The Pinocchio Syndrome and the Prosthetic Impulse in Science Fiction
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Victor Grech The Pinocchio Syndrome and the Prosthetic Impulse in Science Fiction * The desire to become human, henceforth referred to as the transformation, one in which “some altogether unrecognizable Pinocchio syndrome, is depicted frequently in literature, a desire ‘human nature’ would take the place of this one” has caused humanity expressed by Carlo Collodi’s Pinocchio, a wooden toy boy who wished significant concern (174), an apprehension reflected in science fiction. to become a human boy. This desire was also obliquely expressed by Smith and Morra have amplified this belief, stating that Nick Chopper, the Tin Woodman in L. Frank Baum’s The Wonderful to a perhaps worrying extent, “the prosthetic” has taken Wizard of Oz, who was cursed by the Wicked Witch of the East, such on a life of its own. Following closely on the heels of . that his axe became enchanted and hacked him to pieces. His limbs Haraway’s . “Cyborg Manifesto” in the 1980’s, as well were replaced by tin prostheses, as was his heart, preventing him as by developments in the cultural studies of science and from loving his fiancée. Consequently, his wish for a heart, and hence technology, science fiction cinema and literature, transplant emotions, indirectly expresses a yearning to reattain his humanity, a technology, artificial intelligence, virtual reality, postmodern desire whose connotations will be amplified later in this paper. This warfare, and so on—“the prosthetic” has similarly begun to trope is reiterated in Disney’s films of Beauty and the Beast, The Little assume an epic status that is out of proportion with its abilities Mermaid, The Princess and the Frog, and numerous other tales wherein to fulfill our ambitions for it. (2) the main character has his or her humanity cursed away; indeed, the last film cited above features the song “When I’m Human” This paper will show that while sf has depicted the extreme On the other hand, the requirements for prostheses in order for embracement of the “prosthetic impulse,” most notoriously in Star one to continue functioning within society is as old as mythology, Trek’s “Borg,” this is used as a warning of the potential Faustian as evinced by Hephaestus, the son of Hera and Zeus, who was lame consequences of such tendencies. The franchise has also highlighted (possibly suffering from clubfoot, a form of talipes, a congenital the converse, the Pinocchio syndrome, a reverse prosthetic impulse, malformation which causes internal rotation of the foot at the ankle most notably, in Commander Data. (The Pinocchio syndrome described joint), and who walked with the aid of a crutch, a primitive type in this essay is not to be confused with the disease envisioned by Davd of prosthesis. He also constructed golden maidens to help him in Zeman, a fictional condition which causes paralysis and fusion of the his labors in his forge, as well as Talos, a giant bronze proto-robot extremities such that they resemble hooves.) who guarded king Minos’s Crete by circling the island’s perimeter, This naturally raises the question as to what it means to wish throwing rocks with superhuman strength at threatening ships (Hard to become human. SF seems to focus on two aspects: the biological 167). component, that is, the actual replacement of original body parts While prostheses may be essential for dealing with medical (limbs, organs, and senses) with human counterparts; and the mental conditions, Smith and Morra have averred that “our modern western and psychological component. Ned Block succinctly summarizes the culture has a ‘prosthetic impulse’ (Smith and Morra 4), an urge to dilemma since augment the human body, which N. Katherine Hayles refers to as our [t]he root of the epistemic problem is that the example of “original prosthesis we all learn to manipulate, so that extending or a conscious creature on which the science of consciousness replacing the body with other prostheses becomes a continuation of is inevitably based is us (where “us” can be construed to a process that began before we were born” (3). include nonhuman creatures that are neurologically similar The notion of such transhuman transformation was famously to humans). But how can science based on us generalize to mooted by the British scientist John Bernal who proposed that creatures that do not share our physical properties? It would [n]ormal man is an evolutionary dead end; mechanical man . seem that a form of physicalism that could embrace other is actually more in the true tradition of a further evolution . creatures would have to be based at least in part on them Connections between . minds would tend to become a . in the first place, but that cannot be done unless we already permanent condition until they functioned as dual or multiple know whether they are conscious. (407) organisms . , barring cataclysmic accidents, immortal . This paper will not dwell on the concept of epiphenomenalism, consciousness itself may end or vanish in a humanity that that is, the view that one’s actions are not caused by one’s thoughts has become completely etherialized, losing the close-knit and that we are simply passive spectators laboring under the illusion organism, becoming masses of atoms in space communicating that we are in command of our behavior and destiny. by radiation, and ultimately perhaps resolving itself entirely The mental and psychological aspects that define man include at into light. (42–43) least three components: the desire to acquire “qualia”; the expression One potential route or intermediate step for such transformation is of intentionality; and an application of an Abraham Maslow–type through cyborg transformation, that is, cybernetic organisms, organic motivational pyramid, with a desire for self-actualization that embraces creatures that exploit technology in order to utilize mechanical parts the desire to attain humanity. These three facets will be briefly that enhance their abilities. The term “cyborg” was popularized by described, and will then be demonstrated through Data in Star Trek. Clynes and Kline, who pragmatically opined that The concept of “qualia” was first presented by Clarence Irving Lewis who opined that [a]ltering man’s bodily functions to meet the requirements of extraterrestrial environments would be more logical [t]here are recognizable qualitative characters of the given, than providing an earthly environment for him in space. which may be repeated in different experiences, and are [a]rtifact-organism systems . are one possibility. (26–27, thus a sort of universals; I call these “qualia.” But although 74–75) such qualia are universals, in the sense of being recognized from one to another experience, they must be distinguished The concept was further popularized by the publication of Donna from the properties of objects. Confusion of these two is Haraway’s “Manifesto for Cyborgs,” and ever since, the cyborg has characteristic of many historical conceptions, as well as of evolved in diverse disciplines including literature, film, sociology, current essence-theories. The quale is directly intuited, given, cybernetics, and medicine. The cyborg questions and assimilates the and is not the subject of any possible error because it is purely differences between the sentient and the nonsentient, the human and subjective. (121) the nonhuman, and epitomizes the demolition of the frontiers between social, ethical, legal, and technological issues ranging from disability The subject and its very definition are fraught with contention, and “we to genetic engineering to computer privacy (Haraway “Manifesto” lack a principled basis precisely because we do not have an explanation for 65–108), to “an erasure of individuality and mortality” (Bernal 47). the presence of conscious experience even in ourselves” (Levine 79). The Fredric Jameson notes that our potential transhuman dilemma increases when we consider “the problem of attributing qualia The New York Review of Science Fiction April 2012 11 to other creatures, those that do not share our physical organization. master his human emotions. However, while Spock is broodingly I take it that there is a very real puzzle whether such creatures have charismatic, Data is more of a nerdy engineer who lacks Spock’s qualia like ours or even any at all. How much of our physicofunctional magnetic appeal. architecture must be shared before we have similarity or identity of It is made explicit from the very first episode of the seven year experience”? (89) Hence, for the purposes of this paper, qualia will be series Star Trek: The Next Generation that Data has a Pinocchio described simply as subjective conscious experiences. complex, constantly “endeavoring to become more human” (First Yet another concept propounded by sf is the notion of Contact), a fact that is pointed out by his superior officer, Riker. intentionality, the ability to truly understand and comprehend and When Data is asked “Do you consider yourself superior to us?,” Data react to surroundings and stimuli, as humans do, and to attribute this replies “I am superior, sir, in many ways. But I would gladly give capacity to created beings, whether mechanical and computer powered, it up to be human.” To which Riker replies “Nice to meet you . or biological. This was famously expressed by John Searle in the Pinocchio” (“Encounter at Farpoint”). Data “had to search the Chinese Room gedankenexperiment. Searle contends that a machine ship’s data banks for the reference, but when he found and accessed may respond to, for example, written language, such as Chinese, it seconds later, even though Riker passed it off as a joke, he was through a computer program, without actually understanding stunned at being compared to the subject of a story about the magical Chinese, even to the extent of passing a Turing test. Searle calls this power of love” (Lorrah, Survivors 129). Clearly, Data expresses anti- “weak artificial intelligence,” as opposed to a true comprehension of self actualization in that he is superior to mankind in abilities and Chinese, which Searle calls “strong artificial intelligence,” which is the immortal, and yet, he still desires to become human.