than one locule, or with a lid-like top…..Capsule 8b. Indehiscent (does not split open); usually one-seeded…..10 10a. Ovary wall extends to form a wing…..Samara 10b. Fruit not winged…..11 11a. With many seeds in single linear order forming a pod…..Legume 11b. Fruit with one seed, or not in single linear order…..12 12a. Outer wall not especially thick or hard; fruit small…..13 13a. Seed not tightly attached to ovary wall…..Achene 13b. Seed fused to ovary; grains; seeds of grasses…..Caryopsis 12b. Outer wall hardened; fruit relatively large…..14 14a. Ovary hard throughout…..Nut

14b. Middle of ovary fibrous; seed hardened…..Drupe

Adapted with permission, the University of the Ozarks

26 What’s in a Name? What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet. —William Shakespeare (1564-1616), Romeo and Juliet

Overview Time Estimate: This lesson uses a technology-based practical application to explore 15-20 minutes inside; additional time scientific names. Students will access the United States Department needed for field of Agriculture (USDA) website to explore some of the challenges with journal and outside using common names. They will learn a brief history of scientific names, components. general rules on how to write scientific names, and hints for pronouncing Best Season: botanical Latin. Spring, Teacher Hints Winter, Fall • Plants commonly referred to out in the field to help students as “thistles” provide an excel- identify the “thistles” found in lent opportunity to explore the your area. When using photos utility of scientific names and the from this site, set a good exam- Preparation challenges with common names. ple for your students and include For example, the plants in the the credits on your cards. This • Student pairs will need access to genus Cirsium are referred to as may also be set up as a student a computer with internet capa- thistles, while the genus Centau- project. bility. rea represents star thistles, and • If your students need extra prac- plants in the genus Sonchus are tice to remember the proper Additional Information sowthistles. Each of these genera, techniques for writing scientific however, are distinctly different. names, make up a worksheet Botanical Latin hints: http://www. • Make a set of thistle identifica- writing scientific names incor- calflora.net/botanicalnames/pro- tion cards for Oregon or specifi- nunciation.html rectly and have students rewrite cally for your ecoregion. Find them in the correct form. • USDA/NRCS PLANTS Database photos and species lists on the home page: http://plants.usda. USDA PLANTS database site. gov/ Use these cards when you go • The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. Hickman, James C (ed.). University of Cali- fornia Press, Berkley, 1996. Assessments • Concise information on scientific names: http://oregonstate.edu/ Students can recognize and use proper formatting for written scientific dept/ldplants/sci-names.htm 1 names. (capitalization—Genus, species; italics if typed, underlined if • International Association for handwritten). Plant Taxonomy website with the Students can describe at least one situation where it is important to official regulations on botanical 2 use scientific names and why. nomenclature: http://ibot.sav.sk/ icbn/main.htm Students can name at least one situation where using a common name 3 is preferable.

27 What’s in a Name? What’s in a name? That which we call a rose by any other name would smell as sweet. —William Shakespeare (1564-1616), Romeo and Juliet

Overview This lesson uses a computer-based application to explore the importance of scientific names. Using the USDA PLANTS database website, you will explore the importance of using scientific names to describe plants and the challenges that arise from the use of common names. You will do this by researching a group of familiar and common plants, the thistles. Learn the history of scientific and common names, formatting guidelines for writing names, and hints for pronouncing botanical Latin that will make you sound like a pro. Background Information Learning Objectives Chances are you are familiar with factors contribute to the utility of a plant called a thistle. The name common names in communicating Become familiar with a • “thistle” is a common name used with your friends and technical website resource to gather scientific to describe many different plants acquaintances in your community. information that are spiny or prickly. However, However, there is often a need for some plants that are called thistles a greater level of accuracy than • Understand the history have no spines. If someone says common names allow. For this use, and function of scientific they saw a thistle, how do we know we have a standardized system of names which one they are describing? scientific names that do not change Understand the impor- • Common names can function by language, region, or local tance of using scientific usage. As you learn some of the names appropriately when everyone uses the same name for the Latin roots used to make scientific • Understand the uses for same plant. However, this is a names, they become easier to common names of plants rare occurrence. Most plants understand and remember, and • Write scientific names in are known by more than one can help you learn more about the the proper format common name. Sometimes these cool plants where you live. names differ from one region to Scientists have experimented with Materials Needed another. Common names also do many systems for classifying living • computer with internet not cross over language barriers. things. Prior to the invention of our access Imagine a plant found in both current system, scientific names • digital camera for use Arizona and northern Mexico, were long descriptive phrases outdoors (optional) where the common name for that were hard to remember. An a plant found in both of these example of a plant name under V ocabulary Words neighboring places would be one such system was Physalis annua different in Spanish and English. ramosissima, ramis angulosis glabris, • genus/genera This variation can make plant foliis dentato-serratis. Now that is • species names very confusing! In spite of hard to remember! The system in • binomial nomenclature this variation and the challenges use today was created by Carolus scientific name that arise from it, common names Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish • are used frequently. They are easy botanist and physician. Linnaeus’s • common name to pronounce, can be easier to system, referred to as binomial • taxonomy remember than scientific names, nomenclature (bi = two, nomen and are often descriptive of the = name, calo = call), involves a plant (e.g. blackberry). All of these standardized two-part name. In

28 What’s in a Name?

Background Information binomial nomenclature, the name comes first and the specific epithet different genera. for the species above was shortened (personal name) is second in the Scientific names often reference a to Physalis annua. Although other binomial system. For example, the physical characteristic of the plant, earlier scientists had worked on Latin name for the tree commonly a famous person or scientist, or such a system, Linnaeus formalized known as the bigleaf maple is Acer the geography of a plant’s range. the system and in 1753 published macrophyllum. Acer is the genus They can come from a person names for all known plant species in name; there are two other species (Lewisia for Capt. Meriwether his book Species Plantarum. Linnaeus in this genus that are native to Lewis), ancient Greek (Daphne from is credited with implementing the Oregon. This is similar to how you Greek mythology), a local language hierarchal classification system and your two siblings would have (Camassia for a Native American and is often referred to as the the same last name. The species word Camas), a false resemblance father of taxonomy (the science of name, macrophyllum, is only used (Pseudotsuga = a false Tsuga), a place classification). in naming this species in the genus (columbiana = Columbia River), a This hierarchical classification system Acer, similar to how your first name color (alba = white) or a description uses the genus name and a species and your siblings’ first names are (contorta = twisted). In fact, name to make up the scientific unique in your family. However, just “macrophyllum” means “large leaf” name of an organism. Scientific like you may know other students in Latin and describes the species names use Latin and sometimes who have the same first name as (Acer macrophyllum= bigleaf maple) ancient Greek as the root sources. you, sometimes the species name with the largest leaf size of all the Latin was chosen for several for two different plants are the maples—up to 15 inches wide! same, but only if those plants are in reasons. It is not used as a modern To maintain this standardized spoken language and therefore naming system, there are some does not change with slang and basic rules. the introduction of new words; it was historically used for scientific The genus is listed first and is • always capitalized. names prior to our current system of classification; and it allows for • The specific epithet is listed the standardization of scientific second, is never capitalized, and names regardless of the native is unique among members of spoken language. This naming the same genus. system gives each species a • The entire two-part name surname and a personal name, should be underlined if hand much like many people. If you written or in italics if typed. are named Pat Jones, then • When writing a name multiple Jones is your surname, times, use the entire name the and Pat is your personal first time. In successive uses of name. Scientists call the the scientific name in the same equivalent of a person’s last work, abbreviate the genus by name the genus and the equivalent using only its first letter, e.g. of a person’s first name the specific Acer macrophyllum becomes A. epithet. Unlike most people’s macrophyllum. names, the genus name (surname)

29 What’s in a Name?

Directions Each person or pair needs to work at a com- Click on the “common sowthistle” entry to learn 1 puter with internet access. Use the handout at 7 more. Would you find this plant in Oregon? Is this the end of this lesson as a guide. plant native or introduced? If introduced, where did it come from (hint: you will need to search Go to the website . This further on related links to answer this question)? 2 website is designed for use with scientific or Look at the pictures on the website. Have you common names. 8 seen this plant before? Examine the pictures Search on the USDA Plants Database website and look for it on your walks around town or on 3 for the common name “thistle.” Search options trips to the country. are located on the upper left of the homepage. Now look specifically at the genus Cirsium. How Type in the word “thistle” and chose the option 9 many Cirsium species are there in Oregon? Find “common name.” one species of Cirsium that is invasive and one that is native and write their common and scien- How many records are returned (noted at the tific names on your worksheet. 4 top of the results page)? Now click on the map of Oregon on the website How many different genera come up for the 10 and see if you can find a species of thistle that is 5 name thistle? found specifically in the county where you live. Scan down the right hand column of common Investigate the Latin word definitions of the sci- 6 names. Locate “common sowthistle” and write 11 entific names you found. Look up both the ge- down the scientific name for this plant using nus and specific epithet. You can use a website proper form. such as: . Why do you think it was given the scientific name that it has?

Botanical Latin Tips from The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California (pg. 11,12) Quick tips for pronouncing Latin: Many people avoid using scientific names because they • Divide words into syllables (it is safe to assume don’t feel comfortable pronouncing them. For each every vowel belongs to a different syllable) new Latin name you encounter, remember that there is Pronounce every syllable commonly more than one way to say it. Botanist William • General practice is Stearn said, “Botanical Latin is essentially a written language, • but the scientific names of plants often occur in speech. • a: “ah” not “ay” How they are pronounced really matters little provided they • e: “eh” not “ee” sound pleasant and are understood by all concerned…” • i: “ee” not “eye” Even professional botanists can be strikingly different • y: as in “cynic” not “eye” in the way they pronounce names. If you feel unsure of • ae: ”eye” not “ee” yourself, remember a bit of wisdom from a wise botanist, • ii: held longer “eeee” “When someone presumes to correct your pronunciation, a • ti, ci: “tee” or “cee” not “she” knowing smile is an appropriate response.” So be brave, go • ch: generally “k” not as in “ouch” ahead and say those scientific names! • g: as in “go” not “gem” 30 What’s in a Name?

Taking it Further • Do another name search based on a common plant • Research and write a paper on the history of plant name in your ecoregion (try daisy) or a plant from taxonomy or a famous botanist (some examples: your field work. Carolus Linnaeus, David Douglas, Meriwether • Research the naming conventions for Latin, base Lewis, etc.). words, prefix/suffixes, and form agreements.

In the Field! Find all the plants in your area that people call “thistles.” A good place to start is by searching the common name “thistle” on the PLANTS Database site. Record your findings. While in the field, take a photo, make a sketch, or make an herbarium specimen in a plant press. In the classroom, identify and label each photo, sketch, or pressing with the scientific name, and write a description of each plant. How many different “thistles” did you find?

Reflection Now you are familiar with a great botanical internet resource. Brainstorm and describe how databases such as the USDA Plants Database or local databases like the Oregon Flora Project might be used for conservation or scientific projects.

Self Assessments Resources Can you write scientific names in the proper • USDA/NRCS PLANTS Database home page: 1 format? http://plants.usda.gov/ Name a situation where it is important to use • Concise information on scientific names: 2 scientific names and why. http://oregonstate.edu/dept/ldplants/sci-names.htm Name a situation where using a common name is • Dictionary of botanical epithets: http://www.winternet.com/~chuckg/dictionary.html 3 preferable.

31 What’s in a Name?

Names:

Go to the website http://plants.usda.gov/ to start your search.

1 Search for the common name “thistle.” How many records are returned? 2 Count the number of different genera with the common name “thistle.” How many do you find? 3 Find “common sowthistle.” What is the scientific name for this plant? 4 Click on common sowthistle to learn more about this plant. Is this plant found in Oregon? 5 Is it a native plant or introduced species? 6 If introduced, where did it originally come from? 7 Download a picture of the sowthistle with proper photo credits. Have you seen this species?

If so, where did you see it?

What is the meaning of the scientific name for the common sowthistle? Use this website http://www.winter- 8 net.com/~chuckg/dictionary.html.

9 Why do you think it was given its scientific name?

Now do steps 1-9 for the genus Cirsium. Write what you find here. Can you find any native species in that 10 genus?

32 Plants Have Families Too I have seen trees as my friends. When they grow along my path, I reach out to them, draw their needles through my hands, and smile. I say their names, an acknowledgment of kinship. —David Sobel (Contemporary)

Overview Time Estimate: 15 minutes for Students learn about the science of taxonomy by observing patterns of each plant family plant characteristics of related species of families widely represented in (includes time to their ecoregion. investigate and discuss findings) Teacher Hints Best Season: Obtain plant specimens on the toweling in sealed plastic bag; put Spring, • day before or the day of the long-stemmed plants in a vase. Summer, Fall activity (be sure to keep the live • If plants are no longer bloom- specimens in a vase of water ing, students can investigate or in the refrigerator). A list of fruits, seeds, and seed dispersal potential species follows each mechanisms. As an alternative, Additional Information family description. Plants appro- collect photos of plants, flowers priate for dissection are weedy and fruits to do this activity in or common, found along road- winter. • Elpel, Thomas J. Botany In A Day: sides or in gardens. Free, left The Patterns Method of Plant Identifi- over flowers may be available • Number stations (1, 2, …) with cation, 5th Edition. 2004. HOPS from local florists (be aware that representative examples of one Press, LLC, Montana. www. garden and florist plants are of- plant family at each station. Have hopspress.com ten hybrids and may have more enough stations so you have 3-4 flower parts than plants growing students at a station at a time. in the wild). • Divide students evenly among • Keep specimens cool and moist. the stations. Act as timekeeper, Lay short-stalked flowers be- having groups move to next sta- tween moist sheets of paper tion at 8-10 minutes.

Assessments 1 Give common and Latin name of each plant family learned. 2 List two characteristics for each family that makes that family unique. 3 Indentify one representative for each plant family.

33 Plants Have Families Too I have seen trees as my friends. When they grow along my path, I reach out to them, draw their needles through my hands, and smile. I say their names, an acknowledgment of kinship. —David Sobel (Contemporary) Overview Learn about the science of taxonomy by observing patterns of plant characteristics of related species of families widely represented in your ecoregion. Background Information Learning Objectives In this lesson you will learn to wild places around you. Walking identify the most common plant down a trail in your local forest, Practice observation skills • families from your area. Why is it on multiple scales it is always a treat to see plants important to study plant families from common families that you Identify and recognize • as part of plant identification? recognize. Even if you don’t know patterns and characteris- With over 3000 species of native the name of the plant itself, just tics that group plants into plants in Oregon, it is helpful families by recognizing the plant as from a to have plant families as a tool familiar family, you will feel more Introduction to the science • to make plant identification welcome in amazing wild places. of taxonomy in classifying easier and to understand the and naming organisms relationships between the species When you have finished this Materials Needed in your area. When you see a plant activity indoors, try it outdoors whose identity you do not know, in a natural area. It will help • plant specimens in flower you begin to understand the or seed if you can guess its plant family just by looking at it and making composition of different plant hand lens • a few observations, you will have communities in your ecoregion. observation sheet or field • narrowed your list of possible journal Several plant families common candidates to a much smaller throughout Oregon. field guide for your area group, making the challenge • Mint family—Lamiaceae V ocabulary Words of identification easier. Also, some families have a tendency Daisy family—Asteraceae taxonomy • to have more edible, medicinal, Parsley family—Apiaceae Lamiaceae • or poisonous plant species than Asteraceae Rose family—Rosaceae • others. By identifying a plant to Apiaceae Grass family—Poaceae • family, you may get a clue as to Rosaceae • some of its uses or a clue to refrain Sedge family—Cyperaceae • Poaceae from eating species from families Pea family—Fabaceae Cyperaceae • you know tend to be poisonous. Lily family—Liliaceae Fabaceae Knowing the plant families is a fun • Pine family —Pinaceae • Liliaceae way to get more familiar with the • Pinaceae

34 Plants Have Families Too

Directions Divide into groups to evenly distribute students After rotating through all plant family stations, gather 1 among the stations to start the activity. 4 together to share as a large group. What characteristics Examine the related specimens at your first station. are helpful to identify each family? Were there any 2 Look for characteristics that are similar that would help families in which you found species that didn’t seem to you group all these plants into one family. Draw or quite fit the general family characteristics? write descriptions. Spend 8-10 minutes studying your Match the shared characteristics that you find on the family and then, when instructed, discuss your findings 5 Plant Family chart to your observed plants. Label your within your group until you are instructed to change sheet with the family name and add any key traits from stations. the cards that you don’t have. Rotate to the next plant family station. Again, observe Write the family name and important traits into your 3 the new plant family and record your observations, 6 field journal for reference in the field. discussing your findings within your small group. Practice your Latin by learning to say and spell the 7 names of the plant families you have just learned.

Taking it Further • Research the native species for each of the families and create a list for your ecoregion. When you create your list, note what type of habitat characteristics or ecology they prefer to live in (for example: wet, dry, shade). When indentifying plants, the ecology is one more clue that can be used to help you get a positive identification.

35 . Plants Have Families Too

In the Field! Practice your new taxonomy skills on a plant walk in a natural area. Look for plants that have traits that match the family characteristics that you learned in this lesson. Notice if your plant families tends to be found in one habitat over another (such as sedges, which are mostly found in wet places). If you don’t find a match for your families, pick a new plant to look at and record the characteristics you observe. Once you have made your observations, look in a field guide and try to discover which family it belongs to based on the characteristics that you observed. Science Inquiry Use your observation skills to gather data about plant families. Look at 2-4 plant specimens from one family. Use a Venn diagram to display the information that you collect. Each circle will represent one of the plant specimens; write down observable traits in that circle. In the overlapping area write any traits that are shared by all the plant specimens. Reflection Do you think it will be useful to be able to recognize plant families? Create a poem, riddle, or plant-shaped prose writing about one of the plant families, including the key traits that you learned about this plant family and how you would recognize it in a natural area.

Assessments Resources Give common and Latin name of each plant • Elpel, Thomas J. Shanleya’s Quest: A Botany Adventure 1 family you have learned. for Kids Ages 9-99. 2005. HOPS Press, LLC, 12 Quartz Street, Pony, Montana 59747. www.hopspress.com List two characteristics for each family that 2 makes that family unique. • Elpel, Thomas J. Botany In A Day: The Patterns Method of Plant Identification, 5th Edition. 2004. HOPS Press, Indentify one representative for each plant LLC, 12 Quartz Street, Pony, Montana 59747. www. 3 family. hopspress.com

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n ) ), sulphur ), sulphur o ); dande ) Rubus ar Rubus Phalaris Phalaris Bromus m Taxacarum Taxacarum m o Daucus carota Brachypodium Leucanthemum Leucanthemum Potentilla recta C sylvaticum eglanteria tha pulegium tha field rose ( rose field spearmint ( spearmint Queen Anne’s Anne’s Queen wild Carrot lace, ( black- Himalayan berry ( officionale pennyroyal ( pennyroyal canary reed ( grass grass ( grass ox-eye daisy daisy ox-eye ( vulgare cinquefoil ( arundaceae tectorum) lion ( brome brome ( meniacus spicata ) - , big ), - - ), (Eri

), tufted ), tufted Mentha Lomatium Prunella Prunella ), poison ), poison o Herac Artemisia ) spp.), Nootka Nootka spp.), Natives Oregn Rosa nutkana Rosa ), field mint ( mint ), field Fragaria tridentata) Purshia roemeri Festuca Deschampsia cespitosa Conium maculatum Conium lance selfheal ( lance selfheal Oregon sunshine sunshine Oregon rose ( sagebrush ( sagebrush tridentata hemlock hemlock ( Roemer’s fescue fescue Roemer’s ( leum maximum leum cow-parsnip ( cow-parsnip spp.) arvensis) ophyllum lanatum) wild strawberry wild strawberry ( desert parsley ( parsley desert antelope bitterbrush bitterbrush antelope ( vulgaris ssp. lanceo ssp. vulgaris lata hair grass hair grass ( - - Fruit t single flower four produces nutlets pus attached pus attached for top the to dispersal seed wind)by achene (small, (small, achene of- seed, hard with a pap ten schizocarp (dry that fruit in two)splits a single grain (caryopsis) termined by by termined cupand floral fertilization process achenes, achenes, pomes, drupes, and capsules, de follicles; har C r e ow l F : although may look like single look like may : although a F s c nflorescence small flowers in clusters; five petals joined at joined fivepetals clusters; in flowers small upper lower and a tube into split form base, bi-laterally flowers number varies; lip; stamen : (zygomorphic)symmetrical Inflorescence or in whorl plant) of the top (on terminal stem) the to attach (leaves small flowers in center called disk flowers, long flowers, called disk center in flowers small all flowers flowers; ray are flowers petal-like up a make and (receptacle) area to fleshy attach single inflorescence I - yel often petals sepals; fused 5-parted, ovary inferior low or white; 5 stamens; parts)the flower beneath (attached : simple or compound Inflorescence and convex or umbels (umbel flat is umbrella-like) or open spikes on dense florets small bracts one pistil, stamens, three clusters, floret grass the or petals, of sepals instead pair of bracts a second by surrounded is and outside) the lemma (on the called : Inflorescence inside); (tucked palea or raceme, spike, or drooping upright panicle flower, is actually cluster of flowers called a of flowers cluster is actually flower, hundreds to a few contain which may head, of individual flowers 5 sepals, 5 petals, one or many pistils, pistils, one or many 5 petals, 5 sepals, Floral of five; in rings stamens have many the cup beneath a floral have most cup: shallow saucer, be a flower may which bowl,deep or tube shape teristi c lant P MILIES - Chara f ea L leaves opposite, may be may opposite, leaves but or lobed, toothed dividednot or occasion- alternate usu ally opposite; or lobed, ally toothed, divided alternate, often basal, basal, often alternate, compound, usually leaf with sheathing bases nar- long and usually of base with the row, sheath, the leaf, the the around wrapped to attaches Leaf stem. a ligule, at stem the membranous a small important part ( often identification) for alternate, simple, di- simple, alternate, vided often or lobed, toothed er n e G al aromatic; stem cross-section square cross-section stem aromatic; some heads have only disk flowers flowers only disk have heads some others snakeroots), and (thistles (dandelions, flowers only ray have ray both have chicory); species many asters); (sunflowers, flowers disk and by subtended is flower head bracts: modified leaves bracts, involucral bud growing the protect that seeds often aromatic; stems of - stems aromatic; often seeds hollow;ten very some - poison common are others ous; many culinary herbs wind hollow stem pollinated; between nodes the usually two stipules are at base base at two are usually stipules stalk of leaf

saceae teraceae p s o o a Family Name Family (as-ter-AY- see-ee) daisy or sunflower family A L miaceae A (ay-pee- iaceae AY-see-ee) or parsley family carrot P aceae (po-AY-see- ee) grass family (lay-mee-AY- see-ee) mint family R (row-ZAY- see-ee) rose family

High School Curriculum 37 sedge family AY-see-ee) (cy-per- Cyperaceae family lily see-ee) (lil-ee-AY- L pea family ee) bean or (fa-BAY-see- Fabaceae family pine see-ee) (pine-AY- P Family Name iliaceae i naceae

edges. I stem fingers between to feel nodes; rollsolid between cross-section,in frequently Stem: three-sided, triangular areas, though not always true. foundcommonly wet in rhizomes perennial herbs bulbs or with nitrogen bacteria provide the plant with root nodules; exchange, in the food and a protected home in Bradyrhizobium, acquire which thein genera Rhizobium and otic relationship bacteria with this family have a special symbi- nodules on roots of plants in dispersed by wind mostly trees, evergreen, pollen very important identification). in very beak mature can when be (part often perigynium, topped by a persistent sac-like bract called a Carex, is ovary surrounded by a n largest genus family, in al G e n er veins rosettewith parallel alternate a basal or in simple, entire, leaf stalk ules located at base of ous leaflets, two stip threewith to numer alternate, compound whorls on brancheswhorls needle-like; borne in closed at the base along stem and are threein vertical rows leaves are arranged thein grass family, but oftenlike look plants firstupon glance, L ea f Chara MILIES P - - lant c teristi terminal flower of many flowers),umbel, or often one Inflorescence : sometimes a raceme (stalk attached to base of tepals) 5 stamens, of ovary superior ovary (base female parts),with often stripes or spots, male and perfectally symmetric), (both starand sepals shaped (radi- combined), showy, of 3 tepals whorls (petals w/ two ers called a raceme are usually borne on a stalk of many flow - Inflorescence pollen; with bee : flowers cluster to exposed be and showering the lands on the keel, triggering the stamen adapted for pollination by bees (the bee solitary stamen; flowers are structurally fused into or 9 fused and one a tube the keel; the keel surrounds 10 stamens largelyand two fused petals lower called banner on the top, on each one wing side, 5 petals, each a specific with name – one showy Separate male and female flowers; not Inflorescence : spike or panicle to three stigmas ally three stamens and one pistil two with leaves) and have no petals or sepals; usu surrounded by bracts (small, modified small, grouped spikelets; in floret is c s F a F l ow e r C har - berry occasionally a capsule or loculicidal seed (legume) eachbetween the joints edges or at lengthwise along the two often splits dried,when thata pod “naked seed”) sperm means fruits; Gymno cone (no a woody in seeds borne covering) a hard outer small nut with a nutlet (a t Fruit - white pine ( pine white micranthus ( sedge ( ( flowered cluster-lily Douglas-fir ( flowered ( lotus monticola tiger ( lily ( American vetch ( western hemlock ( ga menziesii columbianum ( unilateralis cola lateral sedge ( Carex densa Carex Abies grandis Tsuga heterophylla Triteleia grandiflora) Lupinus Vicia americana ), dense sedge N Oreg Carex tumuli- Carex Natives spp.) ) Lilium ), foothill ), lupine ), lupine ), grand fir ) Pinus Pinus Pseudotsu ), large- ), western o Carex Carex ), small

Lotus Lotus ),

- tris scoparius ( spruceNorway lium vineale) lium - garlicwild (Al broom ( pine ( pine Scots Hawaii, clover ( common sweet ( drooping sedge officinalis C Carex pendula Carex Picea abies o ) in Hawaii) in m m Pinus sylves Pinus o Melilotus Cytisus ) ), Scotch n W ) in ) in eeds ) - sedges ornamental ter chestnut, papyrus, wa - (pine nuts) (pine stone pine blue spruce, wisteria locust (tree), ver, honey alfalfa, clo- lentils, peanuts, beans, peas, fodils tulips, daf- asparagus, chives, garlic, onion, hyacinth, daylily, L rde G a a P n l d a s n c n ts ap

o r e

38 Institute for Applied Ecology Mechanics of a Key

Obstacles don’t have to stop you. If you run into a wall, don’t turn around and give up. Figure out how to climb it, go through it, or work around it. —Michael Jordan (1963-present) Overview Time Estimate: Learn how to identify plants using a dichotomous key by walking through Part 1: 40 minutes, the steps of constructing a key to the students in the classroom. Once parts 2 and 3: 20- students are comfortable with how a key works, they transfer their 30 minutes knowledge to keying out native plants using local field guides. Best Season: All Preparation diversity is to the health of the community of people. Link this Be prepared to lead your • to plant diversity and health students in a discussion of what of plant ecosystems (a more traits are appropriate to use diverse ecosystem tends to be Teacher Hints in the student key. The most more resistant to environmen- important thing is to keep it • Read background information tal change). and become familiar with how a a positive experience. Do not SENSITIVE SUBJECT WARN- dichotomous key works. Many allow students to use sensi- • ING: Keying a classroom of stu- field guides also have descriptions tive divisions such as weight dents is a great way for them to of how a key works and spe- or complexion. Brainstorm apply the concept of the key in cifically how the key in that book with your students possible an easy to understand format. works. If you are using a specific categories that will help them However, if you feel unsure of guide with your students, it may move through the activity (for your ability to keep it positive be helpful to read this section. It example: male/female, height, without put downs, use alter- is usually found at the beginning head circumference, eye and hair color, shoe size). native objects, such as seeds, of the guide. • In addition to sensitive divisions, stuffed animals, or shoes. understand that physical char- • Parts 2 and 3 introduce stu- acteristics that can easily change dents to using two common, Assessments should not be used (i.e. hair but different, versions of a length, clothes, jewelry) dichotomous tree key. Walk Student can explain how to the students through the steps use a dichotomous key • Set the stage for this activity by 1 leading a discussion on human while identifying a native tree. Students can work in a coop- diversity and how important 2 erative group to construct a simple key Students are able to key out Additional Information/Reference 3 a native plant using one or more dichotomous keys Web based interactive dichotomous tree key: http://oregonstate.edu/trees/ • Jensen, Ed. Common Trees of the Pacific Northwest. March 28, 2008. Oregon State University.

39 Mechanics of a Key Obstacles don’t have to stop you. If you run into a wall, don’t turn around and give up. Figure out how to climb it, go through it, or work around it. —Michael Jordan (1963-present)

Overview Learn how a dichotomous key works by walking through the steps of creating a key to the students in your classroom. Apply your newly learned keying skills to using a key to native plants and you will be well on your way to identifying native plants. Background Information

Learning Objectives A dichotomous key is a useful way guide you along a path to another to identify plants, animals, or just set of statements. Continuing in • Learn to use a dichoto- about anything. The word di- this manner, you will answer a se- mous key chotomous comes from the Greek ries of questions about your object • Develop the ability to dichotomia, meaning divided (from and eventually discover its identity. phrase key questions to dicha “in two”). The way a dichoto- Follow these simple guidelines to construct a key mous key works is by dividing one make your key a success: Create a key for others large group of objects (in our case • Your first grouping of statements to use plants, but this works for other • things too) into two smaller groups should divide the individuals in your class into two categories Materials Needed by characteristics that do not overlap. The wording is written as such based on some fairly obvious Part 1: that no object can belong to both trait, such as female or male. • blank dichotomous key divisions. The key is put together It does not matter if the two handout in steps that you walk through in groups have approximately the same number of items in them. flexible measuring tapes order, one at a time. Each step will • divide the group of objects into Be sure to focus on traits that are Part 2: smaller and smaller groups until commonly shared between sev- • field guide with plant key you have just one option and an eral individuals, though it is okay • overhead transparency of exact identification. to divide out one or a couple of key page individuals earlier in the key if A great way to learn how to use a they are very obviously different. • native tree species to key key successfully is to construct one of out (on school grounds or your own. The best test of your key • Continue to build your key by use pictures if not available) is to give it to others and see if they asking more questions. The ob- can successfully identify something jective of each step should be to V ocabulary Words with it. A key can be made in many identify a clear trait that divides the remaining individuals into dichotomous orders and still get to the same end. • The nature of the questions and the only two groups. Remember, it order that you ask them can vary; it is vital that each statement must is only critical that the key works to be worded so as to have only get you to the correct answer. two possible answers. The key will provide a series of • The statement should refer to paired statements. Each statement a trait that is obvious, unam- will have only two possible op- biguous, and observable. Traits tions. Each of the two answers will that are opinions (coolest, best, most fun, etc.) do not belong in 40 Mechanics of a Key

Background Information, continued a dichotomous key. • Once complete, give your key to a partner and see if • Continue to pose questions in your key until all indi- they can follow it. viduals have been identified.

Directions Part 1: 6 Continue to work through the groups until you Carefully read over the background information have been individually identified and named and 1 before starting and refer to it as needed. you are the only one left in your group. Be sure that you have recorded each step on the dichoto- This activity will walk you through constructing a mous key handout. 2 dichotomous key that will lead to the identification of each student in the classroom by name. Once you have completed your key, your teacher 7 will help the class as a whole to compile all the 3 Start with the entire class standing in a large group; individual keys to create a master key to every this will help you visualize how the key works. student in the class. 4 The first step of the key will divide the class Once you have a completed key to the entire class, into two parts by making a statement with only 8 choose a classmate of yours and try to identify them two possible categories. Remember, as you by working through the key. Were you able to prop- ask these questions you will want to use traits erly identify them? that are obvious (easily seen) and measurable (tape measure included), not subjective (such 9 Discussion questions: How does the statement “Stu- as funny-looking). Record the first question on dents (not) wearing a red shirt” work? What if you your empty key sheet at the top. Now physically used this key with the classroom tomorrow? Would move into the two new groupings. the red shirt statement still lead to the same person? For the same reason, the easiest plant keys do not 5 Work within your smaller group. The next step is depend on having a flower or fruit visible; you might to divide your group again. Here’s a hint: notice have one to look at today, but next week is a different how this grouping has only two answers; “Divide story. It is, however, quite common for keys to focus into those that have brown eyes and those that do on flower and fruit characteristics, as they are quite not have brown eyes.” Notice that the question often necessary for proper identification. didn’t ask you to divide into those with brown eyes and those with blue eyes, since it is possible that other eye colors, such as green, hazel, amber, gray, violet, or pink may be present. Record your question/statement on your key sheet and physically separate into those groups.

41 Mechanics of a Key

Directions, continued Part 2: Key out a native tree species outside (or from Walk through the steps of the key by following the 1 photographs if your school has no native trees) 3 numbers until you reach a name for your plant. using Trees to Know in Oregon book or the Common Confirm that you have arrived at the right species Trees of the Pacific Northwest online key. 4 by finding a description for the appearance and The first step in this key will ask you if you have an habitat of your species and making sure that they 2 evergreen or deciduous tree. Subsequent steps match with the individual you chose. For example, will help you to narrow down the identity of your if you chose a tree from a low wetland and then native tree. the species you arrive at lives in the mountains, Even if you think you know the name of the you know you have made a mistake somewhere in 3 tree, work through all of the steps in the key for the key. This happens to professional botanists all practice. the time. When this happens, go back to any cou- plets (pairs of statements) where you were unsure The dichotomous key in this field guide is a picto- about which statement to choose and choose the 4 rial guide, but the structure is very similar to the one you had not chosen the first time. See where key constructed in the classroom in Part One. this takes you. Sometimes keying out a difficult Part 3: species can be a bit of an adventure so have fun 1 Look at an example of a plant key in a field guide with it! for your ecoregion (see Appendix I for a list). A 5 Trade species with a classmate and try to key good example is Plants of the Pacific Northwest out a second plant. The more you do this, the Coast by Pojar & MacKinnon, page 28, Keys to easier it gets! Trees. This key is set up with a numbering system; each question/statement has numbered answers (such as 1a. & 1b.). Each answer will lead to another branch of the key. For example 1a. question may lead you to 2a., and 1b. could lead to 5a. Just follow the numbers. Each numbered branch is indented from the last 2 like so. 1a. 1b. 2a. 2b. 3a. 3b.

42 Mechanics of a Key

Taking It Further Apiaceae (parsley or carrot family) • Using your field guide, key out two plants from the Lamiaceae (mint family) same plant family. Use plants from one of the follow- For an extra challenge, try: ing families (see activity “Plant Have Families Too” for Asteraceae (sunflower family) – Plants of the native plant species suggestions): Pacific Northwest Coast also contains a genus key Lillaceae (lily family) for this family. Fabaceae (pea family)

In the Field! Using a field guide to identify native plants has been the backbone of this section of the curriculum. You have learned about plant terms, plant families, scientific names, plant keys, and you now have the skills and tools to identify plants. Take a local field guide out into nature and identify the plants you see! Don’t forget to look for helpful clues, such as the ecology of your plant. Where does it live? Are you looking at a plant in a wetland, grassland, on a mountain or in a forest? These are all clues that will help you identify the plant you have found. You now have the basic tools to identify plants; it is now your challenge to increase your skills with practice, practice, practice.

Reflection Each plant you key out may be unique, but it is also a member of a larger ecological grouping. Plants live in communities and are part of an even larger ecosystem. Look at one of the plants that you have identified and write about how the plant you chose belongs to a larger community of interacting species. Think about both the plant and yourself in the context of your communities and in your larger ecosystems. What do you have in common with your plants species? How does your role in your community compare to that of your plant?

Self Assessments Resources Explain how to use a dichotomous key. • Jensen, Edward C. and Charles R. Ross. Trees to 1 Know in Oregon, Oregon State University Extension 2 Cooperate as a group to construct a simple key, Service, revised 2005. Page 61. trade keys, and critique the results. • Web-based interactive dichotomous tree key: Jen- 3 Key out a native plant using one or more dichoto- sen, Edward C., Common Trees of the Pacific Northwest. mous keys from local field guides. 2008. Oregon State University. http://oregonstate. edu/trees/ • Field guides for your ecoregion (see Appendix I for listings).

43 Construct a Key Construct a Add more branches and boxes as necessary.

44 Make a Field Guide for Your School The voyage of discovery is not in seeking new landscapes but in having new eyes. —Marcel Proust (1871-1922) Overview Time Estimate: Students culminate the exploration of botanical skills learned in the plant Part 1: 60 min. session identification section of this curriculum by constructing a field guide to the Part 2: Additional plants (and more, if desired) of a natural area on or near the school grounds. field and class sessions needed Best Season: Spring, Teacher Hints Summer, Fall • Reference “Mechanics of a Key” present them with the finished and “Create-A-Plant” activities in project when completed. this guide. You and your students Invite a staff person from the will need to understand how a organization to get involved and Preparation dichotomous key works and how help mentor the students. Invite they are constructed as well as the them to your class and on the • Before taking students outdoors, components of a field guide page field trip to introduce the area, scope out a suitable location before beginning this activity. aid in the plant identification, for this activity, preferably on The “In the Field!” section below and share the site history. the school grounds or close by. • can help your school make a To make this lesson more If possible, use a natural area • community service connection challenging, instruct your with a diversity of plant species. with a local park or natural students to choose plants for If this is unavailable, students area. Identify a location that their key that have a lot of may use ornamental landscape is accessible to your students physical similarities (i.e. several plants. Don’t forget that trees and approach the governing grass species). To make this are plants, too. organization for permission and lesson easier, have your students • Divide the students into teams input. Explain what your students choose plants that are obviously of four or fewer. If possible, give will be doing and that they will very physically different. each group a designated area to avoid overlap. Assessments Additional Information Exchange keys among student groups and have each group test other • An educational lesson to make 1 groups’ keys for effectiveness. Write a peer review of the key or guide a dichotomous key; includes that others have constructed. The review should be balanced, noting both a wetland plant key: http:// positive attributes of the guide and giving constructive suggestions for watershed.csumb.edu/ron/roncor/ improvement. What works well about the key? Did they include terminology cor/did.htm that you could understand? Were the steps of the key easy to follow? What constructive suggestions can you give for improving the ease of use?

45 . Make a Field Guide for Your School The voyage of discovery is not in seeking new landscapes but in having new eyes. —Marcel Proust (1871-1922) Overview Put your new plant identification skills to work. Use your knowledge of Learning Objectives dichotomous keys, plant terminology, families, and scientific names to • Construct a dichotomous construct a key to a natural area on or near the school grounds. key to plants in your area Background Information • Apply plant terminology correctly In this activity, you will design a field guide to the plants (and more if you like!) on your school grounds or a natural area in your community. A • Compare and contrast plant structure and field guide will be an excellent asset to your community and will provide function other visitors to the area with important natural history and botanical information. Your teacher may ask that you engage in additional Materials Needed community service opportunities, such as using your field guide as a tool to lead groups on tours, or giving presentations to groups to promote Part 1: use of the area. flagging tape • The previous activity, “Mechanics of a Key,” gives you the groundwork • dichotomous key handout for constructing a dichotomous key, which will be necessary to include (Mechanics of a Key for people to be able to use your field guide. lesson) To ensure the success of your dichotomous key, each question can only • clipboard have two possible answers. Your key will not function properly if there • pencils are more than two answers per question. Read the following pair of waterproof marker statements and find the problem: “Plant is less than 30 cm tall.” OR “Plant • is more than 30 cm tall.” In which category would a plant that is exactly Part 2: 30 cm tall be placed? This statement needs to be reworded to read: • field guide template “Plant is less than or equal to 30 cm tall OR plant is more than 30 cm tall.” (Create-a-Plant lesson) Now there are only two possible options. • colored pencils The Create-A-Plant activity will give you an idea of the type of digital camera (optional) information that should be included in a field guide. Review the • background information for this activity. • computer (optional) Remember to use the other skills from V ocabulary Words the plant identification section (such as terminology). Each page in your • Dichotomous key field guide should include a photo or drawing (or both) that shows the general look of the plant with close- ups for distinguishing features. The following information about the species should be included in your page (in parentheses is an example of how this information might look for bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum).

46 Make a Field Guide for Your School

Background Information, continued • General description: including height and other • Ecology: where it lives; with what other species; general characteristics (large tree, often multi- specific soil types or habitats if relevant (dry to moist stemmed, up to 35 m tall; young bark green and sites, often with Douglas-fir, often on sites disturbed smooth, older bark grey brown and ridges, often by logging; low to middle elevations) covered in mosses lichens, and ferns) • Enthonobotany: how American Indian tribes or other • Leaves: arrangement, color, size (opposite, deciduous, 5 people use this species (First Nations people used lobed maple leaves, 15-30 cm across, dark green above, bigleaf maple to make canoe paddles, used to treat paler below, leaf stalk exudes milky juice when cut) sore throats, leaves rubbed on a man’s face at puberty • Flowers: color, number of petals, symmetry, size, to prevent thick hair growth, sprouted seeds eaten by arrangement, time of emergence (greenish-yellow, about some tribes, sap can be used to make a weak syrup) 3 mm across; numerous on short stalks in a hanging • Notes: wildlife habitat or uses, other cool facts: cylindrical cluster; appears with or before the leaves) (bigleaf maple carries a greater load of mosses • Fruits: color, size, description, mode of dispersal than any other species in our region, stumps sprout (golden-brown, paired winged samaras 3-6 cm long; vigorously following fire) wings spread in a v-shape)

Directions Part 1: Divide into teams of 4 or fewer. or measurements). In this case, be sure to observe several plants of the same species before deciding 1 Each team should first select individuals of different to include these in your key. plant species from a small area. To make this project Continue working through your key in this manner more challenging, choose plant species that share more 3 until your key directs the user to each individual plant obvious similarities. Place a flag next to each one and through the series of statements. number consecutively with a permanent marker. Choose Fill in your blank key handout when you are confident plants with flowers or fruit if they are available. Try to 4 that the questions you have chosen will lead the reader choose plants that are fairly close together for ease of to the individual plants. comparison. Carefully examine each of your plants. When finished, exchange the test keys with another Devise the first pair of statements for your key. Remember: 2 5 group and try to work through their key, filling in the • Begin with statements that are broad and general number of the plants for the answer. When you are and apply to all of your individuals. For example: done, look at the answer key. How did you do? What “Plants have woody stems” OR “Plants are herba- parts of their key work well and are clear? What parts ceous, or non-woody.” All paired statements should are confusing? How would you improve their key? have only two possibilities. Be sure that none of your options are subjective or relative. For example, Part 2: you cannot ask if a plant is tall or short. You must Make a field guide for a natural area of your schoolyard. give specific measurements. Do a complete survey of the plant species in the area • Be careful with statements that can vary greatly 1 you will be describing. Note the habitat and specific lo- from one individual plant to the next (such as colors cations where each is growing. Record vital information

47 Make a Field Guide for Your School

Directions, continued for each of the plants that are in your key on the iden- tional information on bloom times, flowers, fruits, and tification handout. Describe the plants as completely the scientific name. Be sure to find out to which plant as possible, using correct plant terminology. Include a family your species belongs. sketch or photograph the species. Assemble your information together in the form of field Use a published plant field guide to identify your 4 guide pages for your species. The first page of your 2 species. If you are unable to make a positive identi- guide should be a dichotomous key to all of the species. fication, collect a specimen to press (ONLY collect Devote a half or whole page of your field guide to each if you have permission) and check with local experts plant. Include a description, drawing or photograph, who can help you identify them (check appendix I of the common and scientific names, and anything else this guide for a list). interesting that you discovered in your research. Use In the classroom, use the internet and other field guides published plant field guides as examples for the type of 3 to collect research about your species. Collect addi- information that is important to include.

Taking It Further • Design a brochure or booklet for a natural area at or putting up a display at the front of the school, sharing near your school. with other classrooms, or giving a presentation to a • Use a computer program to design the brochure to teacher staff meeting, parent or community group. advance your technological design skills. Include Better yet, create a kiosk at the natural area and have a simple map, a key for identifying the plants, your brochure available for curious visitors. descriptions, photos, and the common and scientific • Work with an Elementary School to make a field names for all the plants in the key. If available, include guide to schoolyard plants. Design a simple key that some site history information in your brochure as well. uses only pictures or drawings. Teach a group of Make your brochure available for others to use by younger students to use it.

Self Assessments Resources 1 Does your key use proper botanical terminology? • Field guides (see appendix I for recommendations) • A simple, interactive dichotomous key to Oregon trees: 2 Is your field guide usable by someone who has never http://oregonstate.edu/trees/dichotomous_key.html been to the area you are describing? • USDA/NRCS PLANTS Database home page for Is your field guide usable by someone who is unfamiliar additional plant research: http://plants.usda.gov/ 3 with how to identify plants or the other species you may have included? Check your paired statements to make sure that they 4 have only two possibilities. Test your key to see if you can easily follow it to the 5 proper plant.

48 Make a Field Guide for Your School

In the Field! Volunteer to make a brochure or field guide to be used in a city or county park. • Have a staff person accompany you on your visit to help define the area for your field guide and to help with identification. Go to the site and choose a short interpretive walk for the field guide. Choose the plants that you would like to include in your field guide. Divide into groups with each group managing a part of the field guide. Different groups can be in charge of making a simple map with identification stops, constructing a key, taking photographs, and writing the descriptions. • Return to the classroom and use a computer to make a brochure for the park. The brochure should have the name of the park and credit the class as creators of the brochure (example: created by Any School, 8th period biology students, 2008). Ask an expert to review your brochure for accuracy and your teacher to proofread for errors. Print a copy of the brochure and also save it to a CD. Present the park with the finished work for their use. Science Inquiry Use your inquiring mind. Design a different way of sorting or classifying plants to identify them. Some field guides divide plants by growth form or flower color or plant family. What other ways can you come up with? No classification system is perfect. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the system you chose? Reflection Like most skills, plant identification improves with practice. Do you feel that you have the tools you need to identify plants? Write the steps that you would use to indentify a plant with which you are unfamiliar. Make a list of skills you need to practice or improve on to make plant identification easier for you. This can be called your plan of study for plant identification. Could this planning process help you learn another skill or help with a different subject at school? Write in your journal. What do you gain by learning the names of plants? Can you connect with and appreciate the plants without learning their names? What are some of the other ways that you can experience plants other than by identifying them? What type of information is gained by learning the name? How else can you get information about plants aside from identifying them?

49 Make Your Own Plant Collection Are we happy to suppose that our grandchildren may never be able to see an elephant except in a picture book? —Sir David Attenborough (1926-present) Overview Time Estimate: Construct or purchase a plant press, collect native plants, and create an 1 field session, 1 herbarium for your school. Students learn the skills by assembling a plant class session; can be press and making their own herbarium specimens. They will learn proper structured as an techniques for collecting, pressing, labeling, mounting, and storing plant ongoing project material. Students will practice their botanical terminology and plant identification skills Best Season: Spring, Summer, Fall Teacher Hints • Have students practice plant phone books with additional Preparation collection techniques using weight to press the plants flat. weedy species. Then move on to Introduce this lesson by dis- For the classroom herbarium • creating a native plant herbarium • cussing what botanists and stu- purchase or construct a high collection once proficient at col- dents can learn from pressed quality press (search online for lecting and mounting. plant specimens. Make sure to “herbarium supplies”) and use cover: • Alternatives to making the archival paper for mounting the cardboard presses in the lesson specimens. Store the mounted allows for observation of • include: purchase a plant press, specimens lying flat in large plants at different stages of make your own from plywood boxes or metal cabinets for long their life cycle (i.e. vegetative, boards, or even use old tele- life. Monitor periodically for flowering, fruiting) insect damage. • can be used as reference in Additional Information identify plants Assessments Oregon Natural Resource provides an official record of • • Heritage Information Center plant species found in an area Produce 4 herbarium speci- (ORNHIC): Rare, Threatened, 1 mens using correct proce- and Endangered Species of dures for collecting, press- Oregon: http://oregonstate. ing, mounting, and labeling edu/ornhic/publications. each specimen. html#2007tebook 2 Record complete field note • ORNHIC: online Rare Plant information when collecting: Basin search divided by water- date, location, plant descrip- shed basins: http://oregonstate. tion, and habitat notes. edu/ornhic/plants/searchspe- 3 Label the specimen with cies_basin.html common and scientific name • Oregon Flora online mapping of using proper form and historical herbarium collections: demonstrate correct use of http://www.oregonflora.org/ botanical terminology.

5 0 . Make Your Own Plant Collection Are we happy to suppose that our grandchildren may never be able to see an elephant except in a picture book? —Sir David Attenborough (1926-present) Overview Learning Objectives Through this activity, you will learn the botanical skills needed to record • Learn and demonstrate and preserve plant specimens by creating an herbarium. You will proper techniques to assemble a plant press and make a personal herbarium of local weed collect, dry, and pre- species. In doing so, you will learn the proper technique for collecting, serve, and catalog plant pressing, labeling, mounting, and storage of your collection. This will also specimens give you an opportunity to practice using your plant identification skills. • Start or contribute to a Participate in making a classroom herbarium by creating or adding to a classroom herbarium with collection of native plant specimens for your school. a usable system of organization Background Information • Use botanical terminology An herbarium is a library of dried, pressed plant specimens that are as well as common and identified, labeled, and catalogued for posterity. Herbarium specimens can Latin names to correctly be used for many purposes. Accurate identification of a freshly collected describe a plant specimen plant can be made by comparison with an herbarium specimen. Herbaria (review) are used by scientists in their studies of plant form, to compare range • Practice plant identification and measurements, and to help in the construction of guidebooks. More skills (review) recently, specimens are used in DNA analysis to study plant relationships. Materials Needed Each specimen in the herbarium is labeled with the name of the plant, the person collecting, date collected, and location of collection. Often newspaper • the label will include additional helpful information like the plant • mounting paper—heavy community the specimen was found in, soil type, pollinators or known cardstock for individual uses. Herbarium specimens are treated with the utmost care so that specimens; archival paper they will survive and be available for study for hundreds of years. for class herbarium These specimens are the historic record of plants, where and when • Elmer’s glue they have grown. Additional applications for the study of herbaria • water (to thin out glue) specimens include how climate change has affected plants. For example, • small paint brushes specimens can document the range of species, demonstrate change in • 5-6 cardboard pieces per characteristics over time and across habitats, track the spread of non- student (8 1/2 x 11 inches) native weeds, and confirm the former ranges of now rare plant species. • acid-free resume paper Herbaria are located around the world and are often housed at museums, (for labels) botanical gardens, or universities. Many modern day herbaria are • large rubber bands or available online for access worldwide. The largest herbarium collection webbing straps in the world is found at the Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle in • plant pruner for collecting Paris, France with over 8 million specimens(1). In the United States, The • shovel or trowel Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania houses a very famous herbarium collection from the Lewis and Clark Expedition 1804- V ocabulary Words 1806. This collection is documented so that it can be cross referenced to • herbarium the dates and locations found in the diary entries of the Expedition.The • herbaria Museum houses 226 specimens from the Expedition, which are still in amazing condition more than 200 years later (2). 5 1 . Make Your Own Plant Collection

Background Information, continued Oregon has several herbaria housed at universities lying flat, usually in metal cases or cabinets in climate around the state. Oregon State University houses the controlled rooms to help preserve them (4). state’s largest with approximately 405,000 specimens. Herbaria can be very useful for figuring out where Their focus is on plants of the Pacific Northwest and extinct or very rare species previously existed. Written has 148,000 vascular plant specimen records available records on specimen labels indicate location and online (3). habitat information that can be used by conservation Herbaria are made up of plant specimens that are biologists to decide where to relocate species dried and pressed so as to highlight features that that they are reintroducing. For example, golden enhance identification. A specimen will include all paintbrush (Castilleja levisecta) is a species that is parts of a plant, including roots, flowers, and fruit, if extinct in Oregon but remains in Washington and possible. The collected plant is carefully positioned British Columbia. By looking through the herbarium on blotter paper, labeled, sandwiched between layers records, scientists were able to figure out that large of cardboard, and tightly squeezed within the plant populations of this species once existed in upland press until dried. Plant collectors will document the prairies throughout the Willamette Valley with many in location, date, and all other pertinent information in the Salem area (5). a field book. Once the plant is completely dry, it is One more important aspect for consideration in the mounted on archival quality paper with a detailed development of an herbarium is your plant collection label. Herbaria sheets are collected into folders by ethic. Below is a list of ethics that can guide you. Look species and folders are filed alphabetically by family, them over and discuss them as a class. Should they be genus, and specific epithet. The folders are stored expanded? Why or why not?

Ethics of Collecting Guidelines: • Be aware that you may be harmed by your interaction • Tread lightly—what does that mean to you? with some plants. Take necessary precautions and Don’t take any plants that you will not be pressing. watch for plants that can sting, have thorns, or give • you rashes. • Take care not to spread seeds of invasive plants. • Learn the process of collecting, pressing and mounting • Know your region’s rare and endangered plants. If you a plant collection by using readily available local weeds are lucky enough to find them, take only pictures of to start. Although pressing plants sounds fairly straight- these. forward it takes attention to detail and careful handling • Do not collect a plant if you do not see at least 10 oth- to do it well. Practice the techniques and then move ers of that kind in your location. Why is this important? on to developing a school herbarium project. 5 .2 Make Your Own Plant Collection Directions Assemble a personal plant press. You will need 5-6 pieces right away, seal it in a plastic bag and keep it out of direct 1 of heavy cardboard, several sections of newspaper, and 4 sunlight until you can place it in the press. Try not to squish long, heavy rubber bands. Cut the cardboard pieces the it or break any of the branches. size of a folded newspaper.Use newspaper as your blotter Assemble specimens in your press like layers of a sandwich. paper to position your plant specimen, plus use additional 7 The cardboard is the bread; add a few layers of newspaper, layers of newspaper between each specimen to help absorb then your specimen, another couple layers of newspaper, a moisture. Use an 81/2 x 11 sheet of paper as a size guide; piece of cardboard for strength, and repeat until the press is your finished specimen will be mounted on this size paper. full. Finish with a final cardboard piece and bind with 4 large Make a weed collection from your home, roadside or vacant lot rubber bands in a window pane pattern. 2 (follow the steps below). Collect 4-5 different weed specimens. Take your press home. Lay it on a flat, dry surface in a Do not collect from parks, natural areas, or personal property 8 warm location to dry (a sunny window, the top of the re- without the owner’s consent. BE RESPONSIBLE; do not spread frigerator, a furnace room, or a car with the windows rolled weeds. Be sure to contain any seeds that may fall off your col- up will suffice). Add additional weights (books) to help lections and dispose of extra weedy materials that you bring squeeze the moisture out of the plants. For best results, back to the classroom in the trash. change the newspapers between the plants on the second To collect your first plant: carefully dig up a weed. Try day. If you have a very succulent plant, change them every 3 to collect a plant that is average size and vigor of nearby day for the first couple of days. plants. This will make a better example of the species Leave the plants in the press until completely dry. This can than a plant that is the smallest that you can find. Gently 9 range from a couple of days to a couple of weeks, de- crumble the dirt from the roots of the plant. pending on the thickness of the plant material and the air Arrange the plant on the inside of a folded newspaper. temperature and humidity. 4 Once the plant is dried, you will not be able to move parts Mount the specimen once it is completely dry. Use heavy around without breaking it. You must be careful to arrange 10 cardstock paper for display. Carefully remove the specimen the plant to properly show its leaves, roots, flowers and/or from the newspaper by the stem. It might be helpful to use fruits. Lay a leaf out flat so that you can see the shape and forceps when working with delicate plant material. Arrange show the arrangement along the stem. Include flowers, if the dried plant on the paper and adhere with drops of white possible (flat open and profile) and fruits (be careful to not glue at multiple points along the stem and the outer leaves. spread weed seed). Include the roots if you can; crumble For heavy plants, glue strips of paper over them to hold at the excess dirt off before putting in the press. If your plant key points. Set aside and let the glue dry before handling. is too tall to fit on the newspaper, you will need to bend the Design a label to go on your specimens. Be sure it includes stem into a zigzag to make it fit. Another mounting method 11 the plant name, date, your name, where it was collected, if your plant is too large for one sheet of paper is to cut the and any special notes. Glue a label to the bottom right cor- plant and position it on more than one sheet. Number the ner of the paper on which you mounted your specimen. sheets so that they can be reassembled in the proper order. Write a habitat description that goes with your pressed Try to minimize overlapping plant parts; it can lead to moldy 12 plant. Include a general description of the form and iden- plant parts and makes them hard to see once they are dry. tifying features of your species. Specimens will fade with Label each specimen with a number directly on the newspa- age so be sure to include notes in the description on the 5 per and a corresponding numbered entry in your field jour- flower and leaf color. nal. Include the name of the plant if you know it, the location, Contact a plant expert (examples: OSU Extension Ser- date, your name, and any additional information that you 13 vice Master Gardeners, local nursery people, local Forest can. Additional information may include the names of other Service or BLM botanist, Native Plant Society) if you are plants growing nearby, the type of ecosystem (forest, field, having difficulty identifying your specimen. wetland), whether it was growing in the sun or shade, pollina- Visit one of the online herbaria listed in the Resource tors observed, or notes about the soil. 14 section to see an example of a mounted plant specimen 6 If for some reason you cannot put your plant in the press and label. 5 3 . Make Your Own Plant Collection

In the Field! Visit a real herbarium! If you are near a local university or botanical garden, take a field trip and check out their herbarium. Ask to see some specimens from the 1800s and compare them to some more recent specimens of the same species. Are there any noticeable differences? Create an herbarium for your school. Give the herbarium a theme that can be expanded or added to from year to year (examples: plants on the school grounds, a natural area that the class visits regularly, or a broad ecoregion collection). Offer tours of your herbarium to other science classes or to younger grades in your school. Be careful not collect too many samples of a single species. Work to fill gaps in the herbarium collection if it is already an ongoing project. Reread the Ethics of Collecting Guidelines in the Background section before going out to collect. Every ecoregion in Oregon has plants that are rare or endangered. Learn which ones are in the area from which you will be collecting so that you can avoid collecting them. Over-collection is one of the causes of decline for several rare plant species. Instead take a digital camera and make a visual record of the plant if you are lucky enough to see one. Get an overall photo of the plant, a wider photo showing the habitat, and multiple close-ups of leaves, stems, flowers, and fruit. Mount the photos and include the page in your herbarium. Science Inquiry Use an herbarium specimen to form a hypothesis about who pollinates the perennial wildflower common camas. First, research what is already known about the subject. In this case, look at the Camassia quamash (Pursh) Greene , web link from the OSU Herbarium (http://oregonstate.edu/dept/botany/herbarium/db.php). To find this genus and species, you will need to know that camas belongs to the lily family (Liliaceae). Now follow the link to the records by family, then genus (Camassia) and to species Camassia quamash. Take a close look at the digital specimen and read through the description. How might the information about bloom times help you form a hypothesis about camas pollinators? See the pollination activities in this curriculum if you need additional help. With what you now know, write a hypothesis and design a methodology for testing it. Reflection What are some of the things that you could learn by developing an herbarium at your school? What would be the benefits to your class? How would a class 10 years from now benefit from your work? How can you be sure that you are not damaging a rare plant population? Is there a time that taking a rare plant specimen would be acceptable? Justify your reasoning. Can you add at least one additional rule to the Ethics of Collecting plants? What would it be?

5 4 . Make Your Own Plant Collection

Taking It Further • Develop a filing system for the class herbarium. Speci- • Organize a way to track additional records, such as a mens are commonly organized by family, genus, and notebook with a page devoted to each species and a specific epithet. Write an explanation of how your way to enter information about occurrences includ- system works so that others can follow it. ing the name of the observer, the date, and location. Be sure to make it easy for visitors to access the needed records.

Self Assessments Resources • Evaluate your pressed plant specimen. Are you happy • Oregon State University Herbarium, housing 405,000 with the way the pressing turned out? If not, review specimens and online access to digital records of the procedures. Did you accurately follow them? If 148,000 vascular plants. This is a worldwide collection you are unhappy with your pressing, try it again, with a focus on the Pacific Northwest: making sure that the plant has as little moisture in it as http://oregonstate.edu/dept/botany/herbarium/db.php possible and that you have positioned it carefully. • Eastern Oregon University Herbarium, housing 9,500 • Design a label to go on your mounted pressing. Did specimens primarily from Union, Wallowa and Baker you collect all the information that was needed to Counties. Online access to digital records was not make a good label? completed at the time of this printing: • Evaluate your written description. Did you use http://ocid.nacse.org/research/easternoregon/ proper botanical terminology? This may be impor- • Southern Oregon University Herbarium collection, tant if you need help from a botanist to identify your specializing in the Siskiyou Mountains, the wider plant. Klamath Mountain Ranges, the Central and Southern Cascades, and the high desert of central and south- eastern Oregon: http://www.sou.edu/biology/herbarium/herbarium.htm • U.S. Forest Service Herbarium, with 8,700 specimens from the Malheur, Umatilla, and Wallowa-Whitman National Forests of Northeastern Oregon; download- able into a spreadsheet or database program: http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/w-w/resources/ecology/index. shtml#herbarium • The New York Botanical Garden herbarium is the largest in the western hemisphere, with over a million and a half digital specimens available online: http://www.nybg.org/bsci/herb/

5 .5 . Create-a-Plant

Overview Time Estimate: In this lesson, students will demonstrate their accumulated knowledge 45-60 minutes, and understanding of plant identification by creating a fictional plant additional time species. Working from a checklist of possible traits, students will for detailed plant determine the physical characteristics, ecology, habitat, history, and uses drawings of their newly invented species. Students will show their understanding Best Season: of anatomy and habitat by creating a field guide page with a sketch of Any their plant and a written description, and will give their plant both a common and scientific name.

Teacher Hints Preparation • Be sure that students have a basic • Have a field guide available for “What’s In a Name?” lesson of this foundation in plant terminol- students to view. Point out features curriculum. ogy before using this lesson. The on the page such as the physical This activity can be used as an “Botanical Terminology Chal- description of the plant, habitat, • lenge” lesson provides a review assessment tool at the completion confusing species, and special of the Plant Identification Section. or a means of learning this new characteristics and uses. Show vocabulary. Students apply their knowledge of the students photos, drawings, botanical terms, scientific names, • Allow students to use glossary or diagrams of unique aspects of habitat, and life history character- sheets from “Botanical Terminol- the species, measurements, plant istics. Students will make creative ogy Challenge” to increase and descriptions, and habitat details. connections between the traits of apply their vocabulary skills. You Information about scien- their plant and how the traits help can also have students complete • tific names can be found in the the plant adapt to the habitat they this lesson without reference ma- create for it. terials for assessment purposes. Assessments Students will submit their checklist and field guide page for grading. You may refer to the rubric at the end of the lesson to help you assess your students’ work. Check for the following: 1 Does their plant sketch and description match the checklist options? Is the written description complete, using proper botanical terms, and 2 including metric measurements? 3 Did the student use proper format for writing scientific names? Did the student put thought into relating plant anatomy/adaptations to 4 their habitat choice, dispersal mechanism and pollinator? 5 Was the student creative in making a unique species? 5 6 . Create-a-Plant

Imagination is more important than knowledge. For while knowledge defines all we currently know and understand, imagination points to all we might yet discover and create. —Albert Einstein (1879-1955) Overview Demonstrate your understanding of botanical vocabulary and natural history by inventing a new plant species. You will choose the physical and ecological characteristics of your species from a checklist of traits and give it a common and scientific name. In the end, you will create a page with a detailed sketch of your new species and a written description to be used in a field guide. Background Information Learning Objectives When you open a field guide, you Remember that plants can appear • Demonstrate knowledge of may see that each species entry is as simple as a single tiny leaf, such botanical terminology frequently divided into sections. as the pond-dwelling duckweed, or • Correlate plant characteris- Each section contains information as complex as an elaborate orchid tics (form) with adaptation intended to help you indentify that grows in a tree canopy. Your to habitat and life history your species and understand its plant can be large or small, woody (function) natural history. Each field guide is or herbaceous. Does it have thorns different, but many contain sections or chemical defenses to keep it • Apply knowledge of scien- safe from predators? What makes tific and common names with general information, as well as specific information about the your plant well suited to grow in the habitat you choose for it? Engage imagination to ad- leaves, flowers, fruits, ecology, and • Is the habitat dry, wet, hot, cold, vance scientific and critical any special notes that will aid in or windy? Be sure to give it the thinking processes identification. Plants are an extremely adaptations it will need to survive Associate visual images with • diverse group of organisms; the there. When you make your field new vocabulary by labeling information presented in field guides guide page, be sure to include all drawings to accentuate im- organizes this diversity and helps to the details that someone will need portant plant identification distinguish one species from another. to indentify your plant. Many field characteristics This activity will give you a chance guides also contain ethnobotanical Materials Needed to showcase what you already information regarding historical know about plant anatomy and human uses of plants. Be sure to plant creation checklist • terminology and expand you add this type of information for • drawing materials knowledge. Use your creative your created plant. For example, is metric ruler side to design a fictional plant. your plant used for food, as a tool, • or for medicinal purposes? In what blank field guide template • other ways could plants be used? various field guides to use • Field guides include not only a as examples written description, but also a V ocabulary Words photo or drawing. Draw your plant, illustrating the traits that you have • All vocabulary from pre- chosen. Great artistic skills are not ceding lessons in the Plant required, but remember that you Identification section ap- will be assessed by how well your ply here sketch and description reflects the choices you made on the checklist. Have fun and be creative! 5 .7 Create-a-Plant

Directions

Work through your plant creation checklist. eral description of the plant and progress to the 1 Choose one option from each group to define details such as leaf shape, leaf margin, and so forth the characteristics of your plant including leaf through the page. Use botanically correct termi- shape, leaf arrangement, flower type, flower nology for your descriptions. shape, flower color, fruit type, plant size, habitat, A field guide will always include measurements to seed dispersal, pollination, and ethnobotanical 5 help in identification. Metric measurements are uses. The list will guide the design of your fictional generally preferred in science. Measurements of plant. If you come across an option that you do greater than 1 meter (m) should be expressed as not understand, consult your terminology glos- meters, while those less than 1 meter should be sary, check a field guide or dictionary, or review expressed as centimeters (cm), and you might even earlier activities in this book. want to use millimeters (mm) for very small details. Begin by choosing a habitat for your plant. Would Include measurements for your overall plant size, 2 you find it in the desert, forest, prairie, wetland and for individual details. You may show measure- or? Take a minute to think about what life is like ments by including a scale bar in your sketch or by in your chosen habitat; is it dry, wet, shady, sunny, including the information in your written descrip- hot, cold, or somewhere in between? Think about tions. your habitat as you work through the checklist; Write a description of your fictional plant’s habitat. what plant traits do you think would be most suc- 6 Consider light, moisture, elevation, and associated cessful in your chosen habitat? For example: large vegetation. flat leaves may lose excess moisture to evaporation Create adaptations in your plant that relate to the and are not well suited to an arid habitat such as a 7 habitat type that you picked on your checklist. For desert but work well in a shady forest understory. example, in a desert, a plant may have small, shiny 3 When you have completed your checklist, design leaves to minimize evapotranspiration. Explain the your field guide page. Use a piece of scrap paper adaptation and how it benefits your plant. to experiment with design options. When you Give your plant a scientific and common name. are comfortable that your drawing shows your 8 As the first person to discover and document checked options, draw it in the box provided. Fill your plant, you have the honor of naming it. in the smaller boxes with close-up detail of your Consider using a descriptive name (after a plant leaf, flower, and fruit. If you feel that it is trait), place name (a specific region found in) or important, you can draw your plants’ even name it after a friend or local public figure. roots as well. Be sure your drawings However, it is against the rules of Botanical No- clearly match your choices on the menclature (naming plants) to name a species checklist (earn extra credit if you use after yourself. Show correct form for writing color and attempt to show shading). names. If you need a review, look at the Looking at your plant sketch, follow “What’s In a Name?” activity. 4 prompts on the plant creation checklist and write a description for your 9 Show off your new species and field guide page. Start with a gen- completed field guide page!

5 8 . Create-a-Plant

Taking It Further • Assemble all of the field guide pages for your class into one field guide. Create a dichotomous key to the plants in your field guide. You might even choose to assemble them into fictional plant families, as a class.

In the Field! This activity is best followed up in the field by making a field guide to a local natural area or your schoolyard (see Make a Field Guide for Your School activity).

Reflection Tell the story of the discovery of your plant. Where were you when you first found the plant, what were the surroundings, why did you notice this plant? Because you are the first scientist to discover and document this plant, you have the honor of giving it a name. Describe your thought process in assigning a name and what is the meaning of the name? Feel free to write in modern language or put yourself in the shoes of the explorers and pioneers and write as if you were one of them.

Self Assessments Resources Submit checklist and field guide page for as- • Pojar and MacKinnon. 1994. Plants of the Pacific North- 1 sessment. west Coast. Lone Tree Publishing, Vancouver, Canada, (or other field guides appropriate for your region). Do the checklist, sketches and description show Harris and Harris. 2001. Plant Identification Terminol- 2 that you have an understanding of the plant terms • ogy: An Illustrated Glossary. Spring Lake Publishing, used? Spring Lake, UT. Is the written description complete, using proper 3 botanical terms, metric measurements, and a scientific name written in the correct format? Did you relate your plant’s anatomy to adapta- 4 tions to its habitat?

5 9 . Create a Plant

Create-A-Plant Rubric

Novice Botanist (1) Apprentice Botanist (2) Practicing Botanist (3) Expert Botanist (4) Plant sketches Student makes sketches Student sketch is Student sketch Sketch shows details of of plant. Sketches contain accurate but limited. shows details of leaf leaf attachment, margin, 3 or more differences from Missing some detail but attachment, margin, and flower type. Sketch is student’s checklist. generally following the and flower type. The accurate and complete, student’s checklist. sketch is accurate and shows extra effort in complete. detail, attempts at shading, and uses color. Plant description Basic plant description. Description is complete Description is complete Description is complete Uses only terms from covering traits from and accurate using and accurate, using “Basic” vocabulary list, checklist. Uses 1-3 proper botanical proper botanical has misspellings, omits vocabulary words from terminology, “Expert” terminology with at 2 or more traits from the the “Expert” list, omits no list words where least one word from the checklist. more than 1 traits from appropriate. All traits “Botanist” list, correct the checklist. from the checklist are spelling. All traits from the included. checklist are included. Habitat Connection Student makes no Student has basic habitat Student answer shows Student answer shows attempt to show habitat information in Habitat thought process but thought process connection in Habitat Clues box. Connection to connection to plant trait connecting at least one Clues box. plant trait is not present. not explained. plant trait to the habitat it lives in well explained. Scientific Name Student gives plant one Student gives plant two Student gives plant two Scientific name is written word scientific name not word scientific name word (genus/species) in correct format, has a following correct format. (genus/species) but scientific name in genus and species, and does not write in correct correct format. attempted to sound like a format. Latin term. Measurements Student makes reference Student includes metric Student includes metric Student includes metric to measurements, but measurements. Does not measurements, follows measurements that does not use the metric follow rules in lesson. rules in lesson, but follow rules in lesson, system. Measurements Measurements not well does not complete either documenting with not well documented in documented in sketch or documentation. a scale in the sketch sketch or description. description. or referenced in the description.

60 Create-a-Plant Plant Creation Checklist

Habitat type (where does your plant live) Leaf Shape u u wetland prairie/grassland u cordate u ovate u forest u desert/arid lands u u alpine peak other ______u lanceolate u palmate Habitat Clues — adaptations your plant exhibits that u other ______make it suited here

Leaf Division u Stem simple u single u multiple u compound (palmate/pinnate) Leaf Attachment to Stem u petiole u sessile How does your plant protect itself from predation?

Leaf Arrangement u alternate u opposite u wholed u basal

Pollinator (refer to Secret Life… lesson, or learn more in the Native Plant Ecology section) Leaf Margin u bee u butterfly u entire u serrate u beetle u wind u bird u moth u lobed u other ______u bat u other ______

61 Create-a-Plant Plant Creation Checklist

Inflorescence Type Fruit Type (illustrate)

u u u composite u umbrel drupe pome u raceme u spike u samara u nut

u u panicle solitary u legume u berry

u other ______Flower u perfect flower u imperfect flower Ethnobotanical Use (historical human use) u u number of petals ______food medicinal number of stamens ______u fiber u tools

Seed Disposal Method (refer to Drupes… lesson) u other ______u mechanical/throw u animal - edible u wind/blow or shake u water/float Author ______u animal - hitchhike u animal - cache u other ______

62 Create-a-Plant Field Guide Page Plant Name

Habitat:

Description:

Leaves:

Inflorescence/Flower:

Fruit:

Ethnobotanical use:

Field Notes (include adaptations and defense):

63 Section 2: Ecoregions of Oregon Exploring Oregon’s Ecoregions There is an eternal landscape, a geography of the soul; we search for its outlines all our lives. — Josephine Hart (Contemporary) Overview Time Estimate: Students gain an understanding of the concept of ecoregions. Ecore- 1–2 Class sessions gions are contiguous geographic areas with similar climate and ecological features. Students investigate Oregon’s eights ecoregions by gathering Best Season: historical climate data, relating it to geography, and using inquiry skills Winter to identify differences in vegetation from one ecoregion to another. Through this process students discover the vast diversity of plant life in their home state.

Teacher Hints Additonal Information • This is a two part activity and ing them complete the Science each section has associated Inquiry section of this lesson View the ecoregion field trip ap- discussion questions provided. after Part 1 of the activity. pendix VII. These questions are designed to • Combine this activity with a • Alt, David D. and Donald W stimulate thought for the subse- study of the geology of Or- Hyndman. 1978. Roadside quent ecoregion lessons. egon to help students connect Geology of Oregon. Mountain • Have students practice making Oregon’s landforms with the Press Publishing, Missoula MT and testing hypotheses by hav- geologic activity that produces Bishop, Ellen Morris. 2003. them. • In Search of Ancient Oregon A Geological and Natural His- tory. Timber Press, Portland, OR Preparation Assessments Review the Student Resources • Oregon Department of Geology • Discuss the factors that define trip guides for the entire state: section to become familiar with an ecoregion. http://www.oregongeology. the tools and information stu- 1 dents will be using. com/sub/pub&data/GeoTrip- Name and locate the eight Guides.htm • If you are not familiar with 2 ecoregions of Oregon. • Contour and Cross Section Skills interpreting maps, check out the exercise. Jacaranda Project: additional references for mak- Explain the connection https://yr11geography. ing a cross sectional map before 3 between geography and wikispaces.com/file/view/ teaching this concept to your climate. contour-skills.pdf students. John Wiley & Sons Australia, LTD. • For Part 2 of the activity, have 2004. www.jaconline.com.au students work individually or divide the class into eight groups. If working in groups, each group can gather data for one ecoregion to share with the entire class. 65 . Explore Oregon’s Ecoregions There is an eternal landscape, a geography of the soul; we search for its outlines all our lives. — Josephine Hart (Contemporary) Overview Ecoregions are contiguous areas of similar climate and ecological features. In this lesson you will compare and contrast Oregon’s eight ecoregions by gathering historical climate data, relating it to geography, and using inquiry skills to identify differences in ecoregional vegetation. Through this process you will discover the amazing diversity of plant life in your botanically rich state of Oregon.

Background Information Learning Objectives If you were to start at the Pacific where you would find scores of • Locate and name Oregon’s Ocean and walk across Oregon, migrating birds, following east into eight ecoregions you might cross the coast dunes the dry shrubland of the Great Ba- • Use library and internet and make your way into the coast- sin. As you move across the state, resources for research al Sitka spruce forests, ascending you might notice that as you cross Describe and gain un- the coastal salmon spawning rivers different geographic boundar- • into the Douglas-fir covered coast ies, vegetation changes distinctly. derstanding about the range, then back down into prai- As biologists, we need a way to connections between the ries and oak savannahs of the larg- identify these important changes geography, climate, and er valleys (Willamette and Rogue), so that we can study the flora and vegetation of Oregon’s followed by a big climb into the fauna and interact with our natu- ecoregions Cascades, where you would be ral resources appropriately. We • Appreciate the variety of greeted by still-active volcanoes! call these disparate areas ecore- Oregon’s diverse land- As you descended down the east gions. An ecoregion is a contigu- scapes and the biodiver- side through the park-like Ponder- ous geographic area with similar sity it supports osa pine forests you would notice characteristics such as climate, soil, an ever-drying landscape which geology, topography, and vegeta- • Use maps as a tool to would eventually become sage- tion. Ecoregions are part of larger gather and correlate infor- brush and juniper. Depending on defined areas, called biomes (1). mation relating topogra- where you are, you may run into Types of biomes include forest, phy to climate some of the most amazing and desert, grassland, tundra, marine, productive wetlands in the west and freshwater. The concept of di- Materials Needed viding areas into ecoregions origi- • computer with internet nated from the scientific view that access similar geographic areas and their library reference materials interacting functions and species • create a whole that is greater than • Oregon topographic map the sum of its parts. This has led to • Oregon outline map a fundamental change in natural Oregon ecoregion map resource management, moving • away from managing for individual • graph paper species and toward managing the watershed as a whole. The word

66 Exploring Oregon’s Ecoregions

Background Information, continued “ecoregion” is a term that you will Blue Mountains, and Northern V ocabulary Words encounter frequently in the world Basin and Range on the east side. ecoregion of ecology, land management, and The ninth ecoregion identified by • in describing plant communities. Federal agencies is a small piece of • biome Oregon is one of the most ecologi- the Snake River Plain (in Idaho) that plant diversity projects into Oregon. This rela- • cally diverse states in the United topography States. Western Oregon is marine- tively small area is centered around • influenced by the Pacific Ocean the town of Ontario, Oregon. If you • climate and has high precipitation three live in Ontario, you might chose to weather seasons of the year. Eastern Or- add the Snake River Plain ecoregion • precipitation egon, however, is much drier due to your studies. Otherwise, for the • to a rain shadow effect from the purposes of this lesson, we have Cascade Mountains. Mountainous included this ecoregion with the areas disrupt the movement of Northern Basin and Range. air masses, which affect the move- Ecoregions do not exist in isolation between the Cascades and East- ment of moisture and precipita- from each other, but interact and ern Cascades ecoregions is the tion. When one side of a mountain often blend into one another. For ridgeline that runs along the crest range (the side closer to the ocean) example, many roaming animals of the mountains. But the division consistently receives more precipi- such as bears and elk, as well as between ecoregions is generally tation than the other, the drier side migratory birds, move between more gradual. Because Oregon’s is typically referred to as being in ecoregions at different points in climate, geology and geography the rain shadow of that range. In their life cycle. Sometimes the are so diverse, the state has many Oregon the Cascade Mountains di- transition between one ecore- ecoregions for its size and, as a vide the moist western region from gion and another is abrupt and result, a great diversity of plants, the drier east side of the state. obvious; for example, the division animals, and other living things. Elevation is another way in which For example, Colorado, which is geography influences climate. It can slightly bigger than Oregon, has determine the form precipitation only six ecoregions compared to takes, and also influences ground- Oregon’s eight. Our proximity to level temperatures. the ocean as well as our numer- Federal agencies (specifically, the ous mountain ranges help create US Environmental Protection Oregon’s ecoregional diversity Agency, or EPA) divide Oregon and corresponding biodiversity. into nine ecoregions, but most of Oregon is ranked fifth of all 50 Oregon’s state agencies recognize states in the diversity of plant life, only eight. We will be using eight with 3,161 known plant species ecoregions in this activity: Coast (2). Can you guess which other Range, Willamette Valley, Cascades, states have more plant species and Klamath Mountains on the west than us? (Look up the answer on side; and Eastern Cascades slopes the internet). This vast number and foothills, Columbia Plateau, does not include introduced 67 Exploring Oregon’s Ecoregions

Background Information, continued

Resources landscape, agriculture, or invasive ecoregions. You will learn about • EPA maps and ecore- weed plants or the numerous sub- the ecological variety that Oregon gion descriptions: http:// species that are found throughout encompasses—from the mild www.epa.gov/naaujydh/ the state. marine west to the high deserts in pages/ecoregions/or_eco. In this activity you will take a the southeast and all the beautiful htm#Please%20note virtual journey through Oregon’s places in between. • General overview of ecoregions: Native Seed Network Oregon ecore- Directions—Part 1 gion map http://www. Take a virtual journey through Natural boundaries such as moun- nativeseednetwork.org/ 1 Oregon. Begin by marking your 4 tain ranges or changes in elevation ecomap?state=OR location on the outline map. Try can affect climate and often divide • Oregon Explorer website: to be as accurate as possible ecoregions. Use what you learned http://www.oregonexplorer. (use a road map if you need making your profile and looking info/index.aspx Click on help). With a ruler draw a latitu- at the topographic map to predict “Learn about Places” (on left dinal line that bisects your town where Oregon’s eight ecoregion side bar) and then choose by or community. Imagine that you boundaries fall. Use a pencil to Ecoregion can slice into the earth’s crust lightly transfer your boundary along that line. predictions on to the outline map. • Climate data from Oregon State University http://www. Use what you already know about Now compare your predictions ocs.oregonstate.edu/index. 2Oregon’s geography (from travels 5 to the map of Oregon’s ecore- html. Navigate by clicking on or study) to draw a profile or the gions. Were you successful in the Oregon map (right side cross section of this line on a piece predicting the locations of some of home page) for annual of graph paper. (Hint: This will of the boundaries? Add the cor- average rainfall data. Click on show mountains, river valleys and rect ecoregion boundaries to “Climate Data” (left bar) for ground elevations. It is generally your outline map over the top data by zones. Click on link easiest to start on the west coast of your prediction lines. Label to Special Climate Report for at sea level and work east). Label the ecoregions. a summary table of data for and locate the western and east- Discuss the following: cities from all climate zones ern border of the state. • USDA climate data for Once you have finished your • Can you correlate geographic Oregon http://www.or.nrcs. 3 cross section, find a partner characteristics and the ecoregion usda.gov/snow/climate/ and compare your profile draw- boundaries? ings. Discuss how they are they USDA soils information ac- How might geographic factors • similar or different. With your • cessed by Oregon county such as landforms and elevation partner, compare your profiles http://www.or.nrcs.usda. affect ecoregions? to a topographic map of Or- gov/pnw_soil/or_data.html • How might features such as egon. Modify your drawings to mountain ranges and different illustrate what the topographic elevations affect the climate? map shows, paying close attention to elevation changes. 68 Exploring Oregon’s Ecoregions

Directions—Part 1, continued • Why are ecoregions important ecological restoration? to complete their life cycle. Why to distinguish? What implica- • Name as many species as you can do some species live out their life tions could ecoregions have for that need more than one ecoregion cycles across multiple ecoregions?

Complete the “Science Inquiry” section (next page) before moving on to part 2.

Part 2 1. Discussion: Taking it Further Continue your virtual journey to • How would you define an • Assemble a timeline of the geo- each of the Oregon’s eight ecore- ecoregion to someone who logic history of your ecoregion gions. Use the handout to collect had never heard of them? and how it was formed. Con- data using library sources, atlases, • Predict how topography influences sult the resources listed at the and websites. You will need to the plant life of an ecoregion. end of this lesson will get you find the following information Predict how climate affects the started. Contact the Soil and about each ecoregion: • plants and wildlife that live in Water Conservation District • Climate—Average high/low an ecoregion (e.g., high/low (SWCD) in your county for ad- temperatures in January and temperatures, poor/good soils, ditional information on soils in July, annual precipitation limited/abundant water, etc.). your ecoregion. The SWCD is amounts, amount of precipi- also an excellent source of infor- tation that falls as snow, and Self Assessments mation on how soils are formed. number of sunshine days • Define an ecoregion and discuss • Use Google Earth (or a compa- • Elevation range (high, low, and some of the factors that distin- rable online software) to visit average) guish one from another your ecoregion. Locate your • Overall topography—Write a • Name and locate the eight community and view vegeta- general description of how the ecoregions of Oregon on an tion and landforms. Choose a topography of the area you are outline map different ecoregion and com- studying was formed (e.g., vol- • Explain the connection between pare what you see. Choose an canic deposits, flood sediments, geography and climate ecoregion adjacent to yours etc.) and also one that is across the state from you to compare and For each of the eight 1. contrast. ecoregions, write a short description of the general geography. Ask yourself, “What would I see if I were dropped in the middle of this ecoregion?”

69 Exploring Oregon’s Ecoregions

In the Field Oregon has extremely diverse landscapes as you traverse from the coast, through the coast range, into the valley, over the Cascades, onto the high desert and across the wetlands and out into the great basin and the eastern mountains ranges. It is sometimes hard to imagine the differences without experiencing them. Take a fieldtrip to an ecoregion that is different from your own. If possible, travel to an ecoregion that has a very different climate than what you are familiar with. Explore the new ecoregion. What is different and what is similar to where you live? Describe the landscape, the weather, and the landforms. Do the plants and wildlife look different? Use one or more of the ecosystem or landscape lessons to learn about this new ecoregion and compare it to your home ecoregion. Science Inquiry • Make predictions before moving on to Part 2 of the activity. Use the discussion questions from Part 1 as a starting point by listing your predictions of how topography and geographic formations might affect the overall climate of each ecoregion. Don’t forget to include your personal observations in your predictions. Ask yourself, “What is the weather like where I live?” and “What are the significant topographic features here?” • Ask yourself, “Based on the landforms in my Ecoregion, and my position in the state, what climate might I expect for this area?” Form a hypothesis to answer your question. Your hypothesis should be based on known or researched information that can be tested. Take the information from the background (e.g., the description of a rain shadow) and add your own observations and previous knowledge. Make a written statement (hypothesis) about what you think the climate will be like in the ecoregion (e.g., its temperatures, and type and amount of precipitation). • Return to Part 2 of the activity to gather data to test your hypothesis. • The final step is to analyze the collected data. Does it support your hypothesis? Either way is okay, it is the scientific process that is important. If your data does not support your hypothesis, what did you learn?

Reflections Take a real or virtual trip to an ecoregion in a state with which you are not familiar. Make a travel diary entry to describe what your visit is like. Imagine that you are out camping in a wilderness area (or do it for real!) and write an account of your day. What do you find there? What is the geography like? What season is it when you visit? What is the weather like? What does the landscape look like? What plants and wildlife do you see? What do you do while you are there? What do you hear, smell, or touch? Do you like where you are? How is it different from where you live? Add a picture, if you find it helpful.

70 Exploring Oregon’s Ecoregions

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72 Exploring Oregon’s Ecoregions Oregon Ecoregions

73 The Place I Call Home

Life is like a landscape. You live in the midst of it but can describe it only from the vantage point of distance. —Charles Lindbergh (1902-1974)

Overview Time Estimate: In this lesson, students will take an in-depth look at their home 1 session ecoregion. Exploring further what makes their ecoregion different from (30-45 min) its neighbors and the rest of Oregon, students will discover the human influences, land use, and a few of the threatened and invasive species that reside there. Students will use the Oregon Conservation Strategy Best Season: from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW), available Winter online or in hard copy, to gather information needed in this lesson.

Teacher Hints Additional Information • The Oregon Conservation Strategy egon’s ecoregion. Information can • Environmental Protection Agen- (OCS) website’s interactive map- be shared among groups by cre- cy ecoregion map for Oregon: ping tool, Conservation Opportu- ating an Oregon ecoregion bul- http://www.epa.gov/naaujydh/ nity Area Explorer, allows further letin board. One possible format pages/ecoregions/or_eco. study of ecoregions. Students can would be to hang an ecoregion htm#Please%20note use this tool to locate conservation map and have students display • Oregon Conservation Strategy areas, waterways, elevations, roads the information connected to that (OCS), Oregon Department of and other map-able features listed ecoregion with yarn and paper/ Fish & Wildlife: http://www.dfw. by ecoregion. photos, etc. Encourage students state.or.us/conservationstrat- • As an alternative you may chose to use creative ways to display egy/ to divide the class into 8 groups; their information and include pictures of a typical landscape from Conservation Opportunity Area each group studying one of Or- • their ecoregion. (COA) mapping tool on OCS website—lets you look at strategy habitat areas on a map for each of the ecoregions: Preparation Assessments http://nrimp.dfw.state.or.us/ • Student teams will need ac- Name one or more rare plant website/coaexplorer/viewer.htm cess to the Oregon Conserva- 1 species found in your ecoregion. • Database of plant information: tion Strategy (OCS). The OCS Name two or more invasive http://plants.usda.gov/ is available from the Oregon 2 plant species that are a problem For noxious weed profiles for Department of Fish & Wildlife at: in your ecoregion. • http://www.dfw.state.or.us/con- Oregon invasive plants: Locate on a map one nature- servationstrategy/. The entire http://www.oregon.gov/ODA/ based recreation area from your strategy is available in PDF online 3 PLANT/WEEDS/statelist2.shtml ecoregion and describe in general for printing or hard copies can the ecosystems found there. • A species mapping tool: be located at many libraries or http://www.oregonflora.org/ can be ordered from the ODFW. Describe the general land use 4 categories for your ecoregion (visually or verbally).

74 The Place I Call Home

Life is like a landscape. You live in the midst of it but can describe it only from the vantage point of distance. —Charles Lindbergh (1902-1974)

Overview In this lesson, take an in-depth look at your home ecoregion. Explore what makes your ecoregion different from its neighbors; find out about human influences, land use, and a few of the rare and invasive species that reside there. Use the Oregon Conservation Strategy from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife (ODFW), as well as an online mapping tool, to gather information.

Background Information

Learning Objectives What makes your ecoregion of maintaining and preserving • Gain knowledge of the special? Whether you have lived in unique native ecosystems while components of the ecore- your ecoregion for a long or short providing habitat for the people gion where you reside time, it holds many surprises of that reside and recreate there. • Gain awareness of nature- which you might not be aware. As Gaining an awareness and based recreation areas in you will discover, each of Oregon’s understanding the conservation your ecoregion ecoregions has a diversity of challenges in your ecoregion • Name and discuss two geography, habitats, and species empower you to contribute to the rare and two invasive that make it unique. Is your stewardship of our state’s natural plant species that are an ecoregion home to any endangered beauty and resources. issue in your ecoregion species? Are there any invasive The Oregon Conservation Strategy • Understand the human species that threatened the health (OCS) is a publication from the impacts on the ecology of of the native ecosystems around Oregon Department of Fish and your ecoregion you? Does your community grapple Wildlife, that presents the issues, • Develop skills to use with conflict between human opportunities, and recommended technology such as online desires and native ecosystems? In actions to help balance the needs databases, mapping tools, addition to being home to a great of conservation and human and digital images to do diversity of ecosystems and species, development in Oregon. We will research about your state each ecoregion faces the challenge use the Oregon Conservation Materials Needed Strategy to learn the intricacies of • access to the Oregon Con- your ecoregion. The foreword to servation Strategy, either the OCS states, online or with a hard copy As a guide to conserving the of your ecoregion’s section species and habitats that have for each team defined the nature of Oregon, • optional: computer access this strategy can help ensure that for the interactive map- Oregon’s natural treasures are ping tool passed on to future generations. Although the OCS covers the entire state of Oregon, it is further broken into separate sections for 75 . The Place I Call Home

Background Information, continued V ocabulary Words each of Oregon’s eight ecoregions. • Learn about the plants and wild- • native The OCS has gathered a multitude life that are considered at risk or invasive of information for your research. “strategy species” • The data is available through rare • Find out which invasive species • other resources as well, but the are threatening native ecosystems endangered • OCS gathers it in one convenient and species • species of concern location. The ecoregion sections • Learn about conservation ac- will give you a snapshot of life in tions that have been targeted for each of Oregon’s unique areas. For future conservation actions any of Oregon’s ecoregions, it can • Discover the human influences help you: that contribute to the uniqueness of your ecoregion

Directions Work in teams or individually to discover some of the unique challenges 1 and opportunities that influence the natural areas in your ecoregion. Use the Oregon Conservation Strategy from the Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife as your primary source of information. An online version is accessible at http://www.dfw.state.or.us/conservationstrategy/ or your teacher may make hard copies available for you. For the online version follow the link above, scroll down to the heading 2 “Review the Strategy” and click on “Ecoregions.” Then click on the ecoregion you are researching. Most of the information that you will need is contained in the summary section titled “At a Glance”—Characteristics and Statistics and is found on the second page. Work together to answer all the questions on the worksheet. Most ques- 3 tions are easily answered from the reading material. The worksheet requires you to make a pie graph that illustrates the land 4 use data for your ecoregion. Percentages are given to you by the OCS, but you create the graph. You can create pie graphs using visual estima- tions, and shade each part of the pie with different colors. Your graph should include a title and labels for the reader to interpret the data presented. You can also use a spreadsheet computer program to create your pie graph. Look in the “important nature-based recreation areas” contained in the 5 “At a Glance” section of the OCS to locate a natural area that is close to where you live. Use the interactive mapping tool (available on the website) or maps to help you locate these areas.

76 The Place I Call Home

Directions, continued

Conduct further research into the rare and endangered plants listed on 6 your worksheet. Find a picture and write a description for two of the plant species listed as “Strategy Species”. Use these suggested sites to Taking it Further complete your research—USDA Plants database: http://plants.usda. Prepare a presentation on gov/, or an online search of the scientific name. In addition, visit the • a rare or invasive plant spe- Oregon Flora Project website: http://www.oregonflora.org/ and click on cies listed for your ecore- the Oregon Plant Atlas link to create a map for your two rare species. To gion. Include factors that create the map you will need the scientific name of your plant, choose contributed to the plant the option of showing the ecoregion map, and print out your results becoming rare, or where (preferably on a color printer). Look at the historical locations of the spe- the invasives come from cies you chose versus where they can be found today. and the story behind their Select and research two known invasive, non-native plant species from arrival, as well as descrip- 7 the list for your ecoregion. Find a picture and a write a description tions, photos, and range including where the invader is originally from and the plant’s range in maps. Present the informa- Oregon (Oregon Department of Agriculture: http://www.oregon.gov/ tion to your class. ODA/PLANT/WEEDS/statelist2.shtml. • Do a presentation about an “important nature-based Class Discussion: recreation area” from your ecoregion. Most of these • How does human activity impact sites are public lands, parks, your ecoregion now? How do forests, or wilderness areas you expect it to change in the and will have information next 10 years? The next 50 years? available through state or • In what way are humans impact- federal agencies. Include ing your ecoregion positively/ maps of location, what you negatively? Be sure to be sen- would find there, and pic- sitive to others’ feelings and tures. Inform the viewer of ways of life as you answer this reasons why they might like question. Many families rely on to visit this spot. Oregon’s natural resources for their livelihood. • What actions can you take to minimize harmful impacts and enhance the positive human impacts to your local natural areas?

77 The Place I Call Home

In the Field! • Take a field trip to one of the “important nature-based recreation areas” or a local natural area in your ecoregion. If possible, arrange to have an expert give a presentation or guided walk at the site. Ask your expert to discuss local issues such as rare & endangered species, geology, wildlife, native plant communities, and invasive species that are a problem. • Create an invasive species scavenger hunt for your field visit to the natural area. Use the invasive species listed for your ecoregion. Make a bingo card containing the name and photo of different plants in each square. Make the center square a “free” square. Challenge other student teams to compete or work cooperatively to help others. Those that find the highest number can win a prize. • Work with a local organization or agency to do a service project at one of your local natural areas, pulling invasive species or helping to plant natives. Science Inquiry Design an experiment that will test control methods for an invasive plant species that is a problem in your area. Start by brainstorming possible ways to limit the further spread of the plant. Think outside the box to create new, more effective, environmentally friendly methods that could be used for control. Narrow your ideas to ones that you can test. Write a proposal and submit it to your teacher. The proposal should outline what invasive species you will be controlling, what is the method that you will be testing, and how you will set up the experiment.

Reflection Why does your ecoregion rock? What sets your ecoregion apart from the others around it? What makes it a special place? Think about what you like about the different seasons: winter, spring, summer and fall. Are there things that you enjoy doing outdoors that are enhanced by or only possible in your ecoregion? Do you have a special place that you like to visit? Describe it. If you don’t have a particular special place, think about characteristics that would make an outdoor place special to you—describe it. What are some things that you can do to help the conservation efforts in your community, ecoregion, state?

78 The Place I Call Home

Resources Self Assessments • Oregon Conservation Strategy (OCS), Oregon Department of Name two or more rare plant species found in your ecoregion. Fish & Wildlife: 1 http://www.dfw.state.or.us/ Name two or more invasive plant species that are a problem in your conservationstrategy/ 2 ecoregion. • COA mapping tool on OCS website—lets you look at strat- Name and locate one (or more!) nature-based recreation area from your egy habitat areas on a map for 3 ecoregion. each of the ecoregions: http://nrimp.dfw.state.or.us/ Describe the general land use categories for your ecoregion. website/coaexplorer/viewer.htm 4 • Database of plant information: http://plants.usda.gov/ • Noxious weed profiles of Oregon invasive plants: http://www.oregon.gov/ODA/ PLANT/WEEDS/statelist2.shtml • Species locations mapping tool for Oregon: http://www.oregonflora.org/

79 The Place I Call Home

Names ______Ecoregion ______

Land use (percentage)

Agriculture %

Forest & woodland %

Other (lakes, wetlands, cliffs, etc.) %

Range, pasture, & grassland %

Town & rural residential %

Urban & suburban %

Make a land use pie graph with a legend

Number of square Private % miles What percent of the land ownership is private/public ? Number of counties Public % Number of cities / towns Human Factors Natural Factors

List 1 (or more!) Important natural area that is close to where you live. Estimated population of my ecoregion: What ecosystems can be found there? How many acres is it?

Contains what % of Oregon’s population:

1. 2. 3. List 3 major crops from your ecoregion

List two important industries from the ecoregion 1. 2.

List 2 rare or endangered plants from your ecoregion 1. 2.

List 2 invasive, non-native plants from your ecoregion 1. 2.

List 2 rare or endangered animals from your ecoregion 1. 2.

List 2 invasive, non-native animals from your ecoregion 1. 2.

List the ecoregions that border yours and note whether they are North, South, East, or West of you

Data source: Oregon Conservation Strategy http://www.dfw.state.or.us/conservationstrategy/ 80 Ecosystem Comparisons Between every two pines is a doorway to a new world. —John Muir (1838-1914)

Overview Time Estimate: In this lesson you will collect data to compare and contrast two or more 1 hour, or more— ecosystems in your ecoregion. Using your data, you will identify key can be divided into adaptations that plants have evolved to survive the conditions in differ- 2 sessions ent ecosystems. Best Season: Fall, Spring Teacher Hints Students will choose two distinctly different ecosystems, such as a prairie and a forest, and compare biotic and abiotic factors in those areas. Since students will be learning about biotic and abiotic factors and their Additional Information influence on ecosystems, consider supplementing this lesson with other • Basic website on studying eco- lessons on soils and natural cycles, such as energy, water or nutrients. systems: http://scienceaid.co.uk/ biology/ecology/ • Pidwirny, M. (2006). Plant Suc- cession. Fundamentals of Physical Assessments Geography, 2nd Edition: • Create visual displays of student-collected data (e.g., graphs, tables) http://www.physicalgeography. comparing observations from different ecosystems. net/fundamentals/9i.html • Explain similarities and differences between ecosystems. • Missouri Botanical Garden, • Demonstrate an understanding of the connection Biology of Plants, Plant Adapta- between the biotic (living) and abiotic (non-liv- tions. http://www.mbgnet.net/ ing) factors of an ecosystem. bioplants/adapt.html • Name a characteristic that would allow a plant • Raven, P. H., Evert R.F., & Eich- to survive in each of the following situations: horn, S.E. (1992). Biology of low light, high light, wind, low moisture, and Plants (5th ed.). New York: high moisture. Worth Publishers. • Adapted with permission from: Earth Partnership for Schools. (2007). K-12 Curriculum Guide. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum.

81 Ecosystem Comparisons

Between every two pines is a doorway to a new world. —John Muir (1838-1914)

Overview In this lesson you will collect data to compare and contrast two or more ecosystems in your ecoregion. Using your data, you will identify key characteristics that plants have used to adapt to conditions in different ecosystems.

Background Information Learning Objectives Through careful observation of The relationships between nitro- Collect and evaluate eco- different ecosystems, an ecologist gen fixing bacteria and legume • system data can study how plants adapt to dif- plants, and between pollinators ferent environmental conditions. and flowering plants are two ex- Observe differences and In this lesson you will identify key • similarities between two amples of mutualisms. The oppo- ecosystems ecosystem properties and com- site of mutualism is competition, pare them between ecosystems when two organisms struggle to Identify plant phenotypes in the region. You will investigate acquire the same resource. Com- • (plant characteristics) adapt- questions such as: How do soils petition is generally costly to both ed to specific environmental conditions differ in a forest, grassland, and organisms. Plants often compete wetland? Do plants in one ecosys- for sunlight, water, and nutrients. Identify connections be- tem have different characteristics They employ several methods for • tween biotic (living) and than plants in another ecosystem? this—they shade out the competi- abiotic (non-living) things As you study and compare ecosys- tion, send out far reaching roots, tems, learn how plants and animals and sometimes even produce Materials Needed adapt to their environment, and chemicals (allelopathy) to poison what conditions they need to their competition. Other interac- Each team needs: survive. tions can occur between herbi- • clipboard, pencil, & data sheet Ecosystems are self-sustaining sys- vores and plants (predation), and • thermometer suitable for air tems in nature that include all the parasites and plants (parasitism). and soil temperature readings living organisms and the nonliving All ecosystems change over time • jar of bubbles elements within them. Ecosys- in an orderly process called suc- meter square or hula hoop tems are dynamic; energy, nutri- cession. Succession can be rapid • ents and water constantly cycle or slow, but is a continuous pro- trowel • through. Within each ecosystem cess that occurs in all types of eco- • small metric ruler there are communities made systems. The successional “clock” • compass up of biotic (living) organisms, can be reset after an ecosystem including flora (plants) and fauna is disturbed. Naturally occurring (animals). Interactions between all disturbances can include fire, the organisms tie the ecosystem flood, landslides, or volcanic erup- together into a functional unit. tions. Manmade disturbances may Plants take part in these interac- result from habitat restoration, tions in many ways. In a mutualism, logging, farming, or any activ- two species both benefit from ity that clears away the natural their interaction with each other. vegetation, as well as removing a myriad of fungi, bacteria, and

82 Ecosystem Comparisons

Background Information, continued microorganisms key to ecosys- leaf margins (edges), surface area V ocabulary Words tem function. In the absence of a characteristics (e.g., shape, texture, disturbance, succession generally and size) as well as the angle of the • ecosystem occurs so slowly that it is difficult leaf to sunlight. How might plants • adaptation to observe or detect it. This type adapt to other conditions and biotic of succession is illustrated when challenges, such as drought, flood, • abiotic grassland changes to forest, or fire, wind, and limited space? Keep • when a pond fills in over time. If no in mind that plants must also de- • quadrat disturbances interrupt the succes- fend against predation and attract communities sion cycle, it eventually comes to a pollinators—all at the same time, • succession near standstill, a point where the and all in the name of survival. • disturbance ecosystem is hardly changing at all. Individual plants cannot adapt to • This standstill is referred to as the conditions within their own life- • climax community climax community. time. However, over time, many • allelopathy In this lesson you will examine generations, and through natural mutualism abiotic (nonliving) factors such as selection, the most “fit” pheno- • air, water, and sunlight and ob- types (the ones best suited to the • competition serve how they affect biotic (living) environment) will be more suc- • parasitism factors in two distinctly different cessful, and increase in frequency predation ecosystems. By making detailed and numbers. For example, if a • site observations, you will connect narrow-leaved plant germinates in • phenotype plants’ phenotype (physical char- a heavily shaded environment, it is • natural selection acteristics) to the characteristics of unlikely that the plant will secure the ecosystem in which they live. enough light to survive and repro- For example, plants are adapted duce. If this phenotype is unable to different levels of sunlight, to reproduce, it will not persist in moisture, temperature, and wind. this environment. Low-light environments frequently include plants with larger leaf surface areas to capture more sunlight for photosynthesis. In high-light environments, leaves tend to be narrow to reduce surface area and minimize the loss of moisture through evaporation. Look for these types of patterns when you make your observations. Think of other leaf adaptations plants could exhibit. Look at 83 Ecosystem Comparisons

Directions Compare two different ecosystems north from the object you position (such as leaves, (e.g., forest vs. grassland, woodland tossed. Calculate in centimeters stems, dead insects, etc.) on vs. wetland), by examining air and the total area of your quadrat, the surface of the soil. List soil temperatures, soil moisture, then figure out the dimensions what you see and measure surface litter, wind speed, canopy of 1%, 5% and 10% of the total the depth (thickness) of the cover (shading), plant community area (e.g., what % of the total litter layer in centimeters. composition, plant characteristics, area does your hand take up of • Take soil temperature evidence of wildlife, and how all this paper?). For example, in a readings at 3 cm and 10 these factors come together to one square meter plot, is 1% 10 cm depths. With a trowel, make up an ecosystem. cm by 10 cm or 5 cm by 5 cm slice into the soil layer to 3 or 2 cm by 2 cm? This will help cm, insert your thermom- Divide into teams. For 30-45 eter and tuck the soil back you estimate later. Use the data 1 minutes, following steps 2 around it, leaving it for 3 through 10, collect and record sheet to record your observa- minutes before recording data about your first ecosystem. tions as you work through the the reading. Repeat this steps outlined below. process at 10 cm. On your data sheet, record Air temperature: take a reading Plant studies: 2 the date, time, general weath- 1 meter from the ground. Allow 4 8 Canopy cover: Estimate the er conditions (e.g., sunny, 3 minutes for the thermometer • percent of your quadrat that cloudy), and a simple site to register the correct reading. description. is covered by overhead veg- Light levels: estimate how much etation (trees or tall shrubs). Use a square meter or hula- 5 sunlight reaches the ground in Imagine that you are lying 3 hoop as a quadrat. Place the your quadrat. To do this look on the ground with your meter square or gently toss the up and figure out what % of head in the quadrat and hula-hoop into a section of the the sky you can see through the look at the sky. Zero percent ecosystem. Wherever it lands canopy. Use a percentage to (0%) cover would mean that marks where you will collect record this information. no overhead vegetation your data. If there are trees or is visible; complete cover Wind speed and direction: esti- shrubs where you are, use a ten- (100%) would mean that you mate wind speed on a scale of 0 nis ball or small object to toss 6 cannot not see the sky. (no wind) to 10 (strong wind). Use and place the top left corner Percent ground cover: estimate a jar of bubbles to help you “see” • the percent of your quadrat of the frame where it lands. To the wind strength and direction. avoid any bias, put the frame that is covered in vegetation. Take a compass reading on the Can you see bare ground, direction the bubbles travel. rocks, or woody debris be- Soil studies: tween the vegetation? Record 7 in percent the makeup of the • Place your hand on the soil to ground cover (e.g., forbs/herbs, feel for moisture levels. Stick grasses, moss, etc.) as indicated your finger in 2 cm to check if on the data sheet. it is different from the surface. Is it wet (mud on your hand), • Plant observations: how many moist (dark color, cool), or dry? different species of plants do you see in your quadrat? It Surface litter: examine the • dead material and decom- is not necessary to identify 84 Ecosystem Comparisons

Directions, continued

the specific plants by name. blooming, fruiting, shedding webs, tracks, or frass (insect Count the number of differ- leaves) for each type of plant. droppings) or scat (animal ent plant species with leaves Evidence of wildlife: droppings) visible? that: are very narrow (grass- 9 Look in your quadrat for Aesthetics: Describe any pat- like), narrow (less than 6 cm), • terns you observe in textures, and broad (6 cm or wider). insects, spiders and other 10 invertebrates. Describe the colors, or contrasts at your site. Record the total number of When looking for patterns it species you see. Estimate the different types that you find or if you are feeling can be helpful to “soften” your height of each type/layer of gaze; try not to focus on any plant cover (e.g., herbaceous, “buggy,” try to identify them. Make a quick sketch one thing but view the land- shrub, tree). Note leaf char- scape as a whole. acteristics (e.g., waxy, fuzzy, and record what they were smooth), leaf margin type doing, (e.g. eating, flying, Spend another 30-45 minutes (e.g., wavy, toothed, smooth), sitting under leaves). 11 repeating steps 2-10 in a dif- and life cycle stage (e.g., Look closely for evidence ferent ecosystem, then analyze • of animals you don’t see. the results of your two studies. Are there chewed leaves,

Discussion questions Assessments: Create visual displays of data In what ways are the two ecosys- • • (e.g., graphs, tables) comparing tems alike? How are they differ- How do you think plants in • observations between the eco- ent? What causes the similarities each of the two ecosystems systems. and differences between the interact or affect each other? two ecosystems? In what ways are plants and • Explain similarities and differ- • ences between the ecosystems What are some connections animals likely to interact in one • you studied. between biotic (living) and abi- or both ecosystems? Consider at otic (non-living) things in each least three examples. • Demonstrate an understanding ecosystem? What method(s) did you use to of the connection between the • biotic (living) and abiotic (non- How do you think plants in each estimate heights or percents in • living) factors of an ecosystem. of the ecosystems influence the your data collection? Did they light, temperature, and soils work well? If not, how would you • Name adaptations plants might around them? How is this differ- change them next time? have to survive in each of the fol- ent in the two ecosystems you lowing situations: low light, high visited? light, wind, low moisture, and high moisture. • What characteristics, such as leaf size, leaf shape, and blooming time, did plants exhibit to adjust to their environment?

85 . Ecosystem Comparisons

Science Inquiry Can you make any inferences about how the individual plant phenotypes, the makeup of plant communities and the ecosystem characteristics are all related? Use your data to examine this subject further. • Organize and display your data in a graphic format. • Analyze your data in the graphic format to visualize possible patterns. • From your data and analysis, propose a question or hypotheses that can be tested to support your inference. Work with your team members to write your hypotheses. Reflection Pick one of the ecosystems and make a mind map for it. Put the name of the ecosystem in a circle at the center of a page; add the biotic and abiotic factors, listing each in circles that surround and attach to the center circle. Search for relationships between the factors and connect the circles with lines. Write the connection or interaction along the line. Use the discussion questions as prompts, if needed. Write about one of the interactions from your organizer in detail. Explore all the possible connections between the two interacting elements, as well as what abiotic factors might influence them. How have the organisms adapted to be successful in the ecosystem?

Taking It Further Resources: • Compare other ecosystems, looking for the • Basic website on styding ecosystems: connecting patterns of biotic and abiotic fac- http://scienceaid.co.uk/biology/ecology/ tors. More specific ecosystem types include: • Pidwirny, M. (2006). Plant Succession. Fundamen- deciduous woodland, conifer forest, wetland, tals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition. wet prairie, dry prairie, shrublands, desert, http://www.physicalgeography.net/ high alpine, lawn, or different successional fundamentals/9i.html stages of any of these examples. • Missouri Botanical Garden, Biology of Plants, Plant • Develop your own questions and data sheet to Adaptations. better understand your ecosystems. http://www.mbgnet.net/bioplants/adapt.html • Collect information over time and through dif- • Raven, P. H., Evert R.F., & Eichhorn, S.E. (1992). Biol- ferent seasons to create a phenology history ogy of Plants (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. of the site.

86 Ecosystem Comparisons

Team Members ______Date ______

Baseline Data Details Site 1 Site 2 Time Location/site & Site location description weather description Overall weather description

Air temperature Weather Data Light Wind Soil temperature Moisture Soil Surface litter Additional observations (color, consistency) Canopy cover/type and percent Percent Cover Ground cover/type & percent

# plants with very narrow/ grass-like leaves # plants with narrow leaves (less than 6 cm wide) # plants w/broad leaves (more than 6 cm wide) Plant Observation Total number of species (characteristics) Height herbaceous layer Height shrub layer Height tree layer Additional observations for each type of plant (leaf characteristics, life cycle stage)

Wildlife: Direct Observations or Evidence

Texture:

Aesthetic –visual Color patterns Contrasts

87 Ecosystem Comparisons

Site Analysis:

1. Which site had the greater number of plants?

2. How are the plants similar at the two sites?

3. How are the plants different at the two sites?

4. How do you explain the difference between the plants at the two sites?

5. How do you think the abiotic elements affect the plants growing at each site?

6. What connections did you observe between living and non-living things in each environment?

88 An Ecosystem Through an Artist’s Eye Nature is painting for us, day after day, pictures of infinite beauty. —John Ruskin (1819-1900)

Time Estimate: Overview 1–1.5 hours Students will use drawings to understand the different perspectives gained from making observations on different ecological scales. Students Best Season: will focus on the local habitat by drawing three different views, one Any, repeat landscape view, one smaller scale view, and one magnified close-up view. in all This activity encourages aesthetic appreciation for the local landscape seasons while exercising flexible thinking skills and hand-eye coordination.

Teacher Hints Additional Information • Encourage doing this activity • Between each drawing session, Sandelin, R., This Week in in pen for the upper grades; it regroup and share what they saw, • the Woods: http://share3. discourages editing. The object as well as their feelings about esd105.wednet.edu/rsandelin/ is to practice observation skills what they saw at each step. This is NWnature/NWNature.htm and gain appreciation for their a good way to keep students on Lavender, D. (Ed.) (1972). surroundings, rather than to schedule—for some will become • The Oregon Journals of David produce a perfect drawing. so involved in one drawing that Douglas, of his Travels and they won’t finish the activity. Adventures Among the Traders • Stress to students that this and Indians. Ashland: The exercise is to help observe what • Have students use their 5x7 Oregon Book Society. is around them, rather than to frame to draw a template on judge their drawing abilities. If their paper for each of the three Houle, M. (2007). The Prairie • Keepers: Secrets of the students are drawing-phobic, drawings before starting. Stress Zumwalt. Corvallis: Oregon State have them make blind contour that their drawing should fill this University Press. drawings, drawing by not frame. Also, encourage them watching their hand on the to spend the entire 20 minutes Paetzel, M (1998). Spirit of the • Siskiyous; The Journals of a paper. Give students permission drawing. If they finish drawing Mountain Naturalist. Corvallis: to be less than perfect (this before the activity is over, they Oregon State University Press. seems to be more of a problem can go back and add more to it. with older students). • Assorted nature writings of John Muir, Aldo Leopold, Henry • Read quotes from literature David Thoreau, Rachel Carson, of historical descriptions of and others. landscape perspectives (see Resource section). • Repeat this activity in different landscapes (prairie, forest, wetland), or in the same place during different seasons. This activity is more challenging in a forested setting with a limited landscape or vista view. 89 An Ecosystem Through an Artist’s Eye Nature is painting for us, day after day, pictures of infinite beauty. —John Ruskin (1819-1900) Overview You will begin to understand the different perspectives gained from making observations on different scales. You will focus on the local habitat by drawing three different views, one landscape view, one smaller scale view, and one magnified close-up view. This activity encourages aesthetic appreciation for the local landscape while exercising flexible thinking skills and hand-eye coordination. Background Information Learning Objectives By making observations on three environmental factors such as climate, • Practice observation skills different scales, a macro or landscape soil type, geology, landforms, and on multiple scales view, a close-up view, and a water that create the patterns you see • Translate observations to microscopic view, you can observe in your frame. In the close-up view, paper through illustration patterns in nature from many do you see plants growing in clusters • Interpret and compare perspectives. A nimble mind that or individually, do you have different multiple views of the same can make observations on multiple layers of plants (ground level and landscape scales and from many perspectives canopy)? What kind of colors, textures, • Encourage flexible will be able to approach complex and contrasts do you see? Can you see thinking skills problems with greater ease. things moving (such as insects) in your Materials Needed As we observe the form of the view? In the microscopic view, look • 5” x 7” viewing frame landscape at different ecological very closely at one part of one plant from photo mat board, scales, we can contemplate the (such as the underside of the leaf). cardboard or poster functioning or processes that occur Look for patterns and textures, colors board at those different levels to make our and contrasts. Think about what types pencil or pen ecosystems funtion as a whole. of processes might create the patterns • you see. • hand lens or magnifying For example, at the landscape scale, glass we might observe patterns related to When looking at patterns within a • optional colored pencils processes such as climate, nutrient and landscape, be aware of large scale water cycling, and soil formation. At a abiotic patterns creating what you V ocabulary Words human scale, we can examine wildlife see, and also notice the micro-abiotic • abiotic habitat, erosion, herbivory, and many factors that create patterns. Looking • landscape other functions. On a microscopic for these small scale patterns can • macro scale, we can focus on photosynthesis, explain why a certain plant grows in microscopic pollination, and decomposition. one place but is absent from a similar • looking area just meters away. Look perspective As you observe patterns in each of • for patterns and textures, colors ecosystem the three scales, you will also observe • and contrasts. Think about what perspective the work of the natural processes that • types of processes might create the occur at these scales. At the landscape patterns you see. What patterns scale, larger patterns and processes and processes might you find at all are at work. Look for patterns in three scales? the vegetation and ponder the 90 An Ecosystem Through an Artist’s Eye

Background Information continued Patterns we observe in vegetation can be directly linked the roots, cooler morning sun/afternoon shade (or the to abiotic factors of the ecosystem, be it on a macro or opposite). If the rock is located on a slope, the rock could microscopic scale. In this activity, focus on the abiotic channel water towards or away from certain areas. The factors you see at a human scale. For example, with a rock could provide relief from harsh winds. The warmth large rock or boulder in a meadow, we might ask how and protection of the rock could be a benefit to insects. does this rock affect the plants that grow in the meadow? All of these changes could be taking place in the space of Plants growing close to the rock could take advantage of a couple meters. What other abiotic factors could affect differences in microclimate, such as moisture trapped by plants growing nearby (examples: slope, soil type, light, the shade on the north side, additional heat stored in the water, wind, temperature variances)? rock to keep the plant warm through the night, shade on

Directions Discuss what things you might notice in a landscape with what you see in the hand lens. Pay particular 1 or macro view. Looking clear to the horizon, close attention to patterns, textures, and colors as you your eyes and listen to your teacher read an draw. Look at your subject, then take a minute to inspiring quote from literature. Imagine how the draw, and then look again. Repeat this process scene must have looked to the writer. until you have suffcient detail. Fill your entire frame with what you see! Regroup and share. Did Spread out. Look through your viewing frame at this view turn up any surprises? What processes 2 arm’s length, select a spot, and draw the landscape are at work to create what you see at this scale? view you see in your frame on your paper. Take your time to observe before beginning. Look Return to the same location and repeat this for and include in your drawing patterns of 5 exercise during each season and look for changes color, texture and contrast. Regroup and share throughout the year. your drawings and feelings while looking at the landscape.

Discuss the process at work in a close-up view and Assessments 3 listen to your teacher read a quote. Now select Summarize the activity by comparing and contrasting a spot to observe and draw the detail of your 1 views, and discussing the processes associated with landscape close-up. Use your viewing frame to different ecological scales. look at an area at your feet and draw what you see. Look for details, differences in size, color, shapes. Regroup and share your drawings and feelings Participate in the activity; while making observations at the close-up scale. 2 work independently and join discussions. In the microscopic view, pick one plant to look 4 at in greater detail. Isolate an area of the plant by looking through a hand lens and explore in close detail what you see. Fill your drawing frame

91 An Ecosystem Through an Artist’s Eye

In the Field! Use this activity as a companion to the “Ecosystem Comparisons.” This activity will help you connect your visual observations with the biotic and abiotic factors of a site. With practice and over time, this will allow you to analyze the patterns you are seeing and infer the processes that you have observed. Science Inquiry • Draw a microscopic view of a leaf and use it to explore plant adaptations through your drawing and inquiry thinking skills. Draw a 5” x 7” frame and fill it with what you see in the magnifying glass or hand lens view. • Write and answer this question, “What other thing, in nature or man-made, does this remind me of?” Ask yourself, “Why does it remind me of this?” Was it because it had hairs or fuzz, what about the vein pattern, or margin? Add this to your answer. • Now ask yourself, “Could the function of the leaf be similar to what it reminds me of?” • Analyze your idea. Could this function help the plant adapt to the environment in which it is found? How would this help the plant to survive or reproduce? For example, say your leaf has tiny hairs or fuzz, maybe it reminds you of a fuzzy blanket. What is the function of a fuzzy blanket? What does this tell you about fuzz on a leaf? What other functions could a fuzzy leaf serve? Reflection Use your drawings as a source of inspiration for a journal entry. Think back to the readings that you teacher used to get you in the mood for this exercise. Describe one of your views in such detail like the author your teacher read to you. Describe your landscape so that the reader can imagine exactly what you experienced. Don’t forget to include the smells, weather, and sounds that made your spot special. Which scale do you like the most and why?

Taking it Further • Leaf drawing tips: Measure the long axis of your etc.) can also be drawn to scale by measuring and leaf. Multiply this number by 2 (assuming they’re multiplying by 2. Then include a scale bar in your small leaves). Draw a faint line on the page that drawing. If you are working with a big leaf use is this long. Measure the width of the leaf and the same method to make a cross but divide the multiply this number by two. Draw a faint line this measurement by 2 to get the length and width. long across your first line so that each line crosses • Inferring processes: Have each person share their the other in its middle (like a plus sign). These lines landscape picture with a friend or with the class. will guide how wide and long to draw your leaf Compare and contrast each drawing. What processes and help you draw on the correct scale. Other are emphasized in one drawing versus another? parts of the leaf (petiole, distance between veins,

92 Section 3: Ecology of Native Plants What’s Goin’ Down Underground We know more about the movement of celestial bodies than about the soil underfoot. — Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Overview Time Estimate: Students explore soils by learning about the living relationships that con- 45-60 minutes nect the cycles of nutrients, microorganisms, and plants. They examine in classroom or lab nitrogen fixation and mycorrhizal associations, and how plants, bacteria, and fungi interact underground in the soil. Students observe evidence Best Season: of interactions, gain understanding of the roles bacteria and fungi play in Spring, the ecosystem, and the benefits of bacteria and fungi in the soil. Summer, Fall Preparation • Collect an assortment of root • Arrange lab: prepare a root sam- Additional Information samples (or have students collect) pling bag for each lab group. Use • USDA Natural Resource Conser- — include at least one legume, a gallon zip lock bag to contain vation Service: http://soils.usda. conifer tree, and bunch grass. an assorted sample of the roots gov/education/ Collect root ends from conifers mentioned above. Gently knock • Soil Science Society of America: (cedars, pines, firs, spruces or off excess soil; the roots do not https://www.soils.org/about-soils/ hemlocks) in a healthy forest; trees need to be completely clean. lessons/resources in a landscape setting may or may Each group will need: hand not have mycorrhizal fungi. Several lenses, data sheets, and dissect- USDA Natural Resource Con- • legumes—such as clover, lupine, ing microscopes. Microscopes servation Service. The Soil Biol- and vetch—are commonly found can be shared between groups. ogy Primer: http://soils.usda. in lawns or weedy areas. To find a gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology/ Allow students time to carefully bunch grass, the easiest place to • biology.html examine their root samples. After go is a prairie or wetland. Bunch- initial observations, encourage Portland State University, • grasses are grasses whose stems them to look closer using the Ecoplexity: http://ecoplexity.org/ are joined in a clump or bunch microscopes. They can gently rather than appearing as individual wash root tips in distilled water Assessments stems like in a lawn. It is beneficial and dissect root sections and to leave the stems and leaves on nodules, exposing additional Name and describe at least your root samples, when possible. interesting colors and tissue 1 one interaction between plants It may also be helpful to students structure. and microorganisms that occurs to label species of tree roots. under the soil surface. Cooperate in a group to make 2 observations, record data, and Teacher Hints discuss findings. • Soil biology is an important and complex subject and this lesson only scratch- Define the term rhizosphere es the surface of the knowledge a good botanist will need. Consider expand- 3 and list at least three processes ing this lesson to study the chemical and physical characteristics of soil, nutri- that take place there. ent cycling, and the soil food web and how they relate to native plants. For supplementary curriculum materials, see the “Additional Information” section. 94 What’s Goin’ Down Underground We know more about the movement of celestial bodies than about the soil underfoot. — Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) Overview In this lesson you will explore soils by learning about the relationships that connect nutrients, microorganisms, and plants. You will study how plants, bacteria, and fungi work together in mutualistic processes that take place in the soil underground. You will use hands-on skills to observe evidence of these interactions on the roots of plants, gain an understanding of the roles bacteria and fungi play in the ecosystem, and explore some of the benefits of having bacteria and fungi in the soil. Background Information As a species, humans are often essential mineral nutrients, and Learning Objectives enamored with plants due to the providing reproduction by some • Gain understanding of soil beauty and utility of the parts we asexual methods. In addition, microorganisms see and interact with most often— roots provide homes to symbiotic • Gain understanding of the the parts above ground: stems, bacteria and fungi in the soil that nitrogen cycle leaves, flowers, and fruits. These are critical to the survival of plants parts provide structure, energy and all species that depend of Use visual observations to • (photosynthesis through the them (that’s pretty much every find plant/microorganism leaves) and sexual reproduction living thing!). interactions (transmission of pollen through The most common types of root Describe the processes that • the flowers). Underground are the systems are fibrous roots and tap- you observe on plant roots hidden parts of plants—the roots. roots. Fibrous roots have multiple • Diagram and explain the The roots and their interactions branches that are similar in size. soil food web with the soil are equally important This type of root system is found • Describe a mutualism as a to plants, their function in ecosys- on grasses and other monocots biological interaction tems, and their utility to humans (plants with a single seed leaf or and other species. Although roots cotyledon). Taproots consist of an Materials Needed are often underappreciated, they enlarged main root with extremely • root samples (a random provide essential services such fine branching roots. Most dicots sampling that includes as anchoring the plant (plants with two seed leaves or nitrogen fixing nodules, and holding the soil cotyledons) have taproots. A dicot mycorrhizae, and roots) in place, taking up that you are probably very familiar much-needed gallon zip lock bags with is the carrot. Although most • moisture hand lens roots are found underground there • and are exceptions, such as adventitious • dissecting microscope roots. Adventitious roots grow off • ruler the stem and sometimes help support the stem (as in prop roots) or start a new plant by anchoring an arching branch where it touches the ground. Something that all roots share is their lack of nodes (small bumps where new leaf or stem growth begins). 95 . What’s Goin’ Down Underground

Background Information, continued V ocabulary Words Sometimes adaptive stem growth particles together. These activities is found underground and can be benefit plants, but the rhizosphere fibrous roots • mistaken for roots. Corms, rhi- can also harbor microorganisms • taproot zomes, and tubers are all types of carrying diseases such as “damp- • adventitious root stems. A corm is an underground ing off” or microorganisms acting corm structure covered with papery as parasites and producing galls. • leaves (fawn lily); a rhizome is an The rhizosphere hosts many very tuber • underground horizontal stem important symbiotic associations, • rhizome (Oregon iris); and a tuber is a two of which we will study in this • bulb thickened rhizome adapted to lesson: nitrogen fixation and my- monocot store food (potato). A bulb is an- corrhizal associations. • other underground structure that dicot • is actually a bud with thickened, Nitrogen Fixation • nitrogen fixing fleshy layers called scales. Onions Nitrogen is a macronutrient, an • legume are bulbs you eat, and an impor- essential nutrient for plant growth. rhizobia bacteria tant Oregon native species, camas, Although nitrogen gas makes up • grows from a bulb. Although all of Frankia bacteria the majority of the atmosphere • these are root-like structures that (80%), nitrogen gas is unavailable • mycorrhizal fungi even perform root-like functions, for plant use. Plants can only take • hyphae they are actually stem tissue grow- up nitrogen in the form of ammoni- • mycelium ing underground. um (NH4+) or nitrate (NO3-). In the ectomycorrhizae Most plants require soil as a me- rhizosphere, bacteria inhabit the • dium for growth and to provide roots of plants and form nitrogen endomycorrhizae • moisture and mineral nutrients. fixing nodules that capture nitrogen • rhizosphere Soil is teaming with life and activi- from the air and convert it to a form • symbiotic ty! Within the rhizosphere (an area that plants can use. Nitrogen fixa- mutualistic approximately one millimeter thick tion is the process by which atmo- • surrounding plant roots) the bio- spheric nitrogen gas is converted logical activity is ten times greater into ammonia by a group of bac- than in the remaining soil. Microor- teria called rhizobia. The ammonia ganisms are attracted to and feed created by this process is subse- on the sugars and other organic quently available for many impor- compounds that seep from plant tant biological molecules such as roots. In turn, the microorganisms amino acids, proteins, vitamins, and in the rhizosphere layer help to nucleic acids (to form DNA). In the break down and decompose dead rhizosphere, the roots of specific plant cells. The respiration of these species provide the bacteria with microorganisms produces carbon a home (the nodule), water, and dioxide that acidifies alkaline soils. carbohydrates. In return, the plant The microorganisms also produce receives nitrogen in a useable form gummy substances that hold soil right next to its roots. Nitrogen-

96 What’s Goin’ Down Underground

Background Information, continued

fixing bacteria are host specific, garden plantings to maximize their Mycorrhizal associations meaning they have the ability to nitrogen fixing effects. In native The second important below- infect and nodulate only the roots ecosystems, nitrogen fixers pro- ground association we will exam- of certain plant species. One of the vide the majority of the available ine is between plant roots and most common of these associations nitrogen for other plants to uptake mycorrhizal fungi. These fungi, is between plants of the legume as well as for wildlife to consume in which form an underground net of family (e.g., peas, beans, clover, the vegetation they eat, providing white cottony threadlike connec- vetch, and lupine) and the group critical building blocks for proteins tions between the roots of plants, of bacteria called rhizobia (in the and DNA in their bodies. Because help capture needed but hard to genera Rhizobium and Bradyrhizo- nitrogen is constantly being lost find nutrients for the plants with bium). It is a common agricultural from the soil and it is primarily which they grow, such as phos- practice to harvest crops and then replace by N-fixers (and fires), phorous and zinc, among others. plant a species of legume to add nitrogen-fixing species are critical Some nutrients do not move read- nitrogen back into the soil. The to Oregon’s native ecosystem func- ily through soil, so plants may have legume family contains many tion, especially in prairies, where a hard time finding sufficient levels plants we commonly eat (e.g., peas, soils are nitrogen poor. However, needed for optimal growth within beans, and soybeans) or grow for as we restore native ecosystems, it their own root system. Mycor- livestock food (e.g., clover and al- is possible that the presence of an rhizal fungi inhabit the roots of falfa), as well as a number of native overabundance of nitrogen fixers plants to get food (carbohydrates), lupine plants found in Oregon. Ni- could result in a greater amount of and in return their hyphae (thin, trogen fixing rhizobia bacteria are nitrogen in the soil, making it pos- thread-like growths that spread commonly added to agricultural sible for non-native species that through the soil) absorb nutrients legume seed crops and backyard cannot tolerate our nitrogen poor that the fungi share with their soils to invade (1). host plant. This association allows Although the legume/rhizobia bac- plants to mine larger areas to ob- teria association is well known and tain the nutrients they need. The managed by human activity, there mycorrhizal hyphae form intercon- is another nitrogen-fixing relation- necting networks between soil ship. Also common in Oregon are particles and the roots of plants, Frankia bacteria that live on the and will often network between roots of many native shrubs, such the roots of many neighboring as rabbitbrush and trees, the most plants. You can see evidence of significant in Oregon’s ecosystems some types of mycorrhizae in their being alders. In fact, sometimes above ground reproductive struc- in reforestation projects, you may ture—a mushroom! Although, find alders being inter-planted not all mushrooms are the fruiting with Douglas-fir, to help the bodies of mycorrhizae and not all Douglas-firs establish in soils with mycorrhizae produce large visible more nitrogen availability. reproductive structures. Mycorrhizal associations occur on almost all plants with the excep- 97 What’s Goin’ Down Underground

Background Information, continued tion of a few species, like crucifers tions. It appears that plants with needs. Mycorrhizal fungi can such as broccoli and dame’s rocket, many fine root hairs are not as also be purchased to add to the and are not as species-specific as dependent on this symbiotic asso- soil and are sometimes added to nitrogen fixing associations. How- ciation as plants with tap roots (2). nursery plantings that are potted ever, it is still unknown for many The mycorrhizal fungi are present in sterilized soils or for ecological crucial native species whether or in sufficient quantities in most na- restoration purposes. not they form mycorrhizal associa- tive soils to be sufficient for plants’

Directions Form small groups or teams microscope to get a closer look Dissect roots to try to under- 1 (2-3) for the lab section. Each at the details of your roots: root 7 stand abnormalities from the group will receive a sample of hairs, root tips, color changes, inside. What do they look plant roots to examine. root thickness changes, unusual like? How are they different Remove root samples from the branching patterns, foreign from normal looking sections 2 bag and spread out on a piece material attached, and anything of the root? of paper. Observe the roots else that you observe. Add your Share your team’s findings with closely, and divide them into observations to your data sheet. 8 the class. Did the teams have similar looking groups. On your As you do this, imagine the jobs similar findings or were the data sheet give each group a your roots need to do, such as results different? Did the root sample number. taking up water and nutrients, samples come from a variety of and holding your plant and soil Note the roots’ general char- plants? Look at the plant tops. in place. Think about how the 3 acteristics such as shape, If the root samples came from a roots you are looking at might color, texture (woody vs. fleshy), variety of plants, did they show be adapted for accomplishing length, girth, with nodules or evidence of nitrogen fixing or these tasks in the environment in without. Record a description, mycorrhizal relationships across which they are found. including any patterns (e.g., different types of plants? branching, simple), length in Read the background informa- centimeters, color, and any 5 tion from this activity. Discuss other characteristics to help with your group whether any you differentiate the root of your root samples exhibit samples. Use words or sketches characteristics associated with to produce a complete descrip- rhizobia (nitrogen-fixation) or tion that would help someone mycorrhizal relationships. Add identify which roots are which. this to the “relationship observed” column, and include a Examine your root samples quick sketch of what the nod- 4 more closely using some of the ules or hyphae look like. tools available in your classroom. Use a hand lens or dissecting

98 What’s Goin’ Down Underground

Self Assessments Resources Name and describe two interactions between plants and microorgan- • Soil and Water Conserva- 1 isms that take place at the soil level. tion Society (SWCS). 2000. Soil Biology Primer. Rev. ed. Work as part of a cooperative group to make observations, record Ankeny, Iowa: 2 data, and discuss findings. • Soil and Water Conserva- Define the term rhizosphere and list two or more processes that take tion Society. 2010: 3 place there. http://soils.usda.gov/sqi/ concepts/soil_biology/ biology.html Taking It Further • Learn more about soils, which are a key factor in plant growth and distribution. Look into the chemical and physical properties of soil and how they affect plant growth. Additional soil characteristics that are important to plant growth include: pH, nutrient cycles, particle size, organic matter, and water infiltration. • Study the components of the soil food web and how they work together. Diagram a simple web. • View a worm composting bin and diagram the soil food web you find there.

99 What’s Goin’ Down Underground

In the Field! Collect legume plant samples for the Science Inquiry project. Collect one sample of the same species of legume from different habitats. Clovers, lupines, vetches, and peavines are common legumes that are found in many habitats and lend themselves well to this project. Collect samples from as many different habitat types as possible. Try to gather samples from natural areas (with a minimum of human disturbance), a lawn, weedy lot, roadside, and any others that you can find. For each sample, dig the entire plant with as much of an intact root system as possible. Gently shake or crumble excess soil from the roots. Place each sample in a separate zip lock baggie and label with the species, habitat type, site location, and date. Samples should be refrigerated if they will be stored for more than a couple of hours. Proceed to the Science Inquiry section. Science Inquiry Study plant environmental influences on rhizobia. Develop a question and related hypothesis that relates to how environment influences nitrogen-fixing bacteria, that can be tested in the field. Gather data by comparing your collected root samples. Analyze the root samples in a lab setting to look for evidence of rhizobium infec- tion (nodules). Count and record the nodules from each sample. Make a graph comparing the number or density (number of nodules per centimeter of root) of root nodules per plant and the location that the plant was found. For example you could compare sun vs. shade plants, wetland vs. prairie plants, roadside vs. away from the road plants, or plants in disturbed human environments vs. natural areas. Combine or compare your data with other groups to increase the data set. What kind of observations/conclusions can you make? Do all environments show the same level of rhizobia? Why do you think you have these findings? Are there environmental factors that could influence rhizobia activity? Take into consideration temperatures and herbicide/pesticide use as well as the influx of nitrogen that comes from manure and ferilizers in agricultural fields. How might all this added nitrogen into the soil affect N-fixers and the plants in these environments? Research this topic further in scholarly journals or online.

Reflection How would a restoration ecologist need to consider nitrogen–fixing plants and mycorrhizae when planning to restore a native ecosystem? Would this be different in a prairie versus a forest? How might this differ in your ecoregion versus another ecoregion in Oregon?

100 What’s Goin’ Down Underground

Root Sample Data Sheet

General root characteristics Sample number Observations Relationship observed (root hairs, tips, thickness, foreign material attached)

Color

Branching structure

Length

Color

Branching structure

Length

Color

Branching structure

Length

Color

Branching structure

Length

101 Survival Quest: A Pollination Game Bugs are not going to inherit the earth. They own it now. So we might as well make peace with the landlord. —Dr. Thomas Eisner (1929–present) Overview Time Estimate: In this lesson, students gain a basic understanding of co-evolution as it 1 session applies to native plants and their pollinators by studying local flowers. (30-45 min)

Best Season: Spring Teacher Hints • Use the list of native plants section for the website address). from your ecoregion (Appendix • Supply students with a basic II) as a starting point for this guide to insect identification. activity. If you have started a Additional Information They will not need to know native wildflower garden at your specific species of insects but it Oregon Public Broadcasting • school, this is a good opportunity will be helpful for them to classify and PBS, American Field Guide: to connect insect diversity to insects by order (i.e., beetle, fly, pollinator evolution lessons different types of pollinators. and bee) and to differentiate for grades 9-12: http://www. The second part of this activity between a moth and butterfly. pbs.org/americanfieldguide/ • should be completed in a natural teachers/insects/insects_sum. Create a monitoring log and area. If you don’t have access to a • html plant/ record pollinator observations natural area, an alternate activity from year to year in a native can be completed using the USDA wildflower garden at your school. Plants Database (see Resources Assessments Explain biological mutualism 1 in relationship to flowers and pollinators. Preparation Gain understanding of • Use this lesson in conjunction with the lesson “Secret Life of Flowers” 2 co-evolution, and be able for students that need a refresher on flower anatomy and for additional to explain the process as background information. it relates to plants and • The discussion in the “Taking it Further” section asks students for pollinators. strategies a pollinator may use if it is unable to find a food source. Some Relate flowers’ traits to avenues to explore with students are that pollinators have different life 3 specific pollinators that they stages that don’t require feeding, that they change what they eat, or that attract; make predictions they migrate. Your students will probably come up with more. of possible pollinators by • Field component hints for observing pollinators: looking at flowers. • Have students wear neutral colored clothing and ask them not to use scented products (perfumes, hair gels, etc.). • Schedule observations for midday on a sunny day with low wind. • Supply binoculars, if possible. 102 Survival Quest: A Pollination Game Bugs are not going to inherit the earth. They own it now. So we might as well make peace with the landlord. —Dr. Thomas Eisner (1929–present) Overview In this lesson you will explore co-evolution as it applies to native plants and their pollinators by examining flowers out in the field. Background Information Learning Objectives Have you ever heard someone no known bat-pollinated plant mention the phrase “the birds and species here. Also, many plants are • Explore the concept of co- the bees”? Do you know where that pollinated by wind, such as grasses evolution of flowers and phrase comes from? It comes from and willows, along with many pollinators plants and how they reproduce! others. Some plants, such as the • Define a mutualism and Birds and bees play a key role as peanut, are self-pollinating and describe how flowers and pollinators in plant reproduction, may not even require a pollinator, pollinators demonstrate by transferring the genetic material although this is rare in nature. this concept from flower to flower. Pollination Plants and their pollinators have • Increase your appreciation is the transfer of pollen from developed an intimate ecological for the value of pollinators male flower parts (stamen) to relationship during the process the female flower parts (stigma) of co-evolution. Plants, being • Examine one of the and is how plants reproduce interconnections between stationary organisms (no legs!), sexually. Through co-evolution, need a means to transport their plants and animals within plants and their pollinators have ecosystems pollen to other plants for sexual developed a mutually beneficial reproduction. For many plant Materials Needed relationship, adapting their form species, animal pollinators visit and function to make both their botanical field guide flowers in order to get food in the • lives more successful. As such, the form of pollen and nectar and in insect field guide • lives of plants and their pollinators the process, unwittingly transfer • clipboard and pencil for are tightly intertwined. Without pollen to other plants in their each team pollinators, the health of our native travels to other flowers for another plants and ecosystems would falter. hand lens feast. Picture a bee diving into a • In addition, pollination also greatly flower, going head first deep down • binoculars (optional) benefits humans. Estimates suggest pipe-cleaner that one third of the human food • supply is dependent on the work of V ocabulary Words pollinators to produce crops such • co-evolution as blueberries, almonds, melons, • mutualism pears, apples, and even chocolate! pollination However, not all plants are • pollinated by birds or bees. In generalist • other, more tropical locations, bats • specialist are important pollinators, although in Oregon our bat species are all insect eaters and there are

103 Survival Quest: A Pollination Game

Background Information, continued

to reach the nectar glands at the trapdoor, limiting access to all but the bottom of the flower. Stamens (the heaviest of insects, the bumblebees. Taking it Further hanging male parts) hang down Pollinators in return have adapted Design a native plant garden from above, dangling dusty pollen, physical characteristics that allow them with one or more pollinators which brushes the hairy back of the to gather and transport pollen as they in mind. Choose flowers with bee as it forages for sweetness. As seek food. Some insects have fuzzy the traits that attract the the bee leaves, it unintentionally hairs that brush against a flower’s intended pollinator. Look carries that pollen to the next anthers and carry pollen away, while up bloom times and try flower, where it dives down to other bees have structures on their to include flowers that will forage again, dropping the pollen it legs called pollen baskets specifically bloom in succession over a carries there onto the sticky stigma, for transporting the protein rich long period of time. Manage pollinating the flower. The bee is an pollen back to the hive. innocent bystander, and does not your site for pollinators know of the important evolutionary Flowers, in return for receiving by refraining from using act in which it has just participated. pollen transportation services, pesticides, leaving older reward the pollinator with high growth standing to provide So, what might a flower look like that quality food. Some pollinators habitat for over-wintering does not need to attract a pollinator pursue nectar, the highly nutritious insects, and allowing plants because it is wind-pollinated? First, sugary substance at the base of to reseed themselves. it generally has no petals or very tiny some flowers. Others consume Monitor the site and create petals since petals are for attracting the protein-rich pollen itself, an observation log for future insects and they might block the flow and still others seek the fatty students to assess pollinator of wind. Second, wind-pollinated oils, resins, or waxes that certain activity over time in the flowers generally have long-dangling plants produce. Flowers have garden area. stamens with tons of pollen so that evolved certain colors, shapes, when it is carried randomly on the markings, and scents to attract a wind it has a better chance of landing particular type of pollinator. By on a flower of the same species. attracting only certain types of Flowers have evolved an amazing pollinators (pollinator loyalty), array of scents, colors, markings, and a plant increases the likelihood shapes that make them attractive to that its pollen will be carried specific pollinators and facilitate the from its flowers to the flowers of transfer of pollen to the pollinator. another plant of the same species. Some plants have evolved physical Attracting specific pollinators barriers that restrict the access to ensures that the flower’s valuable their nectar to one specific type or pollen is not wasted by landing on species of pollinator. For example, a flower from a different species. trumpet shaped flowers favor the By restricting the type of pollinator extended beak of the hummingbird; that accesses its flowers, the plant these flowers position their pollen to is also is ensuring an adequate be deposited on the birds’ head. A food source for its loyal pollinator. special petal on lupine flowers acts as a Pollination is beneficial to the plant 104 Survival Quest: A Pollination Game

Background Information, continued as well as the pollinator. We call montanum) and the fairyslipper smell like rotten meat to attract flies this type of mutually beneficial (Calypso bulbosa) have a pouch- as their pollinators. In many cases, relationship a mutualism. shaped flower part, which is easy to these flowers bloom early in the Plants have developed many enter but, because of strategically season before other insects are interesting and unique methods of located small hairs, limits the active. Skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus attracting pollinators. Some orchids pollinator to a single exit, forcing the foetidus), a plant of forested have developed flowers that look or pollinator to walk directly through wetlands, is one example of this in smell like female insects, using sight the pollen (1). Moth-pollinated Oregon. Each pollinator is attracted and/or scent to trick male insects into flowers tend to be pale colored to a different style of flower and the visiting and pollinating the flower. or white and highly scented, many flowers are engineered to reproduce Some Oregon orchids, such as, the times only opening or releasing successfully, in partnership with their mountain ladyslipper (Cypridedium their scent at night to attract the pollinator. night flying moth. Some flowers Directions be in Oregon from March to Part 1: Look in local field guides (or September, or a butterfly may Your quest is to find a local 2 better yet, in the field) for have two hatch periods with 1 native flower that will attract flowers that display the traits you adults flying in May and July. each of the listed pollinators are seeking to complete your These will be the target times for on the table. Use the Flower sheet (color, shape, scent, etc.) you to feed your pollinator. Trait Chart for guidance in If you need additional Armed with this knowledge, flower shape, color, and other information about bloom 3 find flowers that will match features needed to attract times or flower photos, check 3 the target pollinator. Work in out http://plants.usda.gov/ and the traits that the pollinator teams of two to complete the access flowers by scientific or is attracted to and will be pollinator data table. common name. blooming in the time periods needed. If the pollinator is Try to locate two different active for a long period, you will 4native plant flower sources for each pollinator in your chart. probably need multiple flowers with staggered bloom times to Part 2: The Survivor Quest make it through the season. Challenge Discussion: What might Choose an insect or bird 4happen if you (and the 1 pollinator (not wind) from the pollinator) are unable to find data sheet. Your challenge will be the flowers needed at the to feed it for the entire season! proper times? What are some Research your pollinator to of the possible options for the 2 find out when it is active in pollinator? What will happen your area. For example, a to the plants whose pollinators migratory hummingbird might cannot locate them? 105 . Survival Quest: A Pollination Game

In the Field! 1 Put your pollinator knowledge to the test. Work in teams, spread out from other teams, and pick one flower or group of flowers to observe. Use the pollinator observation sheet and start by filling in the “flower traits” section. 2 Now back away from your flower and sit quietly observing. One team member can watch through the binoculars while the other acts as recorder. Switch half way through your observation period. Closely observe your flower for 15-20 minutes. 3 After the observation period, answer the remaining questions on your sheet. 4 Pollinators can be affected by weather conditions. Try observing flowers at different times of the day or evening (possibly even at night!). Most insects will be active at midday on a warm day; wind can discourage butterflies and moths. Hummingbirds tend to be more active in early morning and late evening. Moths and bats are more active at night. What if you are not able to observe any pollinators? What does this tell you? 5 Finish by taking a pipe-cleaner and trying to collect pollen from your flower. Take note of where you find it, distances, amounts, and hidden avenues to access it. Does this fit with the rest of your observations?

Science Inquiry Now that you have a background in understanding pollination services, investigate the reproduction of insectivorous (insect eating) plants. As a class or in small groups make a list of “I wonder” questions you would like to investigate about insectivorous plants and pollination. Choose one question to investigate further. If you are fortunate to have access to an insectivorous plant, carry out your investigation in person and make first-hand observations. Otherwise you will need to conduct your investigation through research. Oregon is home to several insectivorous species, such as the cobra lily (Darlingtonia californica), common butterwort (Pinguicula vulgaris), round-leaved sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), and common bladderwort (Utricularia macrorhiza). For background on carnivorous plants: Botanical Society of America. http://www.botany.org/carnivorous_plants/ International Carnivorous Plant Society. http://www.carnivorousplants.org/

106 Survival Quest: A Pollination Game

Reflection Create a unique flower/pollinator relationship. Choose a species to be your pollinator—it could be a bear, human, slug, alien, or whatever you choose, even a bicycle. Now design a flower that will attract your pollinator and only your pollinator. Describe in writing or sketch what your flower looks like. Whta might a bicycle-pollinated plant look like? List how it attracts the pollinator, how it limits access to the pollen to only your pollinator, and how the pollen is carried for transfer to the next flower. Remember to make it a mutualistic relationship—what will your pollinator receive in return? Also consider the following: scientists predict that plant pollinator relationships may be greatly affect by climate change. How might climate change affect the plant pollinator relationship?

Self Assessments Resources: Define the word mutualism and explain how plant-pollinator interactions US Forest Service, • 1 are a mutualistic relationship. Celebrating Wildflowers Website: http://www. Explain the concept of co-evolution and how it relates to plants and fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ 2 pollinators. index.shtml • Assorted wildflower field Understand what floral traits are associated with different pollinators. guides for your region— 3 Group flowers by traits to predict their pollinators. see Appendix I. • USDA Plants Database http://plants.usda.gov/ for flower photos and information • Selecting Plants for Pollinators: a Regional Guide. Includes Cascade Mixed Forest, Coniferous Forest, and Alpine Meadow Province, Oregon and Washington. Pollinator Partnership and NAPPC http://www.pollinator.org/ pdfs/CascadeMixed.rx7.pdf

107 Survival Quest: A Pollination Game Survival Quest: Pollinator Data Table

Native Plant Bloom dates Pollinator

1. Bee 2.

1. Hummingbird 2.

1. Butterfly 2.

1. Fly 2.

1. Wind 2.

1. Beetle 2.

1. Moth 2.

108 Survival Quest: A Pollination Game Pollinator Observation Sheet (In the Field section)

Names:______Date:______Time:______

General Weather Conditions:______

Location of Plant Observed:______

Name of Plant:______

Sketch your flower: Predict the pollinator for this flower? ______

Flower traits that indicate which pollinators:

Observations of the flower: V isitors observed? What were they doing How long Where did they go Name or sketch (record all seen) (watch carefully)? did they stay? when they left? of visitor

Did your observations support your pollinator prediction?

What questions do you still have after your observations?

109 Service Rangeland ManagementService Botany Program, 1400 Independence Ave., SW, Mailstop 1103, Washington Code: DC *Pollinator chart taken from: US Forest Celebrating Service, Wildflowerswebsite, May 16, 2008, http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/syndromes.shtm Flower Flower Nectar Nectar guides Pollen Shape Color Odor Trait during dayduring shaped—closed Regular; bowl Ample hidden what some- Abundant; ted at night Strong emit- musty; Absent or purple white,Dull green, Bats tubular platform;landing have Shallow; scented ten sticky and Limited; of- Sometimes Usually present ant Fresh, mild, pleas- Present low, blue, or UV Bright white, yel- Bees Pollinator Chart ml oetLmtdModest in Limited Magnolia Modest Large bowl-like, Ample hidden present; not or fetid strongly fruity Absent None to Absent green or white Dull Beetles perch support like; cups, strong Large funnel hidden deeply Ample; None red, or white Scarlet, orange, Birds ing pad ing land- wide spur; Narrow with tube hidden deeply Ample; Faint but fresh Present red and purple Bright including utrle Flies Butterflies and trap-like like or complex funnel Shallow; deeply Ample; Usually absent Absent Putrid Absent patches translucentwith purple; flecked dark brown or Pale to and dull amount without a lip without Regular; tubular hidden emitted at night Strong sweet; white purple, or pink, Pale red, and dull Limited Abundant; small, Abundant; Limited Moths Absent Absent stigmas exerted Regular; small and None None reduced petals absent or or colorless; green,Dull brown, sticky smooth, and not Wind l U.S. Forest

110 Plant Wars: A Tale of Offense and Defense “We can complain because rose bushes have thorns, or rejoice because thorn bushes have roses.” —Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865)

Overview Time Estimate: Students will explore how plants defend themselves from herbivores 1 session using physical (thorns, waxy leaves) and chemical (poison) defenses. (30-45 min) Students will read, research, discuss, observe, and speculate about the chemical defenses of plants, how they work, and how humans use them. Best Season: They will also look at how other species counteract these chemicals in the Spring, intricate dance of co-evolution. Summer, Fall Preparation • Locate suitable outdoor sites for • Conduct the plant observations Teacher Hints plant observations. during class or assign them for • Use this lesson in conjunction • Introduce the plant observa- outside of class time. Without with your studies of evolution. tions with class discussion. Ask giving students any additional • See the ethnobotany section of students to brainstorm: “How do background information, have this curriculum for more about plants defend themselves from them complete the plant defense plant medicine. insects and browsing animals?” observations. Copy only the activity directions for students to carry Take time to explore the “Sci- Keep a list of their ideas. • in their field journal to guide their ence Inquiry” section for project observation session. ideas related to plant chemicals. Additional Information University of Colorado at Boulder, Assessments The Natural History Museum of • • Biological Science Initiative. Two Explain the difference between London. History and uses of plants lessons on plant chemical defenses physical and chemical plant used by humans. Search by plant 1 (high school); allelopathy investiga- defenses. name, use type, or geographi- tion, and plant chemical defenses cal distribution. Seeds of Trade: Describe how co-evolution be- for herbivory: http://www.nhm.ac.uk/jdsml/ 2 tween plants and herbivorous http://www.colorado.edu/ nature-online/seeds-of-trade/ insects can occur. Outreach/BSI/k12activities/ index.dsml Make detailed observations chem_ecology.html Smithsonian Institution’s Nation- 3 and use them to make infer- • Science Daily video and article, al Museum of Natural History, • ences. additional background on plant lesson using poinsettias to test chemicals and insect herbivory. plant defenses (have similar Plants Under Attack Plant Biologists milky sap as milkweed). Plant Discover Plant Defenses Against Defenses—Plant-Insect Interac- Insects: http://www.sciencedaily. tions (Without the Insect): http:// com/videos/2007/0906-plants_ insectzoo.msstate.edu/Curricu- under_attack.htm lum/Activities/defense.html 111 Plant Wars: A Tale of Offense and Defense “We can complain because rose bushes have thorns, or rejoice because thorn bushes have roses.” —Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) Overview In this lesson you will explore how plants defend themselves from herbivores using physical (thorns, waxy leaves) and chemical (poison) defenses. You will read, research, discuss, observe, and speculate about the chemical defenses of plants, how they work, and how humans use them. You will also look at how other species counteract these chemicals in the intricate dance of species co-evolution. Background Information Learning Objectives Plants may not be able to get up a leaf surface or physically biting • Hone observation skills; and run to flee from predators, through the leaf cuticle. Other record data and discuss but they have evolved physical plants attract and/or house insects findings and chemical strategies to defend that defend the plant. A particu- • Understand different themselves from attacks from larly famous example of this is the methods of plant defenses hungry herbivores. Herbivory is Acacia-ant symbiosis, in which ants against herbivory the process of animals and insects live inside the large, hollow thorns eating plants. If you have ever of the Acacia tree and deter herbi- • Describe the process of co- gone blackberry picking and had vores. Still other plants, such as evolution your arms and hands shredded by some species of gooseberries, • Increase understanding of giant thorns, you know that con- produce armored fruits that deter interactions between suming blackberries comes with a animals from consuming the seed species in plant communities price! The thorns on blackberries (1). • Explore human interactions are just one of several types of While all plants share the same with plant chemicals defenses that plants have evolved basic chemical processes that to deter herbivory. support growth and metabolic Materials Needed Some of the physical defenses functions such as photosynthe- • field journal that protect plants’ vulnerable sis and respiration, many spe- • copy of observation and valuable parts include thorns, cies have gone a step further to guidelines hairs, and spines, among others. produce secondary chemicals to The effectiveness of each de- defend themselves. These second- V ocabulary Words pends on the type of herbivore ary chemicals act as toxins that can • co-evolution attempting to consume the plant. disrupt an herbivore’s metabolism • herbivory Large thorns may be more effec- or make the plant indigestible. allelopathy tive against mammalian herbivores When talking about plant de- • such as deer, while hairs may act phytochemical fenses you may encounter terms • as sufficient deterrents to some like phytochemical and phytoxin phytotoxin • insect herbivores. Some plants (phyto- meaning plant). In order • antioxidant also produce compounds such as to compete with other plants for • angiosperm waxes and resins that physically space, sunlight, nutrients, and alter the external texture of the water, some plants have devised plant, making feeding challeng- some very crafty schemes to ing. In such cases, an insect may keep other plants out of their have difficulty gaining traction on way. Some plants produce phyto- 112 Plant Wars: A Tale of Offense and Defense

Background Information, continued chemicals that disrupt the growth, the evolution of flowering plants, the downsides? What happens to reproduction, or survival of other we find insects with mouth parts these specialized butterflies when plants. This process is called al- adapted to feed on flower nectar their host plant declines? lelopathy. One example of this (2). This process of two species Some butterfly larvae eat a wider is the black walnut tree, Juglans adapting in response to each other variety of plants, but are still lim- nigra, which produces a chemical, is called co-evolution. ited to species from a single plant juglone, that suppresses or kills The diversification of insects likely family. A common butterfly, the other plants under its canopy by provided the selective evolution- cabbage white, is such an example. inhibiting their respiration. If you ary pressure that led to plant The cabbage white larvae feed have a black walnut tree in your defense (and offense) adaptations. only on plants in the Brassicaceae, yard or on your school grounds, For example, some plants have or mustard family, such as cabbage see if you can find any other plants adapted to produce chemicals that and broccoli. This butterfly is often growing underneath it. However, inhibit the absorption of nutrients found in gardens and agricultural not all phytochemicals are used for in the digestive tracts of herbi- fields, and is considered a pest defense. Plants also use chemicals vores or act as poisons to kill the since its food needs put it in direct for beneficial interactions with herbivore directly. In turn, some competition with agricultural pro- insects, such as producing the col- caterpillars have adapted their ductivity. ors, scents, and nectar essential to metabolism to continue to feed on attract and support pollination. Still other butterflies are general- poisonous plants, in spite of the ists, feeding on a much broader The evolution of angiosperms, plant’s attempt to deter them with range of host plant species. The or flowering plants, coincides in chemical defenses. Such changes painted lady is a generalist whose geologic time with an explosion come at a cost—some butterfly larvae are known to feed on more in the diversity of insect species larvae have become such special- than 100 different plants from on Earth. Insects have continually ized feeders that they are limited three or more families. Generalists taken advantage of their plant to eating just a single species of usually have a broad habitat range. companions over millions of years plant! One such example is Or- The painted lady is found in Africa, and vice versa. The fossil record egon’s endangered Fender’s blue North America, South America, shows insects have repeatedly butterfly (Icaricia icarioides fenderi). Asia, and Europe. It may seem that adapted their eating behaviors to Its larvae feed only on a few types a generalist has the best survival evolve with changing plant charac- of poisonous lupine plants, pri- teristics though time. For example, marily on Kincaid’s lupine (Lupinus early insects had mandibles (jaw oreganus var. kincaidii), a threat- and mouth parts) for biting and ened species in the Willamette chewing primitive vegetation, but Valley. The plant still gains some as more complex vascular plants benefit from its poisons, since very evolved, insects adapted more few herbivores can tolerate eating specialized features, such as sap- it. The butterfly benefits from the sucking mouth parts, that could very limited competition for food. collect the sugary fluids flow- Can you think of other benefits ing through the more advanced of this limited relationship to the plant tissues. Most recently, with plants or butterfly? What about

113 Plant Wars: A Tale of Offense and Defense

Background Information, continued strategy, but such a lifestyle has learn to avoid the orange and black of native peoples to the work of its downsides. A generalist must pattern of the monarch butterfly. scientists worldwide, we have fig- compete for food with many other Restoration ecologists take advan- ured out how to use these amazing herbivores, and therefore might tage of some insect-plant interac- phytochemicals for both pleasure need to travel widely to secure tions to control invasive weeds. In and pain. Some plant chemicals enough resources for its needs. Oregon, tansy ragwort (Senecio exhibit addictive properties— A further twist on plant chemicals jacobaea), an invasive weed, has from opium in heroin to nicotine is that some butterflies that have three different insect species that in tobacco to the caffeine found adapted to eating poisonous plants feed on it: the cinnabar moth in chocolates, colas, and coffee are able to store the phytotoxins in (Tyria jacobaeae), the tiny golden (3). Other plant chemicals contain their own body for their defense, ragwort flea beetle (Longitarsus essential oils like citronella, men- making them poisonous or unpal- jacobaeae), and the ragwort seed thol, and toxic compounds found atable to predators. The larvae of fly (Botanophila seneciella). Efforts in latex and resins. The anti-cancer the monarch butterfly feed on the to control tansy ragwort involve drug Taxol, originally isolated from milkweed plant, storing toxic chemi- increasing the populations of its the Oregon native tree Pacific yew cals found in the plant’s sap. The insect predators. (Taxus brevifolia), also falls in this toxic chemicals are passed from the category (4). Yet another group Phytochemicals also affect humans of chemicals contain flavonoids larval stage to the adult butterfly since we can also be herbivores. stage. This makes the monarch but- that make up red, blue, yellow and Over time, through knowledge white color pigments. The flavo- terfly (and larvae) foul tasting and passed down through generations toxic to its predators. Birds quickly noids act as antioxidants, which are understood to be beneficial to human cells. Blueberries, red grapes and strawberries, foods known for high antioxidant levels, contain color pigments from flavonoids. Many plant chemicals are also known for their antiseptic, antiviral, and antibacterial properties, all of which are important to humans (5).

114 Plant Wars: A Tale of Offense and Defense Directions Observing plant defenses direct observations of what caused these signs. Do you see any evidence of plant defenses (e.g., 1Choose an area to observe for plant defenses; it sealing off wounds, unusual growth patterns)? Use could be located in your schoolyard, home garden, sketches to help record your observations. or a natural area. Create a journal page or data sheet of your own. Find one plant exhibiting evi- Look at the immediate area around your plant. Does dence of physical defenses and one that you think 5 your plant seem to be successfully competing with has some chemical defenses. Record the date and neighboring plants for resources? Look for exces- location; include the scientific names of your plants sive crowding from other plants. Does your plant and a detailed description, including the habitat. look droopy, wilted or show unusual coloring (leaves yellowing, purplish or brown colored areas)? If your 2A plant’s quest is to survive and reproduce in a plant appears robust and healthy without crowding dangerous world. Other organisms have similar from neighboring plants, why do you think it is not needs, which leave your plant open to being crowded? Maybe you have a landscape plant that preyed upon. Answer the following: How do you people have weeded. If you are in a natural area, think your plant defends itself? Add sketches if how do you think your plant competes for space? needed. Now start your careful observations. Look for any physical characteristics that you think might Return to the classroom and re-read through the be used to deter herbivores. Examine the plant 6 background information. for textures that might be unappealing, like fuzzy leaves or physical structures that could be used to 7 Discuss these questions in class: What types of de- shield vulnerable parts like buds. Make notes on fenses did you observe? Did the background read- what you find. What kind of herbivore do you think ing help you understand your observations? Do you is being deterred? Small herbivores like insects may think plants exhibit physical or chemical defenses? need different deterrents than larger herbivores See if you can confirm this with additional internet like mammals. Take these both into consideration. research. Pick one leaf from your plant. CAUTION -Some 3 plants contain skin irritants and toxins. Do not touch the sap to your skin or taste anything! Do you observe any oozing or liquid material coming from the damaged leaf or branch? Note whether it is clear or milky. Smear the substance on a piece of paper. Is it sticky? What is its color and texture? Rip a piece of the leaf or cut across the surface. What do you see? Crush your leaf with a rock on your paper. Grind it well (but don’t rip the paper), and smell it. How would you describe the odor? What pigments or colors do you observe on the paper? Does the plant show any signs of wildlife use? 4 Describe any chew marks, leaf tunnels, unusual growth, scars on the stems, or insect eggs. Note their location on the plant. Make predictions or 115 . Plant Wars: A Tale of Offense and Defense

Resources: Taking It Further Several Oregon native plants are known to be toxic in one way or an- Major types of chemical other to humans, wildlife, or livestock. Choose one plant or plant family compounds in plants and from the list below (or find your own), and carry out additional research animals. Armstrong, Wayne on its toxicity to humans. Find the category of chemical it contains and P., Wayne’s Word On-line describe its effects on mammals. Some plants store poisonous chemicals Textbook of Natural History. in only certain parts (e.g., seeds), while others contain the compounds Palomar College Arboretum. throughout the entire plant. Include this type of information in your http://waynesword.palomar. research. edu/chemid1.htm Ranunculaceae (Buttercup family) — many in this family Fabaceae (Pea family) — many of the lupines, Lupinus sp. Self Assessments Apiaceae (Carrot family)—water-hemlock (Cicuta maculata), and poison- hemlock (Conium maculatum), Pacific water-parsley Oenanthe( sarmen- Explain the difference tosa) 1 between physical and chemical plant defenses Liliaceae (Lily family) — many including Death camas (Zigadenus venenosus, and name two of each. Stinging nettle Urtica( dioica), Western St. Johns-wort or Klamath weed (Hypericum perforatum), Milkweeds (Asclepias sp., A.speciosa and oth- Describe how co-evolu- ers), Native sagebrush species (Artemisia sp.), Bleeding heart (Dicentra 2 tion between plants and formosa), Poison-oak (Rhus toxicodendron), Western Yew (Taxus brevifo- herbivorous insects can lia), Pacific Rhododendron Rhododendron( albiflorum, R. macrophyllum) occur. Make detailed obser- 3 vations and use your observations to make inferences.

116 Plant Wars: A Tale of Offense and Defense In the Field! An ability to identify poisonous plants can be important to your health and comfort. Go on a field trip and take your local field guide to identify as many poisonous plants as you can find. Use the poisonous native plant list from above to start. Many invasive plants also contain poisonous compounds, such as Scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius) and giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) to identify. Several of the plants from the list can cause severe skin reactions when touched, so keep your distance! In your poisonous plant search, continue to look for signs of herbivory, and note any signs in your field journal. Remember that insects may have adapted to tolerate chemicals found in these plants. Science Inquiry • Allelopathy is the word for how plants use phytochemicals to interact with other organisms. Allelopathy may be a factor in the enormous success of many invasive plant species. Design an inquiry project to test this theory using a local invasive plant. • Make detailed observations of an invasive plant in its natural surroundings. Do you see evidence that it suppressing competition from neighboring plants? Look at the diversity of species around your non-native plant as compared to a similar habitat where your species has not invaded. • Plants can manufacture phytochemicals in specific plant parts or throughout their entire system. How can this knowledge help you set up your inquiry project? • Formulate a hypothesis or question statement about the allelopathic properties of the invasive plant. • Test your hypothesis. One possible way to do this is to water seedlings with slurry made from the invasive plant and water. Make the slurry by blending the entire plant or a specific part of it (e.g., the leaves) with water. How might the slurry affect the results of your test? Determine how frequently you will water the plants, as well as how long you will collect your data. • Gather data. What will you measure? What methods will you use to collect data? How often and how long will you collect data? • Analyze your data. Does it support your hypothesis? Many inquiry projects identify a need for additional testing. How could you improve or narrow the focus of your hypothesis or testing next time? Example: If your study showed that Canada thistle suppressed radish seedlings, could this be extrapolated to Canadian thistle suppresses all plant growth? Why or why not? Work with a peer and brainstorm ways to improve your inquiry project. Reflection Humans, as part of the ecosystem, participate in many different biological interactions with plants. Name two plant-human interactions in which you participate. Analyze one in depth. How would it affect the ecosystem if the plant you interact with were no longer part of the environment? How would it affect you? What changes could ripple through the ecosystem? What other organisms would be negatively affected? Would any organisms be positively affected? Identify one way that you can positively affect plants in your day-to-day life.

117 What is a Plant? It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that is the most adaptable to change. —Charles Darwin (1809-1882) Overview Explore the diversity among plants and plant-like organisms, such as Time Estimate: algae, fungi and lichens. This lesson will emphasize the structural and 1-2 hours reproductive differences between the groups and the relationships between these organisms within an evolutionary context.

Best Season: Hints Spring/Fall • To simplify life cycles, emphasize the similarities and differences in the haploid and diploid generations and modes of reproduction. Preparation • Collect examples of the different best collected in spring/fall. groups of organisms represented ° Seed-bearing plants can be Assessments in this lesson. Try to have at least found in flower year round; three species of each type. variety may be limited in the Compare and contrast major ° Fungi available year round: middle of the winter. 1 differences in structure and spring/fall offer most conspic- • Reproductive structures are reproduction between two of uous diversity. easier to observe when magni- the groups of organisms studied. ° Lichens available year round fied. Have students use a dissect- Write a definition of a plant. ° Bryophytes available year ing microscope or a hand lens. 2 round: sporophytes more likely Print out the appropriate life Explain the evolutionary rela- • to be present in spring. cycle diagram to include at each tionships and progression of 3 station, except for lichens. The li- plant and plant-like organisms. ° Algae available year round; may be limited when their chen life cycle is omitted because habitat is frozen. much remains to be understood about lichen reproduction. See ° Some ferns have evergreen Additional Information section or leaves, but many are decidu- biology text books for sources. ous (lose their leaves in winter);

Additional Information • Algae—http://www.resnet. • Ferns—http://apbiosemone- • Sporophyte and gametophyte wm.edu/~mcmath/bio205/dia- finalreview.pbworks.com/ relationship in bryophytes, ferns, grams/botun05d.gif f/29_13FernLifeCycle_3-L.jpg and seed plants. http://www. • Angiosperms—http://www. • Fungi— http://www.baileybio. baileybio.com/plogger/images/ mun.ca/biology/scarr/Angio- com/plogger/images/ap_biology/ ap_biology/powerpoint_-_intro- spermae.html powerpoint_-_kingdom_fungi/ duction_to_plants/alternation _of_generations_-_evolution.jpg. • Bryophytes—http://apbiosemone- basidiomycete_life_cycle.jpg finalreview.pbworks.com/f/29_08- • Gymnosperms—http://www. MossLifeCycle_3-L.jpg mun.ca/biology/scarr/Gymno- spermae.html 118 What is a Plant? It is not the strongest of the species that survives, nor the most intelligent that survives. It is the one that is the most adaptable to change. —Charles Darwin (1809-1882)

Overview In this lesson, you will explore the diversity among plants and plant-like organisms, such as algae, fungi and lichens. We will emphasize the structural and reproductive differences between the groups. The lesson will explain the evolutionary relationships between these organisms. Background Information Learning Objectives Have you ever looked at a soft, unique set of characteristics for • Learn the differences and moist, fuzzy piece of green grow- plants and plant-like organisms similarities between algae, ing on a tree or on the ground and to contend with, thus yielding an fungi, lichens, bryophytes, wondered what it is? Is it a plant? incredible diversity of vascular ferns/fern allies, and seed- Maybe it is a moss or a lichen or plants, lichens, mosses, algae, bearing plants algae. What is the difference and ferns, and fungi. how do you know? What about Explore plant and plant- As you learn about plants and • a mushroom? It is growing out of like diversity within an plant-like organisms, pay spe- the soil. Does that make it a plant? evolutionary context cial attention to the similarities What is a plant, anyway? and differences that lend to our Effectively use a hand lens • What makes a plant a plant? understanding of the evolutionary and/or microscope to ex- First, almost all plants make their relatedness of these organisms. plore anatomical diversity own food and produce oxygen Keep in mind that evolution takes Materials Needed by ingesting carbon dioxide and time, lots and lots of time. No water through a process called moss has ever turned into a fern in • hand lenses or microscopes photosynthesis. Second, all plants one generation. This is a gradual • three species from each have cell walls around their cells to process, over hundreds of millions category of organisms help support them, which ani- of years. Nothing happens quickly datasheet mals do not have, but some other when it comes to plant evolution! • organisms do. Third, plants have paper for drawings • a cuticle, or waxy coat on their Plant-like, but not stems and leaves to protect them really plants… from drying out. You will notice that the plant-like organisms share Fungi some but not all of these traits. Are mushrooms plants? Mush- The astounding diversity of plants rooms are not plants but an easily and plant-like organisms in Or- recognizable fungus, with their egon likely arises from the wide typical cap and stalk form, but variety of habitats and climates there are also many other type of across the state, from coastal fungi including cup, jelly, teeth, marshes to alpine meadows to coral, and crust fungi, plus rusts, dry, salt-encrusted ancient lake smuts, and unicellular yeasts. Fre- beds; from rainforest humidity to quently, the part that you recog- the parched, dry air of our eastern nize as a fungus above the ground deserts. Each habitat provides a is only a very small fraction of

the entire fungus. The rest of the Golden chanterelle, ©Barbara Gleason. Used with permission. 119 What is a Plant?

Background Information, continued fungus is growing in the soil, tree, sizes and live in diverse habitats, leaf, insect, dead wood, or other from the desert to the ocean. V ocabulary substrate on which the fungus Some lichens are leaf-like (foliose), grows. This part of the fungus that others have a bunch of shrubby Words you rarely notice exists as very stalks (fruticose), and others look • lichen thin, elongate strands known as like a crust on rocks, trees, or soil • spore-bearing plants hyphae. Collectively the hyphae (crustose). Lichens lack roots and seed-bearing plants are known as a mycelium. The must obtain moisture and nutrition • moss mycelium is like an apple tree, from the air. Lichens can be found • with its trunk and all its branches in different hues of gray, greenish • hyphae and leaves which form connec- gray, and brown, but can also be • sporophyte tions between the apples or fruits; red, orange, and yellow. When you • mycelium the “fruiting body” of the fungus see an oak covered hillside that still saprophyte that you see is like the apple itself. appears green-ish in winter once • mycorrhizae the leaves have dropped, those • Surprisingly, fungi are likely more parasite closely related to animals than they are the beautiful bodies of lichens • are to plants. True, like plants, fun- draping over the branches. • foliose gi have a cell wall (animals do not) Lichens are a perfect example of a • fruticose and lack locomotion. However, symbiosis. They are actually two or • crustose the cell wall of many fungi is made sometimes three organisms living • spore of chitin, the same compound in together so intertwined they are rhizoid the exoskeleton of insects and only distinguishable as separate • cuticle crustaceans. Unlike plants, fungi with a microscope. Lichens are • can reproduce via the production made up of a fungus plus an alga • stomata of spores. Fungi also lack chloro- or occasionally a cyanobacteria. • vascular phyll and cannot photosynthesize, The fungus provides a moist habi- • angiosperm therefore they have adapted three tat for the algae or cyanobacteria, gymnosperm main means of nutrition: (1) sapro- which in turn perform photosyn- • phytes that live off of dead and thesis, creating energy in the form decaying matter, (2) mycorrhizae of sugars for the fungus to use. (“fungus-root”) that exchange Lichens provide habitat for inver- nutrients directly with plant roots, tebrates and food for many animal and (3) parasites that live off of species. Because they are rootless other living tissue. and receive all of their water and Ecologically, fungi play a critical nutrients from the atmosphere, role in the recycling of nutrients in lichens can be biological indica- the environment. Fungi are also a tors of air pollution. Many species principal food source for a variety of lichens produce a tremendous of organisms, making them a major amount of nitrogen in their bodies player in the maintenance of bio- which they add to the forest soil diversity on Earth. through their decomposition after Lichens they fall from trees. One species in Lichens come in diverse forms, old Douglas-fir forests, Lobaria pul- 120 What is a Plant?

monaria, has been called by some are found in a wide diversity of Bryophytes play many valuable “the lungs of the forest” because of habitats around the globe. Mosses ecological roles. In the forests the vast amount of oxygen it pro- are the most common and familiar of Oregon, bryophytes regulate duces through photosynthesis. type of bryophyte, but the group humidity, absorbing and releasing also includes some of the funni- water into the atmosphere. Bryo- The in-between… est named plants out there, the phytes also have extensive wildlife Algae liverworts and hornworts. value, hosting a number of small invertebrates and acting as food Algae are generally aquatic and Unlike other plants, bryophytes for others, and providing nesting lack true roots and leaves. They lack the specialized vascular tissue and bedding material for birds are usually bathed in water and used to conduct water. Without and small mammals. Even some supported by the water column. these tissues, bryophytes must large animals, such as the moun- Thus, specialized structures for remain small because water can- tain goat, rely on bryophytes for a water conservation found in not be transported once it is portion of their diet. plants (a cuticle and stomata), and taken in. Bryophytes also have no specialized cells for structural roots. Instead they have rhizoids support and water transport, are that serve to anchor the plant to unnecessary. Algae reproduce by the substrate on which it is grow- dispersing spores into the water; ing. The entire body of the bryo- they do not produce flowers or phyte absorbs water, including seeds. Like plants, algae photosyn- the rhizoids. Bryophytes also lack thesize to obtain energy and as a waxy cuticle that prevents water a result, many are green, though loss and only a few have stomata; others are reddish or brownish. this generally means they must live in moist habitats, such as those Algae are widely considered to be Ferns & fern allies the evolutionary precursor to land found in the ancient forests of the plants. In recent years, genetic Pacific Northwest. In Oregon, ferns and fern allies analysis has supported this idea. Like other spore-bearing plants, (we will refer to them as ”ferns”, though they include clubmosses, Algae are found in virtually every bryophytes do not produce spikemosses, quillworts, whisk- aquatic habitat on earth, and also flowers but instead develop a ferns, and horsetails) frequently live in extreme environments, in- reproductive structure called a exist in shady forests. Some ferns cluding hot springs, salt pans, and sporophyte that releases spores are aquatic and live in symbiosis beneath thick sheets of ice. Plank- for reproduction. During one with bacteria, while others survive ton, which includes several types of reproductive stage of bryophytes, on rock faces, the forest floor, algae, plays a key ecological role as a sperm from a male organ swims trunks of trees (epiphytes), and in the base of the marine food chain. through the watery film on the leaves to a female organ on the open meadows. Now for the real same or a different plant. The Fern reproduction requires a plants…Bryophytes sperm is entirely exposed to the moist environment, because as environment during this time, with bryophytes, ferns are spore- Bryophytes are small plants that which limits the distribution of bearing, reproducing by means of live closely packed in cushions or bryophytes to moist environ- spores instead of seeds. One stage mats on rock, soil, and trees and ments, and limits the distance they of their reproduction requires a on human-made substrates such can disperse. sperm to swim to an egg on a tiny as asphalt and concrete. They leaf. Like the bryophytes, ferns 121 What is a Plant?

never produce flowers or seeds. plants” because they are a more exchange gases during photo- However, unlike bryophytes, ferns recent branch on the botanical synthesis and respiration. Seed- have complex vascular tissue to evolutionary tree. This group bearing plants also have pollen, conduct water throughout their includes everything from the which can carry enclosed sperm tissues, and like higher plants, usu- smallest herbaceous plants like for very long distances. They ally have a thin cuticle (waxy coat- the pond-dwelling duckweed, use entirely internal fertilization, ing) to reduce desiccation as well which is the size of a lentil, to the eliminating the need for a watery as stomata that allow gas exchange 300 foot tall coast redwood trees. environment in which sperm can to occur. Many ferns possess thick- Both the conifers, or cone-bearing swim to the egg. As a result, these walled spores that allow persis- plants, (gymnosperms) and flow- plants have been able to colonize tence in drier conditions. ering plants (angiosperms) are most corners of the globe, includ- Ecologically, ferns play a valuable seed-bearing. ing very harsh environments with role by providing a moist, shaded Seed-bearing plants have many blasting heat and very little water. environment that supports tree adaptations that make them the Ecologically, seed-bearing plants seedling growth, and they anchor most successful plants on land. are the foundation of the terres- moist soils, slowing erosion. They They have complex vascular sys- trial food web that feeds humans also provide habitat and food for tems for water transport (Did you and all other animals on the earth. a variety of organisms that live ever think about how water defies The ecological roles of seed-bear- within and amongst their fronds. gravity to get from the soils to the ing plants are as incredibly diverse top of a 300 foot tall redwood as can be imagined. From habitat Seed-bearing plants tree?), a waxy cuticle on leaf sur- to food resources to soil stabiliza- Seed-bearing plants are some- faces to decrease water loss from tion to atmospheric cleansing, times referred to as the “higher transpiration, and stomata to help plants do it all!

Directions label the structures. do those structures tell you At each station, use the speci- Your teacher has established 6 about the evolutionary relation- 4 mens provided and the back- stations. Each highlights one of ship between this group and the ground material to fill out the the plant or plant-like groups. previous group(s)? boxes in the attached datasheet. Visit the stations in the following Sketch the example organisms The datasheet summarizes the order: fungi, lichens, algae, bryo- 2 provided. Be sure to include major characteristics used to dif- phytes, ferns and their allies, and and label the key structures that ferentiate these groups. seed-bearing plants. Working in set this group apart from the Pick two key structural char- this order will help you follow the others. Refer to the background acteristics of the group, and evolutionary advances from one 5 information for clues about the explain how these characteristics group to the next. Use the follow- structures to watch for. help define the way of life for ing directions at each station. Choose one example organism this organism. 3 and examine the reproductive Read the background informa- parts through a hand lens or 1 tion. Note the key defining dissecting microscope. Sketch structures for the group. What a close up of what you see and

122 What is a Plant?

Taking It Further Using the Tree of Life internet the links in the Tree of Life and try fungi and lichens split off. Notice project site found at http://tolweb. to follow it to the end. It is unlikely that the algae are split into mul- org/tree/phylogeny.html, click on that your actual organism will be tiple groups. Note when bryo- “Root of the Tree” on the left side represented on the Tree of Life phytes and ferns split off from the of the main page. Choose one webpage, but you may be able to higher plants. organism from each of the plant follow the tree to a closely related or plant-like groups. Click through organism. Note at which point the

In the Field! Go to a habitat on or near your school grounds with a diverse assemblage of organisms, native or otherwise. With a partner, find an organism from each of the groups discussed in this lesson. When you find each organism, ask yourself the appropriate question. What makes this is a fungus? Why is this a bryophyte? What makes this an algae? Review what you know about each group of organisms. Get out some field guides for these more obscure groups and see if you can match the ones you are finding to the photos in the book. Science Inquiry Lichens can be indicators of air quality, and they can also indicate areas with excess nutrients. Complete some basic research and design a simple field investigation to evaluate the effects of air quality or pollution on patterns in lichen diversity. Pick three or more different locations to collect data. Try to sample along what you think is a gradient in pollution. Extremes might be an industrial area (be sure to look for crustose lichens on pavement and buildings) and an old-growth forest. If you live in a more rural setting, try comparing the lichens present on fenceposts in a heavily used livestock yard to the lichens on nearby trees. Any setting can work, just look closely and try to find a gradient in land use (past or present). • Take photos or draw pictures of the lichens you see in each area. • Are there any lichens present in all of your sample areas? Are there any found just in more polluted areas? Are others found just in more pristine areas?

Reflection Draw a colorful picture of plant evolution. Include algae, bryophytes, ferns, and seed-bearing plants. Recall that all plants had aquatic origins. Be sure to depict each group of organisms in an appropriate habitat. Lichens and other fungi occupy a completely different branch on the evolutionary tree; you do not need to include them in your drawing.

123 What is a Plant?

Self Assessments Resources Which group of organisms is • Arora, D. (1986). Mushrooms • Bryophytes: http://bryophytes. 1 best adapted to dry, terrestrial Demystified(2nd ed.). Berkeley, plant.siu.edu/index.html environments and why? CA: Ten Speed Press. • Diagram the evolutionary How do fungi differ from plants? • Brodo, I. M., Sharnoff, S.D., & relationship between groups of 2 Sharnoff, S. (2001). Lichens of organisms: http://tolweb.org/ How do algae differ from plants? North America. New Haven, CT: tree/ 3 Yale University Press. Tree of Life Web Project. The Describe how lichens are an • Background information on ma- University of Arizona, College excellent example of a biological • 4 rine algae: http://www. of Agriculture and Life Sci- symbiosis. seaweed.ie/index.html ences and University of Arizona • Bryophytes and their ecology: Library. http://www.bryoecol.mtu.edu/ • Lichen biology and identification: http://ocid.nacse.org/ lichenland/

124 What is a Plant?

Data/Handout Sheets

Spores Specialized Internal or Use True True Cuticle and Unicellular or or vascular external Photosynthesis? leaves? roots? stomata? multicellular? seeds? tissue? fertilization?

Fungi

Lichens

Algae

Bryophytes

Ferns and fern allies

Seed-bearing plants

125 . What is a Plant?

Teacher Answer Key

Spores Specialized Cuticle Internal or Use True True Unicellular or or vascular and external Photosynthesis? leaves? roots? multicellular? seeds? tissue? stomata? fertilization?

Fungi N NN spores N N both

Lichens Y NN spores N N multi

Algae Y NN spores N N both external

some Bryophytes Y YN spores simple multi external liverworts

Ferns and Y YY spores complex Y multi external their allies

Seed-bearing Y YY seeds complex Y multi internal plants

126 Section 4: The Good, The Bad, and The Ugly Native, Non-native, and Invasive Plants Field Journaling: Observations from a Special Spot To see a wren in a bush, call it “wren,” and go on walking is to have (self-importantly) seen nothing. To see a bird and stop, watch, feel, forget yourself for a moment, be in the bushy shadows, maybe then feel “wren”— that is to have joined in a larger moment with the world. — Gary Snyder, Language Goes Two Ways, (1930–present)

Time Estimate: Overview 95 minutes A field journal can be used to record observations and questions, to introduction explore feelings, to make drawings, and to pursue ideas. A field journal activity can be a place to record lists, poetry, data, and sketches. This lesson is an introduction to using a field journal for all of these things and more. Best Season: Students can use their field journal to support their study of Oregon na- Year ‘round tive plants and ecosystems. It can be a handy reference for places they have visited, new terms that they have learned, and plants that they have identified.

Teacher Hints Assessments • Begin your unit of study on Pretty soon they will be writing! Record one observation in detail native plants by introducing stu- When you take students out- dents to writing about personal • 1 or several small observations. doors for journal writing, act observations in nature. The field as the timekeeper. Have them Make observations using more journal can become an important than one sense. observe quietly for 10 minutes 2 tool for nature study, fostering before they start to write. Then Remain on task and not be writing skills, as a portfolio of in- allow them 20 minutes to write. 3 disruptive of fellow students. formation, a source of questions Give them a couple minute’s for scientific study, an inspiration warning before time is up, to Additional Information for future projects, and a place allow them to gradually return for reflection. • http://www.your-nature-journal. to the group after their time com/grinnell-system.html • Share some plant related field alone. Allow 15 minutes for class journal entries from Lewis & sharing. Clarks’ Voyage of Exploration or • Have students record journal- other naturalists with your stu- ing prompts from the direc- dents. Show them journal entries tions and have students tape for them to see how drawings these to the inside cover of are used to enhance Lewis and their journal. Encourage them Clark’s writings. to refer to this list whenever • Encourage non-writers to express they have trouble starting. themselves through drawing. Ask • A field journal is an excellent them to add a few words about way to cross subject barriers to the drawing, maybe notes on size integrate science with language, or color. Ask them to record the history and art study. weather and the date. Each time have them include a little bit more written detail about their drawing.

128 Field Journaling: Observations from a Special Spot To see a wren in a bush, call it “wren,” and go on walking is to have (self-importantly) seen nothing. To see a bird and stop, watch, feel, forget yourself for a moment, be in the bushy shadows, maybe then feel “wren”— that is to have joined in a larger moment with the world. — Gary Snyder, Language Goes Two Ways, (1930–present) Overview A field journal can be used to record observations and questions, to explore your feelings, to make drawings, and to pursue ideas. A field journal can contain lists, poetry, data, and sketches. This lesson is an introduction to using a field journal for all of these things and more. You can use your field journal to support your study of Oregon’s native ecosystems. It can be a handy reference for places you have visited, new terms that you have learned, and plants that you have identified. Background Information Learning Objectives Developing observation skills and Clark have provided excellent takes practice. Using a field jour- information and illustrations of the Practice observation skills • nal regularly can help you hone flora and fauna and climate of our using sight, sound, smell your observation skills as well as region over 100 years ago. The and touch reflect on the experiences you famous naturalist Henry David • Use multiple styles of have in the natural world. You can Thoreau’s journals have been used writing to record nature use writing and drawing, and take to track environmental history as observations photographs to make entries and the climate changes, as well as to • Promote awareness of guide the observation process. inspire naturalists and to inform seasonal changes and There is no right or wrong way to scientists. Use your journal as a patterns through keep a field journal—each person portfolio to contain information observations over time will use his or her own unique learned in studying nature, a place • Use a field journal as a style. The more time you spend to record “I wonder” questions tool to gather, analyze, recording in your field journal, to pursue, and for inspiration and interpret date in field the more you will see and notice in your writing and art work. As research around you, and the more fun it you get older, your field journal Materials Needed will become! If you keep detailed will be a great place to look for • field journal notes, you will be able to record fond memories of cool places you • pencil seasonal and annual changes go- have visited, interesting critters • colored pencils, crayons, or ing on around you. Practice using you have observed, and poetic paints your field journal throughout your thoughts you have recorded. In native plant study and it can be- addition, looking back on your V ocabulary Words come a very useful reference. journal is a great way to track how • observation A field journal is a great place to many new things you have learned • journal record observations you make as time flies by. Your journal may in the natural world. Many of be an excellent record of your his- the great naturalists and scien- tory when you become a famous tists throughout history have scientist but first and foremost, kept extensive field journals. For your journal is for you. example, the journals of Lewis 129 Field Journaling: Observations from a Special Spot Directions Make your journal: Create a field journal to collect your work and to Explore the smells—of the ground, plants, the 1 record your thoughts, questions, and observations 9 breeze. while studying nature. Use a composition book, spiral What feelings do you have while you sit in your spot? bound book, “Rite in the Rain” journal, or better yet, 10 make your own journal. What is happening at your spot; are there processes Personalize your journal by decorating the cover and 11 or food webs you can observe? 2 include your name and dates the journal will cover. Who or what has been at your spot before you? Always bring your field journal to class with you to add 12 What signs show you they were there? 3 your thoughts, discoveries, and questions. In addition, How is your spot part of a larger area surrounding it? take it on field trips, and you can even record your 13 observations when you are outside of class. Enter your observations in any form that you want; With every journal entry, always begin exploring on 14 you can make lists, write an essay, jot down thoughts, 4 your own, recording the date, time of day, location, write a poem, or create a drawing. and the weather. Finish your journal entry by noting the date, time, 15 and the location of your special spot so you can Choose a special spot: return for later observations. Your first field journal entry will be in a natural area, Gather as a class and share your observations. How 5 close to the school, or near your house; a special spot 16 were they similar or different? Did you discover any- you can visit throughout the year. Select a spot by thing new about your spot that surprised you? yourself and take note of where you are so that you can return at a later date. Settle into your spot and quietly Taking it Further spend at least 10 minutes just observing, without writ- • Visit your special spot monthly (or more often if you like) ing. Really get to know your spot; look at it, smell it, and create a record of changes over time. If you can visit feel it, and listen. Who else is there with you? your spot for more than one year: look for recurring pat- Look closely at a leaf margin or bit of soil, far away at terns and differences from prior years. 6 the horizon and distant movements; and in the nooks • Identify 2-3 plants (or more!) at your spot. Explore and crannies in between. some of the reasons that you think they are well suited Listen carefully for loud and softer sounds, to the wind, to your spot. 7 insects, and birds. What else do you hear? What sensations do you feel; coolnes or 8 warmth, something soft, hard, sharp, fuzzy?

130 Field Journaling: Observations from a Special Spot

In the Field! Take your field journal on all your field trips. When you first arrive, make general observations and record them in your journal. During your trip, focus in on one thing that catches your eye to write about further. At the end of your trip look over your entry and add any details that you would like to remember about your trip. Don’t forget to record the date and add general information about the location and weather.

Science Inquiry While at your spot, use an “I wonder” statement to generate ideas to investigate further (for example: I wonder why there is only one oak tree in the field?) Now jot down some possible explanations for your question (e.g. there is only 1 oak tree because someone planted it, deer ate the others, fire burned all but one oak acorn). Try to generate ways to test your explanations or research the answer to your question. Enlist your teacher for help if needed.

Reflection Create a story based on your observations. Write from the perspective of something living at your spot (such as: an insect, a tree, moss, or a bird).

Assessments Resources Record one observation in detail, using • The journals of the Lewis and Clark expedition online (see actual 1 words, drawing, and/or photos. journal entries): http://lewisandclarkjournals.unl.edu/ Make observations using more than one • The journals of Henry Thoreau (typewritten excerpts): 2 sense. http://www.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau/project_main.html Remain on task and be courteous of • National Wildlife Federation article about Thoreau and 3 other students working. phenology: http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article. cfm?issueID=117&articleID=1510 • Great visual examples of nature journals: http://www.newhorizons. org/strategies/environmental/matsumoto.htm Leslie, Claire Walker and Charles E. Roth. 2000. Keeping a • Nature Journal: Discover a Whole New Way of Seeing the World Around You. Storey Publishing, North Adams, MA. • Field journal resource: http://www.amnh.org/nationalcenter/ youngnaturalistawards/resources/fieldjournal.html

131 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part I: Research and Planning Why try to explain miracles to your kids when you can just have them plant a garden. —Robert Brault, gardener (contemporary) Overview Explore the definition of the term “wildflower” and explore people’s Time Estimate: perceptions of the word. Research native flowering plants for your local several class habitat. In this lesson, students embark on a native plant garden project sessions by working through the planning stages in the first of three lessons. This lesson offers service-learning opportunities to share knowledge with Best Season: your community. fall/winter Teacher Hints • For your planting projects use Gather data and survival rates local sources for seed, and na- from past planting to assess the tive plants whenever possible. long term results. Results can be Beware of wildflower mixes; repeated and compared from Assessments many contain species not native year to year, or work with a dif- Give the common and scientific to your ecoregion. ferent plant species. Students 1 name of 2-3 wildflowers that • Continue this lesson as a mul- can collect seed from the garden grow in your ecoregion. tiyear project. Classes can add for future seedling projects or as Give one reason to conserve to the garden and do long term a fundraiser to sell. 2 native plant species. monitoring on the project. Work as part of a group to 3 prepare a project presentation (example: oral, report, or Preparation poster). • Collect plant species lists from • Assemble a variety of wild- natural areas and field guides flower seed packets or labels for Additional Information for you ecoregion. Consult with student teams to use in research. • Ecoregion species lists (see Ap- natural resource agencies, Native Packets can be found at garden pendix II for your ecoregion), Plant Society of Oregon, parks centers, plant nurseries, and mail as well as sources from the and natural areas, and OSU order. Find mixes that state the resource section Extension offices for additional species contained. help with species lists. • Site preparation is covered in Nurture a Native Garden Proj- ect Part II. It is best to start this process as early as possible, once a site has been identified.

132 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part I: Research and Planning Why try to explain miracles to your kids when you can just have them plant a garden. —Robert Brault, gardener (contemporary) Overview What is a wildflower? Explore the definition of “wildflowers” and people’s perceptions of the word. Put together a journal page of 8-10 native flowers that you like. Work as part of a team to plan a native garden for your schoolyard. Share your project as a community service activity. Background Information Learning Objectives “Wildflower” is a term with different re-seed construction sites. In these • Gain appreciation for local meanings for different people. To cases the seed is left to spread into flowering species and their some wildflower describes the mix unintended locations and natural place in the ecosystem of weeds blooming in a vacant lot, areas, and possibly start invasive to others the beauty of the flowers plant problems where previously Use research skills to • produced by native plants, and to none existed. Oxeye daisy (Leucan- compile a list of 8-10 native still others a cultivated mix of small themum vulgare), an introduced flowering plants from your flowering plants. This activity will species from Eurasia, is such a ecoregion help to define the term “wildflower” plant; it has become naturalized in • Increase plant knowledge as well as view the word “wildflow- many of the native prairies loca- and identification ability er” with a critical eye. tions in Oregon. over time Garden stores, mail order suppli- Why should you care about • Work as part of a team to ers, and upscale gift shops are all introduced wildflowers? Intro- plan a native plant garden sources of “wildflower” seed mixes. duced plants can crowd out native Unfortunately these mixes are often species, affect critical ecosystem Materials Needed the source of seeds that can be- interactions, and disrupt the bal- • plant species lists and field come invasive in your region. Some ance of nature. Not all introduced guides for your ecoregion wildflower mixes are labeled East- plants cause problems, but some • computer/internet ern or Western, but rarely are they easily become naturalized in the • wildflower seed mix pack- specially mixed for one state let temperate Oregon climate, and ets with ingredients lists alone one ecoregion within a state, yet others have the capacity to graph paper or even better yet one plant com- become invasive. The average per- • munity. The problem arises with son does not usually weigh these • clipboard the way the seed mixes are used. factors when deciding whether to • compass Manufacturers of these seed mixes spread wildflower seed. • measuring tape are probably intending them for How can you help raise aware- yards and flower beds, but many ness in your community? One step V ocabulary Words times they are not used for these your class can accomplish is to native species intended purposes. Many people start a native plant garden at your • view wildflowers as something wildflower school, as a demonstration for • beautiful and at the same time your local community. Why create invasive • beneficial to the environ- a native plant garden? It ment. They end up being can supply the aesthetics spread at country wed- of beautiful flowers, and dings, memorial services, to become an integral part beautify pasture land, or to of a restored ecosystem. 133 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part I: Research and Planning

Background Information, cont’d A schoolyard native plant garden may not supply the Creating the garden and maintaining and monitoring complexity or diversity of a natural ecosystem, but it the site over time will supply an outdoor laboratory site will support the local ecology by providing habitat for continued classroom use and research. Establish the for pollinators and other invertebrates, small mam- garden in a highly visible location and it can be a dem- mals, birds, and some reptiles and amphibians. A onstration garden, promoting the beauty and function well-planned native garden will require few outside of native plants to your school and community. resources (e.g., water, fertilizer) once it is established.

Directions Part 1: Research Now compare your native plant flowering bouquet What is a native wildflower? Write a definition using 6 with the species lists found in purchased wildflower 1 your present knowledge. Save this definition to consult seed mixes. again at the end of the lesson. Work in teams to research one of the purchased Make a pictorial bouquet of native flowers specific to 7 wildflower seed mix packets. List the flower species 2 your local ecosystem. Follow the steps below to iden- from the ingredients list. Research each plant’s range, tify 8-10 native flowering plants to include. Choose and note whether it is a native plant to your ecoregion. flowers that you find attractive, in a variety of colors When finished, create a simple bar graph that shows and shapes. the number of native to non-native species results. Share with the class and discuss: how many of the dif- Start by compiling lists of native plants found in your ferent wildflower seed packets would be suitable to ecoregion. Sources of species lists may come from the 3 plant in your ecoregion? Native Plant Society of Oregon, Native Seed Network ecoregion species lists, local natural resource agencies Revisit your definition of a native wildflower. Has your (US Forest Service, BLM, OSU Extension, State Parks 8 definition changed? Rewrite a definition to better and County Natural Areas), and regional field guides. represent your current knowledge. Check the range of your species by using the online Class discussion: “wildflower” can be a misleading term USDA/NRCS Plants Database or Oregon Flora Project. 9 that is open to interpretation. How would you change Narrow your list to species that are well suited to grow the term or the image to better define it? How would 4 in your local ecosystem. Look at the ecology or cultural you educate the public of your image change and why information sections of field guides for help. it is necessary? Assemble a field journal type page to showcase your Part 2: Creating a Native Plant Garden— 5 8-10 flowering species in a pictorial bouquet. Draw Site Planning the flowers or use color photos (taken yourself or printed from copyright-free digital library sources). Divide into teams that will each perform a task: (1) map Arrange and adhere your bouquet in the middle of 1 the school grounds, (2) create species list for your na- the page, and arrange field notes around the outside tive garden, (3) identify native garden sites, (4) per- of the bouquet. Give the common and scientific name, form baseline plant survey of sites, (5) market project habitat information, and pollinator if known for each of to school administrators, and (6) locate seed or plant your species (example: Oregon Iris, Iris tenax, upland sources for your garden. prairie, road sides, woodlands). Team 1: Map the school grounds, identifying locations 2 of possible garden sites. If you have a small area to

134 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part I: Research and Planning

Part 2: Creating a Native Plant Garden, cont’d work with use measuring tapes and graph paper to the map created by the mapping team. make a scale map. If you have a large area you might Team 4: Conduct a baseline plant population survey use pacing to make an estimated map or approach the of the two sites identified by the site location team. school office to see if they have a school map that you 5 Identify plant species presently growing at the site. could use as a template. Create a master map (by hand Add the location of all native plants (if there are any) drawing or on the computer); make several copies. to the map created by the mapping team. Include a Team 2: Research flowering native plants to include in key of plant species on the map. your garden. Create a list of 10-15 native plants that 3 Team 5: Market the native wildflower garden to the are suited for your schoolyard ecosystem. Look at sun/ principal and the school groundskeeper. Give them an shade, moisture levels, and soils. Additional criteria 6 overview of the benefits of a native wildflower garden, could include species that are commonly available in your class’s planning work, and a proposal for taking your area, grow relatively easily from seed, are aes- on a native wildflower garden project. Use PowerPoint thetically pleasing, and are important nectar sources or visuals during your presentation. Conclude your for local pollinators. presentation by asking for their approval to continue Team 3: Identify one or two suitable sites for the na- with the native plant garden. tive garden. Sites could be a little-used patch of grass, 4 Team 6: Using the list of 10-15 native wildflower spe- an underutilized corner, neglected garden spot, or cies, locate sources of native seed or potted plants. the entrance to your school. Try to make it a place that 7 Native plant nurseries, seed sellers, and local plant people will visit and consider if it is a spot that teach- growers can all be sources. Contact the sources in ers will allow students to visit alone. Make sure to find person, by phone, or by email to introduce yourself and out if the school has plans for a new building or ball your school. Give them a brief introduction about your field and do not put your garden there. Check with project and what you hope to accomplish. Many pro- the maintenance staff at your school and make sure viders will donate or give discounts to school projects. they are on board. You don’t want them to mow your If you receive a donation, be sure to follow up with a garden! Observe and make detailed notes on each thank you note. of your target sites. How much direct sunlight does it get, and for how many hours a day? What are the After all the teams have completed their projects, soil moisture levels at wet and dry times of the year? 8 come together as a class to make decisions. Each team Make special notes about building overhangs or water should share their work with the group. As a group, sources nearby. In addition, look for a site that can be pick your final choice for site and species to include. enjoyed and appreciated by the student body and Keep the school groundskeeper apprised of your final school visitors. Mark your two top choices on a copy of site location and ask for their continued support.

Taking It Further Take on a community service aspect for this project: benefits of a native wildflower garden. • Write and submit a news article for your school or • Educate the public about the drawbacks associated community paper about native wildflowers and your with wildflower mixes used in wild areas. Create a school native wildflower garden project. Make the marketing campaign to get the word out. Posters, let- article informational by stressing the importance ter to the editor, and speaking to community groups, of native plant communities for local pollinators or are some possible ways of getting out your message.

135 . Nurture a Native Garden Project Part I: Research and Planning

In the Field! Plan a follow-up field trip to a natural area to view native wildflowers blooming in the spring. Many U.S. Forest Service offices have lists of wildflower hikes in the area. Inquire about peak viewing dates to guide your planning. Ask also if they have a species list for the area. Inquire into the possibility of having their local botanist lead the hike. Take your field journal and/or a camera to record your flower observations. Science Inquiry Take baseline monitoring information for your native wildflower garden site. Ob- serve and record soil moisture levels, diversity of plant populations, and insect and wildlife observations or signs. This information can be used in future monitoring and science inquiry projects. Do this in both fall and spring and compare your data. Is your site more diverse in the fall or spring? Try doing this type of monitoring in two different habitats. Are some habitats better to monitor in fall and some in spring? What about summer? What do you think? Design a study to test this. Reflection Choose your favorite native wildflower and document all the connections between the plant and the local ecosystem that you can confirm or even imagine. How did the seed get to where it started? What does it need to grow? What kind of pollinators does it support? How does the flower connect to you? Did learning about native wildflowers increase their appeal to you? Do you have any feelings of connection to the ecosystem you live in? Can you identify 1 or 2 things that you can do personally to promote native plant conservation?

Assessments Resources Give the common and scientific name of • U.S. Forest Service Celebrate Wildflowers website: 1 2-3 wildflowers that grow in your region. http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/index.shtml Give one reason to conserve native plant • Native Seed Network species list for Oregon by ecoregion: 2 species. http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/ecomap?state=OR Team participation in the project; • Native Plant Society of Oregon. Follow links to your local chapter: 3 working together with other members, http://www.npsoregon.org/ finishing assigned duties, and helping out • USDA Plants Database: http://plants.usda.gov/ where needed. • Oregon Flora Project (has plant ranges, photos, and locations in Oregon): http://www.oregonflora.org/ • University of Washington, Burke Museum online plant field guide: http://biology.burke.washington.edu/herbarium/ imagecollection.php 136 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part II: Starting Seeds and Growing Plants

The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn. —Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) Overview Part two of this native garden project will focus on starting seeds and Time Estimate: growing plants for your native plant garden. In the process students will 6-8+ weeks learn about seed germination techniques and basic plant care. Potted (continuing project) plants grown by the students will be the basis of a science inquiry project that will contribute to a knowledge base for future seed projects. Best Season: winter/spring

Teacher Hints Preparation • Review appropriate background • Gather or purchase supplies information for each section needed well in advance of start- before starting (seed treatments, ing this project. Potting soil can Assessments planting, plant care, hardening sometimes be hard to locate in Improve knowledge of seeds, off, and transplanting). the winter months. 1 seed germination, and • Set up a student watering sched- • Keep potted plants in trays to adaptations as they apply to ule for potted plants. minimize watering messes. local species. • Extend the science inquiry sec- Participate in an experiment, tion by requiring students to 2 gaining skills in science inquiry write up a scientific report on steps. their experiment. The reports Follow through on a long term can be saved or summarized for 3 project requiring attention to future classes to re-test or build detail. on the experiments and contrib- Submit a written report of the ute to the ongoing research for 4 science inquiry project. this activity. Additional Information • A Partnership for Plants in Canada – additional lessons about growing native plants: http://www.bgci.org/canada/edu_act_class/ • Wild Ones: Native Plants, Natural Landscapes Landscaping with Native Plants Guide – reasons, ethics, design, seed treatments, planting, local genetics: http://www.epa.gov/greenacres/wildones/wo_2004b.pdf • American Horticultural Society Plant Propagation: The Fully Illustrated Plant-by-Plant Manual of Practical Techniques. Alan Toogood, editor. DK Publishing, Inc. New York.

137 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part II: Starting Seeds and Growing Plants The creation of a thousand forests is in one acorn. —Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) Overview Part two of this native plant project will focus on starting seeds and growing plants for a native wildflower garden at your school. Learn about preparing seed, germinating, planting, and how to care for plants. Your potted plants will be the basis of a science inquiry project that will contribute to a knowledge base for future projects in the garden. Background Information Learning Objectives Seeds are the reproductive parts crowded for all the plants to sur- of flowering plants. They are vive and the mother plant “wants” • Understand the biology typically made up three parts: the her offspring to survive so it is of seeds, seed dispersal, embryo (immature plant), endo- successful in passing on its genes, forces of nature that work sperm (stored food supply), and its main mission in life. For a plant on seeds, and seed seed coat (outer covering). The population to remain healthy it is adaptations function of a seed is to protect dependent on moving new plants • Start and grow native and nourish the embryo and to into favorable growing conditions. plants from seeds assist in the dispersal of plants to This is called seed dispersal. Plants • Prepare a site and plants new locations. exhibit many different methods for a native plant garden Seeds require optimal conditions of dispersing seed, using wind, water, animals’ fur, birds, feet, or Set up a science inquiry for new plant growth to germi- • insects to get from place to place. project using native plant nate. They may require warmth, cold, moisture, or certain levels This can be seen in many wetland of light, and these factors vary by plants, which have seeds that float Materials Needed plant species and habitat condi- to disperse along water corridors. native wildflower seeds tions. Most plant seeds mature in Some seeds are even fire depen- • dent, requiring high temperatures ziplock bags late summer or fall, but seed will • not germinate until the following or in some cases, smoke, to release permanent marking pen • spring when weather conditions them from the resinous materials (e.g. Sharpie) are favorable. This lag time be- • pots tween when a seed is produced • trays and seed germination is called V ocabulary Words potting medium dormancy. Dormancy protects seed • seeds from germinating at the • watering wand embryo • wrong time of year to ensure • • fertilizer the new plant will have the best • endosperm chances for survival. • seed coat Seed dispersal is important for • dormancy both the new seedling and the scarification parent plant to have optimal • growing conditions. If all seeds • stratification fell right at the base of the parent • harden off plant, the area would become too

138 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part II: Starting Seeds and Growing Plants

Background Information, continued that protect them. Can you think of side, in a temperature of about by pouring hot water onto the any plants that use humans as their 5 degrees Celsius. Much cooler seeds, using an acid to break primary dispersal agents? and the seed will freeze; much through the seed coat, or using Under natural conditions seeds will warmer and it might not receive a razor blade to nick the seed germinate when they are ready, enough chill to germinate. They coat. Different scarification tech- but for seeds started indoors should begin to germinate in 1-2 niques are used depending on we can manipulate conditions to weeks. Thus, the seed is stored the permeability and thickness prompt seeds to germinate at under native habitat temperature of the seed coat. More often other times. Seed treatments are conditions commonly mimick- than not, scarification is an easy used, when propagating seeds, to ing local winter conditions. The process of gently scratching the mimic natural processes for break- moisture level should be similar seed coat with sandpaper. Acid ing dormancy and to eliminate to a damp sponge. It is com- scarification is used for seeds the barriers to germination. There mon to use a 30 day period of with tough, thick seed coats. are three general types of treat- cold-moist stratification, although The acid acts as a mimic of the ments (and many variations) used some species may need as little conditions the seed encounters to break seed dormancy of Or- as 1 day or as much as 90 days or when passing through an animal’s egon native plants: 1) cold-moist up to 6 months for some alpine digestive tract. Soaking seed in stratification; 2) scarification; and species. Following the time in near-boiling water apparently 3) other special treatments includ- the cold, transfer your seeds breaks down the waxy cuticle ing heat, switching back and forth to a warm (20 degrees Celcius) associated with some species. from warm to cold, harvest tim- environment mimicking Oregon’s Oregon plants such as lupines ing, and the use of chemical plant spring and continue to keep and checkermallows, among hormones. These last methods are them moist. Most Oregon native many others, benefit from this only used in special circumstances plants such as sedges, buttercups, method. When directly plant- and won’t be addressed in this native lilies, and many others ing seeds in the ground in the lesson. Some seeds have double require cold-moist stratification. fall, this process is not required dormancy and require combina- Scarification is the act of break- because nature takes care of the tions of these treatments. 2 ing through the seed coat. This process on its own. How do you think it does this? Cold-moist stratificationis a can be accomplished by rubbing 1 technique used to fool plants into sandpaper across the seed coat, It can be very important when “thinking” spring has arrived and it is time to germinate. Because Oregon’s winters are cold and moist, followed by a spring that is warm and moist, that is what we must give many Oregon plants in order to convince them it is time to germinate. To do this, you can put seed in a mixture of moist sand, peat, soil, or vermiculite in a cooler or if it is cold enough, out- 139 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part II: Starting Seeds and Growing Plants

Background Information, continued germinating and growing native for one hour. Seed boxes, pots, house setting. If the seed were plant seeds in artificial conditions and trays should be washed and planted in the field in the fall, the to work in as clean an environment soaked in a bleach/water solu- physical and biological processes as possible to minimize failures tion for one hour, then air dried they encountered on the soil will due to rot and diseases. To start, before use. naturally break dormancy to al- always wash your hands before By physically treating the seed to low the germination process the handling seed. It is advisable to conditions that mimic nature, we following spring. Sometimes it will buy sterile media (e.g. peat, pot- are able to accelerate the ger- take a seed two to three years to ting soil) or if unavailable, sterilize mination process when growing break dormancy in nature. it yourself in a 400 degree oven seeds in the classroom or green-

Directions

Growing Native Plants from Seed: that you will want to plant in individual pots should Identify local native plants to grow from Nurture a be stratified in germination boxes with moist blotter 1 Native Plant Garden Part 1. Locate sources of seed to paper. purchase or ask for a donation. Label the bags with a permanent marker and include 5 species name, date, treatment regimen, and seed Seed Treatment source. Follow the general guidelines below or any specific Refrigerate the bags for at least 30 days unless the 1 instructions you received from the source of your 6 instructions you found for your species indicate other- seed. Consult www.nativeplantnetwork.org for specific wise. treatments for your species. If you don’t know the preferred method of treatment, Seeds planted directly outdoors in the fall will not 7 do an experiment with several different methods (i.e. 2 need pre-treatment. scarified vs. not, 14 days of cold vs. 30 vs. 60) and compare the results from your experiment to deter- Scarification—Only if your species requires scarifica- mine the best technique. Write down and save your 3 tion (does it have a hard, impermeable seed coat?), protocols for future classes. lightly rub your seeds with sandpaper until you have Continue to the planting directions below. a small spot where water can get into the seed. You 8 do not need to (and should not) remove the entire Discussion questions: What natural process are we seed coat. Check for a breach in the seed coat with a 9 imitating by using sandpaper to penetrate the seed hand lens. coat? How does seed scarification link to the food Stratification--For cold-moist stratified seed. For very web? Which seeds require moist-cold stratification 4 large or very small seed: fill a ziplock bag 2/3 full with and which do not? What is the shortest length of time sterilized sand, vermiculite or peat and moisten so it is required for stratification and what is the longest? damp but not flooded. Mix seeds in with the saturated How long can you keep seeds in cold-moist storage? medium in the bag and seal. Be sure your medium How can you relate what the seed needs to the local stays moist the whole time. Medium and large seed climate patterns? 140 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part II: Starting Seeds and Growing Plants

Directions, continued Planting Seeds Harden-Off Plants Fill 4” pots with damp potting medium. Plant one or A couple weeks before planting out the seedlings, 1 two seeds in each pot. Carefully cover the seed and 8 prepare them for the outdoors by a process called gently press it into the potting medium. You will need hardening off. Plan your outdoor planting date after two pots each for the science inquiry section. If you the last frost date for your region. Gradually move are starting extremely small seed, too small to work plants outdoors into a protected area two weeks prior with individually, use the following method. Once the to your planting date. Bring them back in at night seed has been through stratification, gently spread or cover them with frost cloth for the first couple of the seed mixture on the top of your potting media in a nights, and on nights that you expect a frost. Slowly in- tray to make soil contact. Be careful to not cover your troduce the plants to direct sunlight by increasing the seed with potting soil. hours they are exposed over the two week period. At Label your pots with your name on a plant tag or the end of the hardening off process the plants should 2 masking tape. be accustomed to the number of hours of sunlight that they will be exposed to in the garden (this will vary Place your pots in trays and gently water with a fine from shade to full sun). 3 mist. Your seedlings are now ready to plant out in the wild- Place plants in a greenhouse if available, a south-facing flower garden. 4 window, or under florescent lights for 12 hours per 9 day. Check your plants daily, keeping them moist but not Taking It Further 5 wet. If your plants are in a greenhouse make a water- • Chart the growth of your plants: when did they ing schedule and take turns with your classmates. germinate, get their first true leaves, reach a certain Watch for germination, and adjust your watering height? Compile the information in graphs with 6 schedule to your plant’s recommendation once they labels. are established. Wetland plants will need more mois- • Explore seed germination rates. Count out a specific ture than upland plants. number of seeds and write down the number (100 Discussion: Compare germination rates for those seeds makes for easy math but this can be done with 7 species that require treatment to those that do not any number). Keep track of the number that germi- require treatment. Can seeds be planted too close nate and record that number. What percentage of together, or too far apart? If you grow multiple spe- your seeds germinated? What trends do you see? Do cies, which germinated the fastest? Did they require all some of the seeds germinate faster than others? If so, treatments? How do you think the seeds receive these why? Why do some species have high germination treatments in nature? Why is it important evolution- rates while others have low germination rates? arily for seeds to require these treatments prior to germination? What does it protect them from?

141 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part II: Starting Seeds and Growing Plants

In the Field! Start the native garden preparation for your transplants. Draw a map of the garden area on graph paper. Indicate which areas you will plant with each species. Check online to find out the full size of the species that you will be planting in the garden, so your spacing will be right when they are full grown. An overcrowded garden can be a frustrating maintenance project in the long run. Mark on the map where to place the plants. Use this map on planting day to guide where to plant. You can always adjust the map as inevitable changes are made on planting day. Begin site preparation as early as possible. If you start in the fall, cover the site with overlapping pieces of cardboard or several thicknesses of newspaper. Hold this down with a generous layer of compost or fall leaves. This will smother the weeds and grass, and amend the soil in preparation for your transplants in the spring.

Science Inquiry Design a science inquiry project: As a class, brainstorm growing protocols for native species that could be scientifically 1 tested. Examples of variables that could be tested are: types of soils, fertilization amounts and types, seed chilling or stratification methods, scarification and methods, temperatures, lighting conditions, addition of mycorrhizae or microbes, or come up with your own ideas. Narrow your choice to one variable to test. Design a question to be tested based on the one variable. Work with two groups of 10 or more plants, one 2 group to test your variable and the other to act as a control. Label the groups with your name and treatment or control. Using your prior knowledge and simple research, formulate a hypothesis or a statement of what you 3 expect to happen. Write down your hypothesis and include your reasoning. This is the beginning of your scientific report. Design a sheet to collect your data. As a class, decide what data you will be collecting (plant height, 4 number of leaves, largest leaf dimension, and others) and the frequency that you will collect it. Date each collection of data and use metric measurements when gathering data. Data can be recorded manually or on a computer spreadsheet program. 5 The experiment can conclude at outplanting or be continued outside. At the conclusion, write up your results in a scientific report. Start with your hypothesis, outline the steps 6 of your experiment, graph your data, analyze your results, and state your conclusion. Did your experiment support your hypothesis or not? Did the experiment lead to any new questions to test? Pool the class data and analyze as a whole. Were your individual results consistent with the class results? 7 If not, why might they be different? Did the experiment produce clear results? Did the class results prove your hypothesis or not? What challenges did you have? How could the experiment be improved?

142 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part II: Starting Seeds and Growing Plants

Reflection This project requires many steps, covers a great deal of time, and requires working in pairs and teams in a cooperative environment. What part of this project did you find the most fun or rewarding? What parts did you find most difficult? What did you learn about your strengths and weaknesses during this project? What did you learn about your working style over the course of this project? How does this fit with working in a team environment? What do you think are the benefits and weaknesses of working as part of a group? What could you do to make this a more positive experience? How do you feel your project will impact future generations?

Self Assessments Resources Discuss your understanding of seeds and their adapta- • Wild Ones: Native Plants, Natural Landscapes Land- 1 tions to the local environment. scaping with Native Plants Guide: http://www.epa. Successfully participate in a group science inquiry gov/greenacres/wildones/wo_2004b.pdf 2 experiment. Develop a hypothesis, gather and analyze data, make conclusions. Submit a well-written report of your science inquiry 3 project. Discuss individual and classroom data and its significance.

143 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part III: Planting and Celebration The more you praise and celebrate your life, the more there is in life to celebrate. —Oprah Winfrey (contemporary) Overview Time Estimate: Plant out the fruits (or flowers) of your labor in your native plant garden! 2 or more sessions Students learn transplanting techniques, how to organize and carry out the planting day, and planning a garden celebration. The third stage of Best Season: this project connects students with community through a service-learning project. spring Teacher Hints • Empower your students by of- • Continue this project from year fering them specific leadership to year; hold a garden birthday roles in this stage of the project. party where everyone adds gifts Assessments to the garden through art proj- • Facilitate leadership by guiding Students draw and describe in students into planting day com- ects, new plantings, or general 1 a cartoon storyboard, or write mittees, working with students maintenance. Extend the project out simple step-by-step direc- to outline individual duties, and by working with other schools or tions, how to plant a transplant helping them create reasonable natural areas to add wildflower in the garden. timelines. Act as an advisor or areas at their site. Collect and Students write a job advertise- mentor to the project. Be sure use your own seed. Sell seed or 2 ment and description for their everyone is included and has a transplants as a fundraiser for role in the planting day celebra- role that feels good. the garden. tion as if they were going to hire someone to do the job they did. • Additional community service Be sure to have a list of qualities connections: buddy up with an that would make someone good elementary school class and use for the job (e.g. organized, atten- the student storyboards to help tion to detail, experience with instruct the young students in native plants, etc.). transplanting. Students discuss the benefits of 3 their project to the local ecosystem and to the community. Preparation Additional Information • Prepare for pre-planting activity • Encourage your students to by making a copy of transplant- create transplanting storyboards • Wild Ones: Native Plants, ing steps (see copy page at end as part of a community service- Natural Landscapes Landscap- of lesson), cut into strips, and learning project, as well as to ing with Native Plants Guide placed in an envelope for each reinforce their learning. – goes into reasons, ethics, team of students. The trans- design, seed treatments, plant- planting steps are listed in the ing, local genetics: http://www. correct order on the copy page. epa.gov/greenacres/wildones/ You may wish to refer to this list wo_2004b.pdf as a key when helping students.

144 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part III: Planting and Celebration The more you praise and celebrate your life, the more there is in life to celebrate. —Oprah Winfrey (contemporary) Overview Plant the fruits (or flowers) of your labor in your native plant garden! Learn transplanting techniques, organize, and plant your garden area. Take a leadership role by organizing project committees and a garden celebration. Share your project with your community through your celebration, media coverage, or working on a planting project with a buddy class at an elementary school. Background Information Learning Objectives In the Nurture a Native Garden post, leaves, or other natural mate- Project thus far you have learned rials around the base of your plant. • Work as a group: form about local native flowering Don’t forget to water throughout committees, plan project, plants, seed starting techniques, the first and possibly second sum- outline individual responsi- and how to grow transplants. In mer, to establish healthy plants for bilities, create a timetable, this third and final lesson you will the future. and complete your plant- plant your garden and celebrate ing project There are several things that you your hard work and the birth of can do to ensure the long term • Learn and demonstrate this garden with your community. success for your project. Work proper planting technique By creating a native plant garden with your teacher to create a plan • Creatively share the proj- that is adapted to local conditions, for continued maintenance. Future ect with other students and you are helping local ecosystems classes can water, weed, and the community and the critters who use them. The mulch established plants. Native • Increase your knowledge native garden will provide habitat gardens can use help defending of the local ecosystem for wildlife and pollinators, and use against competition from invasive fewer resources, such as water and plant species. You can also collect Materials Needed fertilizer, than a garden of non- seed and increase plantings each • transplanting sequence native ornamental plants. Native year by growing additional trans- instruction slips plants are adapted to local soils plants. Work with the grounds storyboard template and climatic conditions (although maintenance staff and come up • these are changing as the climate with a long-term plan to keep drawing materials • changes). Like all new gardens, the the garden happy and healthy. • shovels newly planted native plants will Encourage them to eliminate • pin flags appreciate a little added care the pesticide use on your schoolyard gloves first year or two and will always re- to protect local pollinators and • quire weeding and maintenance as wildlife that will be attracted to water • vigorous non-natives try to invade. your plantings. mulch • Learn and follow proper planting No matter the size of your project, • celebration supplies techniques so you will maximize planting day should be a celebra- the chances that your plants will tion of your successes and a dedi- V ocabulary Words survive. To protect the new plants cation for your native plant gar- • transplant from competition, hold moisture den. Consider including a nature mulch in the soil, and make new plants reading, original poetry, a song • easier to find, be sure to mulch or or art work at your celebration. spread a protective layer of com- 145 . Nurture a Native Garden Project Part III: Planting and Celebration

Background Information, continued A large celebration could extend as a service to educate the com- to your school paper. Don’t forget to the entire school or even be a munity on the benefits of a native to acknowledge donors or volun- community event. Invite guests plant garden. Create a guide to the teers that have helped make your such as your parents, principal, native plants in the garden, or de- project possible. Also remember superintendent, the mayor, retired sign a mural of the blooming plants to have fun! Your native plant gar- teachers, and your City Council to be enjoyed year round. Invite den is a great accomplishment and and encourage them to help with the media to cover your event and contribution to your native ecosys- the planting. Use the celebration take pictures and submit a story tems and to your community!

Directions Pre-planting activity: ery staff). Harden off transplants starting 2 weeks before Work in teams of 2-4 students. your proposed planting date (see Nurture a Native II for 1 instructions). Each team will receive an envelope of transplanting Gather all supplies and plants in the garden area. 2 steps. Work as a team to arrange the slips in the correct 2 Review planting steps and walk through a planting order. When you are finished, check your order against demonstration. the teacher’s key. Use the planting map to match the species to the Create a cartoon storyboard of transplanting steps to 3 planting location. Color coded pin flags will help you 3 use with elementary students. Draw a simple illus- locate exact spots. tration and number each step of the process in the Start with planting sites in the middle of the garden boxes of the storyboard. Laminate the storyboard for 4 and work towards the outer edges. This will help to outdoor use. Use the storyboards during a community prevent accidently trampling plants. Return the col- planting or donate them to a young elementary class ored pin flag next to the new planting to help people for a gardening project. avoid stepping on them. Label plants with plant tags and mark the locations on Organizing the planting: 5 the garden map. An accurate map will be essential for Assemble a planting map. Use the maps from Part I, future monitoring of the site. 1 and add an overlay that marks the planting locations for Set up a student watering schedule to help the new your transplants. Take into consideration the mature 6 plants establish and get them through the dry summer size of the plants and space the planting sites accord- months. Check with the groundskeeper; they may be ingly. Mark the sites on the ground with pin flags (color willing to help over summer break. coded flags if transplanting assorted species), making Some native plants can be started by direct seeding in sure they correlate to the map. 7 the fall or early spring. Use this method to supplement Gather needed supplies: shovels, watering containers, your plantings or if you are working in a very large area. 2 mulch, pin flags, gloves, and planting map. Also, bulbs such as camas should be planted in the fall. Planting Day: Plant out your plants in spring when soils are dry enough 1 to work. If you are unsure of timing, consult with local gardening experts (e.g. Extension Service, or garden nurs- 146 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part III: Planting and Celebration

Directions, continued Celebration: Make planting day a celebration or plan a garden • Make a sign for your garden site. 1 dedication. As with most large projects, they can • Create a local wildflower booklet or brochure to be easier if broken into smaller parts. Divide the go with your garden. class into committees and delegate responsibili- Videotape or photograph before, during, and ties. Keep the celebration simple; pick and choose • after, write a summary, and put together a project what best fits your class and resources. Below are scrapbook. ideas you might consider, plus add your own. Conduct a fundraiser for future garden mainte- Invite the media to your planting day or act as your • • nance expenses. Make and sell packets of native own press coverage. Take photos and submit an wildflower seed mix to parents and teachers. article to your local paper. Don’t forget to include Include an information sheet with the seeds that the who, what, where, when, and why. explains the importance of using local native • Have a ribbon cutting ceremony and invite the plants. Include a list of the plant species in the mix. school board, school administrators, and staff. Can you think of other ways to commemorate your Choose a class representative and an invited guest • project? to cut the ribbon together.

Taking It Further Suggestions for a long-term commemoration of the • Commemorate your garden project artistically: cre- project: ate a mural (paint on a wall that is adjacent to the • Adopt a buddy class from an elementary school and garden area, or on canvas to hang indoors), make mo- invite them to your planting day and celebration. saic stepping stones, build a bench or a cob garden Alternately, visit their school and help them plant a art structure, make a fabric or paper artwork quilt native plant garden. Lead a wildflower craft project for the school hall, make a scrapbook and include or create a game to use for the day. student garden-inspired art work, hold a poetry contest.

147 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part III: Planting and Celebration

In the Field! Grow extra transplants and share with the community by planting in parks and public natural areas. Approach your city, county, or state parks offices first. Ex- plain your project and the benefits to the local ecosystems. Ask for permission and guidance to locate proper planting locations. You might even find that if you approach the parks department before starting your project they might donate money, supplies, or knowledge to help you. Science Inquiry Investigate different mulching materials. Set up a test plot in your garden area that has similar soil and sunlight conditions. Plant a row or transect of 24 plants of the same species and condition, 2-3 feet apart depending on the size of the plants. Test 6 different mulching materials using four plants along the transect for each material. Mulch ideas might include: woodchips, compost, cardboard, plastic, straw, and others. Be sure that all the test plants receive the same amount of added water over the test period. Moni- tor for several months, or years, if possible. Gather data on the size and vigor of the plants, as well as the effectiveness of excluding weed growth at the base of plants. Reflection Read the section from A Sand County Almanac by Aldo Leopold that corre- sponds to the month you are in. Aldo Leopold was attuned to the natural world and appreciated even the smallest parts of his ecosystem. Write about your environment, tuning into the smallest pieces. What did you learn about your environment in this project? What is happening in your garden right now? How does the native wildflower garden connect you to the larger ecosystem? Something will be happening in your garden every moment of the year. Even when it appears that very little is happening, challenge yourself to find something. Remember to think about processes that you cannot see, inside plants or below the soil’s surface.

Self Assessments Resources Rate yourself as a committee member. Did you partici- • Leopold, Aldo. 1949. A Sand County Almanac. 1 pate in making decisions, volunteer for a task, com- Oxford University Press, USA. plete your task by the timetable, and work well with others? Give instruction or demonstrate the steps to trans- 2 planting plants into the garden. Describe the benefits of the native plant garden to the 3 local ecosystem.

148 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part III: Planting and Celebration

Preplanting activity. Transplanting sequence instruction slips: make a copy, cut into strips, and place in an envelope for each team of students.

• Dig a hole (as deep as and wider than the pot) and place the soil carefully to the side.

• Support the top of the plant with your hand across the top of the pot, being careful not to crush the plant, and turn the pot upside down.

• Gently squeeze or tap the pot to release the plant.

• Tease the roots out, if they are tightly coiled around in a circle, loosen the roots to encourage new growth.

• Place the plant in the ground so that the crown (where the stem and roots meet) is right at the soil surface, not above or below.

• Make sure the roots are pointing down and out (not up) especially at the tips.

• Refill the hole with the dirt removed when digging, making sure to fill in all around the roots.

• Gently press the dirt around the plant to fill air holes and completely cover the roots.

• Mulch around the base of the plant to conserve moisture and suppress weed competition.

• Water.

• Stand back and admire your work. Wish your plant luck out there in the wild!

149 Nurture a Native Garden Project Part III: Planting and Celebration Storyboard Template

15 .0 Weed Explosion

A weed is a plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered. —Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) Overview Time Estimate: Students will learn the characteristics of invasive plants, how they affect Classroom: 1 session. species and ecosystems, and the human impacts of their invasion. Stu- Hands-on: 3-4 dents will examine a widespread Oregon weed, bull thistle, and study sessions over 2-week period. its affects using a mathematical simulation to track a bull thistle introduction and expansion. Students will explore what happens when one seed Best Season: of bull thistle lands in a vacant lot, create a data table, and graph the Spring, Fall growth of the adult population over a five-year period.

Preparation lary list. What makes a weed an Teacher Hints • Introduce students to the fac- invasive plant? Are all weeds tors that limit the spread of Taking it Further hints: invasive? Are all non-native plants: natural limits (e.g. disease, species weeds? Are there any • Noxious weeds are defined predators, geographic, soil, and under the Oregon Revised native species that are weeds? climatic limitations) as well as Lead the class into listing the Statutes. Students can explore human limits (e.g. herbicides, Oregon’s laws regarding invasive characteristics of what makes a pulling). Brainstorm with your plant a weed. Do invasive plants species and learn about the dif- students to create your own def- ferent invasive classifications have the same limiting factors as inition of a weed, and discuss the native plants, why or why not? • The Oregon Department of related terms from the vocabu- Agriculture website also has a weed mapping feature that allows students to view reported Additional Information Lesson: http://csip.cornell.edu/ infestations of different species • Alien Invasion Curriculum, an curriculum_resources/CSIP/ of noxious weeds by county. invasive plant K-12 curriculum: Vaccaro/Vaccaro_Seed.asp Science Inquiry hints: http://www.weedinvasion.org/ weeds/weed_home.php Assessments • Look for dandelion seed heads during spring and early fall. • Cornell Environmental Inquiry 1 Use math skills to complete They should be readily avail- Program, science inquiry pro- data tables, figure percentages, able on the school grounds, gram for high school age stu- and graph data nearby disturbed areas, road- dents—Invasion Ecology: http:// Name 4-5 characteristics of sides, or gardens. ei.cornell.edu/ 2 invasive plants Oregon State University Dept. • Review dandelion identification; • Discuss the difference between it is important that all students of Rangeland Resouces. (2004). 3 Weedmapper: Bull thistle. eradication and control and collect the same species of weed where each is appropriate seeds. Other common yard Retrieved from: http://www. weeds have flowers and/or seed weedmapper.org/civu.html Identify several ways that heads that look similar and can • Vaccaro, Lynn. Breaking into 4 invasive plants are introduced be mistaken for dandelions. the Seed Bank, High School and strategies to prevent their spread

15 .1 Weed Explosion A weed is a plant whose virtues have not yet been discovered. —Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882) Overview What is a weed and what makes a weed an invasive plant? Learn how invasive plants affect Oregon’s ecosystems, how to prevent invasive species introductions, and how introductions are being managed statewide. Look at one invasive species, bull thistle, found throughout the state of Oregon. Use a simulation to model a bull thistle introduction and create a graph to show its growth and spread over a five year period. Background Information Learning Objectives Invasive plants are a growing It is very difficult for scientists to threat to native plant popula- predict which plants will become • Become familiar with tions worldwide. Disturbances to invasive and which will not. How- weedy vocabulary ecosystems can result from natural ever, not all introduced plants • Gain insight into the traits causes such as wildfires, disease, become invasive. Many that do that allow a species to be- or normal succession cycles, as are generalists, tolerating a wide come an invasive well as from human causes. When- range of growing conditions. • Identify ways that invasive ever land is disturbed (by culti- Often, they are able to reproduce plants can disrupt the bal- vating, logging, housing develop- quickly, tend to produce abun- ance of an ecosystem, as well ments, or road maintenance) then dant seed, and disperse their as cause economic damage left bare, there is an opportunity seeds with ease—all traits that • Use mathematical skills in for invasive plants to take hold. give them a jump on slower grow- making predictions, data Due to our modern mobile, global ing native plants. Their large num- collection, and graphing society, people are the prime bers of seeds frequently overwin- cause of the spread of invasive ter in the top layers of soil to form Materials Needed plants. Humans often contribute to a seed bank that can remain viable bull thistle worksheets the spread of invasive plants with- for years. The seeds in the seed • bank wait until the conditions are graph paper out even being aware. Exotic plants • are brought into gardens from all ideal for germination, and then colored pencils • parts of the world, with little knowl- grow rapidly. Introduced plants • calculator edge of the consequences of the that become invasive also have Science Inquiry section plants’ impact on the local ecosys- few natural population controls • shallow planting tray tem. Seeds can travel embedded in in their new environment. By sterile potting soil the tread of car and bike tires, and colonizing a new place, they leave • behind the diseases, parasites and dandelion data sheet even on the bottom of your shoes. • Humans are not the only means predators that may have helped • zip lock bag of spreading seeds. Wildlife and to control their population in their pets can carry seeds on their fur, native ecosystem. In fact, many eat and deposit them in their feces; species that become invasive are and birds deposit seeds along rare in their homeland, but once fence rows and under trees where they escape disease and preda- they perch. Seeds can even catch a tors in their newly invaded home, long ride on the feathers and feet their population can explode of migrating birds. under the right conditions. There are many terms to describe 15 .2 Weed Explosion

Background Information, continued introduced species that often animal diversity, and cost millions of V ocabulary Words can be misleading or confusing. dollars to control or in losses of land • native Invasive, introduced, weed, non- productivity. Not all weeds are bad • non-native native, exotic, and noxious are all however, depending on who you ask. • germination rate words that are frequently used to If you ask the endangered Taylor’s • weed describe plants that are not native checkerspot butterfly, it will tell you • noxious to an ecosystem. However, not all it is quite fond of English plantain invasive of these plants become invasive (Plantago lancebiata) • , an intro- exotic and cause problems. Most land- duced species on which it nectars. • introduced scaped yards are filled with beau- Although researchers are not sure, it • tiful plants that do not endanger is possible this butterfly once nect- • seed bank native ecosystems; these plants can ared on the sweetness produced by • germination be called introduced, non-native, golden paintbrush (Castilleja levis- • eradication or exotic. Weed is a generic term secta), which was once common in • biennial that is commonly used to refer to Willamette Valley prairies but is now • perennial troublesome plants, but the term extinct in Oregon. • annual weed can also be used to describe Invasive plant management, con- viable any plant that grows where you • ducted to slow the economic and colonize do not want it. Many native plants • environmental effects of weeds is biocontrol could be consider weeds if they usually broken into two categories, • grow where people do not want control or eradication. In many in- them. For example, a Douglas fir or stances invasive plants that you are bracken fern growing in the middle familiar with, Himalayan (armenian) of a prairie can be considered blackberry (Rubus armeniacus) invasive, despite the fact that they and Scotch broom (Cytisus scopa- are native to the surrounding area. rieus), for example, are so common The term “noxious plant” actually and widespread that there is little has a legal definition: “any plant hope of eradicating them from the designated by a Federal, State, or Oregon landscape. Instead the county government as injurious to focus on these species is on main- public health, agriculture, recre- taining control, limiting new expan- ation, wildlife, or property” (1). sions and eliminating them where Why should we be concerned about possible or needed for restoration invasive plants? Invasive weeds have purposes. Early detection of new been identified by many land man- invasive species is handled differ- agement agencies as the number ently. Such plants have been tar- one obstacle to promoting healthy geted because they are problems ecosystems (2). Invasive plant popula- in neighboring states, but not yet tions can rapidly expand to dominate a major problem in Oregon. For natural plant communities, destroy example, at the time of this writing wildlife habitat, reduce plant and garlic mustard (Allaria petiolata), a

15 .3 Weed Explosion

Background Information, continued

common invasive in the northeast- or disease predators and parasites), prevent seed production. Biological ern U.S., is being discovered here and chemical (herbicides) control. control methods often use herbivory and there in western Oregon. By Prevention is the least expensive and to the plant, such as grazing or insect training people to recognize these the least harmful to the environment control, or disease causing organisms species early, and with sufficient but involves extensive coordination to control specific plants (bio-con- effort to remove them when they throughout the state to be sure that trol). Chemical control uses herbi- are found, eradication (complete all are aware when a plant species cides to kill the plant or chemical elimination) may be possible. is a threat. Mechanical methods of means to suppress seed germination. control generally involve interrupt- Challenge yourself to identify ways Methods to control invasive plants ing some stage of plant life cycle by that you may inadvertently spread can be grouped into four categories: hoeing, mowing, cutting, burning, invasive plants, and what steps you prevention, mechanical (mowing or mulching to kill the plant or to could take to prevent the spread. and fire), biological (releasing insect

Directions Taking It Further Observe plant defenses: Visit the Oregon Dept. of • Work with a partner or individually. Agriculture website: http:// 1 oregon.gov/ODA/PLANT/ Read through the Bull Thistle Introduction Scenario, then fill in the WEEDS/ and compile a list 2life history table. Bull thistle is a biennial, a plant that lives for two of invasive plant species for years, and does not produce seed until the second year. For our your ecoregion. Oregon has an “A” and “B” list of noxious calculations, the mature plant dies the second year after producing weeds; what is the difference seed. This information is key to your calculations. between the two? Click Use the life history table to compute the formulas for the worksheet. on the “Profiles—noxious 3 Double check your formulas before continuing. weed” link to view a county range map and locate inva- Year 0 on the worksheet represents the bull thistle introduction (a seed sive plants in your county. 4 arriving in hay) and is filled in for you. Use your formulas to complete the Educate others at your remaining years on the worksheet. school or in the community by creating a weed guide on 5Graph your results. Make a line graph showing the size of the adult a school bulletin board with plant population over time as well as the accumulating seed bank. Add photos and descriptions. a caption to your graph, and label the axes to show units and scale. Map how far the bull thistle could spread over a 5-year period, if wind 6 disperses the seed. Use graph paper and place a dot on the midpoint of your paper to represent your first plant. Assume there are no landscape barriers to seed dispersal. How far could the thistle’s offspring spread from the original parent plant? Use an appropriate scale for your graph paper and draw a circle around your initial plant showing the distance that the seeds will travel each of the five years of the model. Your map will show circles that

15 .4 Weed Explosion

Directions, continued enlarge each year as the seeds Discussion questions: What hap- lar growth pattern in perennial travel outward. Use meters as the 8 pened to the numbers of adult or annual species? What advan- scale to compute this spread. bull thistle plants over the 5 year tages or disadvantages do you Looking at your graph, compute period? What happened to the see for plants that are annuals, 7 the total square meters that the number of seeds in the seed biennials, and perennials? What bull thistle could cover at the bank? What kind of growth would happen if some students end of the 5-year model. How curve do the graphs show? Can came in year three and helped does this compare to the size of you explain the pattern in the out by pulling half of the adult a football field? numbers in the early years? Do plants? How would that change you think you would see a simi- the spread of the species?

In the Field! Take part in an invasive weed removal project. Local parks or public lands are in need of your assistance. Think how a class full of energetic weed pullers can make a difference. And, you won’t have to take any tests or quizzes while you are out there! Consider making it a long-term project. Adopt an area and return for monthly weed patrols, and you will make a lasting difference for your community! Science Inquiry Part I • Use the common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) to compute germination rates on your own. Dandelions have a spring blooming season and a secondary fall bloom period. Proper plant identification is important; review your plant identification before collecting seed heads. Other common yard weeds can have similar seed heads that can be mistaken for dandelions. • Working with a partner, locate and carefully pick an entire mature dandelion seed head and place in a Ziploc bag to prevent seed loss. Count the number of buds, flowers, and seed heads present on the plant and record the number. • Return to the classroom. Make a prediction of how many seeds are on your seed head (each person should make their own prediction) and record your predictions. • Carefully remove from the baggie and count the seeds (save all the seeds!) and record the number. Work on a sheet of dark colored paper to make seeds easier to see. Use forceps, a toothpick, or a pencil point to push them to the side as you count them. Make a tally mark for each 10 seeds and then total your tallies at the end. Compare your actual count to your prediction. How close was your prediction? • Compare your seed count numbers with the rest of the class; are the numbers similar or do they vary greatly? What could be some of the reasons for this?

15 .5 . Weed Explosion

Science Inquiry Part 2 Plant all of the seeds from your seed head into a shallow planting tray: Mark the tray 1 with your name(s). Fill a pan halfway with moist, sterile potting soil. Spread the seeds evenly over the soil surface, firmly patting the seeds into the soil. The seeds will need good contact with the soil to germinate but should not be covered. Mist with a water bottle to make the soil damp but not soggy. Place plastic wrap over the tray to retain moisture. Why might you want to use sterile potting soil instead of garden soil? Place your trays in a sunny windowsill. Keep them moist and check periodically for sprouting seeds. 2 Keep a tally of the seeds that germinate and remove them with a tweezers. This will ensure that you do not count the sprouts more than once. Record the number each time you remove sprouts. Continue gathering sprout data for 2-3 weeks. Dispose of the seedlings responsibly—don’t spread invasive plants! Tally the final number of seedlings. Calculate the germination rate, or percentage of the seeds that 3 germinated using the total number of seeds planted. Use your germination rate to make additional predictions. Take the number of buds, flowers, and 4 seed heads from your original plant to predict the how many seeds one mature plant could produce. Record the number. Why is this number a prediction and not concrete data? Extend the activity to monitoring one dandelion plant for an entire season. Flag your plant and visit 5 daily, pick all flower heads and buds, and keep a tally of how many you collect. How many seedlings can one mature dandelion plant produce? Calculate this by multiplying the number of flower heads by the number of seeds per flower head, then multiply the result by your germination rate. How did this compare to your predicted number (see #4)? Is this an accurate number, why or why not? Class discussion: Compare your data. How much variance was there? What could be the reason for 6 differences? How many seedlings do you think would actually survive outside, and why? How could you gather data on total yearly production? How could you test the seedlings for survival rates? What else do you wonder about? Reflection Ask yourself, why should you be concerned about invasive weeds? What are some ways to prevent invasive weeds from spreading? What are some natural factors that might limit the growth of weeds? How do humans inadvertently spread weed seeds? Are all invasive species bad? What are some situations when they might benefit humans or an ecosystem?What could you do to help prevent the spread of weeds? What are some of the ecological consequences of the spread of invasive weeds? What are some of the economic consequences? Name some factors that might limit the viability of seeds in the seed bank? Can you think of any reasons weeds are beneficial?

15 .6 Weed Explosion

Self Assessments Use mathematical skills to compute weed germination rates, survival Resources 1 rates, and to make graphs. • USDA PLANTS database Name 5-6 characteristics of invasive plants. for pictures: http://plants. 2 usda.gov/ Discuss the difference between eradication and control and where each • Oregon Dept. of Agricul- 3 is appropriate. ture noxious weed site: Explain two ways that invasive plants can damage an ecosystem. http://oregon.gov/ODA/ 4 PLANT/WEEDS/ view nox- Identify one way that people spread invasive plants and one or two ious weed profiles to find 5 strategies to prevent that spread. species that are a problem in your area of the state • California Dept. of Food Bull Thistle (Cirsium vulgare) and Agriculture. Ency- cloweedia Data Sheets, Introduction Scenario Thistles. http://www.cdfa. on the grasslands in the northeast ca.gov/phpps/IPC/weed- Description: part of the state. The bale was info/cirsium.htm Bull thistle (Cirsium vulgare) is considered high quality hay, but native to Eurasia and is now widely accidently contained one mature established across North America. bull thistle plant. Bull thistle seed It has large spines on hairy leaves heads contain anywhere from 100 and large purple flower heads. to 300 seeds each and plants can Bull thistle can be found in all produce anywhere from 1 to 400 parts of Oregon and is thought to seed heads. These figures depend have been accidently introduced on many factors such as nutrition, multiple times through contami- soil, competition, and water avail- nated seed sources. It is commonly able to the plant throughout its life. found in disturbed areas and will In our model, bull thistle is intro- spread into farmland, pasture, duced to a healthy grassland eco- rangeland, and recently logged system. In this scenario, the thistle sites. Found in sunny locations, it will have to compete for several can displace native and cultivated resources and will produce only grasses and forbs. Bull thistle is a 20 seed heads per adult plant. biennial and produces seed on Research shows that 95% of the mature second year plants. After seeds that bull thistle produces seed production the plant dies. are viable and capable of germi- Introduction Scenario: nating. In our grassland, only 15% will germinate the first season. This A bull thistle was introduced to reduced germination rate could Oregon in a bale of hay brought result from a healthy vegetation in to supplement winter elk feed 15 .7 Weed Explosion

Introduction Scenario, continued layer covering the ground that locations. Scientists who study prevents many seeds from coming invasive plants use advanced into contact with soil. In this en- models to calculate distances that vironment, only 1% of seeds that seeds can travel under optimal germinate will survive the rigors conditions. These studies suggest of nature to become tiny seed- that up to 10% of bull thistle seeds lings. Survival can be challenging may travel more than 27 meters even for invasive plant species. with relatively little wind. All plants need sufficient water, What happens to the remaining sunlight, and nutrients to make it viable seeds that did not germi- through the summer, and in our nate? Under the correct condi- model, only half will live through tions, this seed can be stored in that first summer. The seedlings the upper layers of the soil or that do survive will start to grow thatch, waiting to sprout when the and make a rosette (whorl of basal conditions are right. This natural leaves), increasing their footprint storehouse of seeds is called the and giving the plant more space seed bank. Seeds may remain to collect the necessary resources. dormant in the seed bank for Once a bull thistle becomes a ro- different durations, depending sette, it develops sharp spines on on physical factors such as the the leaves that deter many animals seed coat and exposure to the from eating it. These spines help elements. Some invasive plants to increase the chance of survival, such as field bindweed have seeds and 97% of these rosette stage that can survive in the seed bank plants will now survive to maturity for 60 years or more! Bull thistle and produce seed. seeds have a relatively short life in Bull thistle seeds have feathery the seed bank, remaining viable appendages to allow for wind for no more than five years. In our dispersal, but easily detach when model, 50% of the seeds in the the seed is mature. This means the seed bank will germinate in the vast majority of mature seeds fall following year; while the other near the parent plant, but some 50% will remain in the seed bank. of the seeds are transported by Use the information in the text above wind and establish plants in new to complete the life history table.

15 .8 Weed Explosion

Life History Table

Topic/question Answers 1. Plant life history (annual, biennial, perennial)

2. Average number of seeds in a seed head

3. Number of seed heads per adult plant in this model

4. Percentage of new seeds that are viable

5. Percentage of viable seeds that will germinate

6. Percentage of germinated seed that will establish seedlings

7. Percentage of seedlings to survive 1st year to become rosettes

8. Percentage of rosettes that become nd2 year adult plants

9. Distance that seeds can travel by wind on relatively calm day

10. Percentage of seed bank seeds that will germinate each year Data taken from: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/forb/cirvul/all.html

References: Zouhar, Kris. 2002. Cirsium vulgare. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2008, November 5].

Answer Key Life History Table

Topic/question Answers 1. Plant life history (annual, biennial, perennial) Biennial

2. Average number of seeds in a seed head 200

3. Number of seed heads per adult plant in this model 20

4. Percentage of new seeds that are viable 95%

5. Percentage of viable seeds that will germinate 15%

6. Percentage of germinated seed that will establish seedlings 1%

7. Percentage of seedlings to survive 1st year to become rosettes 50%

8. Percentage of rosettes that become 2nd year adult plants 97%

9. Distance that seeds can travel by wind on relatively calm day 27 meters

10. Percentage of seed bank seeds that will germinate each year 50%

15 .9 Weed Explosion Bull Thistle Introduction Model (Year 0 is filled in for you) Column 9 = TotalColumn # of 2 year old adult plants = previous year 8 x (% of rosettes column thatbecome 2 8 = # of seedlings thatColumn establish year old rosettefirst plants 7x (% of seedlings = Column to year)survive 7 = # of germinatedColumn seeds that 6 x (% of germinated become seedlings = Column seed establish that will seedlings) 6 = TotalColumn # of seeds that germinate this year 5 3 + Column = Column 5 = # of seedsColumn the in seed bank that germinate this year 4 x (the % of seeds = Column seed bank that in germinate) 4 = # of seedsColumn the in seed bank = (previous year 2 – previous column year 3) + (previous column year 4 – previous column year 5) column seeds germinate that 3 = # of viable Column will grassland our in seeds that 2 x (% of viable = Column germinate) 2 = How manyColumn of those seed are 1 x (% of new = Column seeds viable? that are viable) 1 = CalculateColumn the # of seeds from one adult plant 9 x (# of seed heads = Column per plant) x (the average # of seeds per seedhead) Formulas: (Use figures from the LifeHistory Table) year 0 5 4 3 2 1 #new seeds 4000 (1) #viable new#viable 80570 3800 seed (2) #new seeds germinate (3) #of seeds in #of in seeds seed bank seed (4) 0 seeds germi-seeds # seed bank # seed nate ( 5 . 0 ) seeds that seeds germinate total # of 570 (6) nd year plants) seedling Become Become (7) 5 #rosette plants (8) 2 #adult plants (9) 0

160 Weed Explosion Bull Thistle Introduction Model (Answers Key) 5 1 7 0 (9) plants #adult #adult 8 6 2 (8) plants #rosette #rosette 5 (7) 151 75 29 Become seedling (6) 570 30,762 307 153 72 total # of # of total germinate seeds that ) 0 5 . ( nate 2,018 6,008 60 30 # seed bank seeds germi- 0 (4) 4,037 28,464 14,232 24,628 12,314 15,164 seed bank #of seeds in#of 0 3,230 1,615 1,615 16 (3) germinate #new seeds #new 0 (2) seed 3800 570 3,800 570 1,615 807 1,377 13 #viable new #viable new (1) 4000 4,000 20,000 19,000 2,850 #new seeds #new 5 116,000 110,200 16,530 4 2 3 28,000 26,600 3,990 1 0 0 year ormulas: F Column 1 = column 9 x 4,000 Column 2 = column 1 x .95 Column 3 = column 2 x 0.15 column 4 minus 5) columnyear 3) + (previous year column 2 minus previous Column year 4 = (previous Column 5 = column 4 x 0.5 column of column 5 3 and Column 6 = sum Column 7 = column 6 x 0.01 Column 8 = column 7 x 0.5 column 8 x 0.97 year Column 9 = previous 9 x 4,000 or 1 200 20=4,000) (column plant one adult from number the of seeds Column 1 - Figure viable1 x 0.95) (column are seed of those Column 2 - How many 2 x 0.15) (column in of viable our grassland will seed Column sprout 3 - What percent column 4 minus 5) year column 2 minus column 3 + previous year bank (previous seed Column in the 4 – Number of seeds (column 4 x 0.5) year this germinate that seed bank Columnthe 5 – The numberin seeds of columncolumnand of 5) 3 (sum year this germinate that numberseeds of total Column 6 – The (column 6 x 0.01) seedlings become that seeds Column 7 – The numbergerminated of (column 7 x 0.5) plants rosette old year establish Column 8 – The numberthat seedlings of column 8 x 0.97) year (previous plants old adult numberyear of 2 total Column 9 – The

161 Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations An experiment is a question which science poses to Nature, and a measurement is the recording of Nature’s answer. — Max Planck (1858–1947)

Overview Time Estimate: When botanists and ecologists work in the field, it is not practical or pos- 15-30 minute sible for them to count and measure every plant. If this is the case, how introduction, do they collect accurate data on plant populations? Field biologists use 60 minute field session different methods of sampling portions of a larger population or plant community to collect data that is representative of the whole. The data Best Season: can then be used to describe the overall population or habitat. This lesson will introduce you to several methods of sampling plant populations spring/ and the different types of data that can be collected. summer Teacher Hints • Differential education—ways to • To simplify the lesson, reduce adjust the level of this lesson: the sample size or reduce the Assessments • To introduce more difficulty, add types of data collected. Students can explain what sam- additional sampling methods 1 pling is and discuss the strengths for more advanced students to and weaknesses of using sam- compare. pling as compared to a census to measure plant populations. Students can describe two or Preparation Additional Information more methods of sampling plant 2 Students should complete Elzinga, C. L., Salzer, D.W., & populations and discuss their • • the exercises in the Estimating Willoughby, J.W. Measuring and applications. Percent Cover worksheet before Monitoring Plant Populations. Bu- Students can describe two or attempting the lesson. reau of Land Management. BLM 3 more types of data to collect Students will conduct a plant technical reference manual 1730- and their applications. • population survey to sample one 1, BLM/RS/ST-98/005+1730: common (abundant) and one http://www.blm.gov/nstc/ uncommon (rare) plant within the library/pdf/MeasAndMon.pdf survey area. Choose an area to (this document is large and takes support such a set up. A natural time to download) meadow would supply an area • Cornell University and Penn for several student teams to work. State University, Environmental • Break the class into teams of two Inquiry for high school stu- to four students. Each team will dents, Invasive Species: http:// conduct a survey in the same ei.cornell.edu/ecology/invspec/ general area. Students can then compare and discuss results.

162 Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations An experiment is a question which science poses to Nature, and a measurement is the recording of Nature’s answer. — Max Planck (1858–1947) Overview When botanists and ecologists work in the field, it is not practical or possible for them to count and measure every plant. If this is the case, how do they collect accurate data on plant populations? Field biologists use different methods of sampling portions of a larger population or plant community to collect data that is representative of the whole. The data can then be used to describe the overall population or habitat. This lesson will introduce you to several methods of sampling plant populations and the different types of data that can be collected. Background Information

Learning Objectives Botanists and ecologists sample given limited amounts of time • Become familiar with meth- plant populations to achieve sev- and money, and with specific ods of sampling plant popu- eral objectives, including monitor- objectives, how does an ecologist lations and their applications ing or “keeping tabs” on a popula- decide which types of data to col- tion of rare plants, comparing the lect and how and when to collect Explore different plant pop- • results of habitat treatments in an them? It depends on the question ulation attributes that can experiment, or determining the of interest for the study or ex- be measured (e.g., percent impact of an activity (e.g., build- periment. Some common types of cover, presence/absence, ing a new road through a sensitive data collection to meet different counting individual plants) habitat, wildfire, or grazing) on a objectives are listed below. and their applications plant population. Presence/absence: Is the spe- Use a sampling protocol • When you are out in the field cies of interest present or not? to collect different types there are many things you can This is likely the fastest and easi- of data and compare two measure and monitor. For ex- est type of data to collect; how- plant populations ample, on an individual plant, ever, it only lets the researcher • Analyze data and inter- you could measure its height, the know if the species is present pret results number of leaves, flowers, or fruits or absent. It does not provide it has, or the number of other information about its abundance, Materials Needed species within a certain distance dominance, or distribution • metric measuring tapes of it. For a population of a certain within the habitat. • quadrat frames (directions species, you could record the total to make meter squares in number of individuals, the amount Appendix VIII) of land it covers, how many V ocabulary Words clipboard/data sheet/pencil reproductive individuals versus • those not reproducing, and many transect wooden stakes • • other traits. For a community, you • plot • compass could measure the number of quadrat species, how many individuals of • field guides percent cover • each species there are, how those • species are distributed over the • plant population land, the slope of the land, the • frequency azimuth (which direction the slope azimuth faces), and many other traits. So, •

163 Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations Background Information, continued Frequency: This tells us the per- different species. A drawback (the sample) must be selected centage of plots within a larger of measuring cover is that it can carefully, in an unbiased manner sample in which the species is vary drastically for an individual and must also be representative present. For example, if ten plots plant over the course of the of the rest of the population as a are placed in a meadow, and spe- growing season and can be more whole. Frequently, randomization cies A is present in one of the ten, difficult for researchers to make is used to choose the sample, so it has 10% frequency. This mea- an objective and accurate mea- that every part of the popula- sure of the plant population does sure. This measure is commonly tion has an equal chance of being not indicate how abundant the used in plant community re- chosen for sampling. plant is. In the example above, search involving multiple species. Census (complete population even if there are five of species This method works best for spe- counts): This is the preferred A in one out of ten plots, species cies that are evenly distributed method when possible. No A’s frequency within the sample is through the area to be sampled statistical analysis is required and still only 10%. Similarly, if species and works less well for species therefore any changes in counts A is found in only one plot of ten, that are very patchy or found from year to year are real. A its frequency will be the same only along the edges. drawback to this method is that it regardless of if it takes up 100% Population estimates: If a can be extremely costly in person of the area in that plot, or is just population is too large in extent power, time, and money. found taking up less than 1% in a or number to feasibly measure What determines which sampling little corner. Advantages of fre- or count every individual, sam- method one should use and the quency data are that it is quick to pling is used to estimate the type of data to collect? Factors collect, easy to compare between size of the population without including population size and species, and similar results can actually counting every plant. distribution, the area to survey, the be obtained in different seasons During sampling, a representa- time available, and the ecosystem of the year (e.g., if a seedling of tive portion of the population characteristics (e.g., density of veg- species A or a mature plant of is counted and then this data is etation, slope, etc.) must be con- species A is present, the data will extrapolated to estimate the size sidered. The researcher may select be the same). of the entire population. For this one of many possible sampling Percent cover: This is a measure method to be legitimate, the part methods and layouts to use during of the proportion of the ground of the population that is counted the survey, including the following: (often within a plot or transect) Photo points: A picture is worth covered by the body of a plant a thousand words! With this (from a bird’s eye view). This method, the surveyor takes pho- method is extremely useful for tos in the four cardinal directions plants that spread clonally (e.g., (north, east, south and west) from grasses or aspen), or for plants a set of permanently marked that may produce multiple stems points within the area of interest. that appear to be multiple plants The photo points should give a or where counting individuals is good visual assessment of the unreasonably time consuming. entire area. Photo points can then This is a very useful measure for be revisited over time, the photos comparing the abundance of re-taken, and compared to the

164 Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations Background Information, continued initial (baseline) photos to evalu- variation within your population. the plots need to be randomly ate change over time. Transects are especially useful placed (e.g., using a set of random Transects: These can be long, when the target species you are numbers as coordinates to posi- narrow strips or wide belts that trying to monitor is patchy on tion plots in a grid overlain on the traverse the landscape. The area your landscape. Transects are site). The number of plots needed within the boundary of the tran- usually placed parallel to one an- to describe a larger area will de- sect is sampled and transects are other on the landscape and then pend on how variable the habitat placed randomly or in intervals run at the same azimuth (angle). is, the size of the plot, and the size across the area to be sampled. The number of transects needed of the area to be sampled. Target species within the transect to describe a larger area will de- Once you have collected your data, can be counted or percent cover pend on how variable the habitat the next step is data analysis. Until of any or all species present can is, the size of the transect, and the you do this you just have a bunch be assessed. Transects can also size of the area to be sampled. of numbers on a piece of paper. be a line (essentially, a very nar- Plots: Plots are often square, Your analysis will be guided by the row belt); in this case, often the although they can also be round objectives of your study. If the pur- presence of all species that occur or rectangular, areas within which pose is to compare two (or more) along the line or at specific inter- data are collected. Square plots parts of a plant population, per- vals along the line are recorded. are often called quadrats. The haps to test a hypothesis, the data Long transects may be easier to size of plots can vary with sam- collected needs to be evaluated to establish in some habitats (e.g., pling method, though one meter determine if a statistically significant prairie) than others (e.g., dense square plots are common. As with difference exists, and how likely it forest). The longer a transect is, a transect, if the purpose of the is that any observed difference has the more likely it is to capture plots is to describe a larger area, not just occurred by chance.

Directions 1 Work in teams of 3-4 students. Choose one common and one less common plant species Once your transect is established, collect data every 5 2 that you will sample in your survey or decide to sample all 4 meters starting at the 5 meter mark along the transect species. Make sure you can recognize younger and older line, by placing the bottom left corner of a 1 meter or flowering and non-flowering individuals. Decide as a square quadrat frame at the meter mark and lining it class whether the entire class will use the same two plants, up with the tape (if the bottom left corner is at 0 m, the or whether each group will do different ones. bottom right corner should line up at 1 m, etc). Set up a 50 meter long transect in your study area. At each sample point (5 m, 10 m, etc.) collect three 3 Make sure you are not biasing the placement of your 5 types of data (presence/absence, percent cover, and a transect. In your groups, develop a method to ran- complete census) for both the common and uncommon domize the direction (azimuth) of your transect. Use plant species. Collect your last data at 50 m, so you a compass to lay out your transect. Be sure that your have a total of ten samples. transect intersects populations of your common and uncommon plants.

165 . Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations Directions, continued

Compile your data in a spreadsheet. Calculate the Discuss your results as a class. Which type of data most 6 frequency (% of plots in which your species is found) at 7 accurately represents the difference you think you ob- which each species was present in your sample of ten served between the common and uncommon plants? plots. Calculate the average, maximum and minimum Weigh the efficiency and speed of data collection percent cover for each species. Average your census against the usefulness of the information you collected. data for each species. Do the same techniques yield Which methods were best for the plants you studied? similar or different results? How could you change your methods to collect more accurate data?

Taking It Further Create a visual display to illustrate the differences between the three types of data. Create bar graphs comparing the data from each of the three methods with a bar for the percentage of that species estimated using each of the three techniques. Do this for each species you studied. Are the three bars similar or is there a big difference in the percentage each estimated? How do the three differ for rare versus common species? Do you think your results would change if you sampled more plots?

166 Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations

In the Field! Conduct a plant population survey on your school grounds. The object of your survey will be to compare native plant populations to non-native plant populations. As a class, decide to focus on percent cover, frequency, number of species (species richness), or some other population measure. Consider your survey objective and the topography of the area to be surveyed to choose the most appropriate sample method to use and type of data to collect. Make sure you can differentiate between all the plants you will encounter in your survey. You can learn to identify them or just give them your own names as long as you can tell them apart consistently. Divide into teams with each team surveying a different area of the school grounds. Collect your data, and then come together as a class to do the analysis. Science Inquiry Put your new knowledge to work. Work in teams to design a science inquiry project that uses a plant sampling technique to gather data. Observe the plants around your school and find something that interests you to form your inquiry question. Perhaps you are curious if more species of plants grow within 5 meters of the parking lot as opposed to 5-10 meters from the parking lot; how many weeds are present on the soccer field; what percent of the vegetative cover is made up of native trees, versus shrubs, versus herbs, versus grasses; if the presence of trees (shade) influences the number and type of plants found in an area; or in what area invasive species are more prevalent on your school grounds. Decide on the sampling protocol you will use and the type of data you will collect. Conduct your survey, gather data, and analyze your results. Did your results answer your initial question? In what way do you think that your results would differ if you had used a different sampling protocol? Share with your class and get to know your schoolyard.

Reflection What did you learn about measuring plant populations? Why do you think there are so many different methods used? Why would you want to change the sampling protocol to best fit a situation? Should the sampling method influence your interpretation of the data? Would you have greater confidence in some methods of data collection than others?

167 Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations

Self Assessments Resources Explain what sampling is and discuss the strengths and • Elzinga, C. L., Salzer, D.W., & Willoughby, J.W. Measur- 1 weaknesses of using sampling as opposed to a census ing and Monitoring Plant Populations. Bureau of Land to measure plant populations. Management. BLM technical reference manual 1730- Name two or more methods of sampling plant popula- 1, BLM/RS/ST-98/005+1730: http://www.blm.gov/ tions and discuss their applications. nstc/library/pdf/MeasAndMon.pdf (this document 2 is large and takes time to download) Name two or more types of data that can be collected and their applications. • Cornell University and Penn State University, Envi- 3 ronmental Inquiry for high school students, Invasive Species: http://ei.cornell.edu/ecology/invspec/

168 Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations

Estimating Percent Cover

Percent cover is a measurement used by botanists Example: 1 meter x 1 meter quadrat and ecologists to describe and quantify plant communities and habitat. It refers to the proportion of the ground that is covered by a specific habitat component, which could be a certain plant species, or bare ground, or the canopy of a tree overhead. Because percent cover is not tied to a specific measurement unit (like inches or centimeters), it is easy to compare across different sample unit sizes and shapes. A good starting point is to evaluate the percent cover of plant species or types of plants within a 1 meter x 1 meter quadrat frame (see diagram). The first step is to orient yourself to the proportion of the area in the quadrat that equals 1%, 5%, or 10%. For a 1 meter x 1 meter (100 cm x 100 cm) frame, the total area is 10,000 square centimeters. Therefore: Each square is 10 cm x 10 cm, or equal to 1% cover. • 1% of 10,000 is 100 cm2, or the area of a square that is 10 cm x 10 cm in size. Try measuring the dimensions of your hand, then • 5% of 10,000 is 500 cm2, or about the area of a figure out the percent cover it would occupy in your square that is just over 22 cm x 22 cm in size. one meter square. What percentage would a typical • 10% of 10,000 is 1000 cm2, or the area of a square 8.5” x 11” piece of paper such as your datasheet be? that is 31.5 cm x 31.5 cm in size. Now, apply what you’ve learned to estimate the actual percent cover of plants on the ground. Using the diagram on the next page, estimate the cover of the three plants, A, B, and C, within the quadrat. Again, remember that this quadrat has guidelines that are 10 cm apart, or in a 10 cm grid. Plants are never square, so you will have to visually move around and mentally “squish” the plant area into the grid to estimate its cover.

169 Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations

Estimating Percent Cover, continued

What percent cover do you estimate for Plant Species A? ______

What % cover do you estimate for Plant Species B? ______

What % cover do you estimate for Plant Species C? ______

What is the total % vegetative cover for the plot? ______

As you get more practice in estimating the percent cover of plants of different shapes and sizes, you will get much faster at the process. In some cases you may have overlapping plant layers, and you may end up with a total cover that exceeds 100%.

170 Section 5: Ethnobotany Who Walked Here Before Me …Long ago only Indians lived in this country. They did not labor so as to find their food. It merely grew on the prairies, in the hills. —William Hartless (Kalapuya Texts,1945) Overview Time Estimate: Learn about American Indian cultures of Oregon, both past and present, 2 class sessions, by studying their connection with the natural world through food, fiber, plus outside and other traditions. Using the metaphor of weaving a basket, students research time will weave a plant story incorporating the land, its natural resources, and the people who use them. Connect students to a sense of place by explor- Best Season: ing the culture, the people, the plants, and the ecoregions of Oregon and winter how they are entwined in a delicate and beautiful dance together.

Teacher Hints Preparation • It is helpful to have completed at • Review the key characteristics Assessments least one of the ecoregion activi- of your ecoregions with your ties prior to this lesson, to gain students, or complete this lesson Name one important food plant a framework for understanding after the ecoregion section. The 1 from your ecoregion and describe many of the concepts in this ecoregion background will help in detail its role within the culture activity. your students make connections of people historically and today. • This activity lends itself to indi- between climate, geography, and Describe the concept of a sea- vidual or team projects. Give stu- plant communities that are a key 2 sonal round or harvest year and dents ample time to do research. part of this activity. diagram an example as it applies Expand this lesson beyond food Print out or display on screen a to your ecoregion. • • usage by adding native plants map of Indian ranges in Oregon. Describe the connection be- used for fiber. Mention that ranges are approxi- tween at least one native plant, mate and that boundaries shift 3 See the ethnobotany plant list in the ecosystem, and human use. • adn overlap: http://www.native- Appendix III for species lists for languages.org/oregon.htm your ecoregion.

Additional Information • Ethnobotany document: • See Appendices III, IV, V and VI http://unesdoc.unesco.org/ for ethnobotany plant species images/0014/001458/145847e.pdf lists and Oregon tribal website • National Museum of the American resources Indian, Smithsonian Institute, Na- • American Indian Tribes of tive American collections research: Oregon, source of map and http://www.americanindian. language: http://www.native- si.edu/searchcollections/home. languages.org/oregon.htm aspx

172 Who Walked Here Before Me …Long ago only Indians lived in this country. They did not labor so as to find their food. It merely grew on the prairies, in the hills. —William Hartless (Kalapuya Texts, 1945) Overview Learn about American Indian cultures of Oregon, both past and present, by studying their connection with the natural world through food, fiber, and other traditions. Using the metaphor of weaving a basket, you will weave a plant story incorporating the land, its natural resources, and the people who use them. Connect to a sense of place by exploring the culture, the people, the plants, and the ecoregions of Oregon and how they are entwined in a delicate and beautiful dance together. Background Information Learning Objectives Historically, American Indian lowed seasonal travel routes that groups lived in all ecoregions of traced changing water resources • Define ethnobotany and what is now the state of Oregon. to coincide with optimal harvest understand the ethnobo- The knowledge and stories of the times for berries, roots, and other tanical resources of Or- Indian tribes of Oregon are keys key plant species for their diet egon native plants to understanding how Oregon’s and other resources such as cloth- • Gain insight into the con- ecosystems once functioned and ing, baskets, weapons, and many nection between people, how they have changed through other things. ecosystems, traditional time. Oregon’s Indians were, Although many native stories and knowledge, and resource and still are, masters of knowing traditions are timeless, time has management where you live and exploring which plants were changed many of these ethnobo- • Develop a greater under- available in their home area and standing of and respect for how to use them. Oregon ecosys- other cultures by examining tems vary greatly from the Pacific Materials Needed their connection with ecosys- Ocean in the west to the high tems and plants in particular deserts of southeast, containing • Oregon map with historical American Indian ranges • Explore native plants used vastly different plant communi- for food and fiber ties. Those ecosystems have been • computer with internet shaped by geography and climate, access • Learn the concept of a sea- but equally important in deter- sonal round as it applies to a • field guides with mining their present day composi- ethnobotanical information tribe from your ecoregion tion and function is the actions of • Identify how native people their earliest human inhabitants, V ocabulary Words manage landscapes to American Indians, Oregon’s first ethnobotany promote resource availabil- people. Indians of the Oregon • ity historically and in the coast lived among abundant, • traditional knowledge present day dense forests and the resources • culture Identify tribes in Oregon, of the Pacific Ocean. Inland valley seasonal round • people maintained their open • their present day locations, famine food and historical range prairie landscape using fire to • promote beneficial plants and • fiber plant improve hunting habitat. Tribes in staple food the drier eastside landscape fol- •

173 Who Walked Here Before Me

Background Information, continued tanical resources and patterns. ture, are beginning to realize how around them and to create habitat Indians across Oregon were up- important retaining this traditional for species that were essential to rooted and moved to reservations, knowledge is, not only for the their culture’s survival. Most foods often far from their homes and the Indian culture from which it came, were not cultivated and grown in familiar plants on which they tra- but as skills and knowledge essen- agricultural settings, but nurtured ditionally thrived. As time passed, tial to the survival of all humans in and tended with a mind for the and native people and habitats an uncertain future. future. Important species were were destroyed, grocery stores managed with techniques that and pharmacies provided more For Indians, collecting their food would ensure sustainable harvests modern food distribution systems and fiber plants was not as simple for generations to come, to pro- and the intricate plant knowledge as exploring the landscape and vide food, shelter, medicine, fiber, that was once essential to fulfill harvesting what they needed. dye, and wax needed every day. everyday needs became less im- Oregon’s native people were The chart below shows some of the portant, and was slowly lost, even wildland managers that used management techniques used by from native communities. However, generations of acquired skills to early Oregonians and explains the in these modern times, we, as a cul- manage and sustain what grew purpose of each technique. Traditional Resource Plant Management Techniques

Management techniques Used for Keep fields open for hunting and berries and camas, decrease competition, increase fertil- Fire ity/stimulate new growth, facilitate harvesting, control insects, recycle nutrients

Weeding, clearing brush and Remove poisonous look alike plants (death camas), reduce competition for desirable plants, rocks from cultivated sites facilitate bulb and root digging

Pruning To promote long straight new growth for basketry

Spreading extra seed at harvest, broadcasting after burning, waiting to harvest until after Sowing seeds seed production to facilitate plant increase

Using digging sticks to harvest roots, tubers, and bulbs, leaving the small bulbs for future Tilling or cultivation harvesting Seasonal round/controlled Travel to harvest sites as resources become available, limit collecting to maintain sustainable harvesting/selective harvest/ levels, leaving small bulbs for future collecting

Selective breeding Transplanting “better” bulbs to improve or for new beds

As you can imagine, for cultures hardship for many generations. ally owned lands are an example entwined with the rhythms and How is this different from how of community owned land, but cycles of the natural world, the land is managed today? Can you the management of the lands gifts of nature were highly cher- think of any lands today that are changes frequently depending on ished. The land was cared for by managed for common good? How the politics of the current admin- all; for if the land was over-har- does the management of these istration.) Do you think that public vested or depleted it could mean lands change over time? (Feder- land today is valued by people

174 Who Walked Here Before Me

Background Information, continued as highly as land that is privately the introduction and spread of in- distinguish the prized camas from owned? Why or why not? Think vasive weeds. Gathering and using the similar but poisonous death about how present American plants remains an integral part of camas. Bulbs were harvested with culture influences how we value many Indian cultures today. Often fire-hardened digging sticks. land today. cultures mark important plant Family groups would often travel Some tribes still practice tradi- harvest events with celebration distances and spend several days tional management techniques ceremonies. These ceremonies at a site harvesting, digging the and cultural practices to maintain connect culture, spirituality, and larger bulbs and replanting the their connection with the land. the land. small bulbs for future harvest. Many also employ modern land Ethnobotany is a word that you Earthen pit ovens were dug and management technologies such will commonly hear to describe the bulbs would be steam roasted as using GPS and GIS to help map people’s use of plants. The word for 24 hours or more. Long slow and monitor traditional resource can be broken down into the root roasting is required to convert the gathering sites. Before European words, “ethno” meaning culture starches of this bulb to make them immigration, tribes would often and “botany” which is the study of more palatable and digestible. travel great distance to gather the plants, hence the study of people The resulting food is extremely plant materials that they needed. and plants. This word can encom- sweet and was often mixed in Today private land ownership pass the historical uses of plants, with other foods. Bulbs would be often limits the areas that Indians as well as the present day use. The eaten immediately after roasting, can use for gathering, but secur- use of plants may have changed or dried and stored for future use. ing access to continue traditional over time, but plants still play a Celebration ceremonies often fol- gathering is a high priority for very important role in providing lowed the first harvest of the sea- many tribes. This may take the people with food, fiber, building son or larger successful harvests. form of collaborating with public materials, and medicines. Large camas patches thrived land agencies to secure gather- In this lesson, we will take an eth- extensively in the wet prairies of ing rights, as well as purchasing nobotanical look at one Oregon the Northwest. In spring when lands to set aside for this purpose. plant that was and is an impor- camas blooms, these large patches Limited access is only one impedi- tant plant food for Oregonians: filled with the blue-purple flow- ment to gathering plants. Others common camas (Camassia ers would resemble lakes of water that you might not readily think quamash). from a distance. of include environmental hazards Camas historically: For some tribes, camas grew such as toxic chemicals and herbi- close by and was easily harvest- cides. One surprising environmen- Traditionally camas was a ed. For others, they would need tal hazard is lead shot from hunt- highly prized staple food to travel great distances to ing found in wetlands, causing high of Northwest Indians, find and harvest it. Camas lead levels in plant species that harvested and stored bulbs where also prized grow in these waters. By far, the for year round use. by Indian tribes outside most common problem limiting Intricate plant knowl- of the plant’s native range, ability of native people and others edge was passed orally and therefore was a to gather plants is loss of suitable between gen- valuable commodity plant habitat from draining of erations, which item used in trade. wetlands, land development, and allowed people to Camas was the food that 175 . Who Walked Here Before Me

Background Information, continued native people fed Lewis and Clark producing lands and collaborat- to help increase as they were near starvation when ing with government agencies to camas popula- they completed their crossing of access public camas sites are two tions. You can the Rocky Mountains. methods of increasing camas avail- help by treating ability (2). Practicing sound collect- Camas now: the land with ing and management techniques respect and The draining of wet prairies, con- will go a long way to preserving na- practicing sus- version of land to agriculture, and tive plants for humans and wildlife tainable harvest land development has dramati- use, as well as helping to preserve methods. Think cally cut into the once abundant native ecosystems. Traditional first and be mind- native habitat of camas. Enhancing resource management techniques ful of your actions, and restoring camas prairies with such as limited and/or selective and always remem- access to harvesting bulbs are harvesting, harvesting after seed ber past and future priorities for many of Oregon’s production, and periodic clearing generations when you Indian peoples. Purchasing camas- by prescribed burning can be used walk in a camas prairie.

Directions Study native plants used as food in your local area from When you have completed your research, come to- 1 both a historical and present day perspective. Break 4 gether as a class to connect the story of these plants in into teams and each team should research one food relationship with each other and the cultures that use plant from your ethnobotany list for your ecoregion. them. Each plant story will now become part of a larger Use the data collection sheet provided to research the seasonal picture that highlights how native plants can be 2 answers to all the questions. Some of the questions will an important part of a peoples’ diet and how this works be difficult and might even be beyond the resources into the greater story of culture. Take a look at how an that you have readily available to use. Work with a historic American Indian culture would manage their research librarian for local sources, contact historical food system. societies, local museums, and Oregon’s Federally recog- Across the top of a white board make a column for nized tribes’ websites which generally have information 5 each month of the year. Under each month write the listed under cultural resources (see Appendix VI). Don’t name of the plants that would be harvested at that forget to look for some of this information in compre- time, and the ecosystem that the plant would be found hensive plant field guides for Oregon. In some instances in (i.e. May/June, camas, wet prairie). In this way you you may find additional information that you would like have a idea of the general ecosystem where the tribe to include. This too can be woven into your story. would be, at what time of year. Weave a story for your plant, much like the weaving To be complete, add other food sources in addition to 3 of a basket. Your plant is the base structure and each 6 plants to your calendar (fishing, hunting, mushrooms). part of your research is like the strands that weave back Use the information that you have gathered and think and forth to complete the basket or story. Take note of 7 about where each food comes from inside of and outside the way the story weaves between human culture and of your ecoregion. How far apart is the wet meadow ecosystem knowledge. for collecting camas root from the mountainous site to

176 Who Walked Here Before Me

Directions, continued collect summer huckleberry? This basic information Discussion questions: Historically how did tribes know will give you a glimpse of what would encompass the 9 when it was time to move to a new area for harvest- seasonal round or travel and trade routes a local tribe ing? What would happen if it was a bad growing year might follow to fulfill its needs. and the harvest was scant or non-existent? Were Use your creativity to put together a visual calendar of some foods more valuable than others? How did 8 the harvest year (from information on the white board). tribes know which plants to eat and which to avoid? Document ecosystems of the different resources and Do you think you could be resourceful enough to hunt when the tribe would have to move to that area to har- and gather a nutritional diet to avoid illness? What vest. A circular calendar, which represents an unending would you need to learn in order to do this? Can you cycle, is often used to depict the harvest year. You can give at least one reason why it would be important to also choose another creative way to portray the cycle. really know about your food today even though you do not gather it yourself?

Taking it Further • Create an ethnobotanical herbarium of plants used by local tribes. Preserve specimens for future classes to use. Collect one sample to put in a plant press (only collect if the plant is common—follow guidelines in the plant press activity). If plants are unavailable or rare, assemble the herbarium with pictures. Include the researched ethnobotany information on the herbarium sheets.

Self Assessments Resources Name one important native plant from your ecoregion • Cressman, L. S. (1981). The Sandal and the Cave: 1 and describe in detail how it fits within the culture of The Indians of Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State the people historically and today. University Press. Describe the concept of a seasonal round (harvest • Berg, L. (Ed.). (2007). The First Oregonians (2nd 2 year) and diagram an example as it applies to your ed.). Portland, OR: Oregon Council for the Humani- ecoregion. ties. Describe the connection among a native plant, the • Appendix III: Oregon Ethnobotany Plants and Their 3 ecosystem and human use. Uses; Appendix IV: Ethnobotany Plant Lists and Re- sources; Appendix VI: Tribe Contacts.

177 Who Walked Here Before Me

In the Field! Invite a local native plant food forager to take your class on a plant walk in a natural area. Ask your speaker to share plant uses, names, and stories. Listen carefully, do you hear them verbalize or allude to some of the ethical plant collecting attributes that you discovered in your research? Can you observe the environmental ethic of taking care of the land for your children’s children and their children too?

Science Inquiry Science inquiry is a term used in education and research today, but the concept has been practiced by people for a very long time. How did first people use inquiry skills? Skills that may have been used: • Observation—is this plant good to eat, do others eat it (human or wildlife)? If you observe wildlife eating it does that make it safe for humans? Is it similar to another plant that we eat? • Testing—how could observations be tested (ideas that would minimize dangers of using poisonous plants)? How were the doses of plant medicines determined? • Data Collection and Analysis—how was information organized, stored and used (traditional knowledge from elders, storytelling, medicinal knowledge used by healers)?

Reflection One way that traditional knowledge about plants was passed from generation to generation was through stories told by elders. These stories often included animal figures and a moral. Create a story for your plant that will grow respect for your species for generations to come. Convey the importance of your plant (see worksheet questions) as you weave in a creative story with characters, a setting, and a moral. Your story can be written or a more traditional oral story. If you choose an oral story, you may want to make a simple storyboard to help you remember all the parts. Think about ways a storyteller can make a story more interesting for the audience (using different voices for the characters, props, costumes, or a twist ending).

178 Who Walked Here Before Me

Weaving the Story of ______(put your plant name here)

Look at native plants used for food and fiber in a historical and present day context and use the information to weave a story used in the lesson. Question Historical answer Present day answer Plant name (scientific, common, and tribal language)

Plant description (from field guide)

Habitat and range (habitat type, common or rare)

What part(s) of the plant are used?

What is the plant used for? (can be multiple uses)

What time of year is the plant harvested in your ecoregion?

Harvesting tools or methods used

How the plant is prepared (gathering, cooking, serving methods)?

Storage methods

Plant cultivation and management

Local concerns with gathering this plant (pollution, limited access, etc.)

What steps are local American Indian populations taking to maintain or increase use and access of the plant?

How does this plant fit into the ecosystem? (consider: wildlife, invertebrates, pollinators, soil life, decomposition, nutrients, sunlight, water, habitat) Ask the question, “What does this plant depend on, and, who depends on this plant?”

Think to the future —can you identify ways to preserve the use of your plant or improve access to it?

179 Who Walked Here Before Me

Look at your native plant in the context of American Indian cultures and your ecoregion. Look at your own food ceremonies to gain context in the cultural significance of food. Question Ecoregional answer Historically what is the name of the tribe that occupied the ecoregion (area) that you live in? Are there any stories or cultural ceremonies associated with the plant? (e.g. First Foods)

What is the significance of the ceremony? How was the plant acquired (collected, where harvested, or traded for) What signs of nature signify the time to travel to harvesting sites? (phenology signs) Does the plant have additional human uses (e.g., medicinal)?

Look at your own food practices or ceremonies in the context of your own life: Thanksgiving Day, saying grace, Passover Seder meal, significance of Easter eggs, Japanese tea ceremony, and others.

Name one (or two) food ceremonies that you take part in What is the significance of the ceremony? What special food is associated with the ceremony? What is the cultural origin of the ceremony?

Information sources: • Ethnobotany section of field guides (e.g., Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coastby Pojar and Mackinnon) • University of Michigan—Dearborn, Native American Ethnobotany. A Database of Foods, Drugs, Dyes and Fibers of Native American Peoples, Derived from Plants. http://herb.umd.umich.edu/ • USDA NRCS Plants Database: http://plants.usda.gov/ and associated links • Appendix VI: Tribe Contacts—cultural resources links on websites • Appendix IV: Ethnobotany Plant Lists and Resources

180 My Burden Basket: How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber He breathed on her and gave her something that she could not see or hear or smell or touch, and it was preserved in a little basket, and by it all the arts of design and skilled handwork were imparted to her descendants. —Kotai’aqan (Columbia River Basketry, 1994) Overview Time Estimate: This lesson introduces native plant fibers and their uses, with a focus 1-2 sessions on cordage, baskets, and decorative techniques. Students will look at traditional weaving materials and techniques, and gain an appreciation for basket function and design. Students will then collect, prepare, and Best Season: construct cordage or a simple burden basket practicing techniques and spring/fall using various plant materials.

Teacher Hints • Complete Who Walked Here • Invite a traditional basket weaver Before Me? lesson prior to doing to visit your class. Ask them to Assessments this activity to get background share their baskets, techniques, Name several traditional uses for understanding of the cultural and materials collecting tips. In 1 basketry. importance of native plants in return, share your project with Describe what properties make the lives of first peoples. your guest. 2 some plant materials useful as fiber plants. List two native plant materials that 3 are valued for their fiber. Define cordage, how it is con- Preparation 4 structed, and some of its uses. Scope out locations to take the Identify and describe the two • hog weed, etc.) if they grow in 5 primary basketry techniques students on a gathering trip. your collecting area. used by Oregon tribes. Materials can be found in many • Work with students to create locations—long grasses collected ethical collecting guidelines for Additional Information from vacant lots or roadsides, the class to use. Be sure that the cattail and sedges from wet The Language of Native Ameri- students discuss such things as: • areas. Challenge the students to responsible harvesting, cutting can Baskets from the weaver’s make use of what they can find view. http://www.nmai.si.edu/ rather than pulling plant materi- growing locally. City gathering als (unless it is invasive), over- exhibitions/baskets/subpage. requires creative thinking. English cfm?subpage=intro collecting, and asking permission ivy may be readily available in from landowners. • University of Oregon digital urban areas. Ask permission be- basketry collection pages: http:// fore collecting any plants, or ask www.uoregon.edu/~mnh/ students to collect plant material Pages/digital_collections.html from home to bring into class. • Appendix III: Oregon Ethno- • WARNING: Make sure everyone botany Plants and Their Uses; can identify harmful plants (e.g. Appendix V: American Indian poison oak, stinging nettles, giant Resources MAterials 181 My Burden Basket: How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber He breathed on her and gave her something that she could not see or hear or smell or touch, and it was preserved in a little basket, and by it all the arts of design and skilled handwork were imparted to her descendants. —Kotai’aqan (Columbia River Basketry, 1994) Overview This lesson introduces native plant fibers and their uses, with a focus on cordage, baskets, and decorative techniques. Look at traditional weaving materials and techniques, and learn an appreciation for basket function and design. Now jump in and try it yourself! Go on a collecting walk to gather materials and then construct a simple burden basket, practicing the techniques and using various plant materials. Background Information Learning Objectives For millennia, people have used have extra thick cell walls that are plant fibers to meet the needs of reinforced with a substance called • Learn what makes some daily life, from making simple twine lignin. Lignin is a compound that plants useful for baskets to bind things to building entire makes fiber cell walls stronger, and cordage houses. Traditionally, plant fiber more waterproof, and resistant to • Gain an appreciation of has played a large role in many attack by fungi, bacteria and ani- the history of baskets and cultures, but with the proliferation mals. Fiber cells are one of many cordage used by Oregon’s of manmade materials like plastics, plant structures that help support first people this need has diminished as have plants, letting them grow to reach • Understand the role of the skills that go with it. At one sunlight, supporting their vascular management in utilizing time plants provided the materi- tissue (water and sugar transport- fiber plants als for food storage containers, ing cells), and providing them with • Sample hands-on tech- clothing, utensils, tools, and adorn- protection from other organisms. niques using plant materi- ments. A woman who needed Fiber cells are often present in als to make cordage and water from a stream would use a the wood or bark of hardwoods, basketry basket made from tree bark and including oak (Quercus), ash waterproofed with plant waxes. (Fraxinus), and maple (Acer). The • Gain appreciation for the Today, we just reach for the near- stems of some plants such as flax decorative designs used to est bucket. Although modern (Linum) and jute (Chorcorus) also personalize baskets (dyes, society still depends on plants have fiber cells, which make these colored plant materials, to supply fiber for paper, cloth, plants useful for fabrics like linen motifs) as well as the tech- and lumber for building materials, and weaving items like floor mats niques that create them much has changed in just the last and tote bags. Fiber cells are also • Understand that ecosys- couple of centuries, making our present in the leaves of many grass tems influence available relationship with the plants around or grass-like plants, such as sisal plant fiber materials us very different than it once was. (Agave), which is used for twine What makes some plants useful as and rope. fiber plants? First, the plant must Traditionally, American Indians include fiber cells. These cells living throughout the Pacific tend to be long, thin, and tapered Northwest used fiber from native on the ends. All plant cells have plants, as well as other natural cell walls, making them tougher materials, to meet their needs for than animal cells, but fiber cells baskets, rope, fishing traps and

182 My Burden Basket: How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber

Background Information, continued Materials Needed nets, cooking containers, water the top allowed for easy filling by jugs, garments, and houses! Nature throwing items over the shoulder, • pruners/clippers supplied everything they needed. and the cone shape discouraged • plastic bags Although many of these traditional thrown items from bouncing out. gloves plant uses have declined, people, The tumpline left the user’s hands • Indian and otherwise, still find time free for work. Tumplines were a dish pan • to gather materials and produce tightly woven strap made of soft • spray bottle objects made from plants. In our pliable materials for the wearer’s • old towels busy modern times, creating a comfort. The baskets were often • colored raffia or yarns for useful beautiful object with your made of an open weave to hold decorative design own hands from materials col- bulky items while contributing a lected yourself can be very fulfill- minimum of weight in basket mate- project direction sheet(s) • ing. What are some of the things rial to carry. At times, baskets were V ocabulary Words you would need to know about quickly woven on site to transport fiber plants, design, and construc- materials back to camp. Coastal • fiber cell tion techniques to be able to make tribes would use the open weave • lignin your own containers? burden baskets for collecting clams, cordage To begin, you might analyze the which would allow the user to rinse • and drain the clams in one contain- coiling form and function of each contain- • er’s design. One common container er. Tightly woven burden baskets twining • design is called a burden basket. were used to harvest small seeds • weft Traditionally this type of basket and berries. The burden basket is warp was used by Indian tribes through- just one of many designs perfectly • suited for its jobs (1). Studying burden basket out Oregon and beyond. Sturdy • burden baskets were frequently other basket types, you will find tumpline • worn on the back much like today’s they too were designed to perform • open weave backpacks. Burden baskets were the function needed in an equally overlay made for carrying heavy items such efficient manner. • as firewood, or for when the wearer Cordage is another essential tool needed their hands free such as of native people that uses plant while harvesting. Such baskets were fiber. Cordage is made by twisting often cone shaped and multiple fiber strands together outfitted with a tumpline, into strong cords that can in a strap over the fore- turn be used in ropes, nets, head or shoulders, and baskets. Several native and used for hands- plants are prized for making free transporting. The strong cordage and these cone shape fits com- vary by ecoregion. One fortably, while dis- interesting fiber plant is the tributing the weight Oregon iris (Iris tenax), a on the wearer’s back. beautiful purple wildflower The large opening at whose leaves are said to

183 My Burden Basket: How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber Background Information, continued leaves of rushes and grasses are all harvest. This traditional manage- make cordage so strong that it was prized materials. Cattails and rush- ment method has become more used to snare elk and bear! es can be woven into mats with difficult to use with changing times many historical uses (e.g.. clothing, although it is still employed in nat- sleeping, house siding, and even ural areas around the state. Lack canoes!). Traditionally, of regular burning has cordage baskets were used in all left high levels of woody aspects of life; some were materials and underbrush Plant fibers can be used as cord- plain and quickly made that could now fuel large age, bundled, or in their natural for immediate use. Other wildfires. As populations form as weaving material. Local baskets show painstaking have changed, so have traditions generally used two attention to detail and land management tech- techniques of making baskets, were intricately deco- niques. It is now more twining and coiling. The twining rated. Some baskets show common to use pruning method uses two pliable “weft” geometric patterns that coiling or mowing than fire to strands that are twisted around a are woven in or overlaid manage plant growth. more rigid “warp” or foundation in contrasting colors. Plant mate- Gathering native plant materials structure. This method was used rials supply the colors for these requires ethical collecting prac- to make some of the specialized designs. For example, black often tices to ensure access for future baskets like water jugs, cooking came from maidenhair fern stems, generations as well as to protect containers, and soft hats. In the white came from bear grass, and significant natural ecosystems and second technique, coiling, the reds were made with a dye from species. Ethical collecting includes base foundation is a spiral of ma- the inner bark of alder. Highly preventing over-collection to terials that are sewn together with decorated baskets are cherished, minimize population damage. a pliable fiber thread. Although culturally important, used in cer- When gathering plant material, the coiling method is evident in emonies, and passed down from one should avoid damage to some of Oregon’s traditional bas- generation to generation. the parent plant by cutting and ketry history, twining was more Different plant species have dif- removing only a small section of common. ferent optimum times for harvest. plant, not disturbing the roots, Tree and shrubs are often har- and never taking whole plants. vested early in the year when new Collect only from large plant growth is lush and supple. Reeds populations and allow plants to and grasses are typically harvest- reproduce between collections. ed later in the season when their Using thoughtful practices can twining growth becomes more fibrous. allow you to harvest plants fibers Baskets can be constructed of Preparation for use can include without hurting plant populations. many different native plant mate- softening fibers, stripping bark, or Think also about actions you can rials, but some species stand out splitting larger canes. take to protect or enhance native for their superior fiber or weaving Traditionally, fire was used by plant population for the future. attributes. Shoots of hazel and many Oregon tribes as a man- Imagine the connection you willow, spruce roots, the inner agement technique to promote would have to your environment if bark of cedar, and the stems and long, straight plant re-growth for you used plants to supply all your needs from containers to clothes! 184 My Burden Basket: How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber Directions Think of all the containers that you come into contact Review responsible gathering guidelines and how to 1 in a day: food storage, cooking, eating, backpacks, 6 identify plants to be avoided (e.g. stinging nettle, poi- purses, boxes, water bottles, to egg cartons, we are son oak). Collect in an area where you have permission surrounded by containers of all uses, shapes, and sizes. (the teacher will guide you), and take precautions to Make a list of 10 containers that you commonly use in avoid damaging the plants; cut rather than pull out or a day. Take 5 from your list and brainstorm ways that tear your materials, don’t over collect or gather more you could construct an adequate replacement con- than you need. Use gloves to protect your hands while tainer using materials found in nature. Share your best collecting. ideas with the class. Traditionally most fiber materials are collected when Class discussion: How often did baskets come up as 7 they are green and are dried before use. This helps to 2 a container in the brainstorming session? What are keep the basket weaving tight, because green materi- the pros and cons of using traditional vs. present day als will shrink as they dry, and may disrupt the weave. container materials? Be sure to address such things This might not be important factor in a large gathering as: individual vs. mass production, knowledge of basket, but it is critical in a basket used to hold water. materials, cost, time, and skills. Don’t forget to include We will be using green, un-dried materials for this sustainability issues and environmental concerns. project because of time limitations, and the fact that Challenge yourself to learn some of the traditional green materials are easier to work with. 3 art of using native plants to make utilitarian as well as Once you return to the classroom, organize your col- decorative objects. Choose one of the project sheets 8 lected materials. Separate like materials into piles with from this lesson and learn a new skill. all grasses in one pile, the willow in another, and so Go on a gathering walk to collect materials needed for on. Prepare your materials by removing leaves, cutting 4 your project (cordage and/or baskets). Work with a off seed heads, etc. Store materials in a folded damp partner or in a small team. Each team will need prun- towel to keep them moist and pliable until you are ers/clippers, a plastic bag, and gloves. ready to use them. Spring is a good time to collect flexible young twigs If you are working with dried materials, soak them in 5 from willows. Grasses are best collected in summer 9 water for several hours to make them more flexible once they have gone to seed and just as they begin to before working with them. lose their green color. Cattail is best collected in fall, Consult the project sheets for directions to make your when the leaves have dried and are less fleshy. 10 specific project.

Taking It Further • Gain additional appreciation for the beautiful bas- • Add to the “Who Walked Here Before Me?” activity kets created with native plants by Oregon’s native by adding fiber plants to the seasonal round calen- peoples, past and present. View online collections dar created in that lesson. Include where they were listed in the resources section. When observing the collected, at what time of year, special handling or collections, analyze the basket for their form and preparations, and what they were used for. function, as well as decorative patterns and tech- • Research other historical and modern uses of plant niques. Challenge yourself to identify the weaving fibers. What other cultures of the past depended on technique employed, and speculate as to the intend- plant fibers for everyday items? What items do you ed use, before reading any caption information. use on a regular basis that include plant fibers? 185 . My Burden Basket: How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber

In the Field! • Take a field trip to a museum with basket collections, or contact the cultural resources department of one of the Oregon tribes (see Appendix VI) to inquire about viewing their collections. Take your field journal and sketch your favorite piece, including information on the materials used. Cross-reference the plant materials in a local field guide, and include other plant history and ethnobotany in your journal entry. • Examine baskets that you have at home or in stores. Look closely at the weaving. Mass produced baskets tend to be woven using a different technique than the traditional methods you learned in this lesson. Can you identify how they are different? Science Inquiry Fiber plant materials are valued for many attributes, including strength, durability, availability, and beauty. Fiber was used for cordage to make rope, snares, fishing line, and nets, where strength was critical. Design a way to test the strength of cordage materials. Make cordage from several different fiber sources and compare their strength. Write up a simple analysis of your trials. Explain how you control for different variables in your testing. Consider testing for other qualities such as strength when wet, durability, and ease of working with. Reflection Cultures throughout time have used their skills and talents to decorate their homes and belongings. How would you decorate a basket to express what is important to you? Design a basket that you would call beautiful. Share it either through making it, drawing it, or writing a detailed description. If you feel artistically challenged in this activity, try using small square graph paper and color in the squares to display your pattern. Geometric patterns lend themselves well to this technique.

Self Assessments Resources Describe what makes some plant materials more useful • University of Oregon Natural History Museum digital 1 as fiber plants. basketry collection pages: http://www.uoregon. List two native plant materials that are valued for their edu/~mnh/Pages/digital_collections.html 2 fiber. • Entwined with Life, Native American Basketry. Exhibit Define cordage, explain how it is constructed, and and website for the Burke Museum of Washington: 3 list some of its uses. http://www.washington.edu/burkemuseum/baskets/index.html. Search by culture to view basketry Identify and describe the two primary basketry tech- exhibits (many Oregon tribe cultures are well repre- niques used by native people in Oregon. 4 sented). 5 Name several traditional uses for basketry.

186 My Burden Basket: How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber Make a Simple Burden Basket

Gather, prepare plant materials, and make a simple cone Prepare your weaving strands. In the twining tech- shaped burden basket using the twining technique. 4 nique you will use two strands of the material, each one passing on either Materials Needed side of the twig form and • plant fibers for weaving (see Appendix III for tradi- then twisting between the tional fiber plants, or improvise, experiment, and try sticks, alternating as you found plant materials that may have been available in work around the basket. your area) • thin, flexible, straight twigs (5 or more per student) Start by taking an 18 to 24 inch strand of fiber and rubber bands 5 folding it loosely about one third from one end. This • way you will stagger the ends, making it easier to • pruners add new weaving material smoothly. Place the fold • optional: colored raffia or yarns for design around one of the twigs at the bottom of the basket work form (near the rubber band) and start. Don’t forget to make the twining weave, the double strands need Directions to cross between each twig. Make a rigid form for your basket out of Continue weaving your strands around the twig form, 1 straight, supple twigs of uniform size. Use 6 twisting your fiber to alternate back to front at each a minimum of 5 twigs, approximately the twig. diameter of a pencil and 10—12 inches in When you start to run out length. Using additional sticks or longer of weaving material, add a sticks will make a larger basket. Bundle the 7 new strand by laying the new twigs together with a rubber strand overlapping the old one band approximately 1 1/2 3-4 inches. This is called splicing them together. Then inches up from the bottom. continue weaving as before. Fan out the longer end of the 2 twigs to make a cone shaped After each course around your twig form, be sure to form for your weaving. 8 push the weaving materials down to fill in empty spaces.

Prepare your plant weaving Hints: To keep your cone shape basket form, start 3 materials. If you are using green, supple materials, 9 weaving with thinner materials (e.g. grasses). As you little preparation is necessary. The drawback is these work up the cone, use weaving material of thicker materials will shrink as they dry and can leave your diameter or double-up the fiber strands. Additionally, weaving loose. If you have collected dry materials, pre- if you are right-handed, hold your left hand (switch soak them before using to make them flexible and less if you are left-handed) in a fist prone to breaking. Wrap in the center of your basket to the fibers in a warm wet maintain the spread shape as you towel, and leave for 30 – 60 weave. This will keep your basket minutes before using. Raffia spread and keep you from pulling in must also be presoaked. twining the twigs in by weaving too tightly. 187 My Burden Basket: How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber

Make a Simple Burden Basket, continued

Add a Design (for ambitious basket weavers) To finish the edge of your basket, make a loop knot Design by texture: Use different textured fibers or 10 around the last twig and tuck the ends into the weav- 11 weaving materials. Experiment with leaving the leaves ing below. An experienced weaver can finish their or seed heads on your plant fibers or using different basket so you cannot even find the ends of the strand. diameter strands for twining. Don’t expect this for your first attempts. You have just finished a very simple twining weave basket. Don’t Design by color: Traditionally designs were created expect your first weaving attempts to be uniform or 12 from naturally colored fiber (e.g. black from maiden- tight. If you find this interesting, try a more detailed hair fern, white from bear grass) or dyed materials (e.g. how-to book or take a basketry class. red from the inner bark of alder, yellow from the inner bark of Oregon grape). You can add color with yarn or raffia fiber worked into your design.

References • Jensen, Elizabeth. Baskets from Nature’s Bounty. In- terweave Press, Loveland, Colorado USA 1991. ISBN 0-9340226-69-9 • Tutorials on gathering, preparing, and basketry techniques: http://basketmakers.org/topics/tips/ tipsmenu.htm

188 My Burden Basket: How Native Plants Are Used For Fiber Making Fiber Cordage Materials Needed • one-foot section of two-ply twisted natural twine Once you have the two strands twisted, (jute, sisal, or hemp) 5 pass your right hand over your left and switch the bundles in your hands. This will • plant fibers—cattail is produce the double twist. one of the easiest to identify and find, other traditional plant fiber can be Continue twisting the individual strands found in Appendix III. 6 to the right for another 6” and cross your hands again, right over left and switch Directions: bundles. Continue in this pattern to make your cord as Get a feel for cordage by investigating a piece of ready- long as needed. Make sure you are always twisting and 1 made twine. Observe the twisting pattern that you see. crossing your hands in the same direc- Unravel it slowly and note how the cord twists as you pull tion. it apart. Look for the direction of the twist. If you stop When you come to the last 3-4 inches of pulling the twine and give it slack, it will most likely re- 7 your fiber strand, you will need to splice twist slightly. The twisting motion is what holds the twine in a new fiber piece to continue. Overlap together and makes it strong. Most twine is made by ma- the thinnest end of the new fiber with chines. Your early cordage attempts will not be as uniform, the old, and just twist the two together but with practice your skills will improve. as you work. Prepare your plant fibers. Remove extra leaves, seed You may end up with some fiber 2 heads, or outer bark. Plant fibers will need to be free 8 “hairs” sticking out but these can be trimmed off when from chafe and pithy interior materials. Roll or rub the you are completed. If you staggered the ends of your fiber by hand, or lightly pound it with a rock to divide initial fiber these spliced joints will come at different the fibers. Divide larger leaves such as cattails by stand- spots on your cord. ing on the leaf tip and pulling the ends apart, making When your cord reaches your desired length, end by several smaller strands out of one leaf. Prepare 9 tying an overhand knot including both ends. fibers of uniform size to produce a higher quality Use your cordage to tie things together, make a handle for a product. Green fibers can be used soon after basket, or add beads and turn it into a friendship bracelet. collecting but may shrink when dried. If working 10 with dry fibers, wrap them in a damp towel to Resources: make them pliable. For dry cattails, soak them US Bureau of Land Management, Salem Oregon. about 15 minutes before working; other types of • Exploring Oregon’s Past: A Teacher’s Activity Guide. fibers may need longer soaking times. Salem office 503-375-5646 Take 2 strands of different lengths and tie • Native American Cordage: http://www.nativetech.org/ 3 them together with a knot in one end. This cordage/ by Tara Prindle, 1994. The website of Native makes it easier to add new materials as you American Technology & Art. add to your cord. • Jensen, Elizabeth. Baskets from Nature’s Bounty. Have a partner hold the knot or clip it to Interweave Press, Loveland, Colorado USA 1991. 4 a stationary object to hold while you are ISBN 0-9340226-69-9 twisting. Take a fiber strand in each hand about 6” from the knot. Twist both strands • Cordage and other basketry directions: http://bas- tightly to the right. ketmakers.org/topics/tutorials/cordagea.htm

189 Plants as Medicine Make Your Own Herbal Salve In all things of nature there is something of the marvelous. –Aristotle (384 BC—322 BC)

Overview Time Estimate: Students learn about common medicinal products that are derived from plants found in Oregon, and research medicinal properties of plants in a 1 field session, historical context. Students will study the medicinal properties of black 2 classroom sessions cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa), a common native tree associated with rivers, streams, and lakes throughout the state. Students Best Season: put their knowledge to work by making their own healing salve from cot- winter/spring tonwood buds.

Teacher Hints • To collect cottonwood buds, look • Additional information about in early spring (February/March) phytochemicals is included in the Assessments and collect before the buds open Ecology of Native Plant Ecology but are resinous to the touch. section in Plant Wars lesson, and Define phytochemical and ex- Cottonwoods commonly grow is a good companion lesson. plain one or two environmental 1 in wet areas: along waterways, Your study of medicinal eth- processes that prompt plants to • drainage ditches, streams, rivers, nobotany could be expanded produce secondary chemicals. lakes, and wetlands. Finding fallen by having each student group Debate the ownership of the branches from storms is the easi- research a different native plant 2 intellectual rights to historical est way to access the buds. with medicinal uses. ethnobotanical medicinal plants. • Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris) may be used as an alternative if cot- Additional Information tonwood is not available. • Moore, M. (1993). Medicinal Plants of the Pacific West. Santa Fe, NM: Red Crane Books. Preparation Black Cottonwood (Populus • Additional discussion ques- collecting cottonwood buds into balsamifera L. ssp. Trichocarpa) • tions can be found at: Herbal one session, assign the remain- Plant Guide. USDA-NRCS: Medicines Topic of World-Wide der of the lesson as homework, http://plants.usda.gov/ Discussion: and use a second session for stu- plantguide/pdf/cs_pobat.pdf http://advancement.sdsu.edu/ dents to make their salve. Infuse marcomm/Fall97news/Herbal. the herbal oil one day ahead (this html should only take a few minutes to • Alternative lesson format - start). Oil can be re-warmed in a combine class discussions and double boiler before adding the beeswax.

190 Plants as Medicine Make Your Own Herbal Salve In all things of nature there is something of the marvelous. –Aristotle (384 BC—322 BC) Overview In this lesson, you will redefine what medicine is and learn about common medicinal properties and products from plants found in Oregon. Study the medicinal properties of black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera), a common native tree closely associated with water. Put your ethnobotanical knowledge to work through collecting cottonwood buds and making a healing salve. Background Information Learning Objectives Plants are one of the oldest ity. However, many of the medi- sources of medicine. The history cines that are used in conventional • Basic understanding of of humans using plants as medi- medicine today are derived from plants used as medicine, cine goes far back before writing phytochemicals that originated highlighting American even existed to record it. Much of in plants and now can be synthe- Indian uses in Oregon the early history of ethnobotany, sized in laboratories. In recent • Define phytochemical, or the human uses of plants, is years there has been a growing understand the purpose patched together from early resurgence of interest in the use of of secondary biochemicals pictographs recorded in rock. It herbs to prevent and treat illness. in responses to the envi- is generally thought that the first This has led to a renewed interest ronment, and learn how depictions of plants used for me- in looking at the world’s plants as a humans harness phyto- dicinal purposes are from the cave storehouse of medical wealth. chemicals for their medici- paintings of Lascaux in France, The indigenous people of Oregon nal properties which are radiocarbon dated to be have a long history of using plants, • Examine the connections from 13,000-25,000 BC (1). Early fungi, and other bits of nature for between plant biodiversity, written records of the use of herbs healing. In earlier times, people potential future discover- for medicine come from Sumerian had a general knowledge of which ies in plant medicine, and tablets (3500 BC), ancient Egyp- plants were used for treating untested plant compounds tian writings (1000 BC), and the common illnesses and even rare or • Study the historical uses Old Testament of the Bible. Herb serious conditions. This informa- of a native tree, including use has also been documented in tion was passed down orally from its biochemical properties, the early cultures of India (1900 generation to generation from and modern uses BC) and China (2700 BC). Many the wisdom of the tribal elders enthnoecologists suspect that the through stories. Many cultures • Participate in collecting use of plants as medicine extends and producing a plant also had (and many still have) a much farther back in human his- designated healer with specialized medicine (cottonwood bud tory, but there are no records to healing salve) training in plant medicine, who can prove this. Plants have been such also invoke ceremonies or inter- an important part of medicine that vention of the spirits to help with botany was considered a branch healing. Generations of observa- of medicine until about 150 years tions, trial and error testing, and ago, at which time the use of plant knowledge has been passed chemical treatments and synthetic on in this way for millennia. medicines began to gain popular-

191 Plants as Medicine Make Your Own Herbal Salve

Background Information, continued The wealth of indigenous people’s killing) properties, and Pacific yew, Materials Needed plant knowledge locally and world- which has produced the potent Classroom session wide is immense, but with chang- anticancer drug Taxol. Foxglove, a • internet access for ethno- ing societies and cultures much of landscape flower that has become botany and phytochemical the information is being lost. Still, an invasive problem in some Or- research worldwide it is estimated that 80% egon forests, is responsible for the • plant field guides with of indigenous people use plant cardiac drug Digitalis. Don’t just go ethnobotany information remedies (2). At the same time, rela- chewing on this plant though—it Salve making supplies tively few plants have been inves- contains powerful toxins! As a • quart size glass jar with lid tigated for possible medicinal use. medication it is used in tiny and • olive oil Modern science has yet to explore precise doses; an incorrect dosage • crockpot (for quick method) the phytochemical properties of can cause the opposite, cardiac • old pan and spoon to mix salve countless plant species, and many arrest and death! latex gloves • of those species that have not been So why are plants chock full of so candy thermometer • studied are being lost to extinction. much medicine? All plants pro- glass measuring cup • The loss of any one species may duce chemical compounds in their strainer • be a lost opportunity for a future metabolic activity to help them beeswax (2-3 oz. for each • medical breakthrough that could absorb nutrients, photosynthe- pint of infused oil) cure a deadly disease or the com- size, and produce color pigments. small salve containers (e.g. • mon cold (3). Twenty-five percent Plants also produce secondary lip gloss containers, very of all prescriptions in this country chemicals in response to their small jars, baby food jars), contain one or more plant-extract- environment. Many of the herbs enough for all the students ed or derived ingredients (2). and spices used by humans to labels for salve • season food yield useful medicinal vitamin E capsules or oil Are you aware that many common • compounds through their second- (optional) medicines used today are linked to plants that you find growing in Or- ary compounds. These secondary V ocabulary Words egon? One of the most common is chemicals can act as toxins to help • phytochemical aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), which the plant defend itself from her- • biochemical is made in a laboratory today, but bivores, disease, fungus, and even • analgesic which got its start competition from oth- • herbalist from salicin, a naturally er plants. In addition, • pheromones occurring compound plants can produce • antibacterial in the leaves and bark chemicals that act as • ubiquitous of native willow trees. pheromones (insect- medicine Others with which you attracting smells) and • may be familiar are to produce different menthol, the aromatic pigments to attract compound derived specific pollinators from plants in the such as bees, birds, mint family, used for butterflies, and flies. its decongestant and Because of the vari- topical analgesic (pain- ety of environmental 192 Plants as Medicine Make Your Own Herbal Salve

Background Information, continued conditions and organisms to which secondary chemicals found in biodiversity from the Earth, many the great diversity of plants must nature that have been the human of the undiscovered medicines are respond, there are a wealth of pharmacy for millennia. As we lose lost forever.

Directions Part 1—Research medicinal plant uses As a brainstorm or discussion session explore the fol- only” box, “Print activities with chemicals”, and “In- 1 lowing concepts as a class. What makes a substance clude full references at end of document” then click on medicine? How do you make personal judgments on “submit query”. what medicines you use? Do you feel all medicines The resulting search will list the phytochemicals found need a doctor’s prescription? If you believe that you 5 in P. balsamifera followed by their location in the don’t need a prescription, who should be respon- plant (e.g., leaf, bark, essential oil). Scan the list to look sible for correct usages? When you buy unregulated for the plant parts you have listed on your handout. herbal medicines, how do you know you are getting Enter up to 3 phytochemicals with their biological the real thing? Much of our medicinal plant knowl- actions (e.g., 2,6-DIMETHOXY-P-BENZOQUINONE edge comes from indigenous people. Who owns the Bark, antibacterial, fungicide, pesticide) that match the rights to the knowledge of and the use of these plant ethnobotanical uses listed on your handout sheet. medicines? If more people used plant medicines by Define the biological activity you have recorded in simple collecting plant materials in the wild, how would we terms. For example, antibacterial: destroys or suppresses protect the resources? 6 bacterial growth. Work in small teams to investigate an Oregon na- When your team has completed the data sheet, dis- tive tree, black cottonwood (Populus balsamifera 2 cuss your findings within your group. Write a conclu- ssp. trichocarpa), for its medicinal properties and 7 sion to your research. Can you support the historical historical uses. Find and record on your data sheet medicinal uses with the phytochemical analysis? Why 5 historical medicinal uses for your plant, what part or why not? Why do you think black cottonwood buds of the plant is used (e.g., resin, bark, leaves), and the would make a good medicinal salve? type of preparation (e.g., tea, salve, poultice). This information can be found in field guides that con- Part 2—Make a healing salve from resinous cot- tain ethnobotany information, or use online sources tonwood buds for minor skin irritations such as (see resource section). cuts, scrapes, and chapped skin Research the phytochemicals found in the black See “In the Field” section for directions to collect cot- 3 cottonwood. To do this, access the online website 1 tonwood buds. Smell the buds. Does the scent remind Dr. Dukes Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Data- you of anything? bases at http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/. Look under Lay the cottonwood buds out to dry for a day before Plant Searches and click on “chemicals and activities 2 proceeding. Water on the buds does not mix well with in a particular plant”. On this screen click “scientific the oil and can lead to mold in your finished product. name” and then type in Populus balsamifera and Use clean sterilized containers for all the steps of the select “submit query”. 3 process. Wear latex gloves to maintain the purity of This brings up a Pharmacy query page. On this page your finished product. 4 select “Search based on non-ubiquitous chemicals 193 Plants as Medicine Make Your Own Herbal Salve

Directions, continued

Make an herb-infused oil by one of the two following When the infused oil mixture is finished (from either 4 methods: 5 method), strain the oil into a clean pan. • (Traditional method) Fill a sterile pint jar with the To make a salve, take the warm infused oil and gradu- cottonwood buds. Fill the remainder of the jar 6 ally stir in shredded beeswax. Use the large holes of a with olive oil, leaving no head room or air space, cheese grater to shred the wax. Warm the oil slightly and cap. Place the jar in a bowl or container to in a double boiler and heat just enough to cause the collect any overflow. Locate in a warm place for wax to melt. A general guide is to use 1 1/2 ounce of 4-6 weeks. Periodically check to add more oil as beeswax to a pint of infused oil. To test consistency, needed; the twigs will absorb some oil and heat remove a spoonful of the mixture and put in the re- can also cause expansion and overflow. frigerator to cool to room temperature. If it is too soft • (Quick method) Spread the cottonwood buds in add small amounts of beeswax to thicken. If it is too the bottom of a Crockpot and just cover with olive hard add a small amount of infused oil. oil (at least a pint of oil). Heat the mixture, trying Vitamin E can be added to the salve at this point to act to maintain it near 100°F for 4-5 hours. Suspend a 7 as a natural preservative. Empty 2-6 capsules into the candy thermometer from a straw that rests across salve and stir. the top of the pot to measure the temperature. When the salve is finished, pour into sterile small con- Let the mixture reach 120°F, then turn off the pot 8 tainers and leave to cool. Cap the containers when the and let it cool to 100°F before turning on the pot mixture has cooled to room temperature. Label with again. Repeat this procedure for 4-5 hours. the name of the salve, the ingredients, and the date.

Taking It Further Class critical thinking activity—How can modern 1 society ethically benefit from exploring new uses of Use Google Scholar to find an article on the medicinal medicinal plants? Explore the subject from each of the 3 use of Populus balsamifera. Write a summary of the following perspectives: American Indians with histori- article and include proper citation and the website cal plant medicinal knowledge, drug company execu- link to the article. tive, the consumer (or patient), conventional doctor, pharmacist, alternative medicine doctor, public lands manager, and a farmer growing medicinal herbs. There are no right or wrong answers and all points of view should be heard with respect. Investigate a global perspective on the issues of 2 regulating herbal medicines—look into the report: Regulatory Situation of Herbal Medicines—A World- wide Review (4). This document is easily accessed with quick links to herbal regulations in many countries of the world: http://www.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/ Jwhozip57e/4.2.8.html

194 Plants as Medicine Make Your Own Herbal Salve

In the Field! Collect your own cottonwood buds to make salve. Cottonwoods generally grow in wet areas, along rivers and streams, wetlands, lake edges, and wet ditches. You will need to collect enough buds to fill a pint size jar (one jar for the entire class). Early February is a good time to collect in the Willamette Valley; higher elevations will be later. Collect buds when they are large or swollen in appearance and may be drip- ping resin. At this point they will be easy to break from branches. Cottonwood trees will often lose branches in windy conditions, so go collecting soon after blustery weather to find many branches knocked to the ground. Take a field guide on your trip to help you with tree identification if needed. For winter tree identification concentrate on looking for the shape of the tree (tall, somewhat columnar), the bark of mature trees (dark gray, and deeply furrowed), the location of the leaf buds on the branches (alternate), and sticky resinous buds. Also check underneath the tree for old fallen leaves to help confirm your identification. Science Inquiry Exploring the medicinal properties of plants is a fascinating subject with many avenues for science inquiry projects. The following are two suggestions that would fit well with this lesson. They will require additional class sessions to study background information, learn procedures, carry out the experiment, and write up the findings. • Leaf Chromatography Lab: Separate chemical compounds from leaves to compare between different plants. Compare and contrast by testing plants with known topical medicinal properties against others with the same or different properties, or plants with no known properties. The following lab will give you procedures for setting up the experiment: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/previous_seasons/lessons/ lp_zulu_handout1.html • Testing for Antibacterial Properties of Plants: Research the ethnobotanical uses of Oregon plants with antibacterial properties or plants that were historically used on wounds. Test plants with known antibacterial properties, as well as a couple of others. The following lab will give you procedures for setting up an experiment: http://www.actionbioscience.org/biodiversity/lessons/plotkinlessons.pdf. Lichens can also be used or substituted for plants in this experiment. Research using several Oregon lichen species can be referenced below: • Paper on lichen’s antibacterial properties: http://lichens.science.oregonstate.edu/antibiotics/li- chen_antibiotics.htm • Article on lichen’s role in traditional medicine: http://www.ispub.com/ostia/index. php?xmlFilePath=journals/ijam/vol5n2/lichen.xml

195 . Plants as Medicine Make Your Own Herbal Salve

Reflection Write about the ethnobotanical knowledge in your family. Record it in paragraph form, charts, or stories. Include what you use and how you use it. Search your memory or, better yet, interview your parents or grandparents to record your family’s ethnobotanical history. Think of foods you might eat to stay healthy, such as carrots for good eyesight (why?). What does your family do for a sore throat, coughs, or stomach ache? The plants you list could be ones you eat, drink as teas, or use in other ways. Don’t forget to check your medicine cabinet for such things as aspirin, menthol, or herbal throat lozenges. Be mindful of the plants that you use in your daily life. Also examine the advantages of traditional or alternative nature-based medicine versus conventional medicine. Which do you prefer? Do you see a role for both in our society? If so, how can both be employed to optimize health for human beings and the planet?

Self Assessments Resources Define phytochemical and ex- • Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases. Click on Plant Searches, 1 plain one or two environmental Chemicals and Activities in a particular plant: http://www.ars-grin.gov/ processes that prompt plants to duke/ produce secondary chemicals. • Moerman, D. E. (2000). Native American Ethnobotany. Portland, OR: Debate an opinion on the own- Timber Press. 2 ership of the intellectual rights • Foster, S. & Hobbs, C. (2002). The Peterson Field Guide Series: A Field to historical ethnobotanical Guide to Western Medicinal Plants and Herbs. New York, NY: Houghton medicinal plants. Mifflin Co. • Green Pharmacy, Dr. Jim Duke’s Botanical Desk Reference. http://www.green- pharmacy.com/ • USDA-NRCS Plant Guide. Black Cottonwood Populus balsamifera L. ssp. Trichocarpa— http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_pobat.pdf

196 Plants as Medicine Make Your Own Herbal Salve

Name(s)

Plant name (common and scientific)

Ethnobotany Information Source Used (column A & B)

A B C D

Historical Use Plant Part Used Phytochemicals in Plant Part Phytochemical Biological Activity

1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3.

Historical Use Plant Part Used Phytochemicals in Plant Part Phytochemical Biological Activity

1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3.

Historical Use Plant Part Used Phytochemicals in Plant Part Phytochemical Biological Activity

1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3.

Historical Use Plant Part Used Phytochemicals in Plant Part Phytochemical Biological Activity

1. 1. 2. 2. 3. 3.

Use the following web link for column C & D http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/

Pick one of the ethnobotanical uses from your chart, use phytochemical research to support or deny the plant’s medicinal use.

197 Section 6: Climate Change and Phenology Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World If you want an adventure, take the same walk that you took yesterday, and do so again tomorrow. —John Burroughs (1837-1921) Overview Time Estimate: Introduce the science of phenology, the study of biological changes as Regular short the seasons unfold. Students use observational skills to track seasonal observation periods changes, collect data, and learn real world applications. They will relate covering several weeks nature observations to climate and examine how global change is af- before and after a seasonal change fecting species, habitats, and ecosystems. Students will learn about the connections between phenology observations and the study of climate Best Season: change and have the opportunity to participate in a citizen science pro- Fall equinox gram to contribute to a national database of climate change information. or Spring equinox

Teacher Hints • Encourage students to make this a long term project, tracking the unfold- Assessments ing events of the seasons for an entire year or multiple years in their field Describe how plants and animals journal. 1 respond to seasonal changes • Have students practice their prediction skills by holding a contest to choose based on first hand observations. the date of the first spring flower on the school grounds. Have each student Show basic understanding of record their predictions by writing their name on their chosen date on a 2 natural cycles and how they are calendar. The winning prediction should have an incentive (a prize, extra affected by temperature and credit, whatever will motivate your students). Remind students weekly to be day-length. watching for the first flower. Now the hunt is on. Set up ground rules; the Explain how the study of plant must be found on the school grounds, the flower be left in place, the 3 phenology can be applied to teacher must verify the find, and determine how to handle a tie. Extend this climate change research. to predict other significant events such as the return of the first migrating turkey vulture or the date a schoolyard tree will leaf out. Additional Information • “In the Field”— match the citizen science programs available to your class- • Citizen science monitoring projects room situation (abilities and time required). The National Phenology Net- and additional education resourc- work runs programs available to all levels, kindergarten through graduate es. National Phenology Network students. Print out and use The Phenology Handbook they provide for USA: http://www.usanpn.org/ program protocols (see Additional Information). • Haggerty, Brian P. and Susan J. Mazer. The Phenology Hand- Preparation book: A Guide to Phenological Introduce the activity by leading a discussion to enable students to Monitoring by Students, Teach- • ers, Families and Nature Enthu- explore and review what they know about the seasons: what causes them, siasts. 2008 University of Cali- how plants (and other organisms) react to seasonal changes, what triggers fornia, Santa Barbara. http://www. those changes in living organisms to happen (daylight hours, temperatures, ucsbphenology.christophercosner. calendar dates, weather), and what do those seasonal changes tell us. Use com/The_Phenology_Handbook- this discussion for the students to throw out ideas or make statements of Haggerty_Mazer_2008_v1.pdf what they already know or believe. Facilitate the students’ exploration of the answers to these questions and more throughout the activity. 199 Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World If you want an adventure, take the same walk that you took yesterday, and do so again tomorrow. —John Burroughs (1837-1921) Overview Everyone takes notice of the seasons around them to some degree, even if only to soak in the first warm sunny days of spring. Now you can discover more about nature and the place you live by studying phenology, the study of the unfolding of nature’s events through the seasons. Use your observation skills and your senses to track the seasonal changes of species and habitats and create a phenology journal. Participate in a citizen science program to create a national database of phenology information for researchers studying climate change.

Background Information Learning Objectives Phenology is the study of natural Leopold. In A Sand County Alma- Make observations and re- • events that reoccur periodically nac, he wrote, Every week from cord data on natural cycles in relation to climate and seasonal April to September there are, on Acquire basic understanding change. Examples include bird average ten wild plants coming into • first bloom. In June, as many as a of nature’s seasonal cycles and migration and the changing of what influences those changes dozen plants may burst their buds leaf color in autumn. The word on a single day (1949:44). (1). Leo- • Explain how knowledge of phenology comes from the Greek pold kept daily journals of obser- phenology has been used words “phainestain” (to appear) vations whenever he happened by humans in the past and “logos” (to study). Life on to be in the natural world. These • Gain understanding of how earth has long been intimately journals held the keys to under- phenology observations tied to observations of (or instinc- standing patterns among plants, can be used in future sci- tual or innate reactions to) phe- animals, weather, water, soil, and ence nological cycles. Before weather land. By recording natural events stations, humans needed to keep Participate in a citizen sci- on a regular basis, particularly • track of natural cycles to predict ence program those events occurring on family when to hunt, gather edible fruits walks, Leopold and his children Materials Needed and nuts, and plant their crops. would compare changes from year Many native peoples linked natu- phenology journal to year, as they learned about the • ral events with cycles of the moon, natural world. • drawing materials the re-appearance of a migrating • optional: camera, binoculars, bird, or the timing of many other Author and naturalist Henry David hand lens, field guides for natural events. Today, people ob- Thoreau was one of the first to your area serve and record natural events to record extensive phenology data stay in tune with the seasons and in the United States. He kept V ocabulary Words keep time with the natural order. detailed journals that recorded bloom time data for over 500 phenology Other animals are cued in to phe- • wildflowers that grew in the area equinox nological cycles as well, albeit on a • more instinctual level. he lived near Concord, Massachu- solstice setts between 1852 and 1858. His • The annual discovery of the first day-length work was continued by botanist • bloom of a plant was an event Alfred Hosmer in 1878 and 1888- photoperiod • treasured and recorded by con- 1902. Recently, scientists have servationist and naturalist Aldo collected data on the same wild- 200 Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World

Background Information, continued flowers in the same location to make comparisons that fungi and nearly every type of life on Earth. might be related to climate change. Their comparative What do the seasons look like where you live? Pick a studies show that plants are blooming an average of place around your home, the schoolyard, or a favorite one week earlier than in Thoreau’s time. (2) place you like to visit. Walk the same route in spring, As global climate changes, phenological records are summer, fall, and winter and tune in your senses to proving a reliable way to track the effects of changing what is occurring around you. You do not need to climate on the life cycles of organisms. This activity travel a great distance to study phenology; it is hap- focuses on the phenology of plants but others are pening all around you. You just need to tune in to tracking phenology as it applies to wildlife, insects, what is happening wherever you are.

Directions A phenology journal is a place to record the Describe your special plant in detail. What do the 1 changes that you observe in the natural world. 4 leaves look like (size, amount, color)? Does your The following questions are appropriate things to plant have buds, flowers, or seeds? How does your record in your journal. Choose a particular plant plant interact with its environment? Do you ob- and monitor it over time. When do the first flowers serve any activity around your plant (insect, birds, open on your plant? What flowers are bloom- squirrels, other)? Look closely! ing the week of March 20th in your area? Look Watch your plant on a regular basis; make at least for when ripe seeds appear on the plants. What 5 one journal entry each week for your plant. Weekly happens to the seeds? Do they fall on the ground, journal entries should focus on changes you ob- are they eaten by birds, or do they catch on your serve about your plant and the world around it. At socks? What other changes do you notice about first you may have a hard time noticing changes. your plant as the days pass? You may observe changes in leaf size, color, insects Track at least one seasonal change in your journal that appear, a bird eating berries, a bud that swells, 2 (before and after an equinox or solstice). Make bite marks on a leaf, or a branch broken in the win- time at least once a week to look for changes in the ter wind, to name a few. natural world around you. Pick a place or area to observe, a place that you visit on a regular basis; your backyard, the school grounds, and the walk to school are all good places. For your first journal entry, write a thorough de- 3 scription of your spot. Next, draw a map of your place and describe what plants you find there. Pick one special plant to examine and add it to your map.

201 Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World

Directions, continued

Note what is happening around your plant. Is these numbers with your classmates studying a dif- 6 the ground wet or dry? What is the weather like? ferent species. Is your plant a fast grower or does it What other plants are near your plant? What grow more slowly? animal signs are at your spot? Spend at least 10 Always note the date and time of each journal minutes closely observing your plant (time your- 8 entry and add weather information including wind self!), and then spend an additional 5-10 minutes direction, cloud cover, and temperature. Visit the recording your observations in your journal. Add websites in the resource section to add day-length to your journal entries with sketches and photo- and climate data for your observation days. graphs if you want. Things to think about: If you kept a phenology Track the growth of a new leaf. Flag a new leaf with 9 journal from year to year, how accurate do you 7 a piece of yarn and take regular measurements think your predictions could become? What do (use metric scale) of length and width. Each time you think it would show? Can you think of ways the you make an entry in your journal, update the information could be useful for you? What ways measurements of your leaf. How long did it take could the information be useful to others? for the leaf to reach its maximum size? Compare

Taking it Further • Class Phenology Log-- Make a permanent phenology log for the classroom by setting up a notebook with index dividers for each month and a sheet of notebook paper for each day of the month. Record the date but not the year itself (i.e. January 1 but not January 1, 2008) at the top of each page, add the year to the left margin, and then make notes about what occurs each day. Everyone in the class can share their observations in the same book. The log can be added to each year; just add the current year in the left margin and place the new observations underneath. Add additional pages when needed. Look for the same events to occur (for example, first flower on the Oregon grape in your native garden) year after year. Note whether those same events occurred on the same day, earlier, or later in the year and think about why those changes may have occurred. This document will become more valuable with added years and may indicate possible relationships between climate change and biological cycles in your schoolyard and town.

202 Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World

In the Field! Participate in the National Phenology Network citizen science program and help researchers at the National level track changes in key native species that may tell us about the changing climate. Visit http://www.usanpn.org/ and click on the link to “participate.” This will take you to a listing of the different programs that they have available (Project BudBurst, NPN Core protocols, Honeysuckle/Lilac program). Pick the program that best meets the needs of your class based on available time and technical knowledge. Partici- pating will require identifying native plants that you can monitor and a time commitment to making the observations. Connect your work to a natural area on the school grounds, nearby, or a frequently visited field trip site to make observations easy. Science Inquiry What do you think causes the seasonal changes that you observe in plants; could it be the hours or angle of the sunlight, temperature, amount of rainfall, or something entirely different? Narrow your predictions to one prediction, or hypothesis to test. Do an initial search to find information that might support your hypothesis. Design an experiment that would test your hypothesis. Your experiment could be in the classroom, in a greenhouse, or out in the field. Think about how you would control for other factors that may influence your results. Write a proposal describing your hypothesis, the testing protocol, and how your experiment will control for outside factors. If you have the time and resources, carry out your experiment. Reflection What seasonal changes do you go through? Think about how you react to temperature, light and dark. What signs in your body and outside tell you that fall is approaching? How do your senses help you detect these changes? What new sounds, smells, and colors occur? What signs tell you that winter, spring and summer are approaching? What is your favorite season and why?

Assessments Describe how plants can respond to seasonal Explain how the study of phenology has been 1 changes using your observations. 3 used in the past and its implications for the future. Explain how natures cycles are affected by tem- 2 perature and day-length.

203 Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World Resources • National Phenology Network—an organization that is collecting citizen science information on plants and climate change. They have monitoring projects that are available for your participation on three different levels, depending on your abilities or your commitment: http://www.usanpn.org/ • The Phenology Handbook A Guide to Phenological Monitoring by Students, Teachers, Families and Nature Enthusiasts by Brian P Haggerty and Susan J. Mazer, 2008 University of California, Santa Barbara for the UCSB Phenology Stewardship Program: http://www. ucsbphenology.christophercosner.com/The_Phenol- ogy_Handbook-Haggerty_Mazer_2008_v1.pdf • Journey North: A Phenology Website: http://www. learner.org/jnorth/ • Leopold, Aldo. The Sand County Almanac. 1949 Oxford University Press, New York.

204 Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World

Phenology Journal Page

Date ______Season ______Location ______Weather______Sunrise time ______Sunset time ______Day length ______Minimum temperature ______Maximum temperature ______Last precipitation date ______Form (rain/snow) ______How much ______Soil moisture: dry ____ moist _____ saturated _____ Plant life cycle stage (check all that apply): dormant _____ in bud _____ leaf opening ____ flower buds ____ in bloom ____ full leaf ______leaf drying _____ leaf drop ______

Special Spot Observations (e.g. plant, wildlife, bird, insect, and fungi observations)

Special Spot Sketches I wonder? (questions that your observations generate)

205 . Plant Migration Game: A Race Between Plants and Climate Change Climate is what we expect, weather is what we get. —Mark Twain (1835 – 1910) Overview Time Estimate: Students are bombarded daily with news of climate change and the impacts of their “global footprint” on the environment, but little informa- 45 minutes tion is out there about how climate change is projected to affect plants, especially native plants. In this lesson, students will play a game to ex- Best Season: plore some of the potential impacts and challenges of climate change on winter plant life in the Pacific Northwest.

Teacher Hints Preparation • Students should have a general • The game will be played in background in climate change groups of 4-5 students. Photo- science to fully appreciate this copy and enlarge enough game Assessments lesson and explore the potential boards and gather additional Discuss the impacts that affected impacts on plants. See “Addi- materials for the entire class in 1 their species’ success or decline tional Information” for resources. advance. Bowls of sunflower during the game. seeds or other small treats can Name three potential negative act as the seed bank or currency. 2 impacts of a changing climate on Two handfuls of seeds per group plants. should be sufficient. Identify one or more positive • Photocopy and cut out plant 3 impacts of a warmer climate on cards. Plant cards are drawn at plants. the end of the game to assess the final fate of your plant. Describe why certain types of 4 plants may be more adaptable • Gather or make pieces to move than others to changing climatic around the board (one for each conditions. player). Pieces can be objects (paper clips, rocks) or as simple as colored paper squares. Additional Information • Consider having students color • Climate Literacy: The Essential and laminate the boards for long Principles of Climate Sciences: term use. http://globalchange.gov/resources/educators/climate- literacy • NOAA Office of Education - climate change information and curricula for educators: http:// www.education.noaa.gov/tcli- mate.html 206 Plant Migration Game: A Race Between Plants and Climate Change Climate is what we expect, weather is what we get. —Mark Twain (1835 – 1910) Overview Almost daily we hear about climate change and its likely impacts for humans, but how will climate change affect plants, especially native plants? Changes in our native flora as a result of climate change will have lasting impacts on wildlife, water, nutrient cycling, and on humans as well. In this lesson you will play a board game to explore some of the potential impacts and challenges of climate change on Pacific Northwest plant life. Background Information Shifts in climate have altered the centrations. Modeling is useful on Learning Objectives earth’s ecosystems throughout a global scale and to some extent • Explore potential impacts geologic time. Nonetheless, evi- on a regional scale, but local of climate change on plants dence is rampant that the earth’s microclimates are so varied that it • Gain insight into predicted climate is changing at an accelerat- is impossible to accurately predict climate shifts for the Pacific ed rate due to the human-caused the effects of climate change on a Northwest and their effects accumulation of greenhouse precise local level. on ecosystems gases. Scientists can sample air Recent modeling has generated bubbles in ancient polar ice to in- Speculate how differ- regional predictions of climate • vestigate the characteristics of the ent species will adapt to change for the Pacific Northwest atmosphere from thousands of climate change based on (PNW). Scientists are particularly years ago. While there have been their life history strategies interested in patterns of tem- periodic climate shifts throughout perature and precipitation; they Learn how climate change • the history of the earth, in recent have identified a trend of rising can affect plant conserva- years scientists have noticed a temperatures in the PNW, with an tion and invasive species distinct warming trend that is increase of 1.5˚F between 1920 issues strongly correlated with human and 2003 (2). It is important to Materials Needed activities. When our society indus- differentiate between climate and trialized, we began to combust weather to understand the con- • Game of a Plant’s Life large amounts of fossil fuels and board cept of climate change. Weather wood for energy, releasing carbon is what we experience on a short one die dioxide (CO ) into the earth’s at- • 2 • sunflower seeds with shells mosphere. Carbon dioxide is con- container for seeds sidered a greenhouse gas because • it traps solar radiation in the lower V ocabulary Words player pieces • atmosphere, effectively heat- climate • plant cards ing the earth. While this green- • house effect is critical to maintain • weather warmth to support life on earth, • greenhouse gas the added greenhouse gasses • microclimate generated by humans enhance the seed dispersal effect. Scientists have developed • very complex models to predict • assisted migration how the earth’s systems may react • carbon sink to further increases in CO2 con- 207 Plant Migration Game: A Race between Plants and Climate Change

Background Information, continued

time scale, whereas climate refers others. As plants respond to stress, cies of herbivorous insect pests are to the long-term average of weath- they may shift their energy alloca- currently controlled by cold winter er patterns (2). Climate modeling tion to focus on growth or repro- temperatures that kill most of for the PNW predicts overall tem- duction. While under stress, plant their larvae. If winters warm, more perature increases in the future, metabolic processes are already of the pest larvae may survive to with the largest increases occur- overtaxed, which reduces their adulthood, and some pest species ring during the summer months ability to resist diseases or insect may even complete two life cycles (1). The best estimates suggest a infestations. The stresses each in one season, causing twice the rapid rate of warming in the PNW, individual faces will affect its ability damage to plants. Rising average with a temperature increase of to survive and reproduce. temperatures are also strongly 0.5˚F per decade (1). Most pre- correlated with wildfire frequency, cipitation models for the PNW even when precipitation is held show little change in the annual constant (3). A warmer climate will average precipitation, but tend to be more conducive to frequent show decreases in crucial summer wildfires. precipitation and slight increases The effects of climate change in the proportion of winter pre- on individual plants’ fitness will cipitation falling as rain rather vary over their range, but what than snow (1,3). The river systems will the effects be on entire plant throughout the PNW generally populations? Perhaps the most depend on snowpack to store important consideration in pre- water, thus reduced snow may dicting a species’ success in the mean that summer river flows will face of climate change is its seed decrease. This trend may increase dispersal strategy. Species that the water stress that PNW plants disperse large quantities of seed and animals already face during Because temperature drives many over great distances, potentially dry summers. ecosystem processes, shifts in reaching sites with more favor- While animals and humans have temperature may cause wide- able conditions, will likely be more the option of relocating in re- spread disruption. Increased successful than long-lived peren- sponse to climatic shifts, individual temperatures can cause pheno- nial plants that only produce a few plants cannot move and dispersal logical changes, such as spring seeds. Ironically, because invasive through seeds is slow and often bud burst, to happen earlier in plants generally have strong seed random (not necessarily in the the year than usual. Why does this dispersal ability and can rapidly direction of better climate). Shifts matter? Such alterations in timing colonize new areas, they may be in temperature and precipitation may cause disruptions in a plant’s better suited than native plants to patterns will be the main drivers intricate relationships with co- shift or expand their range to cope of potential impacts on vegeta- evolved insect pollinators. If the with climate change. Species that tion. Due to the great variability pollinators emerge at the normal are rare in their current range are in microclimates across the land- time, they may miss the earlier less likely to adapt well to climate scape, conditions may improve for flowering of their target species. change. These species already plants in some areas and decline in In another example, several spe- have very low population numbers 208 Plant Migration Game: A Race Between Plants and Climate Change

Background Information, continued and often use less successful seed for conservation. Current habi- future climate shifts may affect dispersal strategies. tat preserves may see new spe- the habitat. Assisted migration is Forest conservation plays an cies move in, while the original a new and controversial topic of important role in climate change target conservation species may conversation among restoration discussions. Trees assimilate at- migrate to new regions. Land ecologists--should restoration mospheric carbon dioxide during managers and preserve designers ecologists relocate species to new photosynthesis, and as trees grow, are beginning to consider these habitats that will be suitable in the they act as carbon sinks. Plant- potential shifts in habitat and spe- face of climate change, assisting ing trees and protecting existing cies compositions as they manage them in survival? These and other stands may help sequester excess existing preserves and plan new questions make native plant con- carbon that has already entered ones. It is important to predict servation in the face of a changing the atmosphere. While climate where species of concern may climate more challenging. They change presents many challenges be able to find suitable habitat will require conservation biolo- for plant life, there are still steps in order to identify and conserve gists to work creatively, and hedge we can take to slow the rate of potential refuges in a changing bets by conserving more plants greenhouse gas emissions and climate. Restoration ecologists are than would be necessary without mitigate the effects of climate also considering the impacts of climate change. They also make change on native species. climate change on their projects. our efforts to reduce greenhouse As they try to restore degraded gases and slow climate change that Climate shifts will likely have an habitats to their natural state, much more important. impact on lands already set aside ecologists should consider how

Directions Read over the background information to get a work- still have more spaces to move, and wait for 1 ing understanding of climate change and its potential your next turn to proceed impacts on plant life. • When you reach a STOP space, you get one Set up your Game of a Plant’s Life board. Shuffle the seed for successfully navigating another year 2 Plant Cards, place them face down in the center, and —pay close attention to how the conditions select your game piece. change at STOP spaces Rules for the game: • As you move around the board, you will pick up or • Each player starts with 3 seeds from the Seed Bank return seeds to the bowl as your space instructs Roll a single die on your turn to move forward • The object of the game is to accumulate as • many seeds as possible • At the start of the game, you may select one of the two paths for germination • If you run out of seeds during the game, your species has gone extinct and you are out • Once the two paths merge, you have germinated and become a representative of the entire • Once you reach the end of the board, draw a population of your species Plant Card • You must stop at the STOP spaces, even if you 209 Plant Migration Game: A Race Between Plants and Climate Change

Directions, continued so, how far would you be comfortable with moving • Your Plant Card explains how many seeds you them? Or is there a measure other than distance need to survive—if you do not have enough you would use to determine where to move plants? seeds, your plant doesn’t survive What about moving endangered plants? How might • To win, a player must have enough seeds to moving plants affect ecosystems? Do you have any fulfill their Plant Card requirement AND have new ideas on how restoration ecologists might help the most seeds overall native plants survive climate change? It is hard to predict how individual plant species will 3 be affected by climate change. Plant life cycle strategies can help you start to speculate. Taking It Further Class discussion: Do you think all plants will be af- Research and report back to the class about the plant 4 fected by changing climate equally? Why or why group on your Plant Card. New scientific research not? Do you think humans should move plants to is giving us updated information all the time. What expand their range, or into new types of habitats, in news can you find out about how climate change is an attempt to help plants cope with climate shifts? If affecting this specific plant species or general plant type (e.g., wetland plants)?

210 Plant Migration Game: A Race Between Plants and Climate Change

In the Field! Look for a native plant population that appears to be limited to growing within specific micro-abiotic factors on the landscape (read about micro-abiotic factors in the background information in An Ecosystem Through an Artist’s Eye lesson). How might this plant population be enhanced or inhibited by climate change? Is it possible that this plant could expand/contract its population at this site because of changing climate? Be prepared to support your ideas.

Science Inquiry Climate change data is being recorded daily by citizen scientists throughout the world in one of several phenology observation programs (see Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World lesson). The records kept by Henry David Thoreau at Walden Pond in the mid 1800’s have proven to be invaluable for climate change scientists who have used them to discover that not all species in a given area respond the same way to climate change. Research the results that have been found from Thoreau’s observations and use them to inspire you to collect your own data that may become very relevant to scientists and decision makers someday. Consider adopting your favorite native plant or natural area and observing and recording its phenology data over a long period of time. Keep your data in a special field journal devoted to this plant. Try to observe the start and end date of bud break, bloom, seed set, and leaf fall or dormancy. It will be extremely important to keep record of the location where you collected your data, and to continue to collect data every year for as long as possible. Though your sample size will be very small (only one plant!), in future years your data could help track plant species range changes, as well as climate related phenology changes. If you are able to collect data over a long period of years or decades, watch for trends in your data and share them with others.

Reflection Choose a native species from your area. It can be your favorite, or just one you would like to learn more about. Write a paragraph that describes how you think it might respond to climate change. Through observation or research find out how your plant is pollinated, how it disperses seeds, and what conditions it lives in. All of these factors can be used to support your idea. Write how you feel about climate change and the fact that nature as we know it is changing during your lifetime because of human impacts. How does this make you feel? Does it motivate you to live in a certain way?

211 Plant Migration Game: A Race Between Plants and Climate Change

Self Assessments Resources Discuss the impacts that affected • U. S. Global Change Research Program, Climate Literacy: The Essential 1 the success of your species dur- Principles of Climate Sciences: http://globalchange.gov/resources/edu- ing the game. cators/climate-literacy Name three potential impacts of • University of Washington Climate Impacts Group, information about 2 a warmer climate on plants. climate change in the PNW: http://cses.washington.edu/cig/ Identify one or more positive • U.S. Global Change Research Program, general and regional climate infor- 3 impacts of a warmer climate on mation: http://globalchange.gov plants. Describe why certain types of 4 plants may adapt more rapidly than others to changing conditions.

212

Pitcherplant Bull thistle Ponderosa pine Tufted hairgrass Darlingtonia californica Cirsium vulgare Pinus ponderosa Deschampsia cespitosa

Status: rare Status: invasive Status: common Status: common Habitat: bog Habitat: open areas Habitat: dry forest Habitat: wetland Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and reproduce - 13 reproduce - 1 reproduce - 9 reproduce - 8

Partridgefoot Oregon oak Evergreen huckleberry Trillium Luetkea pectinata Quercus garryana Vaccinium ovatum Trillium ovatum

Status: common Status: common Status: common Status: common Habitat: alpine meadow Habitat: dry upland Habitat: coniferous forest Habitat: moist woods Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and Seeds needed to survive and reproduce - 7 reproduce - 10 reproduce - 6 reproduce - 5 Game of a Plant’s Life Game of a Plant’s Life Section 7: The Future of Native Plants Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game You must be the change you wish to see in the world. —Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) Overview Time Estimate: This is a role-playing game based on issues in Oregon ecosystems man- 45-60 minutes agement and conservation. Three scenarios are available to explore different issues that pertain to different ecoregions of the state. Students Best Season: develop roles, form an opinion that reflects their position, and defend all their position during the game. This game exposes students to understanding and cultivating empathy for differing viewpoints on controversial issues, and helps prepare students for future stewardship decisions. Teacher Hints goal is that students will come to Scenarios are designed to be • have empathy for all sides of each relevant for different geographic Assessments issue, regardless of their position. areas of the state. We suggest Students participate in role- the following: eastside non-forest • Establish clear guidelines of 1 playing in a positive and pro- land, To Fence or Not to Fence. acceptable behavior in role- ductive way. Forested sites all ecoregions, playing games. Controversial Students state their opinion on Forests and Humans: Balancing issues can and often do lead to 2 a controversial environmental Current and Future Generations. strong feelings and arguments; subject and give one or more Urban areas, western valleys, and it is important that no one feels reasons to back up their opinion. coastal areas, Land Use Planning intimidated. As part of the de- briefing at the end of the game, Students demonstrate empathy vs. Endangered Species. consider adding discussion by listening to differing view- To make role-playing productive: 3 • about handling such issues in real points and demonstrate respect- keep discussion focused and make life situations. ful disagreement. objectives clear to the students. Students need productive • For larger groups, print out feedback from the teacher multiple copies of roles or create and/or peers, and the freedom additional roles of your own. For Additional Information to explore alternate roles. smaller groups leave out some Resource lists included with each Students need to listen to other roles, but be sure to balance of the three scenarios viewpoints, weigh all sides of the both sides of the issue. Students issue, and form an opinion. The reluctant to participate in oral projects could pair up as teams.

Preparation • Print out the roles and character • Extend this lesson with additional worksheet for each student. research, and writing a persuasive • Have students read, or read paper in support of your opinion. aloud the role playing scenario completely before starting.

217 Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game You must be the change you wish to see in the world. —Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) Overview Explore a local issue surrounding ecosystem management and conservation topics through a non-judgmental role-playing game. Develop and play your role at a mock planning meeting and in the end, weigh all sides and form your own opinion. Scenarios are: Land Use Planning vs. Endangered Species, To Fence or Not to Fence: Grazing and Riparian Areas; and Forests and Humans: Balancing Current and Future Generations. Background Information Learning Objectives If you read, listen or watch the news all responsible for natural resource you can’t help but hear stories of management and each decision we • Examine values and conflict over environmental issues make can consider all kinds of fu- beliefs in controversial (e.g., the Endangered Species Act, ture impacts, including economic, environmental issues water quality issues, or climate social, cultural, and environmental. • Explore diverse opinions change) which are frequently out in It is said that native peoples took in a safe environment front of the public. In your commu- into consideration the impact of through role-playing nity, there may be conflict over the all decisions on the next seven • Gain insight into prob- management of native ecosystems generations. How do we form our lem solving skills, using that have people with very strong opinions when making steward- defined steps to analyze opinions pitted against one another ship decisions? Often we fall back the process in what seems like a feud of monu- on our values—an individual’s • Exercise the process of mental proportions. How do these standard of right and wrong, or being an informed citi- issues become such conflicts? In those of our families. Factors such zen and making personal Oregon, with our natural resource as economics, education, politics, stewardship decisions and agriculturally-based economy spiritual beliefs, and culture all go and our incredible biodiversity, into forming our values. As you can • Learn ways to become conflicts can arise when the liveli- involved in local policy hood or safety of people feels issues threatened by the conservation of Materials Needed natural resources and vice versa. V ocabulary Words There are no right or wrong stewardship role handouts • • answers to the issues in this ac- • scenario sheets • riparian tivity. The main purpose of this clearcut role-playing game is to provide an • opportunity to explore viewpoints • fuels reduction on controversial environmental • forest thinning issues in a non-judgmental atmo- wildfire sphere. Begin by considering what • prescribed burn environmental stewardship means. • It is generally defined as the con- • urban growth boundary cept of responsible caretaking, or (UGB) management of the environment • Endangered Species Act for future generations. Under this (ESA) definition of stewardship we are 218 Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game

Background Information, continued imagine, this complex stew of values that they bring different values to will give you time to organize your can make reaching an agreement on the table, and that most people thoughts, listen to different sides of environmental issues difficult, and generally want to do what they feel the issue, and weigh all the infor- often requires diplomacy and com- is the “right” thing. mation before forming your own promise between all the parties How does role-playing help you to opinion on a controversial environ- involved. Practice listening to the work through controversial sub- mental subject. viewpoints of others; understand jects? This role-playing exercise

Directions This activity has no right or wrong answers. It is de- and explain rules of the meeting. Audience members 1 signed to help you evaluate your own feelings, and will give a brief (3-4 minutes) presentation represent- form your own personal viewpoint while listening to ing their character’s opinion on the issue and how and weighing the differing viewpoints of others. You they feel it should be resolved. Commissioners can will gain the most by participating fully, but relax and ask questions and take notes to help them make a final view the role-playing as a learning experience. Ask decision at the end of the meeting. questions as needed to clarify your understanding, At the conclusion of the meeting, call a brief recess. At but respect the opinions of others. The purpose of this this time the board will meet privately to reach their activity is to get everyone involved and thinking about 5 joint decision. During the board recess, conduct a poll the friction that can arise over environmental concerns of audience members. Vote as you would personally between different segments of our society and how (not your character) decide, after weighing all the pre- you will address and resolve these issues in your future. sentations during the meeting. Student roles: Have the board announce their final decision and rea- 2 • 3-5 students will act as the planning board 6 sons. Tally the audience vote; does it agree or disagree (decision makers), with one appointed or with the board decision? elected chairperson for the group Class discussion: Is there any part of this conflict that • remaining students will be the audience par- 7 both sides of the issue can agree on? What values do ticipants both sides share? How might people’s values influence Read over the scenario and clarify any questions within their viewpoint? How do you recognize bias? How 3 your class before starting. You will be handed a role would you weigh information to determine bias? Do and a worksheet; take 10 minutes to develop your char- you recognize how your values have influenced your acter’s background and values. You can work individual- decisions? What have you learned through partici- ly or discuss this with others, but the background sheet pating in this meeting? Do you think it has improved should reflect your character and not your personal your listening skills, why or why not? Values and prior viewpoint. Play your role as accurately as possible; real- knowledge will shape your first impressions; did any ize that it may not mirror your own viewpoint, but do of the presentations cause you to change your first im- your best to empathize (walk in your character’s shoes). pression? How successful do you think a solution will Start the game: the setting is a planning board or task be if it requires people to change or compromise their 4 force meeting (the board will sit together as a panel). values? Look at the issue; what do you think would Audience participants sit facing the panel. The chair- happen if no decision is made? Do you see any paral- person will call the meeting to order, read the scenario, lels between this local issue and larger global issues?

219 Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game

Taking It Further • Read a current article about a controversial environ- • Become involved with a local issue. Participate in mental issue taking place in your community. Analyze public hearings, and planning commission meetings, the article for bias; is it a balanced portrayal of the or write a letter to your government representative issue or is it written from one perspective? Identify or the local paper. Express your opinion, back your other positions that might not have been addressed. opinion with examples, propose a solution(s) to the problem – don’t just complain.

In the Field! Get involved with planning in your town. Take a tour of your town’s urban growth boundary (UGB). Invite someone from the planning department to go with you or make a stop at the planning department as part of your trip. Ask them to talk about the UGB, when was it last expanded, what criteria is used to identify new lands, and has there been any controversy surrounding the UGB in your town? Ask them to show you maps of present, past, and proposed changes. Or, study the current issues that your local watershed council or local land use planning council is exploring. Attend a council meeting and testify on behalf of any positions you feel strongly about.

Science Inquiry Read and analyze a scientific paper based on an endangered species monitoring study. Ask your librarian to help locate a paper, or search websites such as Google Scholar using the genus and species names of your species of interest. Read the paper with an analytical eye; identify the question or hypothesis of the research, how the hypothesis was tested, and what procedures they followed. Read the results and conclusion. Write a short summary of the research and your analysis. Was the research well done or not? Explain your reasoning. Was the conclusion supported by the data? Explain your reasoning.

Reflection Reflect on the definition of stewardship: what does it mean to you personally? Do you feel that you have a responsibility as a citizen to help make decisions on land management issues? How can an individual’s actions make a difference to their community; to the world? Identify a stewardship decision you make that could affect someone in another part of the world. Do you think the role-playing activity will change the way that you make decisions in the future? Explain your reasoning.

220 Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game

Self Assessments Resources Participate in the role-playing activity in a positive and See individual scenarios for recommended resources 1 productive way; researching, presenting, and discussing material within your character’s role. Listen and weigh others’ opinions and demonstrate 2 respectful disagreement. State your opinion on the subject and give at least one 3 reason to back up the opinion.

221 Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game

Scenario 1 To Fence or Not to Fence: Grazing and Riparian Areas

Setting: A government task force to discuss regulating live- congregate around water sources, grazing and tram- stock access to streams. pling stream bank vegetation. This can cause gullies at stream crossings, promote erosion, and increase water Background: temperatures by reducing shade. Sage City is a small town (population 2,000) in rural Eastern Oregon that is home to a mix of people, Differing Viewpoints both inside city limits and in the surrounding rural In recent years, a conservation organization has areas. Citizens include workers from a wood prod- purchased a couple of old ranches in the Sage City ucts manufacturing business that has attracted new area, with plans to restore the native ecosystems. families to the area, the ranching community, and Its priority is to restore riparian areas and improve needed service and support people. The city is water quality in the streams that run through the served by a school district that draws both from the properties. The restoration will provide habitat for town and from rural constituents. In recent years, fish, wildlife and songbirds, with the long-term goal Sage City has attracted a growing retired popula- to improve stream water quality and fish populations. tion, which has relocated to enjoy the outdoor recre- The ranching community is in favor of improved ation opportunities. stream quality, but has concerns with the methods the organization is proposing. By implicating their live- Problem: stock as the cause of damage, they feel they are being Riparian areas throughout much of the open range- unfairly blamed for the problem. In addition, ranch- land in the area lack suitable vegetation critical for ers fear that the restoration efforts will encourage stream bank stabilization and to provide shade, which predatory wildlife such as wolves and coyotes that strongly influences water quality and therefore fish will harass and kill their livestock. Management efforts and wildlife habitat. Vegetation can filter chemical to keep livestock out of riparian areas could require pollutants, prevent erosion and excess particulate fencing off riparian areas, and potentially developing matter, and modify stream temperatures, all which are new water sources for their livestock. This is a financial important for clean water and suitable fish habitat. burden that many of the ranchers feel they cannot Past water quality improvement efforts have focused afford with present meat prices, on controlling large source pollutants such as factory forcing them to stop ranching. discharge, erosion from logging and agricul- This is a problem not only with ture, and sewage. This has improved livestock on ranches but also overall water quality, but further livestock on federal land under improvements have stalled. More grazing leases. In fact, public recent efforts have focused on lands may be more affected be- non-point source pollution (run cause there is little or no incen- off from urban, suburban, and tive to upkeep the land. rural locations). Livestock grazing has been identified as a major The Community: non-point source pollutant for At present there are no state eastern Oregon. Livestock tend to or federal laws regulating 222 Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game

Scenario 1: To Fence or Not to Fence: Grazing and Riparian Areas, continued livestock damage to streams. Both the manufactur- Landowners/managers: ing and timber industries are required to comply retired small acreage homesteader with water quality regulations, so Sage City’s wood • products manufacturing is regulated as is the timber • tribal land manager – with interest in restoring fish industry that supplies them. Other connections can populations be through properties that generate taxes for ser- • cattle rancher/landowner vices or supply businesses, and recreational income wheat farmer that comes into the area. Everyone in the community • homeowner (in town) employed in manufacturing is connected in one way or another and decisions will • have a ripple effect throughout. Recreational Interest: The Decision: • outdoor recreationist (canoeing and camping) Should livestock access to riparian areas be regulat- • hunter ed? Yes or no. If so, what should the regulations be? Conservation Groups: Stakeholders • restoration ecologist from conservation organization Science and Government: • member of conservation organization – retired school principal BLM rangeland manager • member of a group protesting land use limitations • Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife biologist • • teacher with a spouse/partner that is a rancher Other Interests: • invasive species specialist • high school student (graduating senior) wild card – make your own role Business and Labor: • • local livestock feed store owner Resource Information: • sheep rancher with federal grazing lease • Negative Effects of Livestock Grazing Riparian Areas: • fly fishing and rafting guide http://ohioline.osu.edu/ls-fact/0002.html small business grocery store owner • Public Rangelands: Some Riparian Areas Restored • But Widespread Improvement Will Be Slow: http:// owner of wood products manufacturing business • archive.gao.gov/d16t6/136218.pdf large animal veterinarian • • Oregon Dept. of Environmental Quality-water qual- • local organic farmer ity pages: http://www.oregon.gov/DEQ/WQ/ • Do an internet search to find current information on your chosen topic.

223 Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game

Scenario 2 Land Use Planning vs. Endangered Species: Expanding the Urban Growth Boundary (UGB) Setting: within the flight range of the endangered butterfly. A city planning commission meeting This means that the threatened plant population could be key to the endangered butterfly’s recovery. It also Background: could mean that future discovery of the butterfly on Oak Valley is a town with a population of 100,000 lands within the UGB would require development in the densely populated area of Western Oregon. to comply with the Federal Endangered Species Act The city has been growing at a steady rate and at (ESA). This could result in restrictions on development, the last review of the City’s comprehensive plan, it or complications, and added cost to development. was decided that they needed to expand the urban growth boundary (UGB). The UGB is an Oregon Land DifferingV iewpoints: Conservation and Development Commission (LCDC) The city would like to approve the UGB and continue program designed to limit urban sprawl, and protect on with their expansion plans. They have already agricultural and forest lands from development. It spent thousands of dollars to work on feasibility stud- requires cities to designate a boundary of future ies and feel they have put together the best plan for growth, within which there is sufficient land to meet the city. To modify or change their plans at this point residential, industrial, commercial, and recreational would require spending additional tax money which needs for a projected 20 year plan of development. could be better used to supply much needed social The city is required to revisit their development plan services (e.g., schools, police). every 5-7 years and to adjust their UGB to reflect the On the flip side, environmental groups are frustrated changes from these periodic reviews. The town has that the city would makes plans that risk damaging determined the UGB needs to be expanded. It has critical butterfly habitat. They feel the city should cut financed an extensive study to identify appropriate their losses and start over in their UGB planning. They lands to include in the expansion. It has considered feel that the expenses are minimal to protect endan- the cost and feasibility of extending city services, gered species and are prepared to fight this issue. included enough buildable land (both residential and The Community: commercial), and incorporated the city transportation Everyone in this community is connected in one way or plans to handle twenty years of projected growth. another to this issue, and decisions will have a ripple Problem: effect throughout Oak Valley. Limiting The new land planned for inclusion into future growth could discourage new the UGB includes a rather large popula- employers, limit tax revenue, and impact tion of a threatened plant species that is social services. Taking away potential the host plant for an endangered but- butterfly habitat could irreparably dam- terfly found only in this region. Surveys age the species’ chances for recovery, have not found any butterflies associated permanently removing a key species with the host plants on this particular from the local ecosystem. Allowing fu- property, but a known population does ture growth could permanently degrad- exist within a two-mile radius of the site, ing the environment as well as create 224 Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game

Scenario 2: Land Use Planning vs. Endangered Species, continued sprawl, reducing the rural character of the outskirts Conservation Groups: of the city. If the issue is not resolved, it may require national wildlife organization representative court action that potentially could be very costly for all • parties and persist for years. Time is of the essence for • land conservancy non-profit representative both parties. The Decision: Should the urban growth boundary Other Interests: (UGB) expansion be approved or not? • high school student • attorney that defends one of the parties interest Stakeholders • land zoning advocate Science and Government: • wild card – make your own role • Oak Valley city planning commission member Resources Information: US Fish and Wildlife biologist • US Fish and Wildlife Endangered Species page: • http://www.fws.gov/endangered/pubs/index.html Oak Valley Mayor • Inside the Boundaries—pamphlet on Oregon zoning LCDC commission member • • laws: http://www.flu.oregon.gov/LCD/docs/ Business and Labor publications/insideboundaries.pdf • solar panel manufacturer with a new business hoping • Putting the People in Planning; a Primer on Public to locate in the UGB Participation in Planning: http://www.lcd.state.or.us/ LCD/docs/publications/putting_the_people_in_ • restaurant owner planning.pdf • small business owner that needs to expand but can- • Do an internet search to find current information on not find a location your chosen topic. • housing developer Landowners/managers: • land owner within the proposed UGB • land owner outside of UGB • tribal land manager from adjacent lands Recreational Interest: • naturalist, local birder, and hiker • community parks advocate • skate park skateboarder

225 . Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game

Scenario 3: Forests and Humans: Balancing Current and Future Generations Choose a topic that best fits a current forest issue in Problem: your ecoregion. Resolve conflicting ideas in managing forests for multiple uses. Topic Ideas: Is Thinning Essential to Forest Health? DifferingV iewpoints: • For years there have been bitter arguments over forest Forest Wildfires: Suppression or Let it Burn? • management in the Pacific Northwest, pitting industry • After a Fire: Replanting or Natural Revegetation? against conservation. Hot button topics have revolved • Clearcutting: Healthy or Unhealthy? around endangered species such as the northern spot- • Sustainable Forest Harvest: Short-term vs. Long-term ted owl; marbled murrelet; salmon; fire; old growth Gains forests; and the economic uses of the forest. Other current topics could include: protection of Historic forest management practices have come old growth forests, protecting watersheds, managing into question with new scientific discoveries. Is clear ecosystems, forest fragmentation, road building, and cutting a good idea? Is reforesting by planting single carbon sequestering to buffer climate change. tree species sustainable? Wood products are essential to our everyday lives, and forests supply jobs, Setting: but how do we manage them to maintain health and a town hall style debate resources for future generations? Background: In more recent years the public is becoming more aware of the vast array of ecosystem services that Oregon is a state of abundant forests. These forests forests provide, including water filtration, air puri- are made up of a mosaic of federal, fication, carbon sequestration, climate moderation, state, private and tribal ownerships. and erosion control, among others. Forests are also They are made up of natural areas, as valued for recreation, cultural, and aesthetic values. well as forests that are actively man- This adds up to a lot of potentially conflicting uses for aged for economic gains from wood a finite resource. products, non-timber forest products, recreation, and ecosystem The Community: services among others. With Everyone in Oregon, directly or indirectly, has a stake in all these different factors of the decisions that are made to manage our forests. These ownership and manage- decisions affect jobs, the local economy, forest health ment, forests have and safety, a clean environment, and human enjoyment. in recent years have often been The Decision: at the center of What is the best way to manage our forests for cur- controversy. rent and future generations?

226 Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game

Scenario 3: Forests and Humans: Balancing Current and Future Generations, continued Stakeholders: Conservation Groups radical conservationist/tree sitter (e.g. Earth First!) Science and Government • • moderate conservation club member (e.g. Sierra club, • U.S. Forest Service employee Nature Conservancy) • Oregon Department of Forestry fire suppression manager Other Interests: restoration ecologist • wild cards”—make up your own role that represents • your community • local town planning commission member • BLM logging contract advisor • US Fish and Wildlife biologist Resource Information: Oregon State University forestry researcher • Environmental Issues in Pacific Northwest Forest • Management. National Academy of Science: http:// Business and Labor www.nap.edu/openbook.php?isbn=0309053285 • logging company owner • Oregon Forests Values and Beliefs Study, June 2010: paper mill manager http://www.oregonohv.org/ODF/BOARD/docs/ • OFRI_VB_Study_2010/OFRI_2010_VB_Executive_ • outdoor store employee Summary_June_2010.pdf?ga=t • international wood products company board member • Oregon Department of Forestry: Landowner/manager http://www.oregon.gov/ODF/index.shtml Do an internet search to find current information on homeowner on the forest/town interface • • your chosen topic. • tribal land manager of adjacent tribe-owned land • small woodland owner Recreational Interests • wilderness hiker and camper • avid fly fisher • outdoor photographer • deer/elk hunter

227 Nobody Right, Nobody Wrong: A Role-Playing Game

Role Development Sheet

Your Name Scenario Title Name of your character: Age: Gender:

Briefly describe your fictional self (work, hobbies, home, fam- How does the issue affect your fictional life (economics, poli- ily, values). tics, ethics, etc.)? Does it conflict with any of your values?

Do you support or oppose the issue (in character)? Give reasons to support your position (in character).

Role Development Sheet

Your Name Scenario Title Name of your character: Age: Gender:

Do you support or oppose the issue (in character)? Give reasons to support your position (in character).

228 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Can’t Live Without ‘Em Uniformity is not nature’s way; diversity is nature’s way. —Vandana Shiva (1952-present))

Overview Time Estimate: In this lesson students will explore biodiversity, global endemic hotspots one or two sessions and ecosystem services. Students will conduct a schoolyard plant di- (45-90 minutes) versity survey. Extend or build on the activity to learn about ecosystem service concepts and to explore a science inquiry question about biodi- Best Season: versity. spring/fall Teacher Hints • Have students work in teams of • For step #5 of the student two, with one spotter and one directions: follow the protocols Assessments recorder, for conducting a plant in the Plant Press activity or diversity survey on the school use green leaves and adhere Define biodiversity and describe grounds. Assign student teams them to the butcher paper with 1 why it is important. to work in different areas to get a contact paper. What is a biodiversity hotspot? good representation of plant life 2 What is the nearest biodiversity on the school grounds. hotspot to where you live? Demonstrate or describe a 3 method of measuring and calcu- Preparation lating plant diversity. • Use a map to help the students types (landscaped, lawn, weedy, Compare and analyze the results visualize the entire schoolyard. or others if you have them). To 4 of two or more plant diversity • Decide on areas of the school make the calculations of different surveys. grounds to use for the plant types of diversity easier, select diversity survey. Mark particular areas likely to have between 5 sites or areas for students to and 15 species present. Pre-mark Additional Information choose from. Spread the surveys these sites on a map or help the over an assortment of vegetation students to locate their site on • Ecosystem Services: A Primer. the map when they return. Links to ecosystem services background articles and lessons appropriate for high school students: http://www.actionbioscience.org/environment/esa.html • Nature’s Services, article about the value of ecosystem services: http://www.rand.org/scitech/ stpi/ourfuture/NaturesServices/ section1.html

229 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Can’t Live Without ‘Em Uniformity is not nature’s way; diversity is nature’s way. —Vandana Shiva (1952-present)) Overview In this activity, you will explore biodiversity, global endemic hotspots and ecosystem services. Conduct a schoolyard plant diversity survey and learn about the concept of ecosystems services while exploring a science inquiry question about biodiversity. Background Information Learning Objectives Have you ever considered that Biodiversity encompasses the vari- the food you eat for breakfast is ety of all living things and includes • Define the terms biodiver- brought to you each morning by the diversity of species, the genetic sity and hotspot the wind that pollinated the grass- diversity within species, and the • Conduct a simple plant es that produced the grains that diversity of ecosystems that these diversity inventory make up your cereal, or that the species call home. Scientists esti- • Gather, analyze, and pres- clear, cold, clean water you drink mate that the Earth is home to 10- ent data every day may have been purified 30 million species, but have named • Understand the concept of for you by a wetland or perhaps and cataloged only a fraction of ecosystem services, name the root system of an entire for- that number so far. Oregon alone several, and discuss their est? Trees in your schoolyard cap- is home to an estimated 4,000 spe- biological and economic ture dust, dirt, and harmful gases cies(1). Advances in DNA sequenc- values from the air you breathe. The ing and knowledge of the genetic bright fire of oak logs you light code continue to open up new Materials Needed to keep warm on cold nights and worlds of organisms that have yet to the medicine you take to quell the be identified. map of the schoolyard • pain of a headache come to you 4-meter string loop (one How do scientists measure bio- • from nature’s warehouse of ser- for each survey team) diversity? They evaluate the two vices. Natural ecosystems perform primary components of diversity clipboard and data sheet • fundamental life-support services in the field, which are species • butcher paper upon which human civilization de- richness and species evenness. • optional: toothpicks, field pends. Unless human activities are Species richness guides, plant press, adhe- carefully planned and managed, refers to sive contact paper valuable ecosystems will continue the to be impaired or destroyed. total V ocabulary Words Through the intricate processes in num- biodiversity ecosystems, biodiversity provides ber of • clean air, water, food, medicine, endemic different spe- • shelter and a wealth of interac- cies an area hotspot • tions between species that keep supports, but • ecosystem services an ecosystem functioning and does not take percent cover healthy. In addition, biodiversity into ac- • provides us with recreational op- count portunities, aesthetic beauty, and the cultural and spiritual connections num- for the human soul. 230 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Can’t Live Without ‘Em

Background Information, continued These services, as well as pol- for decomposition and nutrient ber of individuals of each species. lination, climate modification, cycling? Soil fertility would no In this measure, a single individual nutrient cycling, and many longer be naturally renewed. carries as much weight as a spe- more, are collectively called If farming or timber produc- cies with many individuals. Species ecosystem services. They tion in the area were neces- evenness refers to the relative are provided by rich bio- sary, what would it cost to abundance of each species pres- diversity, the interactions remove materials that would ent. Consider a meadow with 30 between species, and healthy not be broken down and to species present. It has a species ecosystems. Essential ecosystem continuously apply fertilizer? richness of 30. Its species even- services are listed below. Alternatively, if pollinators declined ness would be assessed by how water filtration dramatically, what would it cost many individuals of each of the 30 • cherry farmers that are dependent species were present. If there were • carbon sequestration flood control on having their trees pollinated to 1,000 of one species, and only one • produce a crop? of each of the other 29 species, the • drought mitigation meadow would have low species • air purification Studying the fossil record, pale- evenness. A community with one nutrient cycling ontologists have noted continual • extinctions of species over the or two species dominating is con- recreation sidered less diverse than a com- • history of the earth, but recently pollination of crops and native the extinction rate appears to be munity in which all 30 species have • species a similar abundance. As species rapidly increasing. This loss of bio- • moderation of weather extremes diversity could have huge impacts richness and evenness increase, so moderation of climate does species diversity. • on the ecosystem services on which • medicine sources humans rely. What factors lead to How do biodiversity and healthy maintain genetic diversity biodiversity loss? Habitat loss, in ecosystems provide ecosystem • disperse seeds which humans change natural eco- services? Let’s use the example of • prevent erosion systems by farming, filling wetlands, plants. They provide the oxygen • changing water courses, and gener- that we need to breathe, and they • decompose wastes renew soil fertility ally expanding the human footprint, take up and store carbon from • is a primary cause. Habitat loss can the atmosphere. We depend on protection from harmful ultravio- • let rays also occur naturally through volca- plants to provide our food, either nic activity, wildfire, and individual control of agricultural pests directly (such as fruits, vegetables, • species loss to disease or competi- and grains) or indirectly, as food regulate disease-carrying organ- tion. Additional factors that dimin- • isms for animals that provide meat ish biodiversity include climate and dairy products. Plants can • capture energy through photo- change, the proliferation of invasive work to mitigate the impacts of synthesis species, the overuse of resources, drought by helping to hold mois- Assigning monetary values to and pollution (2). ture within the soil, and moderate ecosystem services can be chal- In the discussion of worldwide bio- floods through plant roots stabi- lenging. For example, what if acid lizing soil to prevent erosion and diversity loss, you may come across rain or another disaster sterilized the term “biodiversity hotspot”. landslides. Plants also filter our the soil over a large area of farm- water by taking up pollutants and To be designated a biodiversity land or forestland, eliminating soil hotspot, an area must be home to trapping them in their biomass. fungi and microorganisms essential 231 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Can’t Live Without ‘Em

Background Information, continued a high level of biodiversity, includ- In addition, the World Wildlife protect the biodiversity that we ing more than 1500 endemic plant Fund named the Siskiyou Bioregion have, beginning at home. You can species, and it must have lost 70% as one of 200 global hotspots on contribute to preserving biodi- or more of the original vegetation, Earth. The Klamath-Siskiyou area versity by choosing to live a more putting it under significant threat. alone is home to 131 native plants sustainable life, decreasing use The global non-profit organization found nowhere else. The region of fossil fuels, conserving water, Conservation International lists 34 is likely so diverse because it is a recycling, and gardening. Become hotspots worldwide. The California mixing pot between 5 major biotic an informed citizen and use your Floristic Province is a biodiversity regions: the Great Basin, Coast voice and vote to educate and hotspot in North America. This Range, Cascades, Sierra Nevada lead. On a community-wide level, hotspot extends from Baja Califor- and Central Valley of California(4). protect wild areas, work to restore nia into southern Oregon, in the Although the concept of a biodi- degraded habitats, and support Klamath Mountain ecoregion, also versity hotspot may sound grim, ecological education and sustain- called the Siskiyou Mountains (3). there is much that can be done to able development.

Directions Discussion: What does “biodiversity” mean? (Hint: ensure you only measure percent cover for each 1 Break the word into parts to help formulate a defini- species once. Alternately, you can use a marker like tion). Why do you think biodiversity is important in a toothpick stuck in the ground or yarn tied to the an ecosystem? How is biodiversity an indicator of plant to designate the species that you have already the health of the environment? Explain your reason- measured. Include mosses and lichens. ing. How does the reduction of biodiversity harm the Calculate the Simpson’s diversity index (D) for your environment? How is it bad for humans? Can you think 4 plot. Use the following equation for Simpson’s index of any positive things that come from the reduction of diversity: of biodiversity? Think about your own habitat. Would Diversity (D) = 1 – {sum (p(i)2)} you consider it biodiverse; why or why not? where p(i) = the proportional abundance of species i For this activity, focus on measuring plant diversity in 2 your schoolyard. Work in teams of two to measure the You can use either decimal or percentage values; both diversity of plants using a meter square (or a 4-meter will come out the same. If species i has cover of 78% string tied into a loop and staked into a square) (See and the total cover is 140%, then p(i) is 78/140 = 0.55 Appendix VIII). Each team will measure a different area or 0.78/1.40 = 0.55 of the schoolyard that will yield different results. Square each p(i) value, add up all the p(i)2’s, subtract Spread the square-meter plot on the ground and the total from 1, and you have your diversity index. 3 estimate the percent cover of different species of In this index of species diversity, D ranges from 1 to 0, plants or plant-like organisms that are living within with 1 representing infinite diversity and 0 represent- the square. For this it might be easiest to have ing no diversity(1). In the example in the table below, one person estimate cover and the other record you may have the following species composition in the results. It is not essential to know the name of your plot, where you found one grass, two things that the plants (although this is helpful). To record the looked like daisies but were clearly two different spe- species, take a digital photo or draw a sketch to cies, and one shrub: 232 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Can’t Live Without ‘Em

Directions, continued plants together: tree, shrub, grasses, broadleaf herba- Species Percent p(i) p(i)2 cover ceous, mosses, and so on, with the sample of the leaves. grass #1 40 % (40/130)=0.307 (0.307)2=0.094 Extra Credit: Identify the plants at your site. Label daisy #1 15 % (15/130)=0.115 (0.115)2=0.013 6 with scientific and common name. Are they native or daisy #2 40 % (40/130)=0.307 (0.307)2=0.094 non-native? shrub #1 35 % (35/130)=0.269 (0.269)2=0.072 Return to the classroom and add your site location to Sum 130% 0.273 7 the schoolyard map. Record the species richness and species diversity of your plot on the map. When all 1 - 0.273 = 0.727 the teams have added their data to the map, discuss Diversity (D) = 0.727 the results. Do the most diverse plots also have the greatest species richness? Discuss the difference The final number may seem abstract but remember this between diversity and richness. is a relative measure. It lets you know how diverse your Make a graph of the class results (plot number, species plot is between no diversity (0) and infinite diversity (1). diversity, and species richness). Which teams have the In our case, our diversity is 0.727. This may seem high 8 highest diversity? Which the lowest? Do the numbers since we only had four species but evenness plays a role correlate to any patterns that you observed on the as well. Note that our species composition was relative- school grounds (landscaped areas vs. native areas)? Do ly even, with no one species dominating completely. For humans influence the abundance or diversity of plant comparison, use the same four species but change it so life? Explain your reasoning. Do you think native plant one species is at 91% and the other three are at 3% and diversity and exotic plant diversity show the same pat- see how your diversity index changes. terns? Explain why or why not. You may also collect plant specimen samples in a plant 5 press. Use butcher paper to make a large chart of your findings. Hang all the plot sample charts for the class to Taking It Further compare results. A simple way to classify your findings is The ecosystem services concept puts an economic to divide the plants by category and press a leaf speci- value on the services that nature provides us (such as men from each. Record the results by grouping types of clean air, clean water, nutrient cycling, and so on) and from which we benefit. If people see the economic value of ecosystems, they will be more inclined to conserve and preserve them. • Research one of the ecosystem services listed in the background material for this lesson. Make a flashcard for your service using a 4x6 card. Write the name of the service on the front of the card. Answer the following questions on the back: 1) How does the service work in the natural world? 2) How does the service benefit humans? 3) What part do plants play in the service? 4) How much do you think this service is worth? Pool all the flashcards and create a game for the class to play. • Advanced discussion: Conservation policies often seem to be at odds with economic growth.

233 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Can’t Live Without ‘Em

Taking It Further, continued How could environmental policy and economic What kind of ecosystem services does your growth work together to sustain biodiversity? schoolyard provide? Can you calculate what How would this help focus conservation efforts these services may be worth? What do you think on biodiversity hotspots? What could be done the benefits and drawbacks are to assigning to preserve biodiversity in your ecoregion? monetary values to nature?

In the Field! Conduct an additional plant inventory to compare with your schoolyard inventory. Choose an invasive weedy site, a park, a natural area, an agricultural field, your backyard, or another area. Hang a large map of the local area and mark spots that have been surveyed. Compared to these additional sites, how diverse do you think your schoolyard is?

Science Inquiry Ask a question about a nearby landscape that can be investigated using the plant diversity survey protocol. Questions can be related to the plant forms that are associated with certain locations, the number of invasive plants found in cultivated and uncultivated locations, or the plant leaf forms found in sunny vs. shady locations. These are just examples of some of the questions that could have been generated by the schoolyard studies. See if you can come up with your own. Now write your question in a form that can be tested. Provide detail about the testing process (depending on your question) and if possible, follow through with the testing.

Reflection Should we be concerned about species extinctions? Why or why not? What is the status of biodiversity in your region, and are you concerned about it? Why? Do you think you should be concerned with the loss of species in remote biodiversity hotspots that most people will never see or visit? Explain your reasoning in an essay or poem or illustrate the result in a drawing or painting. Feeling musical? Write a song about biodiversity!

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Self Assessments Resources Define biodiversity and describe why it is important. • Information about worldwide biodiversity hotspots: 1 http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/Pages/de- What is a biodiversity hotspot? What is the nearest fault.aspx 2 biodiversity hotspot to where you live? • “Estimating Percent Cover” worksheet from the Demonstrate or describe a method of measuring and Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations lesson 3 calculating plant diversity. in this guide Compare and analyze the results of two or more plant 4 diversity surveys.

235 . Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants What we plant in the soil of contemplation, we shall reap in the harvest of action. —Meister Eckhart (1260-1328) Overview Time Estimate: Do any endangered species live in your backyard? Or perhaps we 2 sessions should say, do you live in the habitat of any threatened or endangered species? This lesson introduces the Endangered Species Act (ESA) Best Season: through the threatened, endangered, and rare plants of Oregon. Stu- winter / dents learn how to influence government decisions and voice opinions year ‘round on local rare species issues. Teacher Hints • See http://www.jigsaw.org/ for • In Part 2, use the field guide tips on implementing the jigsaw template sheet from the Cre- model. It is designed to reduce ate a Plant lesson. Can also be Assessments conflict, improve motivation, and adapted to include threatened Demonstrate a basic knowledge increase enjoyment of the learn- and endangered wildlife species. 1 of the ESA and understand how ing experience. citizens can be involved in shaping regulation of endangered species. Preparation Students recognize that threat- 2 ened and endangered plants • Jigsaw activity set-up: assign Discussion ideas: Explore person- and wildlife live in their ecore- students to core groups of four al opinions on the conservation gion, and can name at least one students. Groups need to include of rare species. Ask if students T & E plant species with which a mix of abilities, gender, and can name any of Oregon’s rare they share habitat. backgrounds. Have the members species. Do they know of any of the group count off by fours Write a supported opinion of the species from Oregon that have and these will become the sec- Endangered Species Act (ESA). gone extinct in the last 100-200 3 ondary expert working groups. years? What, if anything, hap- Additional Information • Each expert group will be a pens in an ecosystem when an research team. Give them class animal or plant species becomes • The Citizen’s Guide to the En- time to work together, making extinct? Should we do anything dangered Species Act: https:// sure all members of the group to protect and recover endan- www.givengain.com/unique/esc/ participate. gered species? How much effort upload/citizens_guide_esa.pdf • Conduct a pre-activity class and money should we spend to • Extinct and Extirpated Plants of discussion to assess prior knowl- keep species from going extinct? Oregon: http://www.npsoregon. edge and opinions of endan- Explore possible reasons to pro- org/kalmiopsis/kalmiopsis03/ka- gered species conservation. tect rare species (e.g., aesthetics, gan_vrilakas.pdf. moral reasons, ecosystem services, future medical discoveries). • United States Fish & Wildlife Service. Endangered species home page: http://www.fws.gov/ endangered/index.html

236 Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants What we plant in the soil of contemplation, we shall reap in the harvest of action —Meister Eckhart (1260-1328) Overview Do any endangered species live in your backyard? How would you feel if they did? This lesson introduces you to endangered, threatened and rare plants of Oregon. You will collaborate with your classmates to become familiar with the basics of the Endangered Species Act (ESA). You will learn how you can influence government decisions, and voice your opinions on local rare species issues. Background Information We often hear in the news of high As with most laws, the ESA can be Learning Objectives profile near-extinction wildlife challenging to parties on all sides of • Explore the federal species: the polar bear, California the issue. Private landowners with Endangered Species Act (ESA). condor, and gray wolf to name rare species on their property are • Learn how the public a few. Did you know that there often concerned about losing the input process works in are threatened, endangered and right to use their land as they like government actions (ESA at-risk species in Oregon too? All and fear that their property values process of listing a species). of Oregon’s ecoregions contain at will decline if endangered species • Find out about state laws least one, and in most cases sever- are present on their land. Conser- and conservation al, rare plant species. People living vation organizations are working to organizations that work to near rare species are frequently save rare species and their habitats preserve rare species. unaware that these species exist, and private lands provide critical and are often uninformed as to habitat for many species. Is there a • Learn about rare plant what has put the species in jeop- middle ground where private land- species in your ecoregion. ardy. Species rarity is often linked • Increase your technology to habitat loss among other things, based research skills. and shares the same causes that fuel the biodiversity decline. V ocabulary Materials Needed Federal and state laws protect • computer with internet ac- species that are listed as endan- Words cess for research gered or threatened. The pri- • extinct • copies of the ESA readings mary protection comes under the endangered species for jigsaw group activity • Federal Endangered Species Act threatened species • jigsaw question sheets (ESA), which is administered by • the United States Fish and Wildlife • candidate species Service (USFWS) and the National • rare Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). • extirpated The USFWS has the primary species of concern responsibility for terrestrial and • freshwater organisms, while the • endemic NMFS takes the lead on critical • de-listing marine species such as whales and down-listing anadromous fish such as salmon. •

237 Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants

Background Information, continued owners can feel safe from regula- where policy and science meet its components, and how it works to tions and species can still be saved? to work to recover endangered protect species. You will also have Investigating how the ESA works, species. During the first part of this an opportunity to design a better how public input can affect species activity you will gain a basic under- law that may be more effective at listings, and your role in shaping standing of the history of the ESA, saving species than the ESA. public policy is a way to learn about

Directions Part I: Jigsaw Activity You will be divided into groups of 4 students—your listing process is too slow, allowing species to lose critical 1 core group for the jigsaw activity. Each person in the numbers during the wait, and the program is too costly. core group will be responsible for learning one What do you think and why? Should money be spent sav- section of the information needed for the group as a ing individual endangered species or should it be spent to whole. The success of the group depends on each per- preserve and enhance entire ecosystems in peril? son doing their part. Part II: Apply your ESA knowledge to Oregon In your core group count off 1, 2, 3, and 4. All the There are rare plants in all of Oregon’s ecoregions. 2 number ones in the class will form an expert group 1 Many are listed under the Federal ESA, some are in the on the ESA Basics and History, twos will be the ESA process of applying for listing now, and yet others are Species Listing Process, threes will be ESA Critical listed under the State of Oregon ESA. Do you know Habitats and Habitat Conservation Plans, and fours what rare plants grow in your ecoregion? will be ESA Recovery and Delisting. Create a list of rare plants in your ecoregion. Include Each expert group will work together in class to the name of the plant (scientific and common) and its research its topic and answer a set of questions. Use 2 3 status under the Federal and/or State ESAs. A good the USFWS endangered species page http://www.fws. resource for creating this list is: http://oregonstate.edu/ gov/endangered/index.html as a starting point. Each ornhic/plants/searchspecies_basin.html. This website expert group may work on the questions together or lists rare plants by water basins. You can use an ecore- divide them up. Keep your answers brief and con- gion map to find the water basins in your ecoregion. cise. Come up with a creative way to share what you learned (draw a diagram, create a game, etc.) when On the webpage, each water basin has a drop down you return to your core group. list of T & E plant species with scientific and common names. Select “get field guide information” to get Return to your core group and take turns teaching each information about the plant and its other the key points you learned in your expert group. 4 regulatory status. Encourage your core group to ask questions during the presentations so everyone benefits from your research! Create a field guide page for one rare plant from your Be prepared to have your teacher test your knowledge 3 ecoregion (use the template on the basics of the ESA. 5 from Create-a-Plant). Have Discussion Extension—discuss the merits and pitfalls everyone in the class cover at of the ESA and any changes you think would improve 6 least one species so the class it. Common arguments about the ESA include: the law will end up with a field guide values endangered species over humans; the law does to all the rare plants of your not do enough to protect endangered species; the ESA ecoregion. 238 Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants

Directions: Part II, continued Taking It Further • Explore the Oregon Flora Project Atlas online map- As with any research project, be sure that you cite ping tool at http://www.oregonflora.org/ and map 4 your sources both for written content and photos. locations where your rare plant occurs. The mapping Write the citation information directly on your field tool will give you general locations that will be suffi- guide page. Keep track of the sources of your informa- cient for your purposes. Print out a map of your plant tion as you conduct your research. using the ecoregions base map and answer these • Additional sources: Oregon Threatened or Endan- questions: Does the plant occur in more than one gered Plant Field Guide http://oregonstate.edu/ornhic/ ecoregion? Are the sites clustered in certain areas, or plants/index.html-- click on Oregon Threatened or widely distributed over vast areas? See resource sec- Endangered Plant Field Guide and search by scientific tion for additional website tools to use for research name. This guide uses challenging vocabulary in the and mapping. descriptions and may require you to look up unfamiliar botanical terms. Assessments • Search by scientific name on the internet. Many rare plants that are Federally listed or are in the listing Demonstrate a basic working knowledge of the ESA. process will have extensive records of research, public 1 How can the public get involved in species listings? hearings, etc. associated with them. Use this informa- Write a paragraph expressing your opinion on an tion to fill in the missing parts of your field guide. In- 2 aspect of the Endangered Species Act. Support your clude the reasons why the plant is rare and a summary opinion with evidence or examples. of the steps to downlisting or delisting if a recovery Name one (or more) threatened or endangered plant plan has been completed. 3 species from your ecoregion. Use easy to understand language and define unfamil- 5 iar terms in your field guide so it will be easy for the general public to use. Complete your field guide page with a high-quality 6 picture (with proper copyright credits) or a color drawing and references. Assemble everyone’s pages to create a rare plant field 7 guide for your ecoregion.

239 Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants

In the Field! Invite a restoration ecologist to give your class a tour of a local restoration project. Ask them to tell you about the biodiversity of the area with special attention to rare or endangered species. What is the history of the area? How has it changed? Does the area support any endangered plants? What are some of the threats to ecosystems? How are local restoration projects working to support biodiversity?

Science Inquiry Read a scientific paper about the Endangered Species Act or endangered species monitoring as it pertains to an Oregon species (flora or fauna). Read the paper critically. Does it cite other references? What is the quality of the referenced material? Has the paper been peer reviewed? Oregon has at least two high profile species (Northern spotted owl and Chinook salmon), but there are others. Generate some research questions that could improve the successes of endangered species conservation efforts.

Reflection Should we protect endangered species? What can you do to influence endangered species protections? What are some of the most common reasons that species become endangered? What role does human activity play? What kinds of people, groups, or institutions do you know of that are helping to protect endangered species today? How do you think these efforts are funded? Do you think that protecting endangered species is worthwhile? Why or why not, and to what extent? What have you done or are you doing to help protect your local ecosystems? Can you do one additional thing to help? What have you learned about critical habitat, the importance of biodiversity, and ecosystem conservation? How has this activity changed your views on endangered species protections? Why?

240 Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants

Resources • Oregon Natural Heritage Information Center: • Oregon Explorer, Oregon map with links to counties http://oregonstate.edu/ornhic/plants/index.html and listings of rare species: • Oregon Flora Project, the Oregon Plant Atlas (in- http://www.oregonexplorer.info/Wildlife/about/ teractive mapping tool) and the Rare Plant Guide: threatenedEndangered.aspx?Res=17431 http://www.oregonflora.org/ • Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife, list of state • US Fish & Wildlife Service. Find species listed under protected vertebrate species: Federal ESA as well as species of concern: http://www.dfw.state.or.us/wildlife/diversity/species/ http://www.fws.gov/oregonfwo/species/ threatened_endangered_candidate_list.asp • Oregon Department of Agriculture. State list of • Oregon Department of Fish & Wildlife. Oregon protected plants: http://www.oregon.gov/ODA/ Conservation Strategy: PLANT/CONSERVATION/statelist.shtml http://www.dfw.state.or.us/conservationstrategy/ • Oregon Natural Heritage Information Center, Lists and rankings of Oregon’s rare invertebrates and non-vascular plants, lichens, and fungi: http://orbic.pdx.edu/

241 Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants Expert Group 1 Endangered Species Act (ESA)—Basics and History Questions: What is the purpose of the ESA? Describe how the Federal government works with 1 6 State governments in regard to the ESA. Who administers the ESA? In what year did Congress pass the Endangered 2 7 Species Act into law as we know it? What species are eligible for protection under the ESA? 3 Has the ESA been changed since it first became law? The ESA protects species by prohibiting “take.” De- 4 fine “take” as it applies to wildlife in the ESA. 8 From its start, Congress authorized funding the ESA Do the same “take” prohibitions apply to plants, and if 9 through 1992. How has the ESA been funded since 5 not, how are they different? 1992?

Cut here Expert Group 2 Endangered Species Act (ESA)—Species

Listing Process Questions: Outline the process for public input into an ESA list- What are candidate species? 1 6 ing proposal. What are the two ways that species can become listed ESA listing decisions are required to be based on best 2 under the ESA? Give a short explanation of both. 7 scientific principles. In this process they solicit peer What are the five basic factors that influence whether review. Explain this process. 3 a species is listed? If all the steps are completed and the species listing is When enough scientific information has been submit- 8 approved, what happens next? 4 ted to consider a species for listing under the ESA, biologists at the USFWS draft a proposed listing rule. What is included in the listing proposal? The ESA requires a final determination on the list- 5 ing of a species to be completed within what time period?

242 Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants

Expert Group 3 Endangered Species Act (ESA)—Critical Habitat and Habitat Conservation Plans

Questions: 1 What is critical habitat? 5 What do HCPs do? What is the purpose of designating critical habitat? Many HCPs require mitigation to offset take of 6 endangered species authorized by incidental take 2 permits; mitigation is completed through specific How is critical habitat determined? conservation strategies that are manageable and 3 enforceable. List several examples of mitigation 4 What are Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs)? practices.

Cut here

Expert Group 4 Endangered Species Act (ESA)— Species Recovery and Delisting

Questions:

The USFWS uses many techniques to recover endan- Define the terms delisting and downlisting, as used in

1 gered species; list 3-5 such techniques. 4 the ESA. What happens after a species has been delisted?

2 What does recovery mean? 5 Give an example of a partnership that the USFWS has 3 made to help recover endangered plant species.

243 Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants

Answer Key Expert Group 1— ESA Basics and History What is the purpose of the ESA?—The ESA protects 1 and recovers imperiled species and their ecosystems. In what year did Congress pass the Endangered Spe- cies Act into law as we know it?—1973. Who administers the ESA? It is administered by the 7 2 Interior Department’s U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Has the ESA been changed since it first became

(USFWS) and the Commerce Department’s National 8 law?—Significant changes to the law have been added Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). in the form of amendments but the basic structure of the 1973 Act has been preserved. What species are eligible for protection under the

3 ESA? —All species of plants and animals, except From its start, Congress authorized funding the ESA pest insects, are eligible for listing as endangered 9 through 1992. How has the ESA been funded since or threatened. 1992? Congress has appropriated funds annually. The ESA protects species by prohibiting “take.” De- 4 fine “take” as it applies to wildlife in the ESA. —Take is “to harass, harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or collect or attempt to engage in any such conduct.” Take may include significant habitat modification or degradation where it actually kills or injures wildlife by significantly impairing essential behavioral patterns, including breeding, feeding, or sheltering. Do the same “take” prohibitions apply to plants, and 5 if not, how are they different?—Listed plants are not protected from take under the Federal ESA, although it is illegal to collect or maliciously harm them on Fed- eral land. Protection from commercial trade and the effects of Federal actions do apply for plants. State Endangered Species Acts may provide additional protection for plants on some land ownerships. Describe how the Federal government works with 6 State governments in regard to the ESA?— The Federal government encourages states to develop and maintain conservation programs for threatened and endangered species. Federal funding is available to promote state participation. Some state laws and regulations are even more restrictive than the Federal ESA in granting exceptions or permits.

244 Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants

Answer Key Expert Group 2: ESA Species Listing Process

What are candidate species?—Species for which the US- Outline the process for public input into an ESA listing 1 FWS has sufficient information on their biological status 6 proposal.—1. Press release announcing the proposal is and threats to propose them as endangered or threat- published in area newspapers, and personal contacts ened under the Endangered Species Act (ESA), but for are made by Field Office, Regional Office, and Wash- which development of a proposed listing regulation is ington, D.C. Office personnel. 2. Direct notification of precluded by other higher priority listing activities. cities and counties, State agencies, Federal agencies, What are the two ways that species can become listed Congressional offices, local organizations, and others. 2 under the ESA? Give a short explanation of both. —1. 3. A 60-day public comment period begins once a list- The petition process—any interested person may peti- ing proposal is published in the Federal Register. 4. A tion the Secretary of the Interior to add a species, or 2. public hearing must be held if one is requested within Through the candidate assessment process—USFWS 45 days of publication of the proposed rule. 5. Public biologists identify species as candidates for listing. meetings also may be held in areas where the species occurs to provide the public with information about What are the five basic factors that influence whether the species and the proposed listing. 6. The public 3 a species is listed? —1. The present or threatened de- comment period may be extended or reopened at struction, modification, or curtailment of the species’ any time; however, extensions must be within reason. habitat or range; 2. Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; 3. Dis- ESA listing decisions are required to be based on best ease or predation; 4. The inadequacy of existing regu- 7 scientific principles. In this process they solicit peer latory mechanisms; and 5. Other natural or manmade review. Explain this process. —The USFWS contacts factors affecting the species’ continued existence. several peer reviewers during the open comment period, provides them with the listing proposal, and asks When enough scientific information has been submit- them to review the document for scientific accuracy. 4 ted to consider a species for listing under the ESA, Current USFWS policy requires at least three inde- biologists at the USFWS draft a proposed listing rule. pendent reviewers to be contacted. The reviewers are What is included in the listing proposal? —Back- free to comment on any aspect of the proposal, but ground information on the species (taxonomy, historic they may also be asked to consider specific questions and current range, population information, habitat regarding the species’ taxonomy or biology. requirements, etc.), a summary of the threats faced by the species, a determination and/or designation of If all the steps are completed and the species listing is critical habitat if appropriate, examples of available 8 approved, what happens next? —The rule becomes ef- conservation measures, and a preview of actions that fective 30 days after publication (to allow Congress to would be prohibited (as well as actions that would not review the listing) and the species is officially added to be prohibited) if the species were to be listed. the Federal Endangered and Threatened Species List. The ESA requires a final determination on the listing of 5 a species to be completed within what time period?— A decision on whether to make the proposed listing final must be completed within 12 months from when the proposal is published.

245 . Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants Answer Key Expert Group 3: ESA—Critical Habitat and Habitat Conservation Plans

What is critical habitat?—Specific geographic area(s) Many HCPs require mitigation to offset take of endan- 1 that contain(s) features essential for the conservation of 6 gered species authorized by incidental take permits; a threatened or endangered species and that may re- mitigation is completed through specific conservation quire special management and protection. Critical habi- strategies that are manageable and enforceable. List tat may include an area that is not currently occupied by several examples of mitigation practices. —Mitigation the species but that will be needed for its recovery. practices include, but are not limited to, payment into What is the purpose of designating critical habitat?— an established conservation fund or bank; preser- 2 Federal agencies are required to consult with the vation (via acquisition or conservation easement) USFWS on actions they carry out, fund, or authorize to of existing habitat; enhancement or restoration of ensure that their actions will not destroy or adversely degraded or former habitat; establishment of buffer modify critical habitat. In this way, a critical habitat areas around existing habitats; modifications of land designation protects areas that are necessary for the use practices; and restrictions on access. conservation of the species. How is critical habitat determined?—Biologists con- 3 sider physical and biological features needed for life processes and successful reproduction of the species, including: 1. Space for individual and population growth and for normal behavior; 2. Cover or shelter; 3. Food, water, air, light, minerals, or other nutritional or physiological requirements; 4. Sites for breeding and rearing offspring; and 5. Habitats that are protected from disturbances or are representative of the historic geographical and ecological distributions of a species. What are Habitat Conservation Plans? —HCPs are 4 planning documents required as part of an application for an incidental take permit. They describe the anticipated effects of the proposed taking; how those impacts will be minimized, or mitigated; and how the HCP is to be funded. What do HCPs do?—In developing habitat conserva- 5 tion plans, people applying for incidental take permits describe measures designed to minimize and mitigate the effects of their actions— to ensure that species will not be jeopardized.

246 Saving Oregon’s Treasures: Threatened and Endangered Plants Jigsaw Groups Answer Key Expert Group 4: ESA—Species Recovery and Delisting

The USFWS uses many techniques to recover endan- Define the terms delisting and downlisting as used in 1 gered species; list 3-5 such techniques.—Techniques 4 the ESA.—To delist species, the USFWS is required include restoring and acquiring habitat, removing to determine that threats have been eliminated or introduced animal predators or invasive plant species, controlled, based on several factors, including popu- conducting surveys, monitoring individual popula- lation sizes and trends and the stability of habitat tions, and breeding species in captivity and releasing quality and quantity. When the USFWS reclassifies them into their historic range. species from endangered to threatened, a less dire status, they downlist them. If some of the threats have What does recovery mean?— Recovery is the process 2 by which the decline of an endangered or threatened been controlled and the population has met recovery species is arrested and threats are removed or re- objectives for downlisting, the USFWS may consider duced, ensuring the long-term survival of the species changing the status of an endangered species to in the wild. At that point the species is recovered, and threatened. protection under the ESA is no longer necessary. What happens after a species has been delisted?—

Give an example of a partnership that the USFWS has 5 The Endangered Species Act requires the USFWS, in 3 made to help recover endangered plant species.— A cooperation with the states, to monitor species for national partnership with the Center for Plant Con- at least five years in order to assess their ability to servation, which has expertise in conserving plants. sustain themselves without the protective measures of Founded in 1984, the Center is supported by a nation- the Act. If, within the designated monitoring period, wide consortium of 29 botanical gardens and arbo- threats to the species change or unforeseen events reta. With about one of every 10 plant species in the change the stability of the population, the USFWS may United States facing potential extinction, the Center is extend the monitoring period or relist the species. the only national organization dedicated exclusively to conserving rare native plants.

247 Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it is the only thing that ever has. —Margaret Mead (1901-1978)

Overview Time Estimate: This lesson introduces the basics of habitat restoration through explor- 2 class sessions ing restoration concepts, terminology, and methods. Students will work as part of a team using design principles to plan, budget, and market a Best Season: habitat restoration plan to a land management agency. year ‘round Teacher Hints • This lesson includes many aspects of the Engineering Design • Use this lesson to introduce a Standards: defining a problem service learning project. Partner and stating a goal, brainstorming with your local watershed council solutions, comparing solutions or other natural resource agency Assessments using the concept of trade-offs, on a nearby habitat restoration project. Ask to view their resto- List the component parts of a suc- then creating, analyzing and ration plan, or to be involved in cessful habitat restoration plan. refining a plan within set criteria, 1 creating it. List and explain two tools used identifying strengths and weak- For advanced students add an in each: planning, site prep, nesses, and describing how it is • 2 additional layer to the restora- restoring vegetation, and better than alternative plans. tion plan. Have them research monitoring in habitat restoration Team projects can be run as a • appropriate plant species for projects. class competition. Invite local land management agency per- a local habitat restoration site. Work as part of a team using Find and price seed, plug, or engineering design principles to sonnel (e.g., US Forest Service, 3 Bureau of Land Management, plant material cost to include in complete a habitat restoration their plan Use figures to calculate project proposal. City, County, or State Parks/Nat- ural Areas Department), other total costs. teachers, or an ecologist, bota- Additional Information nist or forester to act as judges. • The SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration: http://www.ser.org/content/eco- logical_restoration_primer.asp Preparation Class discussion: brainstorm Native Seed Network: http:// • associated words: reclamation, • what it means to “restore a native www.nativeseednetwork.org/ mitigation, reintroduction, con- ecosystem”. Have the class for- servation, degrade, disturbance, mulate a definition. Discussion native, non-native, and invasive questions: What part do humans species. play in restoration? Can resto- • Create a class word bank list to ration happen naturally? How collect terms and definitions as- and when? When is a restora- sociated with habitat restoration. tion complete? Explore other

248 Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it is the only thing that ever has. —Margaret Mead (1901-1978) Overview This lesson introduces the basics of habitat restoration through exploring restoration concepts, terminology, and methods. Learn about common restoration tools and weigh the tradeoffs land managers juggle when planning a restoration project. Work as part of a team using design principles to plan, budget, and market a restoration plan to a land manager. Background Information Learning Objectives What do you think habitat res- Humans are altering natural toration is? The Society for Eco- ecosystems at an accelerating Increase understanding • logical Restoration (SER) Interna- rate, frequently through resource of habitat restoration tional defines it as “the process extraction or urbanization. In an terminology. of assisting the recovery of an attempt to counteract some of this • List several restoration ecosystem that has been de- habitat destruction, the process tools used in projects. graded, damaged, or destroyed of mitigation has been introduced • Use engineering design (1). Many questions are still being by government regulatory agen- process skills to create a debated between scientists in the cies. How does the mitigation habitat restoration plan. habitat restoration community system work? If a wetland, for • Practice persuasive writing and on-the-ground restoration example, is destroyed to build a skills to market a habitat practitioners. A prime pending new shopping mall, the mall build- restoration proposal. question is how to select the end ers must create (or pay to create) result (ecosystem and community a new wetland in another location Materials Needed type) to restore a site to. In North to compensate for the loss of the • budget worksheet America should we be restoring wetland now under the shopping site map to conditions thought to have mall. The theory behind wet- • occurred before Euro-American land mitigation is that there is no • tracing paper for overlays settlement? What about ecosys- net loss of habitat. Do you think • colored pencils tems that have been influenced by creating or enhancing an existing human cultures prior to European wetland in a different location can V ocabulary Words contact> The indigenous people fully compensate for the loss of a • restoration of Oregon manipulated ecosys- naturally existing wetland? disturbance tems with fire for thousands of • years; how should that be taken reference ecosystem • into account? Can we really re- • reintroduction create an ecosystem known from • rehabilitate hundreds of years ago and do we reclamation have the data needed to do so? • Since ecosystems are constantly mitigation • changing through the process of • re-establish succession, what stage of succession should a restoration project strive to reach?

249 Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan

Background Information, continued Mitigation can extend beyond wet- Could restoration have a role in rent and desired future conditions, lands. In some cases, clean-up and trying to react to climate change? setting goals and objectives, plan- restoration of an extremely pollut- Future restoration debates may ning, seeking public involvement and ed or degraded site is considered center on how climate change input, establishing work timelines, mitigation. At many mining sites the may affect plant communities and long term monitoring, and continued topography, hydrology and soils of species ranges. Should we attempt management. Good recordkeep- a site have been so altered that it is to restore new habitats for spe- ing is essential and helps guide the impossible to restore them to their cies outside their current range to project over the long term. Restora- original condition. In that case, plan for the future? What ethical tion projects are not completed in the goal is often merely to reduce questions may come about when a season or even a year, but require pollution from the site and reha- people move plants (assisted mi- many years. The end goal is a self- bilitate it into useable land. This is gration) to maintain plant commu- sustaining ecosystem which resem- described using the term reclama- nities in a changing climate? Should bles a model or reference ecosystem tion. In some northwest forests that humans protect some species but from a similar site. have been intensively harvested in not others? The chart below includes restora- the past and have had natural fire Challenge yourself to define ad- tion tools land managers use to suppressed, we debate whether ditional terms related to habitat accomplish restoration objectives. or not to thin or remove crowded restoration. Some words that you This is not an all-inclusive list, but trees and underbrush to mimic the might see used in restoration proj- it covers many restoration tools ecosystem that might have existed ect discussions are: re-establish, commonly used in Oregon. Use with natural fire return intervals rehabilitate, and reintroduce. Can the information in the chart to help and less human intervention. Does you find others? guide your own decisions as you this qualify as restoration? Can you Habitat restoration is a complex work through your restoration plan. think of other ways humans have process with many steps. All restora- altered natural ecosystems and are tion projects include some similar now trying to restore them? components, including: defining cur-

25 0 . Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan

Restoration Tool Explanation Benefit Challenges Part 1: Planning—Long term success of restoration

Conduct baseline To describe current conditions, Needed for long term Can be costly when inventorying a large inventory create list of plant and wildlife comparison site species present, note dominant species & rare species Pick a model or ref- Study a nearby site with habitat Planning tool for species Possibly no similar sites nearby to use as erence ecosystem to act as a model of what the res- composition reference (What is the desired toration is attempting to achieve future condition?) Use historical data Search original land surveyor Information can give over- Records may be difficult to locate, hard to records, explorer’s journals to view of the major species read, not complete learn about the site’s historical present prior to develop- conditions ment changes Create master plan Written plan to guide each step A document that all parties Plan needs to be kept current with modifi- of the restoration can use to guide activities cations, timetable and monitoring data Part 2: Restore historical topography and hydrology Earthmoving Large machinery to restore his- Restore natural hydrology Disturbs soils, may interfere with native toric topography plants and wildlife Drain tile removal Remove drain tile, ditches, and Restore natural hydrology; May affect neighboring property & local culverts most common at wet sites flooding Dam or water diver- Take out earthen dams and swales Restore natural hydrology May affect neighboring property & local sion removed that restrain or channel water flooding Part 3: Site Prep - Control unwanted vegetation (encroaching trees/shrubs, invasive species, other unwanted plants), open areas for planting, reduce competition for seedlings and transplants Hand pulling, dig- Manually pull or dig out individ- Good control for small Labor intensive, may disturb the soil ging, or cutting ual plants, cut larger shrubs and infestations, generally low trees by chainsaw impact to the environment Herbicide Chemical control through spot Good for large areas, fast, Timing is crucial for application, need spraying (individual plants) or relatively inexpensive chemical applicators license, leave chemical broadcast spraying (large infesta- residues in environment, spray can drift off tions) property, not suitable near water, can have negative effect on pollinators and wildlife

Mowing Cutting vegetation close to Prevents plants from pro- Weather or terrain may not be suitable, ground level ducing seed, good control correct timing essential, repeat mowing of annuals will be necessary Prescribed burning Low intensity, controlled burn of Mimics historical distur- High cost, permits required, specialized ground level vegetation bance regimen, encourages equipment and trained staff needed, growth of grasses and flow- weather can be an issue ering plants, discourages shrubs and trees Part 4: Restore Natural Vegetation - Seeding and Planting Local seed collec- Hand collect seed from plants at Seed source is well Labor intensive; plant identification & tion your site or nearby areas adapted for your site seed collecting knowledge needed, seed storage may be required

25 .1 Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan

Purchase regional Seed grown for regional restora- Genetics similar to the Locating the needed seed may be difficult seed collected from tion projects plants native to the region or impossible similar ecotype of interest Plant propagation Start and grow plants from seed Can use local collected seed, May require greenhouse, specialized seed plants available when needed starting knowledge, time to care for plants Plant relocations Move plants from local areas Saves plants that might May be labor intensive, and can only oc- slated for development otherwise be destroyed, cur at certain times of year and ensures local plants are used at the new site Purchase plant Small plants in small rocket Relatively inexpensive, More expensive than seeding, plants are plugs from local na- shaped pots good availability, easy to small tive plant nurseries plant Purchase bareroot Started plants with established Relatively inexpensive, easy Need to be planted when dormant, plant materials roots for planting when dormant to plant weather & accessibility issues Purchase potted Plants in pots of varying sizes Established plants Relatively expensive, will probably need plant materials watering for first year Natural re-estab- Allow native plants and animals to Useful at sites with a mini- Slow, leaves areas open for establishment lishment of native recolonize on their own. Many times mum of destruction to be of invasive plants plants and wildlife when the native plants and food repaired, uses local plants sources have been reestablished, native animals return on their own Part 5 .: Evaluation—Monitoring Mapping Create a data library. Maintain Guides restoration, essen- Need to keep updated with changes over map of site plantings, locate inva- tial in communicating with time sive problems, can use GPS partners Photo points Photos taken from permanently Time saving, general view Gives only a general overview, no specific marked fixed points (e.g., a fence of restoration, easy to numerical data, limited use when following post) on a regular basis for long duplicate, cost savings specific plant populations term monitoring On the ground data Counting (sampling, percent Can give more detailed in- Labor intensive, costly collection cover, complete counts) formation, good for tracking specific plant populations Part 6: Long Term Maintenance—Simulating natural disturbance cycle and controlling problem species Prescribed burning Low intensity, controlled burn of Mimics historical distur- Expensive, permits required, specialized ground level vegetation bance regime, encourages equipment and trained staff needed, can growth of grasses and flow- only occur under correct weather condi- ering plants, discourages tions shrubs and trees Mowing Uses large machinery to limit Replace disturbance regi- Equipment can spread weed seeds from height of vegetation or prevent men to control unwanted other sites, cut material (thatch) may ac- invasive plants from setting seed vegetation cumulate over time and require removal (e.g., raking) Livestock grazing Run cattle, sheep, goats, or other Can control height of veg- Animals may feed indiscriminately on all livestock for part of the year etation, browsers (goats) plant material, overgrazing can be harmful, can target brush, browsers trampling of sensitive species, uncontrolled (goats) or grazers (cows) access to water can denude stream banks, can target grasses may spread exotic and invasive species

25 .2 Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan Directions Restoration Scenario: A local landowner recently left a ten acre rural Make a budget using the budget rate sheet. Keep 1 property to a conservation group, Ecosystem Protec- 6 in mind the individual rate sheet units and the size tion Services. The donation came with the stipulation of your site. Remember that the costs are generally that the land be restored back to prairie to enhance per acre and you are working at a ten acre site. Give habitat for native plants and wildlife and increase local an itemized cost for each restoration tool used and biodiversity. Previously the site was used for livestock calculate the grand total cost for the entire project. grazing, and it is currently a mixture of non-native Sell your proposal by writing a persuasive letter to ac- grasses and invasive weeds. The site historically sup- 7 company your bid. Your letter should include why you ported open prairie that was maintained by Native think your plan describes the best option. The letter American tribes who routinely burned the area. The should be signed by all the members of your team topography is a combination of upland and lowland and addressed to the proper organization. that is bisected by a standing or slow moving water Your completed bid proposal packet will be used course during the wet season. 8 to assess your entire team’s grade (see rubric at Work in teams of 2-4 students to create a restora- end of lesson). 2 tion plan packet. Your plan will be submitted to the conservation group, Ecosystem Protection Services, as Taking It Further a bid proposal to do the actual restoration work. The Partner with a local land management agency to par- plan needs to cover the first year of work including ticipate in a habitat restoration project. A restoration site prep, restoring natural vegetation, and monitor- project is a long term commitment. By partnering ing. You need to balance the restoration goals, current with a local project run by a natural resource agency, conditions at the site, environmental concerns you the class can take as small or as large a part as time identify, and the costs of your project. There is no allows. Work with your partnering agency to identify single right answer. Use your proposal letter to justify lessons that will make this project a true community your team’s decisions. service learning experience. Identify your restoration goal from the scenario. 3 Write it in your own words and but use the appropriate restoration terminology. Be sure to extract all the useful information from the scenario for your plan. Use the site map to help design your restoration plan. 4 The map identifies topography, current vegetation, and other factors that you need to take into consideration (e.g., water, neighboring housing). Use one or more map overlays to diagram your restoration plan. Write out a restoration plan to accompany your map. 5 Use your student budget worksheet to guide you in the steps needed. Include the tools you will use in site prep, restoring vegetation, and monitoring. The site may dictate using more than one method or tool to reach your plan goals.

25 3 . Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan

In the Field! Take a field trip to view a restoration project in progress. Ask the managers of the restoration project to talk to the class about what they are doing at the site, including their restoration goals, how the site was selected, what historical data they used, the steps of the project, and where they are in the restoration process. If available, visit restoration sites in various stages of completion (beginning, middle and finished). —Make observations in your field journal at each of the sites. Com- pare the sites- how do they differ, not only in ecosystem type but progress toward their desired future conditions. Science Inquiry Collecting monitoring data to assess restoration site conditions before, during and after a restoration project lets land managers learn what restoration techniques are most effective. They can then use the information to improve future restoration work. Ask if you may be involved in any monitoring that goes along with the restoration site. Talk to the agencies involved to find out what methods they use and what they hope to learn. Many natural areas have been historically maintained by fire at some frequency. Today, using prescribed fire can frequently come into conflict with present day policies. Air quality regulations, public perceptions, and safety concerns can all make using prescribed fire a challenge. Brainstorm alternative methods for maintaining a restoration site. How would you test your methods?

Reflection This activity has touched on some of the philosophical difficulties associated with habitat restorations. Use what you know to evaluate the ways environmental ethics, public opinion, scientific work, and/or government policy impact your environment and society. Explore your own personal views on one of these topics.

25 4 . Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan Self Assessments Resources List the component parts of a successful restoration • The SER International Primer on Ecological Restora- 1 plan. tion: http://www.ser.org/content/ecological_resto- List and explain two tools used in each: planning, site ration_primer.asp 2 prep, restoring vegetation, and monitoring in restora- • Apostol, Dean, and Marcia Sinclair. (2006.) Restor- tion projects. ing the Pacific Northwest: The Art and Science of Ecological Restoration in Cascadia. Island Press. Work as part of a team using engineering design prin- 3 ciples to complete a restoration project proposal. • A Guide to Prairie and Wetland Restoration in East- ern Nebraska: http://www.prairieplains.org/assets/ files/restoration_manual_1.pdf Prairie Restoration Project Rubric

CATEGORY Novice (1) Apprentice (2) Crew leader (3) Professional (4) Restoration Written in complete Written in complete Written using student’s Written in student’s own words, Goal sentences, but cop- sentences. Includes words, missing only one or encompasses all components ied from scenario. No some factors from two components, and uses from scenario, written in com- attempt to use resto- scenario, and uses at one or more restoration plete sentence form, and show- ration terminology. least one restoration terminology words. ing proper usage of restoration terminology word. terminology.

Site Map With Site map missing Site map with overlay. Site map with overlay. Site map with one or more Overlay overlay. Incomplete Missing one or two Missing one restoration overlays. Overlay shows all res- key, or map and key restoration tools from tool from plan, or key is not toration tools used from plan, do not match restora- plan, or key is not com- complete or clear. includes clear and complete key tion tools from plan. plete or clear. to match plan.

Restoration Plan is incomplete, Plan complete but Plan complete and ad- Plan is logical to follow, written Plan missing one or more does not include entire dresses all restoration in paragraph or outline form. of the restoration year in logical form, or tools needed. Logical plan Includes one year timetable tools needed, or plan is missing one of the format could be improved. for site, and addresses all the does not include required restoration restoration tools needed. entire year. tools needed.

Budget Sheet Budget sheet is not Budget sheet has Budget sheet matches plan, Budget sheet matches plan and complete, missing one or more errors in specifies tools used. Math specifies tools used. Math is tools from plan, matching plan, or errors has one or two errors in correct for individual tools and mistakes in math, or in math, or total project figuring tool costs. extended for entire job. Total does not include costs. cost of project figured correctly. total project costs.

Bid Proposal Letter sloppy, not Letter is neat and in Letter is neat and in proper Letter neat, written in proper in Persuasive properly addressed, proper format. Letter format. Letter is persuasive format, addressed to com- Letter not signed, or not in explains some but not in selling the proposal and pany name and signed by all proper letter format. all decisions made in explains most of the deci- team members. Demonstrates Letter does not ex- plan. sions made in the plan. persuasive writing in selling plain decisions made proposal, and explaining all in plan. decisions made in plan.

25 .5 . Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan Map – 10 acre site

25 .6 Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan

Budget Worksheet Rate Sheet Cost per Hourly Cost per Cost per Activity Cost per site Additional notes acre rate pound plug Prescribed burn $3 – 5,000.00 Range for site includes complexity, location, fuels, & permits Brush clearing $91.00 Figure 1 hour per acre for your site (mechanical) Spot spray $61.00 Figure 1 hour per acre for your site

Broadcast spray $55.00 Need to be aware of drift issues close to water and housing Hand pulling $25.00 Figure 4 hours per acre for your site

Tractor work (seeding, $75.00 mowing)

Plug planting (100 plugs $50.00 per hour) Grass seed (rate of 5# $25.00 per acre)

Wildflower seed (forbs) $100.00 (rate of 3-5# per acre)

Grass & grass-like plug $.45 cost (1210/per acre planted 6 ft. apart)

Wildflower plug (forbs) $1.40 cost (1210/per acre planted 6 ft. apart) Monitoring $75.00 Range depending on complexity and size of site. 1 hr. for photo point, 8 hours for sampling, 24 hours for complete count

25 .7 Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat Restoration Plan

Student Budget Tool Used Cost Per Unit (Acre/Hour) Total Cost for 10 Acre Site Site prep

Restoring Natural Vegetation

Project Monitoring

Total Project Costs

25 .8 References

SECTION 1: PLANT IDENTIFICATION (2) The Academy of Natural Sciences. (2004). The Lewis 1. Botany Bouquet and Clark National Bicentennial Celebration. Re- Adapted with permission from: Earth Partnership for trieved from http://www.libertyparkusafd.org/lp/ Schools. (2007). K-12 Curriculum Guide. Madison, WI: Jefferson/Lewis%20and%20Clark%5CLewis%20 University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. and%20Clark%20Herbarium.htm (1) Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. (3) Oregon State University. (2009). Oregon State (n.d.). Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. Mon- University Herbarium. Retrieved from http://oregon- treal, Quebec, Canada: Secretariat of the Conven- state.edu/dept/botany/herbarium/db.php tion on Biological Diversity. Retrieved from http:// (4) University of California at Davis. (n.d.). UC Davis www.bgci.org/worldwide/gspc/ Center for Plant Diversity Herbarium. Retrieved from http://herbarium.ucdavis.edu/herbarium.html 3. The Secret Life of Flowers (5) Lawrence, B.A. & Kaye, T.N. (2009). Reintroduc- Adapted with permission from: National Gardening tion of Castilleja levisecta: Effects of ecological Association. (1999, September). Digging into Flowers: similarity, source population genetics, and habitat Growing Ideas: A Pollen, Petals, Pistils, & Other Parts. quality. Restoration Ecology: doi: 10.1111/j.1526- Journal of Garden-Based Learning, 10(3), 4. 100X.2009.00549.x The Pollinator Partnership. (2007). Nature’s Partners: Pollinators, Plants, and You. A comprehensive pollinator SECTION 2: ECOREGIONS OF OREGON curriculum for grades 3-6. Retrieved from http://www. pollinator.org/nappc/PDFs/curriculum.pdf 11. Exploring Oregon’s Ecoregions (1) Adapted with permission from: National Gardening Thorson, T.D., Bryce, S.A., Lammers, D.A., Woods, A.J., Association. (1999, September). The Secret Life of Omernik, J.M., Kagan, J., Pater, D.E., and Comstock, J.A. Ecoregions of Oregon Flowers. Growing Ideas: A Journal of Garden-Based (2003). [Map]. Reston, VA: US Learning, 10(3), 1. Geological Survey. (1) University of California Museum of Paleontology. 4. Drupes, Pomes, & Loculicidal Capsules (2007). The World’s Biomes. Retrieved from http:// Dichotomous key to common fruits adapted with per- www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/index. mission from Sean T. Coleman, Ph.D., Associate Professor php of Biology, University of the Ozarks. (2) Stein, B. A. (2002). States of the Union: Ranking Kesseler, R., & Stuppy, W. (2006). Seeds: Time Capsules America’s Biodiversity. Arlington, Virginia: Nature- of Life (A. Papadakis, Ed.). Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books. Serve. Retrieved from http://www.natureserve.org/ library/stateofunions.pdf 5 . What’s In A Name? (1) Hickman, J.C., Ed. (1993). The Jepson Manual: Higher 13. Ecosystem Comparisons Plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of Califor- Adapted with permission from: Earth Partnership for nia Press. Schools. (2007). K-12 Curriculum Guide. Madison, WI: 6. Plants Have Families Too University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. Adapted with permission from: Earth Partnership for Raven, P. H., Evert R.F., & Eichhorn, S.E. (1992). Biology of Schools. (2007). K-12 Curriculum Guide. Madison, WI: Plants (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. 14. An Ecosystem through an Artist’s Eye 9. Make Your Own Plant Collection Adapted with permission from: Earth Partnership for (1) Botanic Garden Conservation International. (n.d.). Schools. (2007). K-12 Curriculum Guide. Madison, WI: Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle. Retrieved University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. from http://www.bgci.org/garden.php?id=2004

25 .9 References

SECTION 3: ECOLOGY OF NATIVE PLANTS of terpinoids. In M. Wink, Biochemistry of plant secondary metabolism. London, England: Sheffield 1 5 . What’s Goin’ Down Underground Academic Press. Singer, M. J. & Munns, D. N. (1999). Soils: an Introduction (5) Van Soest, P. J. (1982). Nutritional ecology of the ru- (4th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc. minant: ruminant metabolism, nutritional strategies, (1) Rothrock, P.E. & Squiers, E.R. (2003). Early Succession the cellulolytic fermentation, and the chemistry of in a Tallgrass Prairie Restoration and the Effects of forages and plant fibers. Corvallis, OR: O & B Books. Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Micronutrient Enrich- ments. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sci- SECTION 4: THE GOOD, THE BAD, AND THE ence, 112, 160-168. UGLY: NATIVE, NON-NATIVE, AND INVASIVE PLANTS (2) Campbell, N.A., Reece J.B., Urry, L.A., Cain. M.L., Wasserman, S.A., Minorsky, P.V., & Jackson, R.B. 19. Field Journaling: Observations from a Special Spot (2008). Biology (8th ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pearson Adapted with permission from: Earth Partnership for Benjamin Cummings. Schools. (2007). K-12 Curriculum Guide. Madison, WI: 16. Survival Quest: A Pollination Game University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. US Forest Service. (2010, October). Celebrating Wild- 21. Weed Explosion flowers: Pollinator Syndromes. Retrieved from http:// ODA Plant Division, Noxious Weed Control. (2010, www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/syndromes. November). Bull thistle. Retrieved from http://www. shtml oregon.gov/ODA/PLANT/WEEDS/profile_bullthistle. (1) Oregon Orchid Society. (n.d.). Orchid Conservation. shtml Retrieved from http://www.oregonorchidsociety. Oregon Department of Agriculture Noxious Weed org/conservation.php Control Program. (2010). Noxious Weed Control Policy 17. Plant Wars: A Tale of Offense and Defense and Classification System. Retrieved from http://www. oregon.gov/ODA/PLANT/WEEDS/docs/weed_policy. Allelopathy. (n.d.). Retrieved April 10, 2009 from http:// pdf en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allelopathy Oregon State University Dept. of Rangeland Resources. Plant defense against herbivory. (n.d.). Retrieved April (2004). Weedmapper: Bull thistle. Retrieved from http:// 10, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_de- www.weedmapper.org/civu.html fense_against_herbivory Zouhar, K. (2002). Cirsium vulgare. In Fire Effects Informa- Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources. (2004, tion System. Retrieved from U.S. Department of Agricul- December). Butterfly Field Guide: Butterfly-Host Plant ture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Relationships. Retrieved from: http://dnr.wi.gov/org/ Fire Sciences Laboratory website: http://www.fs.fed.us/ land/er/invertebrates/butterflies_moths/host.htm database/feis/plants/forb/cirvul/introductory.html (1) Raven, P. H., Evert R.F., & Eichhorn, S.E. (1992). Biol- (1) Sheley, R., Petroff, J., Borman, M. (1999). Intro- ogy of Plants (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. duction to Biology and Management of Noxious (2) Labandeira, C.C., Dilcher, D.L., Davis, D.R., & Rangeland Weeds. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State Wagner, D.L. (1994). Ninety-seven million years of University Press. angiosperm-insect association: paleobiological in- (2) US Department of the Interior Bureau of Land sights into the meaning of co-evolution. Proceedings Management. (2010, August). Invasive and Noxious of the National Academy of Science of the U.S.A. Weeds. Retrieved from http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/ 91(25): 12278–12282. en/prog/more/weeds.html (3) Roberts, M. F. & Wink, M. (Eds.). (1998). Alkaloids: Biochemistry, Ecology, and Medicinal Applications. 22. Measuring and Monitoring Plant Populations New York: Plenum Press. Elzinga, C.L., Salzer, D.W., & Willoughby, J.W. Measuring (4) Gershezon, J. & Kreis, W. (1999). Biochemistry and Monitoring Plant Populations. Bureau of Land Man-

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agement. BLM technical reference manual 1730-1, BLM/ Leopold, A. (1949). A Sand County Almanac. New York: RS/ST-98/005+1730: http://www.blm.gov/nstc/library/ Oxford University Press. pdf/MeasAndMon.pdf Miller-Rushing, A. J. & Primack, R.B. (2008). Global SECTION 5 : . ETHNOBOTANY Warming and Flowering Times in Thoreau’s Concord: A Community Perspective. Ecology, 89(2), 332–341. 23. Who Walked Here Before Me 27. Plant Migration Game: A Race Between Plants Hartless, William. (1945). William Hartless. In Jacobs, M, and Climate Change Kalapuya Texts. (p.342). Seattle: University of Washing- ton Press. (1) Climate Impacts Group. (2008, March). About Pacific Northwest Climate Change. Retrieved from http:// (1) U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resource cses.washington.edu/cig/pnwc/cc.shtml Conservation Service. (2000). Technical notes: Plant Guide for Common Camas, Ethnobotany, Culture, (2) Gutro, R. (2005, February). What’s the difference Management, and Use. Plant Materials No. 25, Port- between climate and weather? Retrieved from Na- land, OR. tional Aeronautics and Space Administration website: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/noaa-n/ 24. My Burden Basket: How Native Plants Are Used climate/climate_weather.html For Fiber (3) Climate Leadership Initiative. (2010). Projected The Language of Native American Baskets from the Impacts to Natural Systems in the Mid-Willamette Weaver’s View. (n.d.). Burden baskets. Retrieved from Subbasin: Summary Report. Eugene, OR: Institute for http://www.nmai.si.edu/exhibitions/baskets/subpage. a Sustainable Environment. cfm?subpage=burden 2 5 . Plants As Medicine: Make Your Own Herbal Salve SECTION 7: THE FUTURE OF OREGON’S NATIVE PLANTS Medicinal plants. (n.d.). Retrieved September 12, 2008 29. Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services: Can’t Live from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicinal_plants Without ‘Em (1) Waksmundzka-Hajnos, M., Sherma, J. & Kowalska, T. (1) Simpson, E.H. (1949). Measurement of diversity. (Eds.). (2008). Chromatographic Science Series: Thin Nature, 163, 688. Layer Chromatography in Phytochemistry (Vol. 99). (2) Alonso, A., Dallmeier, F., Granek, D., & Raven, P. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. (2007). Biodiversity: Connecting with the Tapestry of (2) Reid, W.V., Laird, S. A., Meyer, C. A., Gamez, R., Sit- Life (2nd ed.). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institute. tenfeld, A. Janzen, D.H., Gollin, M.A. & Juma, C. (1993, (3) Conservation International. (2007). Biodiversity May). Biodiversity Prospecting: Using Genetic Resourc- Hotspots. Retrieved from http://www.biodiversity- es for Sustainable Development. Retrieved from http:// hotspots.org/Pages/default.aspx www.wri.org/publication/biodiversity-prospecting- using-genetic-resources-sustainable-development (4) California Academy of Sciences. (2005). Hotspot: California on the Edge. Retrieved from http://www. (3) Raven, P. H., Evert R.F., & Eichhorn, S.E. (1992). Biol- calacademy.org/exhibits/california_hotspot/habi- ogy of Plants (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. tat_klamath_siskiyou.htm (4) World Health Organization. (1998). Regulatory Situ- 31. Oregon’s Native Ecosystems: Design a Habitat ation of Herbal Medicines—A Worldwide Review. Restoration Plan Retrieved from http://www.who.int/medicinedocs/ Clewell, A., Rieger, J. and Munro, J. (2000). Guidelines for en/d/Jwhozip57e/4.2.8.html Developing and Managing Ecological Restoration Proj- ects SECTION 6: CLIMATE CHANGE AND PHENOLOGY . Available on the Society for Ecological Restoration website, www.ser.org. 26. Phenology: Tracking the Seasons in Your World (1) Society for Ecological Restoration International Policy Adapted with permission from: Earth Partnership for and Science Working Group (2004). The SER Inter- Schools. (2007). K-12 Curriculum Guide. Madison, WI: national Primer on Ecological Restoration. Society University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. for Ecological Restoration, Tucson, AZ. Available at www.ser.org 261 Glossary

abiotic ��the non-living elements of an ecosys- to a new location with the intent of tem. Example: rocks, water permanent establishment. Most com- accessory fruit ��a succulent fruit developing from monly used in response to habitat the receptacle instead of the pistil. loss and climate change A strawberry is an example, with the axil ��the angle point between the stem ripened ovaries’ small achene on the and the leaf growing from it fruit surface. azimuth ��a description of a location as it achene ��a simple, dry, indehiscent fruit with a relates to North in degrees, minutes, single, small seed that attaches to the and seconds ovary wall at only one point, as in the basal ��leaves growing from the base of the fruit of a sunflower plant stem adaptation ��a process over multiple generation berry ��a simple, fleshy, indehiscent fruit with in which an organism changes to bet- many seeds, like a tomato or blue- ter fit the habitat. Example: Natural berry; commonly applied to any fruit selection would favor the deeper- that is fleshy throughout, though not rooted plants during climate shifts botanically correct that cause drought conditions. biennial ��a plant that takes two years to adventitious root ��a root structure developing in an un- complete its life cycle; usually form- usual location, such as growing from a ing a rosette of leaves the first year, stem and producing flowers and fruit the aggregate fruit ��a cluster of small fleshy fruit, as in the second year cluster of drupelets that make up a binomial nomenclature raspberry. Arising from several pistils a two-part scientific system of nam- in a single flower, each producing a ing organisms. Example: Camassia single drupe that when connected, quamash form a cluster biochemical ��a chemical process in living organisms allelopathy �� the process whereby one plant spe- biodiversity ��the variation of all life forms within an cies produces biochemicals to inhibit ecosystem; often used to measure the the growth of other plant species health of a given ecosystem. alternate ��a leaf pattern where one leaf grows biome ��the world’s major ecological commu- from each node on the stem, alter- nities, defined by the predominant nating sides of the stem flora and climate, and covering large analgesic ��a medicinal pain reliever geographic areas. Examples: desert, angiosperm ��a flowering plant that produces seeds forest, grassland, tundra in a fruit biotic ��the living elements that make up an annual ��a plant that completes its entire life ecosystem cycle in the same year; germinate, botany ��the scientific study of plants flower, set seed and die bract ��a small, leaf-like part at the base of a anther ��the enlarged, pollen-bearing part of flower or along the flowering stem the stamen; located at the tip of the bud ��undeveloped (or baby) stem or filament flower; covered with scales antibacterial ��a medicinal that inhibits or destroys bulb ��a short, vertical, thickened underground bacteria stem such as an onion; NOT a root antioxidant ��a substance that slows oxidation. In burden basket ��a woven basket, usually conical- the human body it counteracts the shaped with pointed or flattened negative effects of oxidation on body bottom, made in an assortment of tissues. sizes and weaves to accommodate assisted migration ��deliberately moving members of a the load to be carried species from their present habitat 262 Glossary

calyx ��the outermost whorl of flower parts competition ��an interaction between organisms or candidate species ��plant and animal species that are species for a limited supply of one or proposed for addition to the Federal more resources (such as food, water, Endangered Species Act (ESA) and territory) that are used by both capsule ��a dry, dehiscent fruit with more than composite flower �� the clustering of numerous small one carpel flowers together on a single flower carbon sink ��places of carbon accumulation, such base (receptacle) as in large forests (organic com- compound ��a leaf divided into two or more sepa- pounds) or ocean sediments (calcium rate leaflets carbonate); carbon is thus removed conservation biology...... from the carbon cycle for moderately the scientific study of nature and bio- long to very long periods of time 1 diversity, with the focus on protecting carpel ��one section of an ovary 2 species, their habitats, and ecosys- caryopsis ��a simple, dry, indehiscent fruit with a tems through stewardship of entire single seed that is firmly attached to biological communities the ovary wall on all sides and found cordage ��several strands of fiber twisted to- in grasses; a grain gether to make string or rope circumscissile capsule � a capsule which separates into hori- cordate ��heart-shaped zontal top and bottom sections corm ��a short, enlarged, vertical under- classification ��In biological science, a method to ground stem covered with papery group and categorize organisms leaves clearcut ��a method of harvesting timber in which corolla ��all the petals of a flower all the trees are removed, and then the cotyledon ��the first leaf of a plant embryo; some- entire plot is replanted times called a seed leaf climate ��the long term predictable weather; crustose ��a crust-like growth form that is closely the average weather conditions of a attached to the substrate, like paint, particular place over a long period generally adhering by all of the lower of time. Climate is what allows you to surface 3 predict what the weather conditions cultural landscape �� a landscape created by people and will be next year their culture; a product of nature and climax community ��the final stage of succession, in which of human interaction with nature, there is a relatively stable plant com- that the associated people define as munity with many complex interactions heritage resources 4 between organisms culture ��a system of beliefs, values, and coevolution ��the process in which species exert assumptions about life that guide selective pressure on each other and behavior and are shared by a group gradually evolve new features or be- of people. It includes customs, lan- haviors as a result of those pressures1 guage, and material artifacts. These coiling ��a basket-making technique in which are transmitted from generation coils of materials are stitched togeth- to generation, rarely with explicit er in a spiraling pattern; designs are instructions.5 made by using different color stitch- cuticle ��a waxy layer found on leaves or stems ing material day-length ��duration of the period from sunrise common name ��a name by which a species is known to sunset 6 to the general public, rather than its dehiscent ��a type of fruit that opens or releases scientific or taxonomic name; can vary seed when mature by region or country delisting ��the process of removing an animal community ��all the organisms within a particular habi- or plant species from the Federal tat, interacting in a complex food web Endangered Species Act (ESA) 7 263 Glossary

dichotomous ��a splitting of a whole into exactly two future throughout all or a significant non-overlapping parts; from “dichot- portion of its range (see also ESA) 7 omy” Endangered Species Act (ESA) dichotomous key �� a tool to identify objects (such as The Endangered Species Act of 1973 is plants,); a succession of paired federal legislation, intended to provide choices that progressively lead to a a means to conserve the ecosystems final identification upon which endangered and threat- dicot ��a plant that sprouts two seed leaves ened species depend, and to provide or cotyledons; “di” meaning two, and programs for the conservation of those “cot” referring to cotyledon species, thus preventing extinction of disturbance ��a temporary pronounced change in plants and animals. The law is adminis- an ecosystem. This can be a natural tered by the Department of Interior’s disturbance such as fire or flood, or Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) and a human-caused disturbance such as the Commerce Department’s National clearcutting Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra- dominant species �� the most numerous and vigorous tion (NOAA) Fisheries, depending on species. Ecological communities the species protected. 7 are described and defined by their endemic ��found in a specific geographic area dominant species. endocarp ��the innermost layer of a fruit dormancy ��a temporary non-growing period in endomycorrhizae ��mycorrhizal fungi that grow within the life cycle of a plant or seed the root cells and are commonly drupe ��a simple, fleshy, indehiscent fruit with associated with grasses, row crops, a single seed with a stony covering, vegetables, and shrubs 9 such as a peach or cherry endosperm ��the food tissue contained with the ecoregion ��Ecoregions denote areas within embryo within the seed which ecosystems (and the type, entire ��a margin of a leaf that is not toothed, quality, and quantity of environmen- notched or divided tal resources) are generally similar. equinox ��two times during the year (spring/fall) Ecoregions classify patterns and the when the sun crosses the plane of the composition of biotic and abiotic earth’s equator and day and night are phenomena using geology, physiog- of equal length 10 raphy, vegetation, climate, soils, land eradication ��elimination, complete destruction. 10 use, wildlife, and hydrology. Ex- Example: The widespread eradication amples: Willamette Valley; Northern of a species can lead to extinction. Basin and Range 8 ethnobotany ��the study of the relationship be- ecosystem ��an interacting system of biotic and tween people and the plants in their abiotic elements environment ecosystem services �� the life-sustaining services provided exocarp ��the outermost layer of a fruit by healthy diverse ecosystems. exotic ��introduced, not native Examples: flood control; water and extinct ��a species that no longer exists (see air purification; pollination; nutrient also ESA) cycling extirpated ��a species that no longer survives in ectomycorrhizae �� mycorrhizal fungi that grow on the regions that were once part of its surface layers of the roots and are range, but that still exists elsewhere in commonly associated with trees 9 the wild or in captivity (see also ESA) embryo ��the un-sprouted young (baby) plant famine food ��a readily available food source contained within the seed strongly associated with hardship endangered species �� an animal or plant species in danger fauna ��the animal life of a given area or of extinction within the foreseeable region 264 Glossary

fiber cell ��a plant cell with a thickened wall that generalist species �� an organism able to thrive in a wide gives structure variety of environmental conditions fiber plant ��a plant used or cultivated for its and with varied resources fibers; fibers used to make or manu- genus/genera (plural) facture products a group of species with similarchar- fibrous root ��a root system where the roots are all acteristics or relationship; within the approximately the same thickness; a taxonomic classification system fol- system of small, branching roots lowing “family.” It forms the first word fibrous ��resembling fibers of a scientific name; always Capital- field journal ��a place to record one’s observations, ized and italicized. interpretations, and data while working germination ��the process whereby seeds or spores in or enjoying the outdoors, used by sprout and begin to grow.10 scientists and naturalists greenhouse gas ��gases that trap heat in the atmo- filament ...... a thread-like stalk that supports the sphere. Some occur naturally and are anther emitted in natural processes; others flora ��the plant life of a given area or region are generated by human activity.12 flower ��the reproductive part of some plants, gymnosperm ��a plant that produces seeds in a used to help make seeds; often col- cone-like structure, instead of con- ored and showy tained in the ovary of a fruit foliose ��a lichen growth form with lobes, habitat ��an area that provides a plant or loosely or tightly attached to the animal with a suitable combination substrate; leaf-like 3 of nutrients, water, shelter, and living follicle ��a dry, dehiscent fruit with a single space carpel opening on a single side harden off ��a process in which plants grown in a forest thinning ��a forest management practice of re- greenhouse are slowly exposed to moving trees to allow more space be- natural conditions (temperatures, tween trees, to maximize growth, and/ sunlight, water) before being planted or to protect from fire and diseases outdoors Frankia bacteria ��a bacteria the converts atmospheric herbaceous ��a plant with no woody stems; leaves nitrogen gas into ammonia in a and stems may die down to soil level process known as nitrogen fixation. at the end of the growing season or Frankia bacteria live in root nodules may persist year round Can be an- of some woody plants.11 nual, biennial, or perennial frequency ��the number of occurrences within a herbalist ��someone that uses herbs for healing given time period 10 and medicinal purposes fruit ��ripened flower part that contains the herbarium/herbaria (plural) seeds a collection or library of preserved fruticose ��a three-dimensional growth form of a plant specimens. Specimens are dried lichen, not differentiated into upper and mounted or preserved in alcohol and lower surfaces, and including for studying taxonomy or geographic pendulous and stringy, upright, or distribution; they act as a historical bushy forms 3 record of change over time. fuels reduction ��using management tools such as thin- herbivory ��the consumption of plants by animals, ning, brush removal, and prescribed including insects burns to reduce the amount of hesperidium ��a fleshy fruit with a tough outer skin surface fuels, to prevent or lessen the or rind. Examples: oranges, lemons severity of wildfires hip ��a berry-like fruit containing many funiculus ��the stem-like stalk of a seed, connect- achenes. Example: rose hip ing ovule to the placenta 265 . Glossary

hotspot ��In reference to biodiversity, hotspot and strengthen cell walls of plants 10 refers to a region that must meet lobed ��with rounded segments on the mar- two strict criteria: it must contain at gin, such as an Oregon white oak leaf least 1,500 species of vascular plants locule ��the cavity, in the ovary that contains (>0.5 percent of the world’s total) as the seed or the anther that contains endemics, and it has to have lost at pollen least 70 percent of its original habitat. loculicidal capsule ��a dehiscent fruit that dispenses seed Twenty five biodiversity hotspots through the locule cavity have been identified worldwide. 13 macro ��very large in scale, scope, or capability10 hyphae ��microscopic fungi cells that usually margin ��used to describe the edge of a leaf grow as long threads or strands 9 mesocarp ��the middle layer of a fruit imperfect flower ��a single-sex flower; containing pistils micro-abiotic ��a small-scale look at an ecosystem’s or stamens but not both abiotic elements. Example: Small-scale indehiscent ��not opening upon maturity topography (such as cliff, boulder) can inflorescence ��a cluster of flowers affect soils, wind, moisture and other internode ��the part of the stem between nodes factors that influence plant growth or introduced ��a species that is brought in to an ecosys- plant selection in a given spot. tem by humans (whether accidentally or microclimate ��small local atmospheric zones in on purpose) and becomes established which the climate differs from the there. If the presence of this species surrounding area. Example: a pro- causes negative effects in its new loca- tected place that remains warmer tion, it is considered “invasive.” than the surrounding temperatures invasive ��a species, typically non-native, that microscopic ��so small as to be invisible without a causes harm to the environment, microscope economy, or human health mitigation ��steps taken to avoid or minimize lanceolate ��a lance- (or sword-) shaped leaf, negative environmental impacts. much longer than wide, with the wid- Mitigation can include taking protec- est part of the leaf towards the base tive steps, repairing, restoring, or or bottom compensating by replacing. 15 landscape �� the visible expanse of an area of monocot ��a plant that sprouts one seed leaf or land, encompassing physical ele- cotyledon; “mono” meaning one, and ments (landforms, water bodies), “cot” referring to cotyledon biotic elements (dominant flora and mulch ��a protective coat put over soil to fauna), and human elements (build- inhibit evaporation or weed growth, ings, roads, farms) 14 to control soil temperature, to enrich leaf margin ��the edge of a leaf the soil, or to prevent the dispersal of leaf ��flattened, above-ground piece of pathogens a plant attached to a stem, usually multiple fruit ��a fruit formed from several separate green during the growing season; flowers on a single axis, as in a pine- uses sunlight to make food for the apple plant (photosynthesis) mutualism �� a symbiotic relationship between leaflet ��a division of a compound leaf that is two different species in which each similar to a leaf but is attached to a gains benefits from the other; they leaf vein instead of the stem are interdependent 10 legume ��a simple, dry, dehiscent fruit that mycelium ��large mass of fungi hyphae 9 opens along both long edges, as in the mycorrhizal fungi ��a type of fungi that colonizes plant fruit of a member of the pea family roots. They form a mutualistic relation- lignin ��a natural polymer found in plant cells, ship in which plants supply carbon for that binds cellulose fibers to harden the fungi and fungi bring soil nutrients 266 Glossary

(phosphorus, nitrogen, micronutrients, ing; allows water to drain, or used for and perhaps water) to the plant.9 carrying large items such as fire- native ��a plant that is naturally found in an wood area, as opposed to a plant that opposite ��a leaf pattern where two leaves grow people introduce into an area; see across from each other at the same “introduced” node on the stem naturalized ��introduced species, now established organism ��an individual living thing that can in a natural landscape and integrated react to stimuli, reproduce, grow, and into the ecosystem maintain homeostasis. Can be a virus, natural landscape ��a landscape unaffected by humans bacterium, protist, fungus, plant, or natural selection ��a process of evolution that acts on animal15 variation within a population. Organ- ovary ��the enlarged base of the pistil that isms with traits favored within a given contains the developing seed set of environmental circumstances ovate ��oval or egg-shaped, widest at the have a selective advantage over indi- base viduals with different traits; favored overlay ��a technique used to add color de- traits are only advantageous within a signs on twined baskets. The colored particular situation and may not aid weaving fiber is woven on the inside survival in other circumstances. 16 of the basket and brought to the nectar ��a sweet liquid produced in flowers to front with a half twist to replace attract pollinators. Pollinators benefit the standard weaving fibers as the from the nutrient source and the plant design calls for. The colored fiber will benefits from their pollination services replace the standard fiber and the nitrogen fixing ��a process in which bacteria converts weaving will slant in the same direc- atmospheric nitrogen gas, which is tion as the rest of the twining. unavailable for plant use, into am- ovule ��the immature seed monia, that can then be taken up by palmate ��a shape and vein pattern that is di- plants. This mutualistic interaction vided from a central point into lobes; takes place underground in the roots similar to a hand with spread fingers of plants, in the legume family and in panicle ��a flower arrangement with a central some woody plants. stalk and branched side stalks, with node ��swelling or knob where new growth multiple flowers that mature from the originates base to the tip non-native ��a plant introduced, purposely or ac- parasite ��an organism that grows, feeds and is cidently, by human activity sheltered on or in a different organ- nonvascular ��plants lacking a system of tubes to ism while contributing nothing to the transport water and nutrients survival of its host 18 noxious ��plant classified as injurious, to public parasitism ��a relationship between two differ- health, agriculture, recreation, wildlife, ent types of organisms in which one or any public or private property17 benefits (the parasite) at the expense nut ��indehiscent fruit; hard and dry, usu- of the other (host) ally with one seed parthenocarpy ��fruit developed without seed pro- nutlet ��a small nut duction or fertilization taking place observation ��the act of noticing or paying attention, pedicel ��the stalk of a single flower attached in using one’s senses. 10 In science, a basic an inflorescence or a grass method of collecting data or of devel- peduncle ��the stalk of a single flower oping an understanding of a system pepo ��an indehiscent fruit; fleshy with many open weave ��a basket-weaving technique which seeds and a tough outer rind/skin or leaves openings between the weav- exocarp 267 Glossary

percent cover ��percent of measured area (for exam- pollination ��the process of transfering pollen ple: ground, sky) covered by a target between anther and stamen species; a method of collecting data pome ��a simple, fleshy, indehiscent fruit with when monitoring plant populations a leathery or papery core, such as an perennial ��a plant that lives three or more years apple perfect flower ��a flower that has both male (stamen) poricidal capsule ��a dehiscent fruit that opens at pores and female (pistil) reproductive precipitation ��water falling from clouds in any form, parts such as rain, snow, or sleet pericarp ��the outer wall of a fruit predation ��a symbiotic relationship between two perspective ��the appearance of things relative to different species in which one, the one another as determined by their predator, feeds on the other, the prey distance from the viewer. 10 This prescribed burn ��a management tool used in forestry term used in the lesson “Ecosystem and ecosystem restoration to clear through an Artist’s Eye.” land of excess organic ground material, petal ��the inside layer of modified flower get rid of unwanted vegetation, pre- leaves; usually the brightly-colored, pare a site for planting, and/or encour- showy part of the flower age the growth of favorable species petiole ��a stalk that attaches the leaf to the stem quadrat ��a square frame used for sampling phenology ��the study of the timing of life cycle raceme ��a flower arrangement with a central events in plants and animals in relation stalk and single, individually-stalked to changes in season and climate19 flowers that branch from the central phenotype ��the observable traits or characteris- stalk and generally mature from the tics of an organism base to the tip pheromones ��a chemical substance secreted ex- rare ��infrequent or uncommon within a ternally by some animals (especially sampling site; or scarce within a spe- insects) that influences the physiology cies’ habitat range or behavior of other animals of the receptacle ��structure at the end of the flower same species 10 stalk where the flower parts attach photoperiod ��the duration of daily exposure to reclamation ��working to bring disturbed land back light, either naturally or artificially 20 to its natural state; reclamation of phytochemical ��a plant-derived chemical mining sites phytotoxin ��a chemical produced by a plant that rehabilitation ��to make habitable or useful again; to is toxic to other plants or animals return to original condition pinnate ��leaves or veins emerging from a cen- reintroduction ��to return members of a species to tral stalk or vein their historical range. This strategy is pistil ��the female reproductive part of the sometimes used when a species has flower, including the stigma, style, become locally extinct or if its popu- and ovary lation is threatened. 22 plant community ��all the different plant populations ex- restoration ��the act, process, or result of returning isting within a certain area or habitat a degraded or former habitat to a plant diversity ��the number of plant species per unit healthy, self-sustaining condition that of area 21 resembles as closely as possible its plant population ��a group of individuals, usually of the pre-disturbed state 23 same species, within a specific area restoration ecology �the application of the principles of and at a given time ecology to the restoration of derelict, plot ��a small area (frequently a meter degraded and fragmented ecosys- square) used to give a representative tems 24 sample within a larger study site rhizobia bacteria ��the nitrogen-fixing organism associated with root nodules on legumes15 268 Glossary

rhizoid ...... a root-hair-like structure found on simple leaf ��an undivided leaf that is not sepa- moss, liverworts, and some vascular rated into individual leaflets, but may plants 25 still be lobed rhizome ��an underground stem that travels simple fruit ��a fruit developing from a single between plants; differs from a root ovary by the presence of nodes solitary flower ��occurring singly and not in a cluster rhizosphere ��the microhabitat immediately sur- solitary ��single rounding plant roots 15 solstice ��one of the two times of the year riparian ��the transitional ecosystem between (summer/winter) when the sun is at its land and water; the land directly in- greatest distance from the equator 10 fluenced by water along rivers, lakes, specialist species ��an organism that can only thrive in a and streams 15 limited or narrow range of environ- root ��part of a plant without leaves; usually mental conditions and resources found underground. Roots anchor species ��a group of organisms that share a the plant and take up nutrients (food) unique set of common characteristics and water. and that (usually) can reproduce among samara ��a simple, dry, indehiscent fruit with themselves but not with other such wings, as in the fruit of a maple groups.15 A species is the basic unit in saprophyte ��an organism that lives on dead or taxonomic classification, under genus. decaying organic matter species of concern ��an informal term referring to a spe- scarification ��process of cutting or softening of the cies that might be in need of conser- seed coat to hasten germination 25 vation action. Such species receive no schizocarp ��an indehiscent fruit; dry; at maturity, legal protection and use of the term splits into one-seed segments does not necessarily imply that a spe- scientific name ��the two-part Latin name assigned cies will eventually be proposed for to a species under the system of listing under the Endangered Species binomial nomenclature established Act (ESA). 7 in the 1700s by Swedish botanist Carl spike ��a flower arrangement with an un- Linnaeus 26 branched, central stalk and single, seasonal round ��the annual pattern followed in the un-stalked flowers that mature from production or collection of food 27 the base to the tip seed coat ��the outer covering on a seed spore ��a walled reproductive cell body seed dispersal ��methods by which plants spread their capable of giving rise to a new indi- seeds. Examples: animal ingestion, vidual, either directly or indirectly wind, water 28 stamen ��the male reproductive part of the flow- seed ��a mature or ripened ovule er, including the anther and filament seed-bank ��a place where seeds are stored for staple food ��a food making up the dominant part long term preservation; seeds that of the diet, that supplies a major part are present in or on the soil of a person’s nutritional needs for seed leaf ��the embryo’s first leaf; cotyledon survival; readily available sepal ��the green, leaf-like parts of a flower stem ��part of the plant that supports the that usually sit directly below the petals leaves and buds; usually grows above septa ��the tissue separating the locules ground septicidal capsule ��a fruit that disperses seed through stewardship ��the responsibility to care for our the septa natural resources sustainably, that serrate ��a leaf margin with teeth like a saw is, in a way that preserves them for sessile ��without a stalk, stem, or petiole future generations silique ��a dehiscent fruit; dry, longer than stigma ��the portion of the pistil that is recep- wide, and separating into two halves tive to pollen 269 Glossary

stomata ...... the pores or openings which allow standing traditions and practices of the exchange of gasses regional indigenous communities storyboard ��a graphic organizer; a series of transect ��a line on the ground along which panels, of rough sketches outlining a sample plots or points are estab- sequence of actions. Borrowed from lished for collecting data 30 the film-making industry transplant ��in plants, a technique of moving a stratification ��the process of exposing seeds to low plant from one location to another, temperatures to mimic nature and as in planting a potted plant in the improve germination rates ground structure ��Structure is a fundamental and some- tuber ��a fleshy, thickened, underground times intangible notion covering the stem. A plant structure used to store recognition, observation, nature, and nutrients for plant re-growth dur- stability of patterns and relationships ing the next growing season. Also a of entities. 14 means of asexual reproduction style ��narrow part of the pistil that connects tumpline ��a woven or leather strap, worn across the stigma to the ovary the forehead or shoulders, attached substrate ��a surface on which an organism grows to a burden basket for hands-free or is attached10 carrying succession ��in ecology, the gradual and orderly pro- twining ��a basketry weaving technique using cess of change in an ecosystem brought two or more weft strands are passed about by the progressive replacement around the warp structure and of one community by another until a twisted. By using different color, size, stable climax is established10 or texture weft strands, this tech- symbiosis ��a long-standing relationship between nique lends itself to intricate decora- two different species. Usually under- tive design. stood to mean mutualism (beneficial ubiquitous ��being present everywhere at once 10 to both); but can also take the form umbel ��a flat-top or convex umbrella-like of commensalism (beneficial to one, inflorescence with multiple small neutral to the other) or parasitism flowers; individual flower stalks arise (beneficial to one, costly or damaging from approximately the same point to the other) 15 urban growth boundary (UGB) taproot ��a large central root from which a management tool used to contain smaller roots branch off, such as a urban areas and limit their expansion. carrot It divides land that is urban—to be taxonomy ��in biology, the study of the general used for housing, shops, factories— principles of scientific classification; a from land that is non-urban and to classification of organisms into groups be used for purposes such as conser- based on similarities of structure, vation, agriculture, mineral extrac- origin, or other characteristics 10 tion, airports and the like. An urban tepal ��common term for sepals and petals growth boundary encourages urban when both look very much alike 29 consolidation and protects valued threatened species ��an animal or plant species likely to non-urban areas from urban devel- become endangered within the opment. 31 foreseeable future throughout all or vascular tissue ��tissue that conducts water and nutri- a significant portion of its range (see ents through the plant body in higher also ESA) 7 plants 10 topography ��detailed study of the earth surface vein ��transports water, sugars, and miner- features of a region 10 als within the leaf blade; can be seen traditional knowledge.....knowledge gained through long- radiating throughout the leaf 270 Glossary

warp ��in reference to basketry, the vertical 7 US Fish & Wildlife Service Endangered Species Program, elements that the weft fibers weave online glossary: around; commonly the elements that www.fws.gov/endangered/about/glossary.html give a basket structure 8 Ecoregions, Western Ecology Division, Environmental weather ��the atmospheric conditions at a given Protection Agency: time, as in rain or sunshine www.epa.gov/wed/pages/ecoregions.htm weed ��any plant out of place, unwanted 9 Tugel, Arlene, Ann Lewandowski, Deb Happe-vonArb, where it is growing, difficult to get rid eds. 2000. Soil Biology Primer. Rev. ed. Ankeny, Iowa: Soil of, with an ability to spread 32 and Water Conservation Society. Available online: soils. weft ��the horizontal weaving fibers of a usda.gov/sqi/concepts/soil_biology/biology.html basket or mat 10 WordNet, Princeton University: wordnet.princeton.edu/ whorled ��a leaf arrangement in which three or 11 Frankia and Actinorhizal Plants: more leaves are growing from the web2.uconn.edu/mcbstaff/benson/Frankia/ same node on the stem FrankiaHome.htm wildfire ��a rapidly spreading fire, often occur- 12 Climate Change—Greenhouse Gas Emissions, U.S. ring in wildland areas, that is out of Environmental Protection Agency: control 24 www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/index.html wildflower ��wild or uncultivated flowering plant10 13 Biodiversity Hotspots, Conservation International: woody ��made of, containing, or resembling www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/ wood; made hard like wood as the hotspotsScience/pages/hotspots_defined.aspx result of the deposition of lignin in 14 Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia: en.wikipedia.org the cell walls. Examples: woody plants; 15 Biology-Online.org: www.biology-online.org/dictionary perennial herbs with woody stems 10 16 Understanding Evolution, University of California Museum of Paleontology: SOURCES: evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/evo_01 A good general reference: Online Illustrated Glos- 17 Noxious Weed Policy and Classification System 2000, sary of Floral Terms, US Geological Survey Northern Oregon Department of Agriculture Noxious Weed Con- Prairie Wildlife Research Center: www.npwrc.usgs. trol Program: www.oregon.gov/oda/plant/weeds/docs/ gov/resource/plants/florawe/gloss.htm weed_policy.pdf?ga=t 18 Todar’s Online Textbook of Bacteriology: Endnotes www.textbookofbacteriology.net/NHPR.html 1 Environmental Science: A Global Concern, online 19 Project Budburst: glossary, McGraw-Hill Online Learning Center: www.budburst.ucar.edu/phenology.php highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/0070294267/student_ 20 Glossary of Meteorology: view0/glossary_a-d.html amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/browse?s=p&p=25 2 Horticulture and Crop Science, online glossary of plant 21 Celebrating Wildflowers, U.S. Forest Service: www. parts, Ohio State University: fs.fed.us/wildflowers/rareplants/howmany.shtml hcs.osu.edu/hcs300/glossary/gloss1.htm 22 National Geographic’s Strange Days on Planet Earth, glos- 3 Epiphytes and Forest Management, online glossary, sary: www.pbs.org/strangedays/glossary/R.html Oregon State University: 23 Water Habitat Restoration; Air, Water, and Climate people.oregonstate.edu/~mccuneb/glossary.htm Change; Executive Office of Energy and Environmental 4 Sonoran Desert Educational Center, online kids’ glossary: Affairs, Mass.gov: www.mass.gov/eoeea www.pima.gov/cmo/sdcp/kids/gloss.html 24 Wiktionary, the Free Dictionary: en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ 5 Building Bridges: A Peace Corps Classroom Guide to 25 Raven, PH, RF Evert, and SE Eichhorn. 1992. Biology of Cross-Cultural Understanding: www.peacecorps.gov/ Plants 5th Edition. Worth Publishers. wws/publications/bridges/pdf/BuildingBridges.pdf 26 Encyclopedia of Life Learning + Education Group, 6 National Weather Service Glossary: Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, www.nws.noaa.gov/glossary/index.php glossary: education.eol.org/glossary 27 Definitions of Anthropological Terms, Oregon State 271 Glossary

University: oregonstate.edu/instruct/anth370/gloss.html 31 The Victorian Coastal Strategy 2008, online glossary, 28 Jean-Michel Cousteau Ocean Adventures, PBS, online Victorian Coastal Council, Melbourne, Australia: glossary: www.pbs.org/kqed/oceanadventures/glossary/ www.vcc.vic.gov.au/2008vcs/glossary.htm 29 Key to the Common Spring Wildflowers, glossary, 32 Alien Invasion: Plants on the Move, curriculum glossary: Victoria College, Texas: www2.victoriacollege.edu/dept/ weedinvasion.org/weed_html.php?page=vocabulary bio/flower/key/terms/Glossary.htm 30 The Science Behind Algonquin’s Animals online glossary, Algonquin Provincial Park: www.sbaa.ca/glossary.asp

272 . . Oregon Education Standards Correlations Standards Education Oregon - Identify and predict Identify predict and Explain how ecosystems change in response to disturbances and interactions. Analyze the relationships among biotic and abiotic factors in ecosystems. factors abiotic and biotic among Analyze relationships the interactions. and disturbances to in response change .2L.2 Explain how ecosystems the effect of… effect the H.2E.2 Explain how Earth’s geosphere… atmosphere, H.2.L.1 Explain how energy pass… elements & chemical H.2L.2 Explain how ecosys H.2L.4 Explain how biological of… consequence is evolution H.2E.1 impact of H.2E.4 Evaluate on… human activities tems change in response… H.2L.3 how asexual Describe reproduction… sexual and SCIENCE Identify and predict the effect of energy sources, physical forces, and transfer processes that occur in the Earth system. Describe how matter and energy are cycled between system components over over time. components between arecycled system energy and how matter Describe system. Earth the in occur that processes transfer and forces, physical sources, energy of effect the H.2E.1 Identify predict and on Earth. of events history the elucidate to used Explain techniques varying time at rates. and over change hydrosphere and geosphere, atmosphere, H.2E.2 Explain how Earth’s Describe how asexual and sexual reproduction affect genetic diversity. genetic affect reproduction sexual and H.2L.3 how asexual Describe time and selection, natural inheritanc, and reproduction variation, of genetic interactions of the consequence the H.2L.4 is evolution Explain how biological —The components in a system can interact in dynamic ways that may result in change. In systems, changes occur with a flow of energy and/or transfer of matter matter of transfer and/or energy a flow of occur with changes In systems, change. in result may that ways in dynamic can interact in a system components —The Change and H.2 Interaction ways in different recombined combined and are elements how chemical Describe systems. through pass elements H.2.L.1 chemical and Explain how energy H management resource influence factors how environmental Describe systems. of Earth quality sustainablility the and impact on environmental of human the activities H.2E.4 Evaluate 273 - . . … … … … … …

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xplain how technological problems and advances create a demand for new scientific knowledge and how new knowledge enables the creation of new technologies. of new creation the knowledgeknowledge enables and how new scientific new for a demand create advances and problems xplain how technological Formulate a Formulate Design & conduct… Design Analyze data, identify uncertainties, and display data so that the implications for the solution being tested are clear. are being solution tested the for implications the that so data display and identify uncertainties, Analyze data, Recommend a proposed solution, identy its strengths and weaknesses, and describe how it is better than alternative designs. Identify uncertainties, and display data so that the implications the implications that so data and display Identify uncertainties, designs. alternative than better is how it describe and weaknesses, and strengths identy its solution, a proposed Recommend Explain how

Define a problem and specify criteria for a solution within specific constraints or limits based on science principles. Generate several possible solutions to a problem and use the concept of concept the use and problem to a solutions possible several Generate principles. science on based or limits constraints solution specific for a within specifyand criteria Define a problem E Analyze data and identify uncertainties. Draw a valid conclusion, explain how it is supported by the evidence, and communicate the findings of a scientific investigation. findingsscientific of a the communicate and evidence, the by supported is how it explain conclusion, a valid Draw identify and uncertainties. Analyze data Identify examples from the history of science that illustrate modification of scientific knowledge in light of challenges to prevailing explanations. prevailing to challenges knowledge of in light scientific of modification illustrate that of science history the from Identify examples Evaluate ways that ethics, public opinion, and government policy influence the work of engineers and scientists, and how the results of their of societyimpact human work environment the and results the and how scientists, and engineers the of policy work influence government publicand opinion, ethics, that ways Evaluate Design and conduct a controlled experiment, field study, or other investigation to make systematic observations about the natural world, including the collection of sufficient and appropriate appropriate and sufficient collection of the including world, the natural about observations systematic to make investigation other or study, field experiment, a controlled conduct and Design Based on observations and science principles formulate a question or hypothesis that can be investigated through the collection and analysis of relevant information. of relevant analysis and collection the through be investigated can that or hypothesis a question formulate principles science and on observations Based 2 Create and test or otherwise analyze at least one of the more promising solutions. Collect and process relevant data. Incorporate modifications based on data from testing or other analysis. other or testing from data on based modifications Incorporate data. relevant process and Collect solutions. promising more one of the least or otherwise at analyze test and 2 Create 5 . 5 . Scientific inquiry is the investigation of the natural world by a systematic process that includes proposing a testable question or hypothesis and developing procedures for q ues procedures and developing hypothesis or question testable a proposing includes that process by a systematic world the natural of inquiryScientific the investigation is Engineering Design is a process of formulating problem statements, identifying criteria and constraints, proposing and testing possible solutions, incorporating modifications based on test data, data, test on based modifications incorporating solutions, possible testing and proposing constraints, and identifying criteria statements, problem of formulating a process is Design Engineering .3S.2 c nquiry H H.3S.1 Analyze H.3S.3 data Identify examples… H.3S.4 H.3S. is… Design H.4 Engineering Define a problem… H.4D.1 test and Create H.4D.2 Analyze H.4D.3 Recommend H.4D.4 ways Evaluate H.4D.6 S i IENTIFIC tioning, collecting, analyzing, and interpreting multiple forms of accurate and relevant data to produce justifiable evidence-based explanations and new explorations and new explanations evidence-based justifiable produce to data relevant and of accurate tioning, forms collecting,multiple analyzing, interpreting and H.3 H.3S.1 data. H.3S.3 H.3S.4 H.3S. H.4 recommentdations. the communicating and H.4D.1 H.4D.6 H.3S.2 constraints. and criteria of terms them in compare to trade-offs H.4D. H.4D.3 H.4D.4 clear. are being solution tested the for 274 alysis n A

…

ence ci Analyze 5 . S and

rnment e i v v o o i S CIAL Propose … Propose SS.HS.SA.06 Government poli- Government SS.HS.06 and… cies … Understand SS.HS.GE.01 & Interpret SS.HS.GE.02 evaluate… Analyze changes… SS.HS.GE.04 … Understand SS.HS.GE.07 Identify… SS.HS.GE.08 understand SS.HS.HS.07.01 events… Define, SS.HS.SA.01 research… Gather … SS.HS.SA.02 … Understand SS.HS.SA.03 Analyze… SS.HS.SA.04 SS.HS.SA.0 G C cs Understand what it means to be a critical consumer of information consumer be a critical to means what it Understand SS.HS.SA.03 of view or points perspectives or opposed varied from or phenomenon problem issue, Analyze event, an SS.HS.SA.04 conclusion supported a defensible, reach then or solutions; alternatives, responses, multiple judge and compare, Propose, SS.HS.SA.06 Understand how government policies and decisions have been influenced and changed by individuals, groups, and international organizations. and international by individuals, groups, changed and been influenced have decisions and policies how government Understand SS.HS.06 arrangement and of distribution, patterns using a variety of scales, information geographic use and Understand SS.HS.GE.01 representations geographic using complex information & evaluate Interpret SS.HS.GE.02 them on and urbanization migration, technology, of effects the and regions, and of places human characteristics and physical in the Analyze changes SS.HS.GE.04 for human activity consequences and their global analyzeimpacts and environment the physical of human modifications Understand SS.HS.GE.07 impact their on human activity environment. in evaluate the and environment, in a physical of changes Identify give and examples SS.HS.GE.08 1900. after of and the history Oregon people in groups, developments, events, significant Identify understand and SS.HS.HS.07.01 to society significance its and or phenomenon problem, issue, event, explainan and research, Define, SS.HS.SA.01 appeals persuasive and stereotypes, biases, inferences, opinions, facts, distinguishing sources, various from information document and use analyze, Gather, SS.HS.SA.02

275 .

— ntify, analyze, and use experimental and theoretical probability to estimate and calculate the probability of simple probability the events calculate and estimate to probability theoretical and experimental use and analyze, ntify, iven a table or graph that represents a quadratic or exponential function, extend the pattern to make predictions to make pattern the extend function, or exponential a quadratic represents that or graph iven a table the and or simulation, experiment, study, observational survey, of a particular limitations and strengths the analyze survey methods, appropriate determine iven a context, pply a scale factor to determine whether two-& three-dimensional figures are similar. Compare & compute their respective areas and volumes of similar figures and volumes areas respective their compute & Compare similar. are whether two-& determine to figures three-dimensional factor pply a scale ompare and draw conclusions about two or more data sets using graphical displays or central tendencies and range and tendencies or central displays using graphical sets two about data conclusions or more draw and ompare valuate data-based reports by considering the source of the data, the design of the study, and the way the data was analyzed and displayed. and analyzed was data the way the and study, of the design the data, of the source the considering by reports data-based valuate Ide fugures geometric G A G data. of its display E C Ide

thematics a t Identify, H.2A.1 Identify, construct… H.3A.2 Given a table or graph… H.3G.3 Apply a scale factor… Given a context, H.1S.1 determine… EvaluateH.1S.2 data- reports… based and Compare H.1S.3 conclusions… draw analyze Identify, H.2S.1 use… and H.1S.3 H.2A.1 H.3A.2 or using tables, in graphically, algebraically, numerically, contextually, expressed are that relationships functional and patterns linear & analyze extend, construct, ntify, H.1S.1 H.1S.2 H.3G.3 H.2S.1 S ANDARDS M 276 rstand & draw upon a variety of comprehension strategies as needed-re-reading, summarizing,class& group discussions, generating & responding to to & responding generating discussions, group summarizing,class& needed-re-reading, as strategies upon a variety of comprehension & draw rstand areas subject the across instruction and text, literary text, informational through directly taught and introduced is vocabulary that new & use learn, rstand, reading area vocabulary in subject technical rstand - ntify and/or summarize sequence of events, main ideas, facts, supporting details, & opinions in informational & pratical selections. & pratical in & opinions informational supporting details, facts, main ideas, of events, sequence ntify summarize and/or

sten to, read, and understand a wide variety of informational and narrative text (...refernece materials, online information) materials, (...refernece text narrative and a wide variety of informational understand and read, to, sten ifferentiate among reasoning based on fact versus reasoning based on opinions, emotional apppeals, or other persuasive techniques. persuasive other or apppeals, emotional on opinions, based reasoning versus fact on based reasoning among ifferentiate emonstrate listening comprehension of more complex text through class and-or small group interpretive discussions across the subject area subject the across discussions interpretive and-or group small class through text complex of more comprehension listening emonstrate clues & structural using contextual of words meaning the eternine se general dictionaries, specialized dictionaries, glossaries, thesauruses, or related references to increase vocabulary. increase to references or related thesauruses, glossaries, dictionaries, specialized dictionaries, general se nalyze implicit relationships, such as cause-and-effect, sequence-time relationships, comparisons, classifications, and generalizations and classifications, comparisons, relationships, sequence-time cause-and-effect, as such nalyze implicit relationships, ead at an independent and instructional reading level appropriate to grade level grade to appropriate level reading instructional and independent an at ead stories; news editorials; documents; historical prinarysource essays; magazines; procedures; directions; diaries; letters; sketches; biographical textbooks; ead ynthesize information found in various parts of charts, tables, diagrams, glossaries, or related grade-level text to reach supported conclusions. supported reach to text grade-level or related glossaries, diagrams, tables, of charts, parts in various found information ynthesize

R Li D Unde Unde D U Unde R S Ide A D essential questions, making predictions, & comparing information from several sources. several from information & comparing predictions, making questions, essential public and documents workplace, consumer, directions; technical catalogs; bus routes; periodicals;

Listento… Read…

5 . 5 . READING — rstand, learn… rstand, nguage rts a t stand & draw upon… & draw stand EL.HS.RE.08 Read at… Read EL.HS.RE.01 EL.HS.RE.02 Demon- EL.HS.RE.04 strate… Under EL.HS.RE.06 Unde … Deternine EL.HS.RE.10 Use…EL.HS.RE.13 Understand… EL.HS.RE.14 EL.HS.RE.1 Synthesize…EL.HS.RE.16 Identify… EL.HS.RE.19 Analyze … EL.HS.RE.24 Differentiate… EL.HS.RE.27 EL.HS.RE.04 EL.HS.RE.04 EL.HS.RE.06 EL.HS.RE.13 14 EL.HS.RE. EL.HS.RE.24 EL.HS.RE.27 EL.HS.RE.01 EL.HS.RE.01 EL.HS.RE.02 EL.HS.RE.02 EL.HS.RE.08 EL.HS.RE.10 EL.HS.RE.1 EL.HS.RE.16 EL.HS.RE.19 L A S ANDARDS 277 - ts rite analytical essays and research reports. research and analytical essays rite se a variety of strategies to prepare for writing, such as brainstorming, matking lists, mapping, outlining, grouping related ideas, using graphic organizers, organizers, using graphic ideas, mapping, outlining, lists, related grouping matking brainstorming, writing, as for such prepare to a varietyse of strategies hoose the form of writing that best suits the intended purpose--personal letter, letter to the editor, review, poem, report,narrative or poem, review, the editor, to letter letter, purpose--personal intended the suits best of writing that form the hoose ormulate judgments about ideas under discussion, & support those judgments with convincing evidence judgments & support those under discussion, ideas about judgments ormulate vocabulary & processes. technical include that instructions verbal ollow complex r

U notes. & taking C W F F

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… nguage a WRITING LISTENING egies … egies Choose EL.HS.WR.04 form EL.HS.WR.01 EL.HS.WR.01 WriteEL.HS.WR.23 analytical… Formu- EL.HS.SL.10 late… Follow EL.HS.SL.11 complex… t L S ANDARDS EL.HS.WR.04 EL.HS.WR.04 EL.HS.WR.23 EL.HS.SL.11 WRITING EL.HS.WR.01 LISTEINING EL.HS.SL.10 278

— cess, organize and analyze information to make informed decisions, using one or more technologies using one or more decisions, informed make to information analyze and organize cess, esign, prepare, and present unique works using technology to communicate information and ideas and information communicate using uniquetechnology works to present and prepare, esign, se technology in an ethical and legal manner and understand how technology affects society how technology affects understand and manner legal and technologyse in ethical an xtend communication and collaboration with peers, experts, and other audiences using telecommunications audiences other and experts, with peers, collaboration and xtend communication S Ac U D E

Design…

5 . 5 . … t Select and … and Select TG.02 orga- Access, TG.03 nize - technol Use TG.04 ogy… TG.0 06 Extend commu- TG. nication… S ANDARDS TECHNOLOGY TG.0 06 TG. TG.02 TG.03 TG.04 solving problem and learning enhance technology use to and elect 279 emonstrate effective communication skills to give and receive information in school, community, and/or workplace community, school, in receive information to giveand skills communication effective emonstrate and/or workplace community, school, in teamwork effective emonstrate pply decision-making and problem-solving techniques in school, community, and/or workplace and/or community, in school, techniques problem-solving and pply decision-making xhibit appropriate work ethic and behaviors in school, community, and/or workplace and/or community, in school, behaviors and work ethic xhibit appropriate D E A D D

: employment successful for required knowledge skills and organizational and technical, academic emonstrate lated

eamwork: T re - oblem Solving : ommunication: C Pr andards arning are e t Personal Management Personal SolvingProblem Communication Teamwork Foundations Employ. P L C ER S Employment Employment Foundations : Management ersonal 280 Recommended Botanical Field Guides for Oregon Ecoregions

The starred (**) field guides are organized by plant families and contain dichotomous keys to help in plant identification. We recommend using these guides when possible. EAST SIDE OREGON: includes Blue WEST SIDE OREGON: includes Cascades, Mountains, Columbia Plateau, Eastern Coast Range, and Willamette Valley ecore- Cascades Slopes and Foothills, and Northern gions Basin and Range ecoregions. **Plants of the Pacific Northwest Coast: Washington, **Plants of Southern Interior British Columbia and the Oregon, British Columbia, & Alaska. Jim Pojar and Inland Northwest. Roberta Parrish, Ray Coupe, and Andy MacKinnon. 1994. B.C. Ministry of Forests and Dennis Lloyd. 1996. Ministry of Forests and Lone Pine Lone Pine Publishing, Canada. Publishing, Canada. A Field Guide to the Common Wetland Plants of West- **Plants of the Rocky Mountains. Linda Kershaw, Andy ern Washington & Northwest Oregon. Sarah S. Cooke, MacKinnon, and Jim Pojar. Lone Pine Field Guide. editor. 1997. Seattle Audubon Society, Trailside Series. 1998. Lone Pine Publishing, Canada. Wetland Plants of Oregon and Washington. Jennifer B. A Field Guide to the Common Wetland Plants of West- Guard. 1995. Lone Pine Press, Edmonton, Alberta, Van- ern Washington & Northwest Oregon. Sarah S. Cooke, couver, British Columbia and Redmond, Washington. editor. 1997. Seattle Audubon Society, Trailside Series. Wildflowers of the Pacific Northwest. Mark Turner and Common Plants of the Upper Klamath Basin. Edited Phyllis Gustafson. 2006. Timber Press, Inc., Portland, by Sarah Malaby. 2007. Oregon Native Plant Society Oregon. Klamath Basin Chapter and Rabe Consulting. Down- Trees to Know in Oregon. Edward C. Jensen. 2010 load at: www.npsoregon.org/chapters/kb.html Oregon State University, Corvallis Oregon Desert Wildflowers of North America. Ronald J. Taylor. Specialized plants found in coastal dunes and 1998. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula, estuaries: Montana. (Great Basin Desert region of Oregon) Plants of the Oregon Coastal Dunes. Alfred M. Wi- Great Basin Wildflowers: A Guide to Common Wild- flowers of the High Deserts of Nevada, Utah and Or- edemann, La Rea J. Dennis, and Frank H. Smith. 1999. egon. Laird R. Blackwell. 2006. Falcon Guide, Morris Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon. Book Publishing, LLC. Helena, Montana. Shore Wildflowers of California, Oregon and Wash- ington. Philip A. Munz. 1964. University of California Noxious Weeds of Klamath County. Andrea Rabe, Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California. Michael Calonje, and Christopher Calonje. Rabe Consulting. Online at: www.rabeconsulting.com/pdf/ weed_book.pdf KLAMATH MOUNTAINS ecoregion, including the Siskiyou Mountains: Wildflowers of the Pacific Northwest. Mark Turner and Phyllis Gustafson. 2006. Timber Press, Inc., Port- A Field Guide to the Common Wetland Plants of West- land, Oregon. ern Washington & Northwest Oregon. Sarah S. Cooke, editor. 1997. Seattle Audubon Society, Trailside Series. Trees to Know in Oregon. Edward C. Jensen. 2010 Oregon State University, Corvallis Oregon Wildflowers of the Pacific Northwest. Mark Turner and Phyllis Gustafson. 2006. Timber Press, Inc., Portland, Oregon.

281 Recommended Botanical Field Guides for Oregon Ecoregions

Flowers of the Table Rocks, Susan K. MacKinnon. Self mous key, and require botanical knowledge to use published, applicable to most of Jackson and Jose- effectively. If illustrated, they generally have only line phine Counties: http://www.flowersofthetablerocks. drawings (not photographs) to show detail, and they com/index.html depend heavily on written descriptions using botanical vocabulary. For the more adventurous, try: Pacific States Wildflowers, Peterson Field Guide. Theo- dore F. Nichaus and Charles L. Ripper. 1976. Hough- Flora of the Pacific Northwest. C. Leo Hitchcock and ton Mifflin Company, New York. Arthur Cronquist. 1973. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington. Trees to Know in Oregon. Edward C. Jensen. 2010 Oregon State University, Corvallis Oregon. Manual of the Grasses of the United States. A.S. Hitch- cock. 1935. U.S. Government Printing Office, Miscel- FOR ALL ECOREGIONS: laneous Publication #200. A “flora” is a book (or electronic work) that describes Vascular Plants of the Pacific Northwest. C. Leo Hitch- the plant species occurring in an area with the aim cock, Arthur Cronquist, Marion Ownbey, and J.W. of identification. Floras usually consist of a dichoto- Thompson. 1969. University of Washington Press, Seattle, Washington. In five volumes.

282 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit Bue l MoUNTAINS Mountain big sagebrush Forb/herb Achillea millefolium var. oc- western yarrow Perennial Asteraceae cidentalis Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Balsamorhiza incana cut-leaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Hedysarum boreale boreal sweetvetch Perennial Fabaceae Penstemon speciosus Royal penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Penstemon deustus hot rock penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Sphaeralcea coccinea scarlet globemallow Perennial Malvaceae Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf globemallow Perennial Malvaceae Eriophyllum lanatum Oregon sunshine Perennial Asteraceae Graminoid Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass Perennial Poaceae Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue Perennial Poaceae Poa secunda Sandberg’s bluegrass Perennial Poaceae Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Clarkia pulchella pinkfairies Annual Onagraceae Shrub Artemisia tridentata ssp. mountain big sagebrush Perennial Asteraceae vaseyana Purshia tridentata antelope bitterbrush Perennial Rosaceae Tree Juniperus occidentalis western juniper Perennial Cupressaceae

Ponderosa pine Forb/herb Achillea millefolium var. oc- western yarrow Perennial Asteraceae cidentalis Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Hedysarum boreale boreal sweetvetch Perennial Fabaceae

283 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit Bue l MoUNTAINS Ponderosa pine, continued Forb/herb Penstemon palmeri Palmer’s penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Potentilla glandulosa sticky cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Penstemon speciosus royal penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Penstemon deustus hot-rock penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Solidago canadensis Canada goldenrod Perennial Asteraceae Graminoid Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass Perennial Poaceae Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue Perennial Poaceae Poa secunda Sandberg’s bluegrass Perennial Poaceae Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Shrub Cercocarpus ledifolius curlleaf mountain mahogany Perennial Rosaceae Purshia tridentata antelope bitterbrush Perennial Rosaceae Philadelphus lewisii mock orange Perennial Hydrangeaceae Wet and semiwet meadows Forb/herb Achillea millefolium var. oc- western yarrow Perennial Asteraceae cidentalis Penstemon rydbergii Rydberg’s penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Penstemon attenuatus sulpher penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Potentilla glandulosa sticky cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Graminoid Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Perennial Poaceae Leymus cinereus basin wildrye Perennial Poaceae Carex sheldonii Sheldon’s sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Carex pachystachya chamisso sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Cascades Mesic, open sites Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Anaphalis margaritaceae pearly everlasting Perennial Asteraceae Chamerion angustifolium fireweed Perennial Onagraceae Fragaria vesca woodland strawberry Perennial Rosaceae

284 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit Cascades Mesic, open sites, continued Forb/herb Fragaria virginiana broadpetal strawberry Perennial Rosaceae Lupinus latifolius broadleaf lupine Perennial Fabaceae Lupinus rivularis riverbank lupine Perennial Fabaceae Graminoid Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Danthonia californica California oatgrass Perennial Poaceae Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Hordeum brachyantherum meadow barley Perennial Poaceae Shrub Holodiscus discolor oceanspray Perennial Rosaceae Shaded sites Forb/herb Geum macrophyllum large leaved avens Perennial Rosaceae Graminoid Bromus sitchensis Alaska brome Perennial Poaceae Bromus vulgaris Columbia brome Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Shrub Cornus sericea red osier dogwood Perennial Cornaceae Tree Alnus rubra red alder Perennial Betulaceae Coast Range Douglas fir forests Forb/herb Achlys triphylla sweet after death Perennial Berberidaceae Aquilegia formosa crimson columbine Perennial Ranuculaceae Clintonia uniflora bride’s bonnet Perennial Liliaceae Erythronium oreganum fawn-lily Perennial Liliaceae Lilium columbianum tiger lily Perennial Liliaceae Linnaea borealis twinflower Perennial Caprifoliaceae Trientalis latifolia broadleaf starflower Perennial Primulaceae Trillium ovatum pacific trillium Perennial Liliaceae Viola sempervirens redwood violet Perennial Violaceae Graminoid Bromus vulgaris Columbia brome Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae

285 . Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit C oAST Range Douglas fir forests, continued Festuca occidentalis western fescue Perennial Poaceae Festuca subuliflora Coast Range fescue Perennial Poaceae Hierochloe occidentalis california sweetgrass Perennial Poaceae Luzula parviflora small -flowered woodrush Perennial Juncaceae Melica subulata Alaska oniongrass Perennial Poaceae Shrub Acer circinatum vine maple Perennial Aceraceae Berberis nervosa Oregon grape Perennial Berberidaceae Gaultheria shallon salal Perennial Ericaceae Holodiscus discolor ocean spray Perennial Rosaceae Rhamnus purshiana Cascara buckthorn Perennial Rhamnaceae Rhododendron macrophyl- rhodendron Perennial Ericaceae lum Ribes sanguineum red flowering currant Perennial Grossulaceae Rubus spectabilis salmonberry Perennial Rosaceae Tree Alnus rubra red alder Perennial Betulaceae Dunes Forb/herb Abronia latifolia coastal sand verbena Perennial Nyctaginaceae Camissonia cheiranthifolia beach evening primrose Perennial Onagraceae Crambe maritima sea kale Perennial Brassicaceae Fragaria chiloensis beach strawberry Perennial Rosaceae Lathyrus japonicus beach pea Perennial Fabaceae Lathyrus littoralis silky beach pea Perennial Fabaceae Lupinus littoralis seashore lupine Perennial Fabaceae Platystemon californicus cream cups Annual Papaveraceae Trifolium wormskioldii cows clover Perennial Fabaceae Graminoid Carex lenticularis var. lim- coastal shore sedge Perennial Cyperaceae nophila Carex macrocephala largehead sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Festuca rubra red fescue Perennial Poaceae Juncus lesueurii salt rush Perennial Juncaceae Leymus mollis American dunegrass Perennial Poaceae Poa macrantha seashore bluegrass Perennial Poaceae

286 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit C oAST Range Marshes Forb/herb Gentiana spectrum king’s gentian Perennial Gentianaceae Jaumea carnosa marsh jaumea Perennial Asteraceae Potentilla pacifica Pacific silverweed Perennial Rosaceae Sisyrinchium californicum golden eyed grass Perennial Iridaceae Graminoid Carex lyngbyei Lyngbye’s sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Carex macrocephela large-headed sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Carex obnupta slough sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Perennial Poaceae Shrub Ledum glandulosum Labrador-tea Perennial Ericaceae Lonicera involucrata twinberry honeysuckle Perennial Caprifoliaceae Malus fusca Oregon crab apple Perennial Rosaceae Salix hookeriana Hooker’s willow Perennial Salicaceae Spiraea douglasii Douglas’s spiraea Perennial Rosaceae Prairies Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Anaphalis margaritacea western pearly everlasting Perennial Asteraceae Angelica hendersonii Henderson’s angelica Perennial Apiaceae Angelica lucida seacoast angelica Perennial Apiaceae Brodiaea coronaria crown brodiaea Perennial Liliaceae Brodiaea elegans harvest brodiaea Perennial Liliaceae Camassia quamash small camas Perennial Liliaceae Clarkia amoena farewell to spring Annual Onagraceae Erigeron glaucus seaside fleabane Perennial Asteraceae Fragaria chiloensis beach strawberry Perennial Rosaceae Fragaria vesca wood strawberry Rosaceae Heracleum lanatum common cowparsnip Perennial Apiaceae Lathyrus japonicus beach pea Perennial Fabaceae Ranunculus occidentalis western buttercup Perennial Ranunculaceae Sanicula arctopoides footsteps of spring Perennial Apiaceae Scrophularia californica California figwort Perennial Scrophulariaceae Sidalcea malviflora dwarf checkerbloom Perennial Malvaceae Sisyrinchium bellum blue-eyed grass Perennial Iridaceae

287 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit C oAST Range Prairies, continued Solidago canadensis Canada goldenrod Perennial Asteraceae Tanacetum douglasii dune tansy Perennial Asteraceae Toxicoscordion (Zigadenus) death camas Perennial Liliaceae fremontii Viola adunca hookedspur violet Perennial Violaceae Graminoid Calamagrostis nutkaensis Pacific reedgrass Perennial Poaceae Danthonia californica California oatgrass Perennial Poaceae Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Shrub Arctostaphylos columbiana hairy manzanita Perennial Ericaceae Baccharis pilularis coyote brush Perennial Asteraceae Rubus parviflorus thimbleberry Perennial Rosaceae Rubus spectabilis salmonberry Perennial Rosaceae Viburnum edule highbush cranberry Perennial Caprifoliaceae Sitka spruce/western hemlock forests Forb/herb Claytonia perfoliata miner’s lettuce Perennial Portulacaceae Claytonia sibirica Siberian miner’s lettuce Perennial Portulacaceae Clintonia uniflora bride’s bonnet Perennial Liliaceae Maianthemum dilatatum false lily of the valley Perennial Liliaceae Oxalis oregana redwood sorrel Perennial Oxalidaceae Petasites frigidus colts foot Perennial Asteraceae Polypodium scouleri leathery polypody fern Perennial Polypodiaceae Polystichum munitum sword fern Perennial Dryopteridaceae Stachys mexicana Mexican hedgenettle Perennial Scrophulariaceae Trientalis latifolia broadleaf starflower Perennial Caprifoliaceae Trillium ovatum trillium Perennial Liliaceae Viola sempervirens evergreen violet Perennial Violaceae Shrub Berberis nervosa Perennial Berberidaceae Gaultheria shallon salal Perennial Ericaceae Lonicera involucrata twinberry honeysuckle Perennial Caprifoliaceae Rubus spectabilis salmonberry Perennial Rosaceae Vaccinium ovatum evergreen huckleberry Perennial Ericaceae

288 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit C oLUMBIA Plateau Sagebrush steppe Forb/herb Achillea millefolium western yarrow Perennial Asteraceae var. occidentalis Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Astragalus purshii woollypod milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Chaenactis douglasii dusty maiden Biennial / Asteraceae Perennial Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard Perennial Asteraceae Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Linum lewisii blue flax Perennial Linaceae Lupinus caudatus tailcup lupine Perennial Fabaceae Lupinus lepidus Pacific lupine Perennial Fabaceae Macarantha canescens hoary aster Perennial Asteraceae Penstemon deustus scabland penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Penstemon speciosus royal penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Sphaeralcea munroenna scarlet globemallow Perennial Malvaceae Trifolium macrocephalum big headed clover Perennial Fabaceae Graminoid Achnatherum Indian ricegrass Perennial Poaceae hymenoides Achnatherum Thurber’s needlegrass Perennial Poaceae thurberianum Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue Perennial Poaceae Hesperostipa comata needle and thread grass Perennial Poaceae Leymus cinereus giant basin wildrye Perennial Poaceae Poa sandbergii Sandberg bluegrass Perennial Poaceae Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Shrub Artemisia arbuscula low sagebrush Perennial Asteraceae Artemisia tridentata big sagebrush Perennial Asteraceae Chrysothamnus nauseosus gray rabbitbrush Perennial Asteraceae Chrysothamnus green rabbitbrush Perennial Asteraceae viscidiflorus Purshia tridentata antelope bitterbrush Perennial Rosaceae Ribes cereum wax current Perennial Grossulariaceae 289 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit C oLUMBIA Plateau Sagebrush steppe Symphoricarpos albus common snowberry Perennial Caprifoliaceae Tree Juniperus occidentalis western juniper Perennial Cupressaceae Palouse prairie Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Allium acuminatum tapertip onion Perennial Liliaceae Anaphalis margaritacea western pearly everlasting Perennial Asteraceae Asclepias speciosa showy milkweed Perennial Asclepiadaceae Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Camassia quamash small camas Perennial Liliaceae Castilleja miniata giant red Indian paintbrush Perennial Scrophulariaceae Collomia grandiflora grand collomia Annual Polemoniaceae Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard Perennial Asteraceae Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Lupinus polyphyllus bigleaf lupine Perennial Fabaceae Potentilla gracilis slender cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Prunella vulgaris common selfheal Perennial Lamiaceae Solidago canadensis Canada goldenrod Perennial Asteraceae Graminoid Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Bromus vulgaris Columbia brome Perennial Poaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue Perennial Poaceae Leymus cinereus basin wildrye Perennial Poaceae Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Shrub Philadelphus lewisii mock orange Perennial Hydrangeaceae Prunus virginiana chokecherry Perennial Rosaceae Rhus glabra smooth sumac Perennial Anacardiaceae Ribes aureum golden current Perennial Grossulariaceae Ribes cereum wax current Perennial Grossulariaceae Rosa woodsii Woods’ rose Perennial Rosaceae Ponderosa pine Forb/herb Achillea millefolium western yarrow Perennial Asteraceae var. occidentalis 290 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit C oLUMBIA Plateau Ponderosa pine, continued Antennaria rosy pussytoes Perennial Asteraceae Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica Perennial Asteraceae Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Fragaria virginiana Virginia strawberry Perennial Rosaceae Geum triflorum red avens Perennial Rosaceae Linum lewisii Lewis flax Perennial Linaceae Potentilla glandulosa sticky cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Solidago canadensis Canada goldenrod Perennial Asteraceae Graminoid Achnatherum occidentalis western needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Carex geyeri elk sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue Perennial Poaceae Koelaria nitida prairie junegrass Perennial Poaceae Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Shrub Amelanchier alnifolia Saskatoon/serviceberry Perennial Rosaceae Arctostaphylos nevadensis pinemat manzanita Perennial Ericaceae Arctostaphylos uva-ursi glossyleaf manzanita Perennial Ericaceae Berberis repens creeping Oregon grape Perennial Berberidaceae Ceanothus velutinus snowbrush ceanothus Perennial Rhamnaceae Physocarpus malvaceus mallow ninebark Perennial Rosaceae Purshia tridentata antelope bitterbrush Perennial Rosaceae Ribes cereum wax current Perennial Grossulariaceae Rosa gymnocarpum baldhip rose Perennial Rosaceae Symphoricarpos albus common snowberry Perennial Caprifoliaceae Tree Cercocarpus ledifolius mountain mahogany Perennial Rosaceae Pinus ponderosa ponderosa pine Perennial Pinaceae Wet and semiwet meadows Aquilegia formosa red columbine Perennial Ranunculaceae

291 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit C oLUMBIA Plateau Wet and semiwet meadows Camassia quamash common camas Perennial Liliaceae Geum macrophyllum large leaf avens Perennial Rosaceae Iris missouriensis Rocky Mountain iris Perennial Iridaceae Mimulus guttatus seep monkeyflower Annual / Scrophulariaceae Perennial Potentilla glandulosa sticky cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Potentilla gracilis slender cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Vicia americana American vetch Perennial Fabaceae Graminoid Calamagrostis canadensis bluejoint Perennial Poaceae Carex aquatilis water sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Carex nebrascensis Nebraska sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Festuca rubra red fescue Perennial Poaceae Hordeum brachyantherum meadow barley Perennial Poaceae Juncus balticus Juncaceae Leymus cinereus basin wildrye Perennial Poaceae Scirpus microcarpus panicled bulrush Perennial Cyperaceae Shrub Craetagus douglasii hawthorn Perennial Rosaceae Potentilla fruticosa shrubby cinqufoil Perennial Rosaceae Salix spp willow spp Perennial Salicaceae Eastern Cascade Slopes and Foothills Mountain big sagebrush Forb/herb Achillea millefolium var. oc- western yarrow Perennial Asteraceae cidentalis Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum ovalifolium cushion buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriophyllum lanatum Oregon sunshine Perennial Asteraceae Hedysarum boreale boreal sweetvetch Perennial Fabaceae Linum perenne var. lewisii western blue flax Perennial Linaceae Penstemon spp. Perennial Scrophulariaceae

292 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit E aSTERN Cascade Slopes and Foothills Mountain big sagebrush, continued Forb/herb Sphaeralcea coccinea scarlet globemallow Perennial Malvaceae Sphaeralcea grossulariifolia gooseberryleaf globemallow Perennial Malvaceae Graminoid Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass Perennial Poaceae Achnatherum lettermanii Letterman’s needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber’s needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Elymus trachycaulus slender wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue Perennial Poaceae Hesperostipa comata needle and thread Perennial Poaceae Leymus cinereus basin wildrye Perennial Poaceae Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass Perennial Poaceae Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Shrub Artemisia tridentata mountain big sagebrush Perennial Asteraceae ssp. vaseyana Purshia tridentata antelope bitterbrush Perennial Rosaceae Ponderosa pine Forb/herb Achillea millefolium western yarrow Perennial Asteraceae var. occidentalis Aquilegia formosa western columbine Perennial Ranunculaceae Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum ovalifolium cushion buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Hedysarum boreale boreal sweetvetch Perennial Fabaceae Lathyrus lanszwertii aspen pea Perennial Fabaceae Linum perenne var. lewisii western blue flax Perennial Linaceae Lupinus leucophyllus velvet lupine Perennial Fabaceae Lupinus polyphyllus bigleaf llupine Perennial Fabaceae Paeonia brownii Brown’s peony Perennial Paeoniaceae Penstemon spp. Penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Potentilla glandulosa sticky cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Rudbeckia occidentalis western coneflower Perennial Asteraceae

293 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit E aSTERN Cascade Slopes and Foothills Ponderosa pine Solidago canadensis Canada goldenrod Perennial Asteraceae Forb/herb Thalictrum occidentale western meadowrue Perennial Ranunculaceae Vicia americana American vetch Perennial Fabaceae Graminoid Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass Perennial Poaceae Achnatherum occidentale western needlegrass Perennial Poaceae ssp. occidentale Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Elymus trachycaulus slender wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue Perennial Poaceae Festuca occidentalis western fescue Perennial Poaceae Hesperostipa comata needle and thread Perennial Poaceae Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Shrub Arctostaphylos patula greenleaf manzanita Perennial Ericaceae Berberis aquifolium Oregon grape Perennial Berberidaceae Purshia tridentata antelope bitterbrush Perennial Rosaceae Ribes cereum wax current Perennial Grossulariaceae

Klamath Mountains Chaparral shrubland Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Erythronium hendersonii Henderson’s fawn lily Perennial Liliaceae Dodecatheon hendersonii shooting star Perennial Primulaceae Ranunculus occidentalis western buttercup Perennial Ranunculaceae Cynoglossum grande hound’s tongue Perennial Boraginaceae Eriophyllum lanatum wooly sunflower Perennial Asteraceae Graminoid Achnatherum lemmonii Lemmon’s needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Shrub Ceanothus cuneatus buckbrush Perennial Rhamnaceae

294 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit K lAMATH Mountains Chaparral shrubland Shrub Amelanchier alnifolia Saskatoon/serviceberry Perennial Rosaceae Arctostaphylos spp. manzanita/bearberry Perennial Ericaceae Berberis aquifolium Oregon grape Perennial Berberidaceae Low-elevation forests, mixed evergreen/hardwood Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Collomia grandiflora grand collomia Annual Polemoniaceae Achlys triphylla vanilla leaf Perennial Berberidaceae Fragaria vesca woodland strawberry Perennial Rosaceae Linnaea borealis twin flower Perennial Caprifoliaceae Trillium ovatum trillium Perennial Liliaceae Whipplea modesta whipple vine Perennial Hydrangeaceae Lonicera hispidula hairy honeysuckle Perennial Caprifoliaceae Disporum hookeri Hooker’s fairybells Perennial Liliaceae Smilacina stellata false lily of the valley Perennial Liliaceae Lilium columbianum tiger lily Perennial Liliaceae Graminoid Achnatherum lemmonii Lemmon’s needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Achnatherum occidentale western needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Festuca roemeri Roemer’s fescue Perennial Poaceae Festuca occidentalis western fescue Perennial Poaceae Shrub Amelanchier alnifolia Saskatoon/serviceberry Perennial Rosaceae Symphoricarpos mollis creeping snowberry Perennial Caprifoliaceae Corylus cornuta beaked hazelnut Perennial Betulaceae Oak woodlands Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Erythronium hendersonii Henderson’s fawn lily Perennial Liliaceae Dodecatheon hendersonii shooting star Perennial Primulaceae Lomatium nudicaule bare stem lomatium Perennial Apiaceae Ranunculus occidentalis western buttercup Perennial Ranunculaceae Cynoglossum grande hound’s tongue Perennial Boraginaceae Iris chrsophylla yellow-leaved iris Perennial Iridaceae

295 . Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit K lAMATH Mountains Oak woodlands Graminoid Achnatherum lemmonii Lemmon’s needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Festuca roemeri Roemer’s fescue Perennial Poaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Danthonia californica California oatgrass Perennial Poaceae Riparian Forb/herb Aquilegia formosa columbine Perennial Ranunculaceae Geum macrophyllum largeleaf avens Perennial Rosaceae Trillium spp. trillium Perennial Liliaceae Viola glabella yellow wood violet Perennial Violaceae Graminoid Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Glyceria elata manna grasses Perennial Poaceae Shrub Cornus stolonifera red-osier dogwood Perennial Cornaceae Salix lasiolepis arroyo willow Perennial Salicaceae Serpentine woodlands Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Achlys triphylla vanilla leaf Perennial Berberidaceae Arnica cordifolia heartleaf arnica Perennial Asteraceae Linnaea borealis twinflower Perennial Caprifoliaceae Horkelia daucifolia carrotleaf horkelia Perennial Rosaceae Trifolium eriocephalum woollyhead clover Perennial Fabaceae Silene hookeri Hooker’s silene Perennial Caryophyllaceae Graminoid Achnatherum lemmonii Lemmon’s needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Perennial Poaceae Festuca roemeri Roemer’s fescue Perennial Poaceae Danthonia californica California oatgrass Perennial Poaceae Melica subulata oniongrass Perennial Poaceae Shrub Ceanothus pumilus dwarf ceanothus Perennial Rhamnaceae

296 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit K lAMATH Mountains Serpentine woodlands Shrub Whipplea modesta common whipplea Perennial Hydrangeaceae Ceanothus cuneatus buckbrush Perennial Rhamnaceae Garrya buxifolia dwarf silktassel Perennial Garryaceae Arctostaphylos viscida sticky whiteleaf manzanita Perennial Ericaceae Wet prairie Forb/herb Camassia quamash small camas Perennial Liliaceae Viola hallii Hall’s violet Perennial Violaceae Fragaria virginiana Virginia strawberry Perennial Rosaceae Geum macrophyllum largeleaf avens Perennial Rosaceae Prunella vulgaris common selfheal Perennial Lamiaceae Graminoid Agrostis exarata spike bentgrass Perennial Poaceae Danthonia californica California oatgrass Perennial Poaceae Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Perennial Poaceae Hordeum brachyantherum meadow barley Perennial Poaceae Shrub Spiraea douglasii Douglas spiraea Perennial Rosaceae Northern Basin and Range Arid west freshwater marsh Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Camassia quamash small camas Perennial Liliaceae Cirsium scariosum meadow thistle Perennial Asteraceae Potentilla glandulosa sticky cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Potentilla gracilis slender cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Ranunculus occidentalis western buttercup Perennial Ranunculaceae Senecio integirrimus Perennial Asteraceae Senecio triangularis arrowleaf ragwort Perennial Asteraceae Sidalcea oregana Oregon checkerbloom Perennial Malvaceae Vicia americana American vetch Perennial Fabaceae Graminoid Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Carex douglasii Douglas’ sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Perennial Poaceae

297 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit N orTHERN Basin and Range Arid west freshwater marsh Graminoid Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Hordeum brachyantherum meadow barley Perennial Poaceae Leymus cinereus basin wildrye Perennial Poaceae Leymus triticoides beardless wildrye Perennial Poaceae Sagebrush steppe Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Agoseris grandiflora bigflower agoseris Perennial Asteraceae Allium acuminatum tapertip onion Perennial Liliaceae Anaphalis margaritacea western pearly everlasting Perennial Asteraceae Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Astragalus lentiginosus freckled milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Astragalus purshii woollypod milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Chaenactis douglasii Douglas’ dustymaiden Perennial Asteraceae Collomia grandiflora grand collomia Annual Polemoniaceae Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard Perennial Asteraceae Erigeron filifolius threadleaf fleabane Perennial Asteraceae Erigeron linearis desert yellow fleabane Perennial Asteraceae Erigeron pumilus shaggy fleabane Perennial Asteraceae Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum ovalifolium cushion buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum sphaeroceph- rock buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae alum Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriophyllum lanatum Oregon sunshine Perennial Asteraceae Packera cana woolly groundsel Perennial Asteraceae Penstemon speciosus royal penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Sphaeralcea munroana Munro’s globemallow Perennial Malvaceae Graminoid Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass Perennial Poaceae Achnatherum occidentale western needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Carex filifolia threadleaf sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae

298 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit N orTHERN Basin and Range Sagebrush steppe, continued Graminoid Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue Perennial Poaceae Hesperostipa comata needle and thread Perennial Poaceae Leymus cinereus basin wildrye Perennial Poaceae Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass Perennial Poaceae Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Sporobolus cryptandrus sand dropseed Perennial Poaceae Shrub Artemisia tridentata ssp. sagebrush Perennial Asteraceae wyomingensis Purshia tridentata antelope bitterbrush Perennial Rosaceae Ribes cereum wax current Perennial Grossulariaceae Salvia dorrii puple sage Perennial Labiatae Semi-desert grassland Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Agoseris grandiflora bigflower agoseris Perennial Asteraceae Allium acuminatum tapertip onion Perennial Liliaceae Asclepias speciosa showy milkweed Perennial Asclepiadaceae Astragalus purshii woollypod milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Balsamorhiza hookeri Hooker’s balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard Perennial Asteraceae Erigeron filifolius threadleaf fleabane Perennial Asteraceae Erigeron linearis blue dwarf fleabane Perennial Asteraceae Erigeron pumilus shaggy fleabane Perennial Asteraceae ssp. intermedius Eriogonum heracleoides parsnipflower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum ovalifolium cushion buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Lotus unifoliolatus var. American bird’s-foot trefoil Annual Fabaceae unifoliolatus Potentilla gracilis slender cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Sidalcea oregana Oregon checkerbloom Perennial Malvaceae Vicia americana ssp. americana American vetch Perennial Fabaceae Graminoid Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass Perennial Poaceae Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber’s needlegrass Perennial Poaceae

299 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit N orTHERN Basin and Range Semi-desert grassland, continued Graminoid Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Elymus trachycaulus slender wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue Perennial Poaceae Hesperostipa comata needle and thread Perennial Poaceae Leymus cinereus basin wildrye Perennial Poaceae Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Western juniper woodlands Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Allium acuminatum tapertip onion Perennial Liliaceae Anaphalis margaritacea western pearly everlasting Perennial Asteraceae Astragalus filipes basalt milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Astragalus lentiginosus milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Astragalus purshii woollypod milkvetch Perennial Fabaceae Balsamorhiza sagittata arrowleaf balsamroot Perennial Asteraceae Calochortus macrocarpus sagebrush mariposa lily Perennial Liliaceae Collomia grandiflora grand collomia Annual Polemoniaceae Crepis acuminata tapertip hawksbeard Perennial Asteraceae Erigeron filifolius threadleaf fleabane Perennial Asteraceae Erigeron linearis desert yellow fleabane Perennial Asteraceae Erigeron lonchophyllus shortray fleabane Perennial Asteraceae Erigeron pumilus ssp. inter- shaggy fleabane Perennial Asteraceae medius Eriogonum ovalifolium cushion buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriogonum sphaeroceph- rock buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae alum Eriogonum umbellatum sulphur-flower buckwheat Perennial Polygonaceae Eriophyllum lanatum Oregon sunshine Perennial Asteraceae Hieracium cynoglossoides hound’s tongue hawkweed Perennial Asteraceae Nothocalais troximoides sagebrush false dandelion Perennial Asteraceae Penstemon deustus scabland penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Penstemon speciosus royal penstemon Perennial Scrophulariaceae Phacelia linearis threadleaf phacelia Annual Hydrophyllaceae Phlox hoodii spiny phlox Perennial Polemoniaceae Sidalcea oregana Oregon checkerbloom Perennial Malvaceae

300 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit N orTHERN Basin and Range Western juniper woodlands Forb/herb Viola purpurea goosefoot violet Perennial Violaceae Graminoid Achnatherum hymenoides Indian ricegrass Perennial Poaceae Achnatherum occidentale western needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Achnatherum thurberianum Thurber’s needlegrass Perennial Poaceae Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Carex filifolia threadleaf sedge Perennial Cyperaceae Elymus elymoides squirreltail Perennial Poaceae Festuca idahoensis Idaho fescue Perennial Poaceae Hesperostipa comata needle and thread Perennial Poaceae Koeleria macrantha prairie Junegrass Perennial Poaceae Leymus cinereus basin wildrye Perennial Poaceae Poa cusickii Cusick’s bluegrass Perennial Poaceae Poa secunda Sandberg bluegrass Perennial Poaceae Pseudoroegneria spicata bluebunch wheatgrass Perennial Poaceae Shrub Artemisia tridentata ssp Wyoming big sagebrush Perennial Asteraceae wyomingensis Cercocarpus ledifolius curl-leaf mountain mahogany Perennial Rosaceae Purshia tridentata antelope bitterbrush Perennial Rosaceae Ribes cereum wax current Perennial Grossulariaceae Salvia dorrii purple sage Perennial Labiatae Willamette Valley Oregon white oak woodlands Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Allium amplectens narrowleaf onion Perennial Liliaceae Aquilegia formosa western columbine Perennial Ranunculaceae Camassia leichtlinii ssp. Suksdorf’s large camas Perennial Liliaceae suksdorfii Camassia quamash ssp. small camas Perennial Liliaceae maxima Collomia grandiflora grand collomia Annual Polemoniaceae Eriophyllum lanatum Oregon sunshine Perennial Asteraceae Fragaria vesca woodland strawberry Perennial Rosaceae Fragaria virginiana Virginia strawberry Perennial Rosaceae

301 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit W iLLAMETTE Valley Oregon white oak woodlands Forb/herb Geranium oreganum Oregon geranium Perennial Geraniaceae Geum macrophyllum var. largeleaf avens Perennial Rosaceae macrophyllum Potentilla gracilis var. gracilis graceful cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Prunella vulgaris ssp. lan- lance selfheal Perennial Lamiaceae ceolata Ranunculus occidentalis var. western buttercup Perennial Ranunculaceae occidentalis Sidalcea malviflora ssp. dwarf checkerbloom Perennial Malvaceae virgata Graminoid Bromus sitchensis Alaska brome Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Festuca occidentalis western fescue Perennial Poaceae Festuca roemeri Roemer’s fescue Perennial Poaceae Upland prairies and savannas Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Allium amplectens narrowleaf onion Perennial Liliaceae Aquilegia formosa western columbine Perennial Ranunculaceae Asclepias speciosa showy milkweed Perennial Asclepiadaceae Aster hallii Hall’s aster Perennial Asteraceae Camassia leichtlinii ssp. Suksdorf’s large camas Perennial Liliaceae suksdorfii Clarkia amoena farewell to spring Annual Onagraceae Collomia grandiflora grand collomia Annual Polemoniaceae Eriophyllum lanatum Oregon sunshine Perennial Asteraceae Fragaria vesca woodland strawberry Perennial Rosaceae Fragaria virginiana Virginia strawberry Perennial Rosaceae Geranium oreganum Oregon geranium Perennial Geraniaceae Gilia capitata bluehead gilia Annual, Polemoniaceae Perennial Lupinus rivularis riverbank lupine Perennial Fabaceae Potentilla gracilis slender cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Prunella vulgaris ssp. lan- lance selfheal Perennial Lamiaceae ceolata Ranunculus occidentalis western buttercup Perennial Ranunculaceae

302 Appendix II

Schoolyard Species List

communitY growth scientific name common name duration family name habit W iLLAMETTE Valley Upland prairies and savannas Forb/herb Sidalcea campestris meadow checkerbloom Perennial Malvaceae Sidalcea malviflora ssp. virgata dwarf checkerbloom Perennial Malvaceae Graminoid Bromus carinatus California brome Perennial Poaceae Bromus sitchensis Alaska brome Perennial Poaceae Danthonia californica California oatgrass Perennial Poaceae Elymus glaucus blue wildrye Perennial Poaceae Festuca roemeri Roemer’s fescue Perennial Poaceae Wet prairies Forb/herb Achillea millefolium common yarrow Perennial Asteraceae Allium amplectens narrowleaf onion Perennial Liliaceae Asclepias speciosa showy milkweed Perennial Asclepiadaceae Aster hallii Hall’s aster Perennial Asteraceae Camassia leichtlinii large camas Perennial Liliaceae Camassia quamash small camas Perennial Liliaceae Clarkia amoena farewell to spring Annual Onagraceae Eriophyllum lanatum Oregon sunshine Perennial Asteraceae Fragaria virginiana ssp. Virginia strawberry Perennial Rosaceae platypetala Geranium oreganum Oregon geranium Perennial Geraniaceae Grindelia integrifolia Puget Sound gumweed Perennial Asteraceae Lotus unifoliolatus var. American bird’s-foot trefoil Annual Fabaceae unifoliolatus Lupinus polyphyllus bigleaf lupine Perennial Fabaceae Lupinus rivularis riverbank lupine Perennial Fabaceae Potentilla gracilis slender cinquefoil Perennial Rosaceae Prunella vulgaris ssp. lanceolata lance selfheal Perennial Lamiaceae Ranunculus occidentalis western buttercup Perennial Ranunculaceae Ranunculus orthorhynchus straightbeak buttercup Perennial Ranunculaceae Sidalcea campestris meadow checkerbloom Perennial Malvaceae Graminoid Agrostis exarata spike bentgrass Perennial Poaceae Danthonia californica California oatgrass Perennial Poaceae Deschampsia caespitosa tufted hairgrass Perennial Poaceae Hordeum brachyantherum meadow barley Perennial Poaceae

303 Appendix III

Oregon Ethnobotany Plants and Their Uses This list is organized by American Indian Cultural Divisions (rather than Ecoregion). Scientific names are provided where available. In many cases a plant used by a tribe is known by a common name, and is not necessarily the same species as a plant used elsewhere, though known by the same common name. For example, there is more than one species of camas (Camassia quamash and Camassia leichtlinii) found in Oregon. COASTAL – Coos, Tillamook: • ponderosa pinenuts • tarweed seed Food plants: • wild celery • berries—black, black-cap, blue, currant , elder, • wild parsley huckle, salal, salmon, straw, thimble • wild sunflower seed • camas • crabapple Food plants—Willamette Valley: Grand Ronde, • other edible roots—bracken fern, cattail, chocolate Kalapuya: lily, Pacific silverweed, shore lupine, springbrook • acorns clover, wapato • berries • skunk cabbage—a famine food • camas • chittam bark (cascara tree) Common fiber plants used for cordage and basketry: • chokecherry • bear grass—white designs • cow parsnip • cattail • hazelnuts • hazel shoots • ipos (Perideridia organa) • maidenhair fern—black designs • Sego lily (Calochortus) • purple-tinged grasses—for designs • tarweed seed • red cedar • wapato • reeds • rushes Common fiber plants used for cordage and basketry: • sea grass • bear grass white designs • spruce root • cattail • tule (Scirpus lacustris)—a sedge • grasses • willow • hazel shoots • juncus Common dye plants or sources: • maidenhair fern—black designs • mud—browns • nettle fiber • Oregon grape roots/inner bark—yellow • slough sedge • red alder—orange-red from inner bark • spruce roots • wolf moss (Letharia vulpina)—yellow • tule (Scirpus lacustris)—a sedge INTERIOR VALLEYS: • willow Food plants – Rogue Valley: Common dye plants: • berries—black, elder, goose, Manzanita, service, • willow charcoal—black for tattoos thimble, three-leaf sumac GREAT BASIN: • black and white acorns • camas Food plants – Klamath: • chokecherries • camas • grass seeds • huckleberry • hazelnuts • ipos (Perideridia organa) • ipos • pond lily—wokas seed (Nuphar polysepala) • miner’s lettuce • Jeffrey (yellow) pine cambium—famine food 304 Appendix III

Oregon Ethnobotany Plants and Their Uses Food plants – Burns Paiute: COLUMBIA PLATEAU: • biscuitroot (Lomatium spp.) Food plants – Umatilla, Warm Springs: • bitterroot (Lewisa rediviva) • biscuitroot (Lomatium cous) • buckberry • bitterroot (Lewisa rediviva) • camas—lowland meadows • black moss (Alectoria species) a lichen used as famine • chokecherry food • huckleberry • camas • Indian potato (Tsuga) • Canby’s desert parsley (Lomatium canbyi) • Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoides) • chokecherry (Prunus demissa) • pigweed seeds • field mint (Mentha arvensis) • piñon pine nuts—some Great Basin Paiute groups • huckleberry • saltbrush seeds • Indian (“wild”) celery (Lomatium nudicaule) • wada seeds (Suaeda calceoliformis) • Indian carrot or false caraway (Perideridia gairdneri) Common fiber plants used for cordage and basketry: • kowsh (Lomatium sp.) • bear grass white designs Common fiber plants used for cordage and basketry: • bracken fern root • bear grass—white designs • cattail • bitter cherry bark • hazel • cedar bark and root (from gathering trips) • Jeffrey (yellow) pine • corn husk • juniper bark • Indian hemp (common dogbane—Apocynum can- • maidenhair fern—black designs nabinum) • redbud (Cercis occidentalis) • tule (Scirpus lacustris)—a sedge • sagebrush • willow • spruce root • tule (Scirpus lacustris)—a sedge Common dye plants or sources: • willow • mud—black/brown dye Common dye plants: • Oregon grape—yellow • alder—orange from inner bark SOURCES: • chokecherry juice—green from inner bark, red/ Cultural resources information on the websites of Oregon purple from fruit federally-recognized tribes; see Appendix VI: Tribe Other fiber plants: Contacts. • piñon pine (Pinus edulis) resin—for waterproofing The First Oregonians, 2nd Edition. Laura Berg, Editor. 2007. baskets Oregon Council for the Humanities, Portland, Oregon. Siletz: Survival For an Artifact. Leone Letson Kasner. 1980. Itemizer-Observer, Dallas, Oregon. Websites listed in Appendix IV: Ethnobotany Plant Lists and Resources Primitive Ways website: http://primitiveways.com/

305 . Appendix IV

Ethnobotany Plants Lists and Resources This list is organized by American Indian Cultural Divisions of Oregon (rather than by ecoregions).

Edible Plant Common Name Scientific Name Website Part COASTAL—Coos, Tillamook blackberry Rubus ursinus berry http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/ruburs/introductory.html black-cap raspberry Rubus leucodermis berry blueberry Vaccinium berry ovalifolium bracken fern Pteridium rhizomes http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/fern/pteaqu/all.html aquilinum cattail Typha latifolia root? http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_tyla.pdf chocolate lily Fritillaria lanceolata bulbs common camas Camassia quamash bulb http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_caquq.pdf and http:// www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/orpmctn250300.pdf crabapple Malus fusca fruit currant Ribes sanguineum berry http://www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/orpmcfs8194.pdf elderberry Sambucus berry http://plants.usda.gov/factsheet/pdf/fs_sara2.pdf and http:// racemosa ssp. pubens www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/orpmcfs7536.pdf huckleberry Vaccinium berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_vapa.pdf parvifolium Pacific silverweed Potentilla anserina ssp. roots pacifica salal Gaultheria shallon berry salmonberry Rubus spectabilis berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_rusp.pdf shore lupine Lupinus littoralis roots skunk cabbage Lysichiton famine food americanum springbank clover Trifolium rhizomes (har- http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_trwo.pdf wormskioldii vested in fall) strawberry Fragaria chiloensis berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_frch.pdf thimbleberry Rubus parviflorus berry http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/rubpar/introductory.html wapato Sagittaria latifolia tubers and http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_sala2.pdf rhizomes INTERIOR—Rogue Valley beaked hazelnut Corylus cornuta nut http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_coco6.pdf black oak Quercus kelloggii nut http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_quke.pdf blackberry Rubus ursinus berry http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/ruburs/introductory.html camas Camassia quamash bulb http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_caquq.pdf and http:// www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/orpmctn250300.pdf

306 Appendix IV

Ethnobotany Plants Lists and Resources

Edible Common Name Scientific Name Website Plant Part INTERIOR—Rogue Valley chokecherry Prunus virginiana berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_prvi.pdf elderberry Sambucus spp. berry http://plants.usda.gov/factsheet/pdf/fs_sara2.pdf and http://www. plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/orpmcfs7536.pdf gooseberry Ribes oxyacanthoides berry http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/riboxy/all.html ipos (Oregon yampah) Perideridia oregana http://www1.dnr.wa.gov/nhp/refdesk/fguide/pdf/perore.pdf manzanita Arctostaphylos spp. berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_arco3.pdf miner’s lettuce Claytonia perfoliata Oregon white oak Quercus garryana nut http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_quga4.pdf ponderosa pine Pinus ponderosa nut http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_pipo.pdf serviceberry Amelanchier spp. berry http://www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/orpmrtn280401.pdf tarweed Madia elegans seed http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_mael.pdf thimbleberry Rubus parviflorus berry http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/shrub/rubpar/introductory.html three-leaf sumac Rhus trilobata berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_rhtr.pdf wild celery Apium graveolens wild sunflower Helianthus annuus seed http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_hean3.pdf manzanita Arctostaphylos spp. berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_arne.pdf manzanita Arctostaphylos spp. berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_arpa6.pdf INTERIOR—Grande Ronde (Kalapuya) acorns Quercus garryana nut http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_quga4.pdf beaked hazelnut Corylus cornuta nut http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_pipo.pdf camas Camassia quamash bulb http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_caquq.pdf and http:// www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/orpmctn250300.pdf cascara Rhamnus purshiana Chittam bark chokecherry Prunus virginiana berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_prvi.pdf cow parsnip Heracleum young http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/CulRes/herbs. maximum shoots htm#Heracleum ipos Perideridia oregana http://www1.dnr.wa.gov/nhp/refdesk/fguide/pdf/perore.pdf sego lily Calochortus nuttallii bulbs tarweed Madia elegans seed http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_mael.pdf wapato Sagittaria latifolia tubers and http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_sala2.pdf rhizomes camas Camassia quamash bulb http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_caquq.pdf and http:// www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/orpmctn250300.pdf huckleberry Vaccinium berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_vapa.pdf parvifolium ipos Perideridia oregana http://www1.dnr.wa.gov/nhp/refdesk/fguide/pdf/perore.pdf

307 Appendix IV

Ethnobotany Plants Lists and Resources

Edible Common Name Scientific Name Website Plant Part GREAT BASIN—Klamath Jeffrey (yellow) pine Pinus jeffreyi cambium http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_pije.pdf pond lily (wokas) Nuphar polysepala seed http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_nulu.pdf GREAT BASIN—Burns (Paiute) biscuitroot Lomatium bitterroot Lewisia rediviva http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_lere7.pdf camas Camassia quamash bulb http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_caquq.pdf and http:// www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/orpmctn250300.pdf cascara Rhamnus purshiana chokecherry Prunus virginiana berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_prvi.pdf fourwing saltbush Atriplex canescens seeds http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_atca2.pdf huckleberry Vaccinium parvifolium berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_vapa.pdf Indian ricegrass Oryzopsis http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/pg_achy.pdf hymenoides pigweed seeds pinon pine Pinus monophylla nuts http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_pimo.pdf wada Suaeda seeds calceoliformis wapato Sagittaria latifolia tubers and http://plants.usda.gov/factsheet/pdf/fs_sala2.pdf rhizomes PLATEAU—Umatilla, Warm Springs biscuitroot (kowsh) Lomatium cous bitterroot Lewisa rediviva http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_lere7.pdf black moss Alectoria (lichen) camas Camassia quamash bulb http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_caquq.pdf and http:// www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda.gov/pubs/orpmctn250300.pdf Canby’s desert parsely Lomatium canbyi http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/Environment/CulRes/herbs. htm#LomatiumCanbyi choke cherry Prunus virginiana http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_prvi.pdf field mint Mentha arvensis huckleberry Vaccinium berry http://plants.usda.gov/plantguide/pdf/cs_vapa.pdf parvifolium Indian carrot Perideridia gairdneri

wild celery Lomatium nudicaule

308 Appendix IV

Ethnobotany Plants Lists and Resources MAIN SOURCES: Fact Sheets and Plant Guides, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service: plants.usda.gov/java/factSheet and www.plant- materials.nrcs.usda.gov Fire Effects Information System, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory: www.fs.fed. us/database/feis/index

FIBER USES Utilized Common Scientific Plant Part/ Website Source Name Name Dye Color Coastal Fiber Western red Thuja plicata inner bark http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Nesom, Guy. Plant Guide: Western cedar guide/pdf/cs_thpl.pdf Redcedar (Thuja plicata). NRCS, Aug. 2006. Web. 16 April 2010. bear-grass Xerophyllum leaves http://www.fs.fed.us/database/ Crane, M. F. 1990. Xerophyllum tenax. In: Fire tenax feis/plants/forb/xerten/all.html Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Moun- tain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, May 4]. maidenhair Adiantum black stem fern aleuticum tule Scirpus lacus- leaves tris spruce Picea spp. root beaked hazel- Corylus cor- shoots http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Nesom, Guy. Plant Guide: Beaked nut nuta guide/pdf/pg_coco6.pdf Hazelnut (Corylus cornuta). NRCS, June 2006. Web. 15 April 2010. willow Salix spp. shoots & bark cattail Typha latifolia leaves http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Stevens, Michelle, and Chris Hoag. guide/pdf/cs_tyla.pdf Plant Guide: Broad-Leaved Cattail (Typha latifolia). NRCS, May 2006. Web. 15 April 2010. Dye red alder Alnus rubra orange-red http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Favorite, Jammie, and Diana Immel. from inner guide/pdf/cs_alru2.pdf Plant Guide: Red Alder (Alnus rubra). NRCS, May bark 2006. Web. 16 April 2010. wolf moss Evernia yellow vulpine grasses purple tinges mud dyes browns

309 Appendix IV

Ethnobotany Plants Lists and Resources

Utilized Common Scientific Plant Part/ Website Source Name Name Dye Color Interior Valleys Fiber willow Salix spp. bark tule Scirpus lacus- leaves tris cattail Typha latifolia leaves http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Stevens, Michelle, and Chris Hoag. guide/pdf/cs_tyla.pdf Plant Guide: Broad-Leaved Cattail (Typha latifolia). NRCS, May 2006. Web. 15 April 2010. beaked hazel- Corylus cor- shoots http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Nesom, Guy. Plant Guide: Beaked nut nuta guide/pdf/pg_coco6.pdf Hazelnut (Corylus cornuta). NRCS, June 2006. Web. 15 April 2010. spruce Picea spp. roots beargrass Xerophyllum white leaves http://www.fs.fed.us/database/ Crane, M. F. 1990. Xerophyllum tenax. In: Fire tenax feis/plants/forb/xerten/all.html Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Moun- tain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, May 4]. maidenhair black - stem fern slough sedge Carex ob- leaves http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Stevens, Michelle, and Chris Hoag. Plant nupta guide/pdf/cs_caob3.pdf Guide: Slough Sedge (Carex obnupta). NRCS, May 2006. Web. 16 April 2010. nettle Urtica dioica fiber grasses leaves juncus Juncus spp. leaves Dye willow Salix spp. charcoal— black for tattoos Great Basin Fiber tule Scirpus lacus- leaves tris sagebrush Artemisia spp. bark bracken fern Pteridium roots aquilinium beargrass Xerophyllum leaves http://www.fs.fed.us/database/ Crane, M. F. 1990. Xerophyllum tenax. In: Fire tenax feis/plants/forb/xerten/all.html Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Moun- tain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, May 4].

310 Appendix IV

Ethnobotany Plants Lists and Resources

Utilized Common Scientific Plant Part/ Website Source Name Name Dye Color Great Basin Fiber hazel Corylus shoots http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Nesom, Guy. Plant Guide: Beaked Hazelnut cornuta guide/pdf/pg_coco6.pdf (Corylus cornuta). NRCS, June 2006. Web. 15 April 2010. Jeffrey Pinus jeffreyi bark http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Moore, Lincoln, and Walker Wilson, (yellow) pine guide/pdf/pg_pije.pdf Jeffrey.Plant Guide: Jeffrey Pine (Pinus jeffreyi). NRCS, Aug. 2006. Web. 15 April 2010. juniper bark maidenhair black fern redbud Cercis shoots & http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Anderson, M. Kat. Plant Guide: West- occidentalis bark guide/pdf/cs_ceor9.pdf ern Redbud (Cercis orbiculata). NRCS, May 2006. Web. 16 April 2010. spruce Picea spp. roots willow Salix spp. shoots & bark Dye alder Alnus spp. orange from inner bark chokecherry green from http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Crowder, Wayne, Wayne Geyer, and inner bark, guide/pdf/cs_prvi.pdf Patrick Broyles. Plant Guide: Chokecherry (Prunus red/purple virginiana). NRCS, July 2008. Web. 16 April 2010. from fruit Other Pinon pine Pinus resin for http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Anderson, M. Kat, and Roberts, War- monophylla waterproof- guide/pdf/cs_pimo.pdf ren. Plant Guide: Singleleaf Pinyon (Pinus monophylla). ing baskets NRCS, Aug. 2006. Web. 16 April 2010. Columbia Plateau Fiber tule Scirpus leaves lacustris Indian hemp Apocynum stem fiber http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Stevens, Michelle. Plant Guide: Indian (common cannabinum guide/pdf/cs_apca.pdf Hemp (Apocynum cannabinum). NRCS, May 2006. dogbane) Web. 16 April 2010. bitter cherry Prunus bark http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Favorite, Jammie. Plant Guide: Bitter emarginata guide/pdf/cs_prem.pdf Cherry (Prunus emarginata). NRCS, Aug. 2006. Web. 16 April 2010. Western red Thuja plicata bark and http://plants.usda.gov/plant- USDA NRCS. Nesom, Guy. Plant Guide: Western cedar roots guide/pdf/cs_thpl.pdf Redcedar (Thuja plicata). NRCS, Aug. 2006. Web. 16 April 2010. corn husks willow Salix spp. shoots & bark

311 Appendix IV

Ethnobotany Plants Lists and Resources

Utilized Common Scientific Plant Part/ Website Source Name Name Dye Color Columbia Plateau Fiber Dye Oregon grape Mahonia yellow http://www.fs.fed.us/database/ Tirmenstein, D. A. 1990. Berberis nervosa. In: Fire nervosa feis/plants/shrub/berner/all. Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Depart- html# ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Moun- INTRODUCTORY tain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/ [2010, May 4]. mud black/ brown

312 Appendix V

American Indian Ethnobotanical Resource Materials

WEBSITES Grades Website Curriculum Alaska Native Knowledge Network (for educators)— http://www.ankn.uaf.edu/index.html all curriculum, ethnobotany resources, game Project Willow—Nevada Great Basin curriculum http://www.unr.edu/nnap/index.htm K to 5 with plant-based lesson Wisdom of the Elders—curriculum lessons and http://www.wisdomoftheelders.org/curriculum/index.html K to 12 audio programs Plant ethnobotany lesson—learning about & http://www.proteacher.com/cgi-bin/outsidesite. making a plant collection cgi?id=8353&external=http://www.halcyon.com/marcs/na- 3 to 5 theme.html&original=http://www.proteacher.com/090077. shtml&title=Native%20American%20Theme%20Unit Oregon tribes based on language groups— http://www.chenowith.k12.or.us/tech/subject/social/natam_or.html 4 map and information pages Educator resources—Tamástslikt Cultural Institute, http://www.tamastslikt.org/teachers.cfm 4 to 7 Pendleton, Oregon Ethnobotany Curriculum (71 pages)— http://www.evergreen.ca/docs/res/Patterns-Relationships-Ethno- 4 to 7 Evergreen, Canada education site botany.pdf Lewis & Clark curriculum/plants lessons— http://www.lewisandclarkexhibit.org/4_0_0/page_4_1_3_2_0.html 6 to 12 Nez Perce—camas Ethnobotany lesson—researched-based guided http://www.agriculture.purdue.edu/fnr/stoutwoods/edu_act/Intro- MS questions duction%20to%20Ethnobotany.pdf Indians in Oregon Today curriculum— http://www.ode.state.or.us/opportunities/grants/nclb/title_vii/indi- MS/HS seasonal pattern lesson ansinoregontoday.pdf Ethnobotanicals lesson http://www.accessexcellence.org/AE/ATG/data/released/0179- HS JohnNorton/description.html Native plant medicinal use—one research-based http://schoolgardens.unl.edu/EthnobotanyFeurer.pdf HS lesson Resources Kalapuya, pyroculture, and the Willamette Valley— http://www.oregon-archaeology.com/theory/pyroculture/ background information Oregon museums with Native American collections http://native-american-history.suite101.com/article.cfm/oregon_ museums_of_native_culture - list of Oregon Museums that have Native American artifacts Native Americans of the Willamette Valley— http://www.usgennet.org/usa/or/county/clackamas/indiobiblio.html information & maps of tribes and bands Tillamook Indians and extensive information about http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/org_NWS/NWSci%20journal%20ar- plant uses—paper ticles/2002%20files/Issue%204/v76%20p304%20Zobel.pdf Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest— http://www.archaeolink.com/indian_tribes_of_the_pacific_nor. information links htm#Cow Nez Perce education guide, including maps for http://www.nps.gov/nepe/forteachers/curriculummaterials.htm K to 5 entire Northwest Nez Perce Museum—lesson, photos of baskets, http://www.nps.gov/history/museum/exhibits/nepe/index.html clothing etc., seasonal round Oregon History Projec— coastal Indians— http://www.ohs.org/education/oregonhistory/narratives/subtopic. Indian plant names list cfm?subtopic_ID=511

313 Appendix V

American Indian Ethnobotanical Resource Materials

WEBSITES Grades Website American Indians of the Pacific Northwest, The http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/pacific/subjectK.html Library of Congress American Memory, Digital archives PrimitiveWays Skills—making cordage http://www.primitiveways.com/cordage.html PrimitiveWays Skills—basket weaving techniques http://www.primitiveways.com/basketry2.html Nez Perce National Historic Trail, USDA Forest http://www.fs.fed.us/npnht/life/ Service Lewis & Clark—tribes along route, traditional http://www.trailtribes.org/ culture, maps Cayuse people—traditional culture information http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/hh/37/hh37i.htm

Medicinal Use of Plants Power of Potions, OPB—lab—leaf chromatography, http://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/previous_seasons/lessons/ MS/HS African tribal medicine lp_zulu.html Searching for Nature’s Medicines—many lesson and http://www.actionbioscience.org/biodiversity/plotkin. MS/HS resource links html#educator North America Ethnobotany—research uses by http://herb.umd.umich.edu/ plant name/uses Projects, and one lab based on medicinal uses of http://www.actionbioscience.org/biodiversity/lessons/plotkinles- HS rainforest plants sons.pdf Researching herbal meds and interactions with HS/col- http://www.redorbit.com/news/health/262291/natures_pharmacy_ conventional meds lege do_you_have_a_green_tongue/ About.com: Drugs from Plants—a resource of plants http://chemistry.about.com/library/weekly/aa061403a.htm and chemical properties Alternative Nature Online Herbal—index of me- http://www.altnature.com/gallery/ dicinal herbs Cottonwood properties and salve instructions, part 1 http://www.wildernesscollege.com/Alderleaf_eNewsletter-cottonwood-salve-part-one.html Cottonwood properties and salve instructions, part 2 http://www.wildernesscollege.com/Alderleaf_eNewsletter-cottonwood-salve-part-two.html Cottonwood resin—medicinal properties http://www.goodnaturedearthling.com/cottonwood_resin.htm Dr. Duke’s Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical http://www.ars-grin.gov/duke/ Databases Lewis & Clark Bicentennial Exhibit—cultural aspect http://www.lewisandclarkexhibit.org/4_0_0/page_4_1_0_0.html of plants Major Types of Chemical Compounds in Plants and http://waynesword.palomar.edu/chemid1.htm Animals—college course notes Making herbal salve—use as reference for making http://ridleyfamily.org/cora/herbalcrafting/salve/ cottonwood bud salve Origins of Plant Derived Medicines—background http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/maridass.htm information paper Wildcrafting guide with ethical gathering guidelines http://7song.com/files/Wildcrafting%20for%20the%20Practic- and lists of plants ing%20Herbalist.pdf

314 Appendix V

American Indian Ethnobotanical Resource Materials

BOOKS Reference American Indian Basketry: Traditional Arts of the Indians of Western Oregon. John M Gogol, Editor. 1984. American Indian Basketry magazine Volume 4, No. 2, Whole Issue No. 14

Baskets from Nature’s Bounty. Elizabeth Jensen. 1991. Interweave Press, Loveland, Colorado. (information on techniques, plants, when to collect, how to prepare)

Columbia River Basketry: Gifts of the Ancestors, Gift of the Earth. Mary Dodds Schlick. 1994. Washington Univ. Press, Seattle. First Oregonians, The, 2nd Edition. Laura Berg, editor. 2007. Oregon Council for the Humanities, Portland, Oregon.

Indian Basketmakers of California and the Great Basin. Larry Dalrymple. 2000. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe, New Mexico Native American Ethnobotany. Daniel E. Moerman. 1998. Tinber Press, Portland, Oregon.

Natural History of Medicinal Plants, The. Judith Sumner. 2000. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon.

Sandal and the Cave, The: The Indians of Oregon. Luther S. Cressman. 1981. Northwest Reprints, Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis, Oregon. Siletz, Survival for an Artifact. Leone Letson Kasner. 1980. Itemizer-Observer, Dallas, Oregon. Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge and the Management of California’s Natural Resources. M. Kat Anderson. 2005. Univ. of California Press, Berkeley or Los Angeles, California.

The Kalapuyans: a Sourcebook on the Indians of the Willamette Valley, Second Edition. Harold Mackey. 2004. Mission Mill Museum Association, Inc., Salem, Oregon

315 . Appendix VI

Oregon Tribe Contacts Note: Check websites below for specific “Cultural Resources” or “Cultural and Heritage” Information. Contact to find out the availability of classroom speakers.

Burns Paiute Tribe Confederated Tribes of the Warm Springs www.burnspaiute-nsn.gov Reservation (Warm Springs, Wasco & Paiute) Burns, OR www.warmsprings.com Warm Springs, OR Clatsop-Nehalem Confederated Tribes www.clatsop-nehalem.com Coquille Indian Tribe Seaside Oregon www.coquilletribe.org/ North Bend, OR Confederated Tribes of Coos, Lower Umpqua & Siuslaw Indians Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Tribe of Indians www.ctclusi.org/CTCLUSINEW www.cowcreek.com Coos Bay OR Roseburg, OR

Confederated Tribes of Grand Ronde Klamath Tribes (Klamath, Modoc & Yahooskin) www.grandronde.org www.klamathtribes.org/ Grand Ronde, OR Chiloquin, OR

Confederated Tribes of Siletz Indians The Nez Perce Tribe ctsi.nsn.us www.nezperce.org/content/index.html Siletz, OR Lapwai, ID

Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation (Cayuse, Umatilla and Walla Walla Tribes) www.umatilla.nsn.us Pendleton, OR

316 Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites Listed by Oregon ecoregion Contact government agencies, watershed districts, soil and water conservation districts, land trusts, and environmental organizations to partner on service-learning or restoration projects. Contact government agencies that manage lands (e.g., BLM, USFW) and education organizations for help with planning and supplying expert guides or educational programs for field site trips. This list is only a beginning, be sure to contact city and county parks and natural area departments also. Note: We have tried to supply website addresses where possible, run a web search to find links not included.

STATE-WIDE BLUE MOUNTAINS Governmental Agencies Governmental Agencies M BL BLM Statewide BLM Environmental Education Programs Prineville http://www.blm.gov/or/education/index.php 3050 NE 3rd St., Prineville, OR 97754 BLM Heritage Education (541) 416-6700 http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/res/Education_in_ Baker BLM/Learning_Landscapes/For_Teachers/Heri- 3285 11th St., PO Box 947, Baker City, OR 97814 tage_Education.html (541) 523-1256 USFWS Oregon Trail Interpretive Center Oregon National Wildlife Refuges http://www.blm.gov/or/oregontrail/ http://www.fws.gov/refuges/refugeLocatorMaps/ USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Oregon.html Baker City Service Center ODFW 3990 Midway Dr., Baker City, OR 97814 Headquarters (541) 523-7121 3406 Cherry Ave NE, Salem, OR 97303 John Day Service Center (503) 947-6000 • (800) 720-6339 721 S Canyon Blvd., John Day, OR 97845 Local offices: www.dfw.state.or.us/agency/direc- (541) 575-1274 tory/local_offices.asp La Grande Service Center Oregon State Parks 1901 Adams Ave. Suite 5, La Grande, OR 97850 http://www.oregon.gov/OPRD/PARKS/index.shtml (541) 963-4178 http://www.oregonstateparks.org/searchpark.php Enterprise Service Center Environmental Organizations and Education Sites 88401 Hwy 82, Enterprise, OR 97828 Hands on the Land (541) 426-4521 http://www.handsontheland.org Warm Springs Service Center The Nature Conservancy – Main Office 2416 Warm Springs St., Warm Springs, OR 97761 821 S.E. 14th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97214 (541) 553-2009 (503) 802-8100 Redmond Service Center The Nature Conservancy Oregon Preserves 625 SE Salmon Ave. Bldg. A, Redmond, OR 97756 http://www.nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/ (541) 923-4358 states/oregon/preserves/ USFWS Oregon Land Trusts La Grande Field Office http://www.opb.org/programs/oregonstory/land_ 3502 Hwy 30, La Grande, OR 97850 trusts/resources/page_2.html (541) 962-8584

317 Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites US Forest Service Soil and Water Conservation Districts Malheur National Forest Baker Valley SWCD 431 Patterson Bridge Rd., PO Box 909, John Day, OR 3990 Midway Dr., Baker City, OR 97814 97845 (541) 523-7121 x100 (541) 575-3000 Burnt River SWCD Ochoco National Forest 3990 Midway Dr., Baker City, OR 97814 3160 NE 3rd St., Prineville, OR 97754 (541) 523-7121 x100 (541) 416-6500 Deschutes SWCD Wallowa-Whitman National Forest 625 SE Salmon Ave. Suite 7, Redmond, OR 97756 1550 Dewey Ave, PO Box 907, Baker City, OR 97814 (541) 923-2204 (541) 523-6391 Eagle Valley SWCD OSU Extension Service 3990 Midway Dr., Baker City, OR 97814 Baker County ES (541) 523-7121 x100 2610 Grove St., Baker City, OR 97814 Keating SWCD (541) 523-6418 3990 Midway Dr, Baker City, OR 97810 Wallowa County ES (541) 523-7121 x100 668 NW 1st, Enterprise, OR 97828 Monument SWCD (541) 426-3143 311 Wilson St., PO Box 95, Monument, OR 97864 Union County ES (541) 934-2141 10507 McAlister Rd. Rm. 9, LaGrande, OR 97850 Wallowa SWCD (541) 963-1010 88401 Hwy 82, Box B, Enterprise, OR 97828 Grant County ES (541) 426-4588 x4 201 S Humboldt Suite 190, Canyon City, OR 97820 Wheeler SWCD (541) 575- 1911 38289 Hwy. 19-207, PO Box 431, Fossil, OR 97830 Wheeler County ES (541) 468-2990 PO Box 407, Fossil, OR 97830 Crook County SWCD (541) 763-4115 498 SE Lynn Blvd., Prineville, OR 97754 Crook County ES (541) 447-3548 498 SE Lynn Blvd., Prineville, OR 97754 Deschutes SWCD (541) 447-6228 625 SE Salmon Ave. Suite 7, Redmond, OR 97756 Jefferson County ES (541) 923-2204 34 SE D St., Madras, OR 97741 Grant SWCD (541) 475-3808 721 S Canyon Blvd., John Day, OR 97845 Warm Springs ES (541) 575-0135 x3 1110 Wasco St., PO Box 430, Warm Springs, OR Jefferson County SWCD 97761 625 SE Salmon Ave. Suite 6, Redmond, OR 97756 (541) 553-3238 (541) 923-4358 x101 Deschutes County ES Union SWCD 3893 SW Airport Way, Redmond, OR 97756 10507 N. McAlister Rd. Rm. 7, La Grande, OR 97850 (541) 548-8697 (541) 963-0724 Wasco County ES 400 E Scenic Dr. Suite 2.278, The Dalles, OR 97058 (541) 296-5494

318 Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites Watershed Councils The Nature Conservancy, Northeast Oregon Office Powder Basin WC P.O. Box 386, Enterprise, OR 97828-0386 3990 Midway Dr., Baker City, OR 97814 Phone: (541) 426-3458 (541) 523-712 x119 Wallowa Resources – Wallowa Mountain Institute www.bakercounty.org/Watershed/home.html http://www.wallowaresources.org/wmi.php Grande Ronde Model WC 1114 J Ave., La Grande, OR 97850 CASCADES (541) 663-0570 Governmental Agencies www.grmw.org USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Umatilla Basin WC PO Box 1551, Pendleton, OR 97801 Redmond Service Center (541) 276-2190 625 SE Salmon Ave. Bldg. A, Redmond, OR 97756 (541) 923-4358 North Fork John Day WC PO Box 444, Long Creek, OR 97856 Oregon City Service Center (541) 421-3018 221 Molalla Ave., Oregon City, OR 97045 (503) 655-3144 x108 Mid-John Day WC PO Box 431, Fossil, OR 97830 Salem Service Center (541) 468-2990 650 Hawthorne Ave SE Suite 130, Salem, OR 97301 (503) 399-5741 Bridge Creek WC PO Box 431, Fossil, OR 97830 Tangent Service Center (541) 468-2990 33630 McFarland Rd., Tangent, OR 97389 (541) 967-5925 Middle Deschutes WC 625 SE Salmon Ave., Redmond, OR 97756 Eugene Service Center (541) 937-9800 • www.deschuteswatersheds.org/ 780 Bailey Hill Rd., Eugene, OR 97402 tcwc/ (541) 465-6443 Crooked River WC Klamath Falls Service Center 498 SE Lynn Blvd., Prineville, OR 97754-2 2316 S 6th St. Suite C, Klamath Falls, OR 97601 (541) 447-8567 • www.deschuteswatersheds.org/ (541) 883-6924 crwc/ Roseburg Service Center Upper Deschutes WC 2240 NW Troost #200, Roseburg, OR 97471 PO Box 1812, Bend, OR 97709 (541) 673-6071 (541) 382-6103 • www.deschuteswatersheds.org/ Medford Service Center udwc/ 573 Parsons Dr. Suite 101, Medford, OR 97501 John Day Fossil Beds (National Park Service) (541) 776-4270 http://www.nps.gov/joda/index.htm US Forest Service Environmental Organizations Mount Hood National Forest and Education Sites 16400 Champion Way, Sandy, OR 97055 (503) 668-1700 Four Rivers Cultural Center http://www.4rcc.com/index.html OSU Extension Service OMSI Outdoor Science Schools Deschutes County ES Hancock Field Station, Contact: OMSI Program Sales 3893 SW Airport Way, Redmond, OR 97756 and Registration, Portland, OR 97214 (541) 548-8697 (503) 797-4661

319 Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites Clackamas County ES Watershed Councils 200 Warner Milne Rd., Oregon City, OR 97045 Middle Fork Willamette WC (503) 655-8631 PO Box 27, Lowell, OR 97452 Wasco County ES (541) 923-4358 • www.mfwwc.org 400 E Scenic Dr. Suite 2.278, The Dalles, OR 97058 McKenzie River WC (541) 296-5494 PO Box 70166, Eugene, OR 97401 Hood River County ES (541) 687-9076 • www.mckenziewatershedcouncil. 2990 Experiment Station Dr., Hood River, OR 97031 org (541) 386-3343 North Santiam WC Marion County ES 311 N Third Ave., Stayton, OR 97383 3180 Center St. NE, Room 1361, Salem, OR 97301 (503) 930-8202 • www.open.org/~nsantiam (503) 588-5301 Sandy River Basin WC Linn County ES PO Box 868, Sandy, OR 97055 104 4th Ave. SW, PO Box 765, Albany, OR 97321 (503) 668-1646 • www.sandyriver.org (541) 967-3871 Clackamas River WC Klamath County ES PO Box 1869, Clackamas, OR 97015 3328 Vandenberg Rd, Klamath Falls, OR 97603 (503) 558-0973 • www.clackamasriver.org (541) 883-7131 Environmental Organizations Douglas County ES and Education Sites 1134 SE Douglas Ave., PO Box 1165, Roseburg, OR 97470 Opal Creek Ancient Forest Center (541) 672-4453 http://www.opalcreek.org/default.aspx Soil and Water Conservation Districts COAST RANGE Clackamas County SWCD Governmental Agencies 221 Molalla Ave. Suite 102, Oregon City, OR 97045 BLM (503) 655-3144 Coos Bay Douglas SWCD 1300 Airport Ln., North Bend, OR 97459 2741 W. Harvard Ave. , Roseburg, OR 97470 (541) 756-0100 (541) 957-5061 Tillamook Hood River SWCD 4610 Third St., Tillamook, OR 97141 3007 Experiment Station Dr., Hood River, OR 97031 (503) 815-1100 (541) 386-4588 Yaquina Head Outstanding Natural Area Linn SWCD http://www.blm.gov/or/resources/recreation/ 33935 Hwy 99E Suite C, Tangent, OR 97389 yaquina/index.php (541) 926-2483 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Marion SWCD 650 Hawthorne Ave. SE Suite 130, Salem, OR 97301 St. Helens Service Center (503) 391-9927 2514 Sykes Rd., St. Helens, OR 97051 Upper Willamette SWCD (503) 397-4555 780 Bailey Hill Rd. Suite 5, Eugene, OR 97402 Tillamook Service Center (541) 465-6436 x3 6415 Signal St., Tillamook, OR 97141 (503) 842-2848

320 Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites COAST RANGE Curry County ES Curry County Fair Grounds Governmental Agencies 29390 Ellensburg (Hwy 101), Gold Beach, OR 97444 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (541) 247-6672 Newport NRCS Soil and Water Conservation Districts 23 N Coast Hwy, Newport, OR 97365 Clatsop SWCD (541) 265-2631 750 Commercial St. Room 207, Astoria, OR 97103 Coquille Service Center (503) 325-4571 376 N Central Blvd., Coquille, OR 97423 Columbia SWCD (541) 396-2841 2514 Sykes Rd., St. Helens, OR 97051 USFWS (503) 397-4555 x3 Coastal Oregon Field Office Coos SWCD 2127 SE Marine Science Dr., Newport, OR 97365 371 N. Adams St,, Coquille, OR 97423 (541) 867-4550 (541) 396-6879 US Forest Service Curry County SWCD 94181 4th St., Gold Beach, OR 97444 Siuslaw National Forest (541) 247-2755 4077 SW Research Way, Corvallis, OR 97333 Lincoln SWCD (541) 750-7000 23 North Coast Hwy., Newport, OR 97365 Cape Perpetua Interpretive Center (541) 265-2631 http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/siuslaw/recreation/ Polk SWCD tripplanning/capeperpetua/index.shtml 580 Main St. Suite A, Dallas, OR 97338 OSU Extension Service (503) 623-9680 x101 Clatsop County ES Siuslaw SWCD 2001 Marine Dr, Room 210, Astoria, OR 97103 1525 12th St. Suite 10A, Florence, OR 97439 (503) 325-8573 (541) 997-1272 Columbia County ES Tillamook County SWCD 505 N. Columbia River Hwy, St. Helens, OR 97051 6415 Signal St., Tillamook, OR 97141 (503) 397-3462 (503) 842-2240 x 114 Tillamook County ES Umpqua SWCD 2204 Fourth St , Tillamook, OR 97141 47088 State Hwy. 38, Reedsport, OR 97467 (503) 842-3433 (541) 271-2611 Lincoln County ES Yamhill SWCD 29 SE 2nd St., Newport, OR 97365 2200 SW 2nd St., McMinnville, OR 97128 (541) 574-6534 (503) 472-1474 x3 Coos County ES Watershed Councils Ohlsen Baxter Building, 631 Alder St. Lower Columbia WSC Myrtle Point, OR 97458 12589 Hwy 30, Clatskanie, OR 97016 (541) 572-5263 (503) 728-9015 • www.lcrwc.com Douglas County ES North Coast Watershed Association 1134 SE Douglas Ave., PO Box 1165, Roseburg, OR 750 Commercial St. Rm. 205, Astoria, OR 97103 97470 (503) 325-0435 • www.clatsopwatersheds.org (541) 672-4453

321 Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites COAST RANGE South Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve http://www.oregon.gov/DSL/SSNERR/ Watershed Councils Tillamook Forest Center (Oregon Dept. of Forestry) Necanicum WSC http://www.tillamookforestcenter.org/ PO Box 249, Nehalem, OR 97131 (503) 717-1458 • www.necanicumwatershed.org Environmental Organizations Lower Nehalem WSC and Education Sites PO Box 249, Nehalem, OR 97131 OMSI Outdoor Science Schools (503) 368-7424 • www.nehalemtel.net/~lnwcouncil Camp Kiwanilong, Camp Magruder, Contact: OMSI Upper Nehalem WSC Program Sales and Registration, Portland, OR 97214 919 Bridge St., Vernonia, OR 97064 (503) 797-4661 (503) 429-0869 • www.nehalem.org The Nature Conservancy Oregon Coast Office Tillamook WSC 750 Commercial Street, Suite 212, Astoria, OR 97103 605 Garibaldi Ave., Garibaldi, OR 97118 (503) 325-3896 (503) 322-0002 www.tillamookbaywatershedcouncil.net Tillamook County Outdoor School http://www.outdoorschool.org/ Nestucca Neskowin WSC PO Box 255, Hebo, OR 97122 COLUMBIA PLATEAU (503) 392-6134 • www.oregoncoast.com/nnwc Governmental Agencies Midcoast WSC 23 North Coast Hwy, Newport, OR 97365 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (541) 265-9195 • www.midcoastwatershedcouncil. The Dalles Service Center and Wy’East RC&D org 2325 River Rd. Suite 3, The Dalles, OR 97058 Siuslaw WSC Moro Service Center PO Box 4222, Mapleton, OR 97453 (541) 268-3044 • www.siuslaw.org 302 Scott St., Moro, OR 97039 (541) 565-3551 Smith River WSC PO Box 114, Reedsport, OR 97467 Condon Service Center (541) 271-2223 333 S Main St., Condon, OR 97823 Tenmile Lakes Basin Partnership (541) 384-2281 PO Box, Lakeside, OR 97449 Heppner Service Center (541) 759-2414 • tlbp.presys.com 430 Heppner Lexington Hwy, Heppner, OR 97836 Coos WA (541) 676-9011 x113 PO Box 5860, Coos Bay, OR 97420 Pendleton Service Center (541) 888-5922 • www.cooswatershed.org 200 SE Hailey Ave. Suite 112, Pendleton, OR 97801 Coquille WA (541) 278-8049 55135 Picture Valley Rd., Coquille, OR 97423 (541) 571-2541 • www.coquillewatershed.org USFWS La Grande Field Office South Coast WC PO Box 666, Gold Beach, OR 97444 3502 Hwy 30, La Grande, OR 97850 (541) 247-2755 • www.currywatersheds.org (541) 962-8584 Northwest Outdoor Science School US Forest Service (public school district) Columbia Gorge National Scenic Area www.nwresd.k12.or.us/instrserv/noss/index.html 902 Wasco St, Ste. 200, Hood River, OR 97031 (541) 308-1700 322 Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites USFWS Wasco County SWCD 2325 River Rd. Suite 3, The Dalles, OR 97058 US Forest Service (541) 296-6178 x3 Umatilla National Forest Watershed Councils 2517 SW Hailey Ave., Pendleton, OR 97801 (541) 278-3752 Umatilla Basin WC PO Box 1551, Pendleton, OR 97801 DFWO (541) 276-2190 Northeast Region Office Wasco County WC 107 20th Street, LaGrande, OR 97850 2325 River Rd. Suite 3, The Dalles, OR 97058 (541) 963-2138 (541) 296-6178 OSU Extension Service Walla Walla Basin WC Wasco County ES PO Box 68, Milton Freewater, OR 97862 400 E Scenic Dr. Suite 2.278, The Dalles, OR 97058 (541) 938-2170 • www.wwbwc.org (541) 296-5494 Gilliam-East John Day WC Sherman County ES PO Box 106, Condon, OR 97823 409 Hood St., Moro, OR 97039 (541) 701-8391 (541) 565-3230 Middle Deschutes WC Gilliam County ES 625 SE Salmon Ave., Redmond, OR 97756 333 South Main, PO Box 707, Condon, OR 97823 (541) 937-9800 (541) 384-2271 www.deschuteswatersheds.org/tcwc/ Morrow County ES Sherman County WC 54173 Hwy 74, PO Box 397. Heppner, OR 97836 PO Box 405, Moro, OR 97039 (541) 676-9642 Bonneville Lock and Dam (US Army Corps of Engineers) Umatilla County ES http://www.nwp.usace.army.mil/op/b/home.asp 418 North Main St., Milton-Freewater, OR 97862 Columbia Gorge Discovery Center (National Scenic Area) (541) 938-5597 http://www.gorgediscovery.org/ Umatilla County ES Columbia River Gorge National Scenic Area 2411 NW Carden Ave. , Umatilla Hall http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/columbia/ PO Box 100, Pendleton, OR 97801 (541) 278-5403 Environmental Organizations Soil and Water Conservation Districts and Education Sites Columbia Gorge Ecology Institute Gilliam County SWCD http://www.gorgeecology.org/default.htm 333 S Main St., Condon, OR 97823 (541) 384-2672 The Nature Conservancy Columbia Plateau Office Morrow SWCD P.O. Box 314, The Dalles, OR 97058 430 Linden Way, Heppner, OR 97836 (541) 298-1802 (541) 676-5452 Sherman County SWCD EASTERN CASCADES SLOPES AND 302 Scott St., Moro, OR 97039 FOOTHILLS (541) 565-3216 x3 Governmental Agencies Umatilla County SWCD BLM 200 SE Hailey Ave. Suite 108, Pendleton, OR 97801 Lakeview (541) 276-8131 1301 S. G Street, Lakeview, OR 97630 (541) 947-2177 323 Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites EASTERN CASCADES SLOPES AND Lake County ES FOOTHILLS 103 South E St., Lakeview, OR 97630 (541) 947-6054 Governmental Agencies BLM Hood River County ES 2990 Experiment Station Dr., Hood River, OR 97031 Klamath Falls (541) 386-3343 2795 Anderson Ave., Bldg. #25, Klamath Falls, OR 97603 Jefferson County ES (541) 883-6916 34 SE D St., Madras, OR 97741 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (541) 475-3808 Klamath Falls Service Center Deschutes County ES 2316 S 6th St. Suite C, Klamath Falls, OR 97601 3893 SW Airport Way, Redmond, OR 97756 (541) 883-6924 (541) 548-8697 Lakeview Service Center Wasco County ES 17612 Hwy 395, Lakeview, OR 97630 400 E Scenic Dr. Suite 2.278, The Dalles, OR 97058 (541) 947-2367 (541) 296-5494 Redmond Service Center Soil and Water Conservation Districts 625 SE Salmon Ave. Bldg. A, Redmond, OR 97756 Hood River SWCD (541) 923-4358 3007 Experiment Station Dr., Hood River, OR 97031 Warm Springs Service Center (541) 386-4588 2416 Warm Springs St., Warm Springs, OR 97761 Jefferson County SWCD (541) 553-2009 625 SE Salmon Ave. Suite 6, Redmond, OR 97756 The Dalles Service Center and Wy’East RC&D (541) 923-4358 x101 2325 River Rd. Suite 3, The Dalles, OR 97058 Klamath SWCD USFWS 2316 S. 6th St. Suite C, Klamath Falls, OR 97601 Klamath Falls Fish and Wildlife Office (541) 883-6932 x101 1936 California Ave., Klamath Falls, OR 97601 Lakeview SWCD (541) 885-8481 17612 Hwy. 395, Lakeview, OR 97630 Bend Field Office (541) 947-5855 20310 Empire Ave, Ste. A-100, Bend, OR 97701 Wasco County SWCD (541) 383-7146 2325 River Rd. Suite 3, The Dalles, OR 97058 (541) 296-6178 x3 US Forest Service Deschutes National Forest Watershed Councils 1001 SW Emkay, Bend, OR 97702 Hood River WC (541) 383-5531 3007 Experiment Station Dr., Hood River, OR 97031 Deschutes and Ochoco National Forests (541) 386-6063 • www.hoodriverswcd.org http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/centraloregon/ Wasco County WC Fremont-Winema National Forest 2325 River Rd. Suite 3, The Dalles, OR 97058 1301 South G Street, Lakeview, OR 97630 (541) 296-6178 (541) 947-6201 Upper Deschutes WC PO Box 1812, Bend, OR 97709 OSU Extension Service (541) 382-6103 Klamath County ES www.deschuteswatersheds.org/udwc/ 3328 Vandenberg Rd, Klamath Falls, OR 97603 (541) 883-7131 324 Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites Klamath WC Partnership KLAMATH MOUNTAINS 700 Main St, Suite 202, Klamath Falls, OR 97601 (includes Siskiyou Mountains) (541) 850-1717 Governmental Agencies Lake County WC 17612 Hwy 395, Lakeview, OR 97630 BLM (541) 947-2336 Roseburg Malheur WC 777 NW Garden Valley Blvd., Roseburg, OR 97471 710 SW 5th Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 (541) 440-4930 (541) 881-1417 x107 Medford Harney WC 3040 Biddle Road, Medford, OR 97504 450 N Buena Vista, Burns, OR 97720 (541) 618-2200 (541) 573-8199 Grants Pass Interagency Office www.angelfire.com/or3/hcwatershedco 2164 NE Spalding Ave, Grants Pass, OR 97526 Owyhee WC (541) 471-6500 106 Owyhee St., PO Box 275, Adrian, OR 97901 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (541) 372-5782 Southwest Oregon RC&D Crater Lake National Park 576 NE E St., Grants Pass, OR 97526 http://www.nps.gov/crla/index.htm (541) 476-5906 Environmental Organizations and Education Sites Medford Service Center Central Oregon Environmental Center 573 Parsons Dr. Suite 101, Medford, OR 97501 http://envirocenter.org/ (541) 776-4270 High Desert Museum Roseburg Service Center http://www.highdesertmuseum.org/ 2240 NW Troost #200, Roseburg, OR 97471 (541) 673-6071 OMSI Outdoor Science Schools Cascade Science School, Contact: OMSI Program USFWS Sales and Registration, Portland, OR Roseburg Field Office 97214 2900 NW Stewart Parkway, Roseburg, OR 97471 (503) 797-4661 (541) 957-3470 Sunriver Nature Center US Forest Service http://www.sunrivernaturecenter.org/index.html Rogue River-Siskiyou National Forest Oregon Paleo Lands Institute (OPLI) 6040 Biddle Rd., Medford, OR 97504 http://www.paleolands.org/find/time/here (541) 618-2200 Klamath Outdoor Science School Umpqua National Forest http://www.klamathoutdoorschool.org/ 2900 NW Stewart Parkway, Roseburg, OR 97470 The Nature Conservancy (541) 957-3203 Central Oregon Office ODFW 115 NW Oregon Avenue, Bend, OR 97701 (541) 388-3020 Southwest Region Office Klamath Basin Office 4192 N. Umpqua Highway, Roseburg, OR 97470 226 Pine Street, Klamath Falls, OR 97601 (541) 440-3353 (541) 273-0789

325 . Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites OSU Extension Service Seven Basins WC Josephine County ES PO Box 909, Gold Hill, OR 97525 215 Ringuette St., Grants Pass, OR 97527 (541) 261-7796 • www.sevenbasins.org (541) 476-6613 Illinois Valley WC Douglas County ES PO Box 352, Cave Junction, OR 97523 1134 SE Douglas Ave., PO Box 1165, Roseburg, OR (541) 592-3731 97470 Williams Creek WC (541) 672-4453 PO Box 94, Williams, OR 97544 (541) 846-9175 Soil and Water Conservation Districts Applegate River WC Curry County SWCD 6941 Upper Applegate Rd, Jacksonville, OR 97530 94181 4th St., Gold Beach, OR 97444 (541) 889-9982 • www.arwc.org (541) 247-2755 Bear Creek WC Douglas SWCD PO Box 1548, Medford, OR 97501 2741 W. Harvard Ave. , Roseburg, OR 97470 (541) 840-1810 • www.bearcreek-watershed.org (541) 957-5061 Little Butte Creek WC Illinois Valley SWCD PO Box 89, Eagle Point, OR 97524 102 S. Redwood Hwy., Cave Junction, OR 97523 (541) 646-1684 (541) 592-3731 www.restoretherogue.org/councils/little_butte.html Jackson SWCD Douglas County Museum of Natural and Cultural 573 Parsons Dr. Suite 102, Medford, OR 97501 History (Roseburg) (541) 734-3143 http://www.co.douglas.or.us/museum/default.asp Josephine SWCD North Mountain Park Nature Center 1440 Parkdale Dr., Grants Pass, OR 97526 (City of Ashland) (541) 474-6840 http://www.northmountainpark.org/ Watershed Councils Oregon Caves National Monument Elk Creed WC (National Park Service) PO Box 676, Yoncalla, OR 97499 http://www.nps.gov/orca/index.htm (541) 836-7206 Siskiyou Environmental Education Center Partnership for the Umpqua Rivers (Southern Oregon University) 1758 NE Airport Rd., Roseburg, OR 97470 http://www.sou.edu/biology/enved/seec/index. (541) 673-5756 • www.umpquarivers.org html Upper Rogue WC Environmental Organizations and Education Sites PO Box 1434, Shady Cove, OR 97539 Siskiyou Field Institute (541) 210-0670 http://www.thesfi.org/index.asp www.restoretherogue.org/councils/roguebasin_ council.html The Nature Conservancy Southwest Oregon Office Middle Rogue WC 33 N. Central Avenue, Suite 405, Medford, OR 97501-5939 543 NE E St. Suite 201, Grants Pass, OR 97526 (541) 770-7933 (541) 474-6799 Lower Rogue WC PO Box 666, Gold Beach, OR 97444 (541) 247-2755 • www.currywatersheds.org

326 Appendix VII

Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites NORTHERN BASIN AND RANGE Soil and Water Conservation Districts Governmental Agencies Curry County SWCD 94181 4th St., Gold Beach, OR 97444 M BL (541) 247-2755 Burns 28910 Hwy 20 West, Hines, OR 97738 Douglas SWCD (541) 573-4400 2741 W. Harvard Ave., Roseburg, OR 97470 (541) 957-5061 Vale 100 Oregon St., Vale, OR 97918 Illinois Valley SWCD (541) 473-3144 102 S. Redwood Hwy., Cave Junction, OR 97523 (541) 592-3731 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service Jackson SWCD Lakeview Service Center 573 Parsons Dr. Suite 102, Medford, OR 97501 17612 Hwy 395, Lakeview, OR 97630 (541) 734-3143 (541) 947-2367 Josephine SWCD Hines Service Center 1440 Parkdale Dr., Grants Pass, OR 97526 530 Hwy 20 S, Hines, OR 97738 (541) 474-6840 (541) 573-6446 Harney County Museum Ontario Service Center http://www.burnsmuseum.com/ 2925 SW 6th Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 (541) 889-9689 Environmental Organizations and Education Sites vale Soil Survey Office High Desert Museum 100 Oregon St., Vale, OR 97918 http://www.highdesertmuseum.org/ (541) 473-6243 Malheur Field Station USFWS http://www.malheurfieldstation.org/ Bend Field Office Sunriver Nature Center 20310 Empire Ave, Ste. A-100, Bend, OR 97701 http://www.sunrivernaturecenter.org/index.html (541) 383-7146 WILLAMETTE VALLEY Malheur Wildlife Refuge http://www.fws.gov/malheur/education.html Governmental Agencies M BL ODFW Salem High Desert Region Office 1717 Fabry Rd. SE, Salem, OR 97306 61374 Parrell Road, Bend, OR 97702 (503) 375-5646 (541) 388-6363 Eugene OSU Extension Service 3106 Pierce Parkway, Suite E, Springfield, OR 97477 Lake County ES (541) 683-6600 103 South E St., Lakeview, OR 97630 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (541) 947-6054 Portland Service Center Harney County ES 2701 NW Vaughn St. Suite 450, Portland, OR 97210 450 N. Buena Vista, #10, Burns, OR 97720 (503) 326-3941 (541) 573-2506 Portland National Water and Climate Center Malheur County ES 1201 NE Lloyd Blvd. Suite 900, Portland, OR 97232 710 SW 5th Ave., Ontario, OR 97914 (503) 414-3031 (541) 881-1417

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Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites WILLAMETTE VALLEY Oregon Department of Agriculture Governmental Agencies Natural Resources Division 635 Capitol St. NE, Salem, OR 97301 USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (503) 986-4700 Hillsboro Service Center OSU Extension Service: 1080 SW Baseline Suite B2, Hillsboro, OR 97123 (503) 648-3174 Metropolitan Office Institute of Portland Metropolitan Studies Oregon City Service Center PO Box 751, Portland, OR 97207 221 Molalla Ave., Oregon City, OR 97045 (541) 737-2713 (503) 655-3144 x108 Washington County ES McMinnville Service Center 18640 NW Walker Rd. #1400, Beaverton, OR 97006 2200 SW 2nd St. , McMinnville, OR 97128 (503) 821-1150 (503) 472-1474 Clackamas County ES Dallas Service Center 200 Warner Milne Rd., Oregon City, OR 97045 580 Main St. Suite D, Dallas, OR 97338 (503) 655-8631 (503) 623-2396 x2 North Willamette Research Center Salem Service Center 15210 NE Miley Rd., Aurora, OR 97002 650 Hawthorne Ave SE Suite 130, Salem, OR 97301 (503) 678-1264 (503) 399-5741 Marion County ES Corvallis Plant Materials Center 3180 Center St. NE, Room 1361, Salem, OR 97301 3415 NE Granger Ave., Corvallis, OR 97330 (503) 588-5301 (541) 757-4812 Yamhill County ES Tangent Service Center 2050 NE Lafayette Ave., McMinnville, OR 97128 33630 McFarland Rd., Tangent, OR 97389 (503) 434-7517 (541) 967-5925 Polk County ES Eugene Service Center 182 SW Academy, Suite 102, Dallas, OR 97338 780 Bailey Hill Rd., Eugene, OR 97402 (541) 465-6443 Benton County ES 1849 NW 9th St., Corvallis, OR 97330 SFWSU (541) 776-6750 Oregon Fish and Wildlife Office Linn County ES 2600 SE 98th Ave, Ste. 100, Portland, OR 97266 104 4th Ave. SW, Albany, OR 97321 (503) 231-6179 (541) 967-3871 DFWO Douglas County ES Northwest Region Office 1134 SE Douglas Ave., Roseburg, OR 97470 17330 S.E. Evelyn Street, Clackamas, OR 97015 (541) 672-4453 (971) 673-6000 Soil and Water Conservation Districts US Forest Service Benton SWCD Portland Regional Office 305 SW C Ave. Suite 1, Corvallis, OR 97333 333 SW First Ave., Portland, OR 97204 (541) 753-7208 (503) 808-2468 Clackamas County SWCD Willamette National Forest 221 Molalla Ave. Suite 102, Oregon City, OR 97045 211 East 7th Ave, Eugene, OR 97401 (503) 655-3144 (541) 225-6300

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Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites Soil and Water Conservation Districts Greater Oregon City WC East Multnomah SWCD PO Box 927, Oregon City, OR 97045 5211 N Williams Ave., Portland, OR 97217 (503) 427-0439 • www.gocwc.org (503) 222-7645 Tualatin River WC Linn SWCD PO Box 338, Hillsboro, OR 97123-0 33935 Hwy 99E Suite C, Tangent, OR 97389 (503) 846-4810 • www.trwc.org (541) 926-2483 Molalla River Watch Marion SWCD PO Box 474, Molalla, OR 97038 650 Hawthorne Ave. SE Suite 130, Salem, OR 97301 www.molallariverwatch.org (503) 391-9927 Yamhill Basin WC Polk SWCD PO Box 1517, McMinnville, OR 97128 580 Main St. Suite A, Dallas, OR 97338 (503) 474-1047 • www.co.yamhill.org.us/ybc (503) 623-9680 x101 Pudding River WC Tualatin SWCD PO Box 242, Aurora, OR 97002 1080 SW Baseline St. Suite B-2, Hillsboro, OR 97123 (503) 873-5439 (503) 648-3174 x4 Spring Valley WC 4780 Brush College Rd., Salem, OR 97304 Upper Willamette SWCD (503) 371-6552 780 Bailey Hill Rd. Suite 5, Eugene, OR 97402 (541) 465-6436 x3 Mid-Willamette Watershed Alliance PO Box 548, Salem, OR 97308 West Multnomah SWCD (541) 954-0435 2701 NW Vaughn St. Suite 450, Portland, OR 97210 (503) 238-4775 Glenn Gibson Creeks WC 580 Main St. Suite A, Dallas, OR 97338 Yamhill SWCD www.glenngibsonwatershedcouncil.org 2200 SW 2nd St., McMinnville, OR 97128 (503) 472-1474 x3 Rickreall WC 580 Main St. Suite A, Dallas, OR 97338 Watershed Councils (503) 623-9680 x112 Columbia Slough WC www.rickreallwatershedcouncil.org 7040 NE 47th Ave., Portland, OR 97218 Luckiamute WC (503) 281-1132 • www.columbiaslough.org 245 N Monmouth Ave. WOU, Monmouth, OR 97631 Scappoose Bay WC (503) 302-4913 • luckiamute.watershedcouncils.net 57420-0 Old Portland Rd., Warren, OR 97053 North Santiam WC (503) 397-7904 311 N Third Ave., Stayton, OR 97383 Johnson Creek WC (503) 930-8202 • www.open.org/~nsantiam 1900 SE Milport Rd., Milwaukie, OR 97222 South Santiam WC (503) 652-7477 • www.jcwc.org 4331 Hwy 20, Sweet Home, OR 97386 Sandy River Basin WC (541) 367-5564 • www.sswc.org PO Box 868, Sandy, OR 97055 Marys River WC (503) 668-1646 • www.sandyriver.org PO Box 1041, Corvallis, OR 97339 Clackamas River WC (541) 758-7597 • www.mrwc.net PO Box 1869, Clackamas, OR 97015 Calapooia WC (503) 558-0973 • www.clackamasriver.org PO Box 844, Brownsville, OR 97327 (541) 812-7622

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Contacts for Service-learning Partners and Field Sites Watershed Councils Rock Creek Environmental Studies Center McKenzie River WC (Portland Community College) PO Box 70166, Eugene, OR 97401 http://spot.pcc.edu/rcesc/ (541) 687-9076 • www.mckenziewatershedcouncil.org Silver Falls State Park Long Tom WC http://www.oregonstateparks.org/park_211.php 751 S Danebo Ave., Eugene, OR 97402 Slough School (Columbia Slough (541) 683-6578 • www.longtom.org Watershed Council) www.columbiaslough.org/sloughschool/index.htm Middle Fork Willamette WC PO Box 27, Lowell, OR 97452 Smith and Bybee Wetlands (Metro (541) 923-4358 • www.mfwwc.org Regional Government) www.oregonmetro.gov/index.cfm/go/by.web/ Coast Fork Willamette WC id=153 28 South 6th St. Suite A, Cottage Grove, OR 97424 (541) 767-9717 • www.coastfork.org Tryon Creek State Natural Area http://www.oregonstateparks.org/park_144.php Bonneville Lock and Dam (US Army Corps of Engineers) Tualatin Hills Nature Park http://www.nwp.usace.army.mil/op/b/home.asp http://www.thprd.org/facilities/naturepark/home.cfm Center for Research in Environmental Sciences University of Oregon Museum of Natural and Technologies (Wilsonville) (public school and Cultural History district) http://www.uoregon.edu/~mnh/ http://www.crest.wlwv.k12.or.us/ West Eugene Wetlands Education Center End of the Oregon Trail (Oregon City) http://www.wewetlands.org/ http://www.historicoregoncity.org/HOC/ Environmental Organizations and Education Sites Hoyt Arboretum (City of Portland) Mount Pisgah Arboretum http://www.portlandonline.com/parks/ http://mountpisgaharboretum.org/ Jackson Bottom Wetlands Preserve (Hillsboro Oregon Garden Parks and Rec.) http://www.oregongarden.org/ http://www.jacksonbottom.org/ Oregon Museum of Science and Industry (OMSI) John Inskeep Environmental Learning Center http://www.omsi.edu/ (Clackamas Community College) http://depts.clackamas.cc.or.us/elc/ The Nature Conservancy WillametteV alley Office Multnomah County Outdoor School (public 87200 Rathbone Road, Eugene, OR 97402 school district) (541) 343-1010 www.mesd.k12.or.us/os/OutdoorSchool/Welcome. html World Forestry Center http://www.worldforestry.org/ Oxbow Regional Park (Metro Regional Government) www.oregonmetro.gov/index.cfm/go/by.web/id=150

330 Appendix VIII

Make Your Own Quadrat Frame Option 1: Option 3: • 4 – 1 meter x ½ inch PVC tubing pieces, 4 right angle • 2 – 1 meter x ½ inch PVC tubing sleeves, 4+ meters of elbows, and PVC adhesive non-stretch twine or light rope, 1 small snap Build a one-meter-square quadrat frame using PVC Thread the two tubing sleeves onto the twine and tie tubing. Affix one elbow to each 1-meter piece with a small loop in the end of the twine. Measure 4 me- PVC adhesive. Transport frame as 4 pieces. Assemble ters of twine, plus an inch or two more, and cut. Tie the frame at monitoring site by joining the 4 pieces the snap onto this end. The final length of your twine into a square. should measure 4 meters from the end of the loop to the end of the snap. Attach the snap to the small loop Option 2: of twine to make an overall 4-meter loop. Stretch the • 4 – 1 meter sticks or lathe, 4 screws with wing nuts loop using the tubing, making a square shape, and lay on the ground. This is best used with stakes or flags to Overlap the meter sticks at the end in a right angle. secure the corners into a rigid square. (Hint: double Have someone hold while you drill through both check twine measurement after tying; you may need sticks. Insert screw and wing nut, attaching the two. to adjust your knots to make a 4-meter loop) Repeat for the other two meter sticks. Now overlap the ends of the two pieces and drill making a square. Using your quadrat frame: Wing nuts can be loosened to fold up the square for Make sure that your quadrat can be taken apart or easier transporting. folded up for carrying. It is best to leave one corner of the quadrat unattached so you can unfold the quadrat and slide it under the vegetation into place. If all four sides are fixed, you must place the quadrat over the vegetation, which can be difficult with tall plants, shrubs, or trees.

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