Children's Song Acquisition: an Examination of Current Research and Theories

Title: Children’s Song Acquisition: An Examination of Current Research and Theories

Author(s): J. Dianne Anderson

Source: Anderson, J. D. (1991, Winter). Children’s song acquisition: An examination of current research and theories. The Quarterly, 2(4), pp. 42-49. (Reprinted with permission in Visions of Research in Music Education, 16(2), Autumn, 2010). Retrieved from http://www-usr.rider.edu/~vrme

Visions of Research in Music Education is a fully refereed critical journal appearing exclusively on the Internet. Its publication is offered as a public service to the profession by the New Jersey Music Educators Association, the state affiliate of MENC: The National Association for Music Education. The publication of VRME is made possible through the facilities of Westminster Choir College of Rider University Princeton, New Jersey. Frank Abrahams is the senior editor. Jason D. Vodicka is editor of the Quarterly historical reprint series. Chad Keilman is the production coordinator. The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning is reprinted with permission of Richard Colwell, who was senior consulting editor of the original series. Children's Song Acqul.sl.tl.on:• • • An Exafllination Of Current Research and Theories

ByJ. Dianne Anderson Arizona State University

he perpetuation of a culture or so- Children's Music Universalities ciety is dependent on a number of Music universalities are elements common to Tfactors. Scholars, anthropologists, all musics the world over; their existence is and ethnographers subscribe to various recognizable and identifiable in the musics of views of those elements they judge crucial all cultures. According to Borris (981), "The for cultural survival. Language, religion, fine fact that the music of various cultures appeals arts, sciences, or any other societal feature to listeners in the whole world proves that in continues its existence only so long as it is each music there are universal sound ele- valued and practiced by a people. While ac- ments. They are not contradictory to the ele- knowledging the importance of these and ments of national music, which we refer to as other factors, the focus of this paper is not 'idioms" (p. 69), This powerful assertion finds on the what, but rather the who and the how support among scholars who have identified of musical cultural preservation. In whom music universalities. are traditions and practices entrusted, and Differences among various world musics how are they instilled? seem glaringly obvious upon first hearing, and It is believed that within any society the the most generic description of music must children are the carriers of culture, for they account for variance. Yet Borris states that are taught the "essence" of the cultural me- rather than emphasize the differences in music dia. So it is with music (Campbell, 1990). materials (e.g., melody, harmony, rhythm), Nettl (1983) states that "If ethnomusicology one should focus on the gestures and psycho- claims to study all of the world's music, it logical qualities that differentiate musics and must. in addition to explicating the central create national idioms. Citing Bartok's folk- repertory and style of a society, make special song contributions as a role model, Borris efforts to understand as well the music of (1981) urges the removal of all boundaries to those subdivisions of society that live outside understanding music languages and encour- the mainstream [including]. ..children" (p. ages the linking of music universalities within 344). Thus, information regarding the ways national idioms. This claim is supported by by which children know, experience, and Toynbee's (1971) prediction that music and perpetuate music traditions, together with the musicians could be the unifiers of mankind. ways in which they acquire these traditions, Nettl (1983) hypothesizes that music univer- sh~uld be of great interest to those who sals do exist because most societies have ex- value the study of world musics. perienced direct or indirect contact with other j. Dianne Anderson is completing tbe re- societies, thereby creating a macrocosmic mu- quirements for the doctoral degree at Ari- sical repertory with structural features specific zona State Unioersity. to smaller repertoires. His criteria for music

42 The Quarterlyfournal of Music Teaching and Learning universalities require that they: (1) fit the ized by yodeling, growling, and raucous imi- definition of music; (2) be found everywhere; tative animal cries and nature sounds, it is (3) exclude what could conceivably be re- intelligible to most Western ears because it is garded as music, but is not actually present in more or less diatonic, with pentatonic scalar cultures of the world 0983: 38). He differenti- progressions which utilize major seconds and ates between universals of sound and statisti- minor thirds (Nettl, 1983). cal universals of music by describing the latter ettl stresses the significance of children's as typical of the "healthy majority of songs by treating them as a musical subset, musics ...[which focuses onl...consensus of and groups tile use of lullabies, games, and world's societies, not physiological or percep- plays which aid children in learning the cul- tual aspects" (p. 38). He identifies universali- ture and acquiring the rudiments of musician- ties of sound, singing style, and children's mu- ship as children's musics universals. He fur- sics. ther describes children's music as possessing Several universalities of sound classified by short forms, restricted scales with intervals Nettl (1990) include: (1) close from semi tones through mi- approximation to a major sec- nor thirds, and employing ond as the chief melodic inter- "Music universali- repetitive rhythms. Other val; (2) tendency of most studies of children's musics musics to descend at the end; ties are elements concur with Nettl's asser- (3) internal repetition and cornman to all tions (Shehan, 1987; variation; and (4) a rhythmic musics the ~orld Davidson, 1985; Miller, structure based on distinction 1983). among note length and dy- over. Their exist- The existence of these namic stress. Statistical uni- ence is recogniz- music universals verifies versals include: (1) tetratonic that all cultures share music and pentatonic scales of un- able and identifi- commonalities. If, as pos- equal intervals, often major able in the musics ited earlier, children are the seconds, minor thirds, and carriers of these various singing in octaves; (2) stanzaic of all cultures." musics, are there also com- song and piece structure; (3) mon ways in which chil- use of idiophones and sound dren acquire their musical tools; and (4) large number of songs and pieces language? Specifically, is children's song ac- that are very much alike along with exceptional quisition the same regardless of cultural pa- material at borders that is often the most highly rameters? The examination of possible theo- valued. ries related to the process of children's song Regarding singing style, Nettl states that acquisition may offer valuable insight to though certain aspects of musical culture these queries. may undergo rapid transformation, singing Song Acquisition of Children style and overall sound patterns change very Early Childhood Research slowly. Singing is one form of music that is Some scholars have examined parallels be- most characteristic of and closely tied to cul- tween language acquisition and song acquisi- tural value structure. The stability of singing tion. In language, infants begin speech by style within cultures has led some scholars to making utterances common to all languages, propose that singing and sound are tied to but increasingly produce only sounds heard heredity and race; this opinion asserts that in their own cultures. This process (see the way the voice is used is directly related Gardner, 1981) typically is characterized by to racial peculiarities, appearance, skin color, the following stages: and other racial features. But Nettl (990) 2 years: 2-3 word utterances argues against this narrow view, emphasizing 3 years: sentences the fact that Western people can perform 4 years: grammatical structure and expressive Eastern musics and vice versa. Although powers. singing in African music cultures is character- Gardner's (1983) theory describes a more

Volume II, Number 4 43 "Between the ages of 12 and 18 months, children experiment with nonspecific pitch inflections. Then, by 19 months, they produce distinct pitches and begin to acquire rhythm patterns and melodic organizations."

specific sequence for song acquisition: organization, and a range of melodic mo- 15 months: undulating melodic fragments of tions. The suitability of a contour-schemes brief intervals; model is substantiated by its child-oriented ba- 18 months: intentionally produced pitches sis. This model does not assume fixed pitches, (major second, minor third) measured intervals in scalar terms, or orga- 2-2 1/2 years: spontaneous song--continual nized performance based on keys or melodic expansion of the intervals to include fourths and fifths; undefined and unmemorable; un- contours (Davidson, 1985). In addition to the organized; lacking tonality and harmony, and contour-scheme model, the six-year study re- rhythmically irregular; ported several findings. First, contour schemes 2 1/2 years: fragments of learned song inter- tend to be more stable in learned songs than spersed in spontaneous song; in spontaneous songs. This model for 3-4 years: learned song develops rhythmic children's song acquisition may be useful in and lyrical structure, but remains fragmentary; the study of children's development in various attempts to reproduce overall learned songs cultures. A second finding showed that certain of the environment results in the domination songs are preferred by children in developing of the learned song; songs still lack tonality; 4 years: retention of lyrics and rhythms for their musical skills. Davidson's conclusions learned songs; melodic contour is also mas- include children's mapping of tonal space, fol- tered; lowed by interval expansion yielding tonal 5 years: develops ability to identify underly- frames which are used like templates in per- ing pulse; masters the tonal elements and is formance of both learned and spontaneous able to maintain tonality across phrases. songs. Lastly, pitches become clear and fixed Another research project, conducted under in their interrelationships, eventually arriving at the auspices of Harvard's Project Zero scalar organization (Davidson, 1985), (Davidson, 1985b), addressed the parallels of Project Zero also sponsored a research language and song development of nine chil- project based on the assumption "that certain dren (ages 1-6 years old). Three levels of aspects of learning or development occur in children's song singing were reported in the much the same way, independent of the age findings. The first stage featured rhythm. (and sophistication) of the learner" According to the study, a child's ability to (Davidson, McKernon, & Gardner 1985: 302). perform the words of a song is related to the Song acquisition development was consid- ability to match the rhythm of the song. Sec- ered among three age groups: (1) children ond, the melodic contour of song is ages 1-3; (2) children ages 4 1/2 - 5 1/2; and achieved, although exact pitch relationships (3) college upperclass music students. The are not secured. The final level of mastery is study's focus was twofold: (1) the extent to the achievement of lyrics and rhythm with which song acquisition reflected general de- increasing control of pitch accuracy. velopmental trends; and (2) the extent to Davidson's contour-scheme model of which song acquisition occurs similarly children's song acquisition provides an inter- across populations with differing ages and esting alternative to the interval-matching sophistication (Davidson et al., 1985). model known as the Or-song (discussed in a Consistent with related research, the later section). He identifies contour schemes Project Zero study revealed that in the first as modes of melodic organization that lie be- three years of life, children engage in some tween the vocal play of late infancy and the form of babbling or nondescript utterances organized tonal knowledge of seven-year- which appear to possess a linguistic or pre- olds. The three components of Davidson's linguistic nature. At some point this babbling model include a tonal frame, a level of pitch

44 The Quarterly Journal of Music Teaching and Learning progresses to the production of a recogniz- younger peers is the degree of accuracy with able tune. These findings (see Davidson et which the song is mastered. In other words, al., 1985) suggest the following song-acquisi- the competition between spontaneous and tion procedure. First, between the ages of 12 culturally produced songs of rwo-year-olds is and 18 months, children experiment with strong, while older children's attempts to mas- nonspecific pitch inflections. Then, by 19 ter cultural songs have modest, if any, interfer- months, they are able to produce distinct ence from spontaneous melodies. pitches and begin to acquire rhythm patterns The three levels of mastery suggested by this and melodic organizations. This beginning Project Zero study (Davidson et al., 1985) are: of spontaneous song relies heavily on major (1) grasp of song outline by age three; (2) seconds and minor thirds, with occasional mastery of song schema by age five; and (3) use of fourths and fifths. The song is further mastery of song acquisition processes by late characterized by undulating contours, irregu- adolescence. These findings, while not con- lar rhythm patterns, and melodies which are clusive, provide information upon which fur- neither diatonic nor based on a clear tonal ther research can be conducted. center. The song is both unpredictable and Additional information regarding song ac- unmemorable (Davidson et al., 1985). quisition includes examination of the rela- Standard or learned songs, i.e., songs that tionship of preschool children's pitch dis- are taught by other members of the culture, crimination capabilities and environmental are gradually assimilated by children in the influences. In studies of infants' singing same way they acquire spontaneous song. abilities, it was concluded that parents pro- Short, fragmentary bits of song are initially voked spontaneous and imitative song by incorporated into the child's spontaneous interacting musically with the infants (Ries, songs, and it is only by the lyrics ("E,1,E,I,O" 1982). Infants as young as seven months from "Old McDonald") that the songs are rec- were able to discriminate pitch differences. ognizable to listeners (Gardner, 1981). By Consistent with other studies, as the child age two, the child begins to accommodate grew older, cultural parameters regarding the properties of learned or culturally pro- harmony, tonality, and meter in singing were duced songs. The child's ability to under- developed (Ries 1982). Ries's proposal that stand number concepts (rhythm) and to sys- infants possess pitch discrimination abilities tematically organize information (melodic as early as seven months of age has startling contour and lyrics) leads to further song mas- implications for children's song acquisition, tery. Consequently, by the end of this stage, especially as it relates to cultural influences culturally produced and spontaneous songs within the home. are distinctly separable. Musical skill devel- Papousek's (1982) neonatal research also opment continues into the third year as the investigated the importance of preverbal par- child gains mastery of song outline. Whereas ent-infant communication. Papousek refers early attempts to produce learned songs to "baby talk" as the most relevant source of meant the assimilation and accommodation musical stimulation in the infant's daily life. of song fragments pieced within the body of Baby talk is universal in its usage; even spontaneous song, the child now becomes nonsinging parents use it. Its elements in- able to demonstrate nearly approximate re- clude: (1) a simple structure with invitations productions of the target songs. to dialogue and warnings; (2) melodic con- Children of four and one-half years, when tours more expressive than normal speech, asked to master a target song, passed through with enhanced rhythms and word-stress; (3) four stages of serial acquisition identified as: a higher pitch nearer the infant's range; (4) (1) mastery of the song's topology by phrase; sung rather than spoken talk with minor (2) mastery of the rhythmic surface; (3) mas- thirds predominating; (5) rising contours to tery of the song's contour; and (4) acquisition gain attention and falling contours to calm; of key stability (Davidson et al., 1985). The (6) imitative vocal play allowing for compari- major difference, then, between the older son of vocal production; and (7) parental use children's song acquisition and that of their of repetitive musical patterns. Andress

Volume II, Number 4 45 "Ur-songis based on the belief that the first song of children is the universal chant of a descending minor third. . . . If such an 'Ur-sorig truly exists, ~hat is its nature?"

(1985) characterizes these elements as gradu- study of bird song acquisition provides "alter- ally shifting after the first year of life into native models for how organisms master nonverbal patterns of speech and singing of highly particular levels of skill through inter- spontaneous and traditional melodies. play of environmental stimulation" (italics Gardner has identified the fragmentary bits mine) (Gardner, 1983, 46). and pieces of learned song as the "global Ur-song is based on the belief that the first properties" (Davidson et al., 1981). Once song of children is the universal chant of a de- children have mastered a song's global prop- scending minor third. This theory is largely erties, they begin to acquire songs of their propagated among \'\1estern music cultures culture. Parental participation during this and has garnered support from reputable ex- song-acquisition stage is vital to the child's perts in the fields of music, language, and psy- song development. Andress (1986) concurs chology. If such an "Ur-song" truly exists, with Davidson et al. (1981) regarding what is its nature? How do children acquire, children's song acquisition and asserts that develop, and expand this chant into a vast in-tune singing and creative song-making can repertoire of melodies and musical creations be positively shaped by adopting the devel- that are disseminated and performed through- opmental theory model. out the world? What correlations exist be- Birdsong and Dr-Song Theories tween this chant and musical universalities? Among various myths and theories sur- Many linguists and philosophers believe rounding children's song acquisition are two that a universal language was spoken by all prevalent theories, birdsong and Ur-song. people in the pre-Babel world. Ur is a Ger- I3y examining the song acquisition develop- man prefix meaning original, primeval. The ment of birds, scholars hope to derive indi- Ur-song concept originated in the writings of cators that may be used to understand hu- nineteenth century scholars who searched for man song acquisition. A number of studies a parallel between language and song devel- have been conducted, and it appears fea- opment. According to Gardner (1981), schol- sible to apply birdsong acquisition prin- ars theorized that a basic melody was first ciples to cognitive and symbolic systems sung by infants and then perpetuated by hunt- within an individual's cultural milieu ers, fishermen, and Volga boatmen. Gardner (Gardner, 1983). Three birdsong patterns asserts that a specific chant common to all mu- were identified in the research, of which sics is more probable than a COIlli110nlan- two pertain to human song acquisition. guage since music is less associated with The first pattern, the single song of the events and objects of a particular culture. ringdove, concurs with the idea that, regard- In 1973, Leonard Bernstein boldly em- less of location, people, or culture, all song is braced the Ur-song concept and character- begun in the same basic way. Ringdoves, ized its melody as an archetypal intervallic even when deaf, sing their unique song pat- scalar pattern that was repetitive and con- tern. In the second birdsong pattern, dem- sisted of a minor third, often elaborated by a onstrated by canaries, deafness did interfere fourth. To illustrate, the calling of a person's with the birds' song acquisition. This pattern name, i.e., "fobn-uv," "Mary," represents the represents a more ethnocentric and convinc- descending minor third, while the teasing ing model for the development of human challenge, "You can't catch me!" adds the musical skills as it relates to other symbol elaborated fourth. Typically, intervallic rela- systems (Gardner, 1981). In other words, the tionship of these three universal notes may babbling stage, followed by intelligent com- be demonstrated by the pitches G, E, and munication of the culture, can be identified A-pitches which Bernstein stated were in language and art as well as music. The "handed to us by nature on a silver platter"

46 TbeQuarterly journal of Music Teaching and Learning (Gardner 1981, p. 70). (Gardner 1981: 70). The tunes and words Bernstein's assertions were partially based children repeat reflect the sounds heard in on the linguistic research of Noam Chomsky, their society, not a preordained pattern. An- the famed linguistic scholar. One of other dissenting voice is heard from those Chomsky's theories, genetic predisposition, who challenge not only the Ur-Song, but also states that an underlying structure for human Bernstein's ideas of universal tonality language development facilitates the learning (Beckwith, 1979). Beckwith urges universal- of language (Lyons 1977, pp. 131-133). Link- ists to answer this question: "Are there any ing genetic predisposition to the physical laws musical phenomena which you can say which govern music led Bernstein to his con- would be understood in the same way by clusions regarding the Ur-song. A strong case persons of every culture in the world?" (p. exists for correlating language and singing de- 24). Nettl further asserts that to assume such velopment, and Chomsky's disciples readily universality is Western arrogance based on embraced the notion of a universal descending the assumptions that musical circumstances minor third because it supported their own must all be the same, that music must be lis- ideas about language development. tened to (not played, danced to, etc.), and Other scholars have explored the links be- considers the body of Western European tween language and song. Kodaly's pedagogi- composed abstract art music as if it were all cal philosophy is founded on the premise that the music there is. commonalities in tonal patterns and music in- Summary tervals are closely related to Hungarian speech patterns. By employing the musical mother This paper has focused on the musical tongue (folk music), musical literacy is sphere of learning, specifically children's achieved in the same way the "mother tongue song acquisition development, by exploring cadence" leads to language acquisition music universalities, song-acquisition re- (Gottlieb, 1979). In his work with search, and two well known song-acquisition preschoolers' production of invented (sponta- theories. The original premise that children neous) song, Werner reported four levels of are the carriers of culture is fundamental to tonal knowledge, identifying the initial stage as this paper. If a culture accepts that truism, an Ur-rnotif consisting of a descending third. then societal leadership will attend to under- Nettl also notes the possibility of embryonic standing how children develop both cogni- chants from which the world's diverse musics tive and symbolic systems of learning and are spawned (Gardner, 1981). At the turn of conceptualization. the century, Wundt's research suggested that In addition to culture-specific qualities, all all primitive peoples' monophonic intervals musics consist of universalities such as the were identical to nineteenth-century Western chief interval of a major second, endings musics' major seconds and minor thirds. He which tend to descend, repetition and varia- theorized that singing evolved from speech tion, rhythmic structure, and a person desig- based on the duration of unwavering pitch as nated as the guardian of the music. Singing it became sufficiently long to be perceived styles are closely related to cultural values, and and repeated. . some scholars believe that singing style may To expound a theory or hypothesis re- be linked to heredity and race, though NettI quires fervency and personal belief. To vali- (990) asserts that cultural, racial, and musical date it to the community of scholars requires boundaries do not precisely coincide. evidence, and the Ur-song concept is not Among the universalities found in without its critics. Cultural relativists would children's musics are pitches which range quickly argue that the Ur-song concept is from semitones to fourths and fifths, repeti- culturally biased in favor of Western cultures. tion, and short forms. The development of A more ethnocentric explanation for song musical language among children is charac- acquisition states that children's songs "reflect terized by experimentation, exploration, and predominant melodic, harmonic, and rhyth- play associated with lullabies and games. mic practices of their culture" (italics mine) Infant song acquisition development is

V01U11W II, Number 4 47 "It is 'urrwlse and imprudent to suggest that all music cultures are patterned the same as Western music cultures. Despite commonalities, each music must be studied 'witfi.irithe context of its culture." largely dependent on parental and cultural experimentation within a pitch range from influences. This stage-oriented development semitones to fourths and fifths. appears to follow a contour-scheme model There is a common weakness inherent in as observed by Davidson (1981) (see also both of the song-acquisition theories as well as Gardner 1983). Neonatal research concurs in much of the research reported in this paper. with Nettl's universalities of exploratory, ex- Most studies have been conducted by Western perimental songplay resulting in spontaneous scholars in Western environments, implement- songs. Intervallic ambiguity and undefined ing Western research designs; it is unwise to pitches are also elements of children's song suggest that all music cultures are patterned acquisition. Pitch accuracy is closely associ- the same as Western music cultures. Despite ated with physical and social maturation, as commonalities, each music must be studied reported by Project Zero. This lends support within the context of its culture. Nettl sug- to Davidson's proposition that song acquisi- gests, rightly so, the use of neutral or universal tion is based on a contour-scheme model tools, such as the ordinal scale, rather than rather than an interval-matching model as strategies which are pro-Western in nature suggested by many Western scholars. (see also Davidson, 1985). According to Nettl Perhaps no living creatures demonstrate (1976), songs change for three reasons: (1) the naturalness of singing more than birds. forgetfulness; (2) individual creativity; and (3) The birdsong theory of song acquisition, conformity to the song styles of the environ- however, offers inconclusive evidence of a ment. At the same time, he cautions that out- universal song acquisition model. The ring- side Western civilizations, this tripartite model dove birdsong pattern supports the idea that doesn't always apply. organisms learn a specific song regardless of Sufficient research has not been con- environmental influences. Conversely, the ducted to validate one song acquisition hy- canary birdsong pattern indicates that envi- pothesis more than another. Collaborative ronmental influences play an integral role in research efforts should be instigated among the acquisition and development of a specific early childhood music educators, cognitive song. It seems this theory could be used as psychologists, and ethnomusicologists. evidence for either school of thought regard- Naturalistic as well as empirical studies ing the importance of cultural influences in are necessary to obtain a fuller under- children's song acquisition. standing of this subject. This writer suggests The Ur-song theory, though loudly pro- the development of non-Western models claimed by many Western scholars and musi- and theories regarding children's song ac- cians, appears largely unsubstantiated. While quisition based on solid evidence from neo- it is true that the presence of the minor third is natal and cognitive research fields. More a part of children's musics, it is not always the attention might also be given to children's interval first discovered and produced, nor is it predisposition to improvise songs through always the primary interval of song. This exploration and experimentation with sound. theory is out of step with research findings re- Attempts to generalize musical tendencies garding stage-oriented development among among all cultures on the basis of a few se- children and neonatal research findings con- lected studies risks inaccuracy and cultural cerning cultural and parental influences on bias. Only after extensive research of children's song acquisition and language de- children's music in many cultures has been velopment. It also appears to ignore the ex- conducted can hypotheses be formulated ploratory nature of children by reducing pitch which are descriptive of world musics. If we reproduction to a single interval, ignoring the as music educators are persuaded that children

48 The Quarterly journal of Music Teaching and Learning are indeed the carriers of their musical cul- Nettl, Bruno (1976). Folk Music in the United States: An tures, we must discover how we can insure Introduction, 3rd. ed. Detroit: Wayne University Press. that the perpetuation continues for generations Nettl, Bruno (1983). The Study of litbriomusicology: 20 to come. By understanding children's learning Issues and Concepts. Urbana: University of Illinois processes, we can better know how to assist Press. Nettl, Bruno (1990). Folk and Traditional Music of the them in this learning process. Western Continents, 3rd. ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. Inc. Selected Bibliography Olsen, David (1990). "An Introduction to Latin American Andress, Barbara (985). "The Practitioner Involves and Caribbean Musics in Florida: Multicultural Ap- Young Children in Music." In The Young Child proaches in the Music Classroom." Research Per- and Music, edited by Jacquelyn Boswell, 53-63. spectives in Music Education 1, 14-18. Tallahassee: Reston: Music Educators National Conference. Florida Music Educators Association. Andress, Barbara (986). "Toward an Integrated Devel- Papousek, Mechthild (1982). "The 'Mother Tongue opmental Theory of Early Childhood Music Educa- Method' of Music Education: Psychological Roots tion." Council for Research in Music Education, in Preverbal Parent Infant Communication. ISME 9. Fall, 10-17. 103-108 Beckwith, John (979). "Music: The Search for Univer- Prost, Erik (987). "Sagmi Music and Music in School." sals." ISME 6, 24-32. ISME 14, 122-125. Borris, Siegfried (981). "National Idioms and Universal Radocy, Rudolph (980). Review of "An Analvsis of the Elements-Their Relationship to Music and Music Characteristics of Infant Child Singing Expressions, Education." ISME8,67-73. by Nevaida Layton L. Ries. In Council for Research Campbell, Patricia (990). Review of "Eeny Meeny in Music Education, Fall, 93-94 Pepsadeeny: Ethnicity and Gender in Children's Ries, Nevaida (982). "An Analysis of the Characteristics Musical Play," by Carol Merrill-Mirsky. In Council of Infant Child Singing Expressions" Ed.D. diss., for Research in Music Education Fall, 106: 69-7l. Arizona State University. Davidson, Lyle 0985a). "Tonal Structures of Children's Saunders, Thomas (985). "The Relationship Between Early Songs." Music Perception 2 (3), 361-374. Young Children's Ability to Recognize Their Own Davidson, Lyle 0985b). "Preschool Children's Tonal Voices and to Sing Tonal Patterns and to Chant Knowledge: Antecedents of Scale." In The Young Rhythms Patterns." Ed.D diss., Temple University. Child and Music, edited by Jacquelyn Boswell, 25- Scott, Carol (979). "Pitch Concept Formation in 40. Reston: Music Educators National Conference. Preschoolers: Its Measurement." Triangle (73: 2), Davidson, Lyle, Patricia McKernon, and Howard Gardner 11-15. (981). "The Acquisition of Song: A Developmen- Shehan, Patricia (1987). "Finding a National Music Style: tal Approach." In Documentary Report of the Ann Listen to the Children." Music Educatorsfournal Arbor Symposium, edited by James Mason, Paul 73 (9), 38-43 Lehman, and Wilbert McKeachie. 301-317. Reston: Szemere, Anna (981). "The Role of Folk Music in Music Educators National Confer:ence. Young People's Life: Inside and Outside of Fodsham, Olaf (989). "Finding the Child's Singing School." ISi'vfE9, 128-32. Voice." Choraljoumal28 (9), 32-33. Tuley, Robert (1980). Review of "Multicultural Music Fox, Donna (982). "The Pitch Range and Contour of Education: An Analysis of Afro-American and Na- Infant Vocalizations." Ph.D diss., Ohio State Univer- tive American Folk Songs in Selected Elementary sity. Music Textbooks of the Periods 1928-1955 and Gardner, Howard (981). "Do Babies Sing A Universal 1965-1978," by Marvalene C. Moore. In Councilfor Song?" Psychology Today 15 (12), 70-76. Research in Music Education (Spring), 59-61. Gardner, Howard (1983). Frames of Mind New York: Wenclrich, Kenneth (981). "Pitch Imitation in Infancy Basic Books, Inc. and Early Childhood: Observations and Implica- Gottlieb, Leslie (1979). "Kodaly. The Sights and Sound tions." Ed.D diss., University of Connecticut. ~ of Music." Music}ournal37 (5),25-27 Hata, Reiko (1987). 'Japanese Children's Singing Abili- ties and Songs used as Teaching Materials. ISME 14,75-79 Subscribe to Hata, Reiko (990). Personal communication, Interna- tional Early Childhood Creative Arts Conference: Los Angeles, CA. Katz, Lilian (1985). "Recent Research on Young Children's Implications for Teaching and Develop- ment. .. In The Young Child and Music edited by Jacquelyn Boswell, 83-89. Reston: Music Educa- tors National Conference. Merrill-Mirsky, Carol (1988). "Eeny Meeny Pepsadeeny: Ethnicity and Gender in Children's Musical Play." Ph.D Diss., University of California. Miller, Linda (1983). "Music in Earlv Childhood: Natu- ralistic Observation of Young Children's Musical Behaviors."Ed.D. diss., University of Kansas. Today. Nettl, Bruno (1956). Music in Primitive Cultures. Cam- bridge: Harvard University Press. See Page 76 for more information.

Volume II, Number 4 49