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The Andean World

Linda J. Seligmann, Kathleen S. Fine-Dare

The domesticated landscapes of the

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315621715-3 Clark L. Erickson Published online on: 28 Nov 2018

How to cite :- Clark L. Erickson. 28 Nov 2018, The domesticated landscapes of the Andes from: The Andean World Routledge Accessed on: 08 Feb 2020 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315621715-3

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 mations ofthepre-Columbian farmer. the mostremarkableandunique inventions,innovations,andlandscapetransfor variation ofAndeanagricultureacrosstimeandspace, thischaptertriestocapture landscapes ofeverydaylife.Thoughonlyabriefsurvey oftherichcomplexityand through theirlabor,ingenuity,andculturalpractices, muchoftheseexpressedin time. Despitetheserisks,Andeanpeopleslearnedto thriveinthisenvironment earthquakes, landslides,andtidalwaves,longer cycles ofclimatechangeover ruptive eventssuchasdroughtsandfloodscausedby theElNiñophenomenon, dynamic geological,climatic,andecologicalsystems withunpredictableanddis level plains to glacial capped mountains. The Andean region is characterized by considerable potentialduetoitsdiversity,includingdeserts totropicalforests,sea versity withagrodiversity. fields, residences,roads,andotherhumanfeatures,substitutingnaturalbiodi clearing ofland;physicallyreshapingor“terraforming”thesurfaceearthfor and availability,oftenincompetitionwithnaturalbiodiversity.Theprocessinvolved wild speciesofplantsandanimals,asaresultincreasingtheirnumbers,quantity, includes transformationoftheenvironmentforcropsandeconomicallyimportant tion, transformation,andmanagementofimportantresources.Thisdomestication nent changestothenaturalenvironmentmeethumanneeds,specificallycrea landscapes fromnature.Thedomesticationoflandscapeinvolvedintentionalperma human builtenvironmentsuchasthecreationofdomesticsphereandcultural suited to diverse needs and specific environments. Domestication also included the ful tendingbyhumans.Theresultwasanimpressivecomplexofcropsandanimals traits) andrelatedinfrastructure took hundreds of years of experimentation and care selection forhigheryields(bettertaste,colorvarietals,longerstorage,andother tication ofplantsandanimalsinvolvingcontroltheirreproductionsurvival, pastoralism), iskeytothedevelopmentofsettledlifeandcivilizations.Thedomes Agriculture, includingthefarmingofdomesticatedcropsandherdinganimals(agro- THE DOMESTICATEDLANDSCAPES Early Andean farmers faced an environmentthatwasboth challenging and of Not Taylor andFrancis for OF THEANDES Clark L.Erickson CHAPTER TWO INTRODUCTION distribution 29 ------Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 trade forguanoextendedthroughout thesouthernAndes. bird guanoonoffshoreislands, anabundantandrichfertilizer.Duetoitshighvalue, camelid meat, wool, skins, and dung. Coastal farmers had access to concentrated high altitudeandfarmersinthewarmervalleysbelow involvingtradeofcropsfor animals, specializationoftenpromotedasymbiosisbetween fulltimepastoralistsat Andean communitieswereagropastoral,combiningfarming ofcropsandherding dung wasburnedasfuelforitshighheatcontentandlack ofsmoke.Althoughmany tilizer forthefirstyear’scropofpotatoes.Inhighaltitude abovethetreeline,camelid was carefullycollectedintopilestodryandcarriedplowed fieldsasanorganicfer Larsen, andThomas, nutrients wereconcentratedinpotentdungdeposited in corralareas(Winterhalder, Rotated camelidherdsconsumedsparsegrassathigh altitudesanditsenergy ers cultivatedmostfieldsmanyyearsinarowwith shortfalloworrestperiods. surface vegetationtopreparethefieldforsowing. angles tocutandraisesod,oftenwithwomenturningthesodbockoverbury leather lashing.Thistooliscommonlyusedinteamswithtwomenworkingatright cal shaft,groundstone,chippedcopper,orbronze),alltightlyboundbyalong hand hold,andfootpegofwood,ablade(ofeitherwideflatextensiontheverti and basketsformovingearth.Thechaquitaqllaiscomposedofaverticalshaft, planting stick(Donkin,1979;Bourliaudetal.,1998),inadditiontocarryingcloths plow), mattockorhoe(A. Denevan, nonetheless quiteeffective.Oftenreferredtoas“hardwarepoor”(Donkin, and organizationalknowledge,thetoolstheyusedwereperhapsmoresimplebut resources fortimesofneedandsupportsociallife(Peñarrietaetal.,2011). techniques andsophisticatedstoragestructuresprovidedameansofaccumulating ing (chicha),diversecuisines,andexpansionoffarmingherding.Freeze-drying appear lateinsomevalleys.ThedemandsofAndeansociallifeinspiredbeerbrew and Creamer, appearance ofpublicmonumentalarchitectureandirrigationaround3500 herding over hunting, gathering, and fishing increased at the same time as the first llama, alpaca,guineapig,anddog(Stahl, moya, andpacae)wereindigenous(Pearsall,2008).Domesticatedanimalsincluded ulluco, pumpkinsquash,lupine,cotton,limaandjackbean,lucuma,avocado,chiri () while otherkey crops (, , cañihua, sweet potato, isañu, oca, were adoptedfromthetropicalforestpeoplesinAmazoniaorMesoamerica permanent villages.Manycrops(manioc,capsicumpepper,peanut,achira,andcoca) their social,economic,andpoliticallife. pluses ratherthana“handtomouth”existenceatsubsistencelevelforsustaining thousands ofyearsintheAndes.Asmostsocieties,Andeanfarmersproducesur or replacedhunting,gathering,andfishing;theadoptionofvillagelifetook The processesofdomesticatingplantsandanimals;raisingfoodthatcomplemented Throughout lateprehistory,Andeanagriculturewasintensive,meaningthatfarm Compared to Andean farmers’ rich environmental, climatological, agronomic, Domestication of plants and animals began long before Andean peoples settled in 2001), the primary tools are the DOMESTICATION, CROPS,ANIMALS,ANDTOOLS Not Taylor andFrancis ), although adoption of domesticates was not uniform in that crops 2012), althoughadoptionofdomesticateswasnotuniforminthatcrops 1978). Thecameliddung(ofdomesticatedllamasandalpacas) for liukanas), clodbusterorclub(Q. — Clark L. Erickson — distribution 30 ). Increasing reliance on farming and 2008). Increasingrelianceonfarmingand chaquitaqlla (Q. watana), anddiggingor chaqui = foot; taqlla (Haas bce (Haas 1979; = ------Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 most efficientwaytoplant, harvest,store,andprocesscrops,toshearanimals farm families,whichisespecially importantintimeswhencoordinatedlaboris the finance non-subsistencesocialandpoliticallife(Peñarrieta etal.,2011). below andabovegroundsilos( tubers (chuñoandtunt’a)meatcharqui).Latertheydevelopedlarge,specialized also developedstoragetechniquesforfoodpreservation suchasfreeze-dryingof environmental zonesspreadpotentialriskforfarmfamilies (Goland, the vastcoastaldeserts.TheAndeanpracticeof“field scattering”inmultiplelocal and Denevan,1994).Farmersusingirrigationcouldlowerriskofdroughts andfarm building andmaintenanceofcanals,canalintakes, otherinfrastructure(Treacy irrigation canalswhowereresponsibleforequitable distribution ofwaterandthe drainage basins.Irrigationoftenrequiredcoordination offarmersorganizedalong networks coveringhundredsofsquarekilometersandinsomecasesevencrossing and infrastructuremadeovercenturieswerepasseddowngenerations. of andidentitywithterritoryasacommunityensuredthattheimprovementstoland and zonalcomplementarity)(Brush,1976;Murra,1979).Thelong-termoccupation ecozones toaccessnon-localresources(amodelalsoknownasverticalarchipelagos (Salomon, recognized andnamedplacesorobjectsofritualimportanceforcommunityidentity land, publicplazasforceremonies,andshrineslocalsacred dead (chullpa) dedicated to important ancestors which legitimatized the right to use life. Thecommunity’scenterwasoftenhighlyvisiblecemeterieswithhousesofthe various environmentalzonesandconnectedtoneighborsforsharinglaborsocial holds maintainedmultiplehousestobeclosefields,pasture,andotherresourcesin in hamletsandsmallsettlementsthroughoutitsterritory;often,individualhouse of thecommunitytocultivateland.ThetypicalAndeanwasdispersed huacas orshrinesandthecultsofimportantancestorstheydrewuponlabor munity territory.Communityleaderscontrolledotherlandsforthesupportoflocal family themselvesandassignedfieldswereperiodicallyrotatedthroughoutthecom ily houseplotsandcorrals.Thecommunityallottedsufficientlandtosupporteach labor. Traditionally,farmandpasturelandwascommunalpropertyexceptforfam defense orwar. can bealsoarrangedhierarchicallytoform“macro-”whenneeded,suchasfor or “halves”composeacommunity(Murra, form of dual organization of individual communities whereby two paired moieties and links toimportantpast ancestors. Various ayllus are combined into moieties, a of related households with a common identity around a communities isthe use of draft animals. The basic organizational unit of Andean farming and herding organization oflaborratherthandevelopmentacomplextooltechnologyand/or tural landscape was the use of traditional social institutions for the mobilization and The keytothetransformationofAndeanenvironmentintoaproductiveagricul Ayni isatraditionalformofdelayedexchangelabor and/or goodsbetween Andean irrigationcouldrangefromsmalllocaloperationstoentire lower valley As inmanyregionsoftheworld,farmorherdingfamilyisbasicunit Not Taylor andFrancis 1995). Insomecases,communitiesheldlandindistantregionsanddiverse — The domesticatedlandscapesofthe Andes — . Althoughvariableinform,theismadeupofgroups for CULTURAL STRATEGIES qolqas) tosurvivebadyearsandstoresurpluses distribution 31 1979; Weismantel,2006).Nestedayllus pacarina or place of origin huacas, whichwere 1992). Farmers - - - - Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 (D’Altroy, 2003). transportation such as roads, bridges, waystations, and pasture for llama caravans through constructionofterracesandirrigationnetworks or tocreate more efficient farms, mines,andquarries,wasoftenusedtoexpandagricultureintonewareas Thus, thelabortaxwasusedtoproduceresourcesforstateonstate-controlled several weeksormoreayearoflabordedicatedtopublicstateworksbyalladults. through laborratherthancrops,animals,orvaluableobjects.Thispracticeinvolved past, Andeanpeoples paid their taxes to local, regional, and later imperial leaders tion usedbytheIncaand,presumably,otherAndeanstates(D’Altroy, sponsor throughfeastinganddrinking.Mit’aisanadvancedformoflabororganiza- ing communitylandssupportingtheinfrastructureandcults,often“paidfor”by sponsor, commonlyacommunityleader,forconstruction of publicworksorfarm crops wherefrostsarecommon. provided by the walls, thus permitting their cultivation far above the range of most thrive intherichsoilandwithinprotectionfrom the elementsandthermalheat ral istakenoutofuse.Thefertilespacenowcanbeused tocultivatepotatoes,which camelids at night. Their dung accumulates in the floors and after many years the cor that werepermanentlyinscribedinthelandscape(Erickson, 2000). across space,resultingincomplexnetworksofpaths,trails,roads,ramps,andstairs and circulationamonghouseholds,fields,pasture,water,otherresourcesspread tion systems(Denevan,2001).Everydaylifeinfarmedlandscapesrequiredmovement field boundarymarkers,canals,aqueducts,levelsurfacesforterracing,andcroprota growing populations, these mundane fields gradually acquired formal walls and other tain andsometimesincreaseproduction.Withthecontinuoususeoflandscapes tivation. Overtime,considerableinvestmentsintimeandenergyweretakentomain after yearofplowingcreatedpermanentrockpilesandwallfeaturesmarkingpastcul stone duringeachyearofcultivationanditsplacementontheedgesfieldsin remaining largelyinvisibleinthearchaeologicalrecord.Theconstantencounterof built environmentthatischaracteristicofmoreintensiveformsagriculture,thus often overlongerperiodsthantheyearsincultivation.Theearlyfieldshadlittleformal were infrequentlyused.Torestoreandmaintainfertility,fieldsregularlyfallowed, odically fertilized.Theearliestandsimplestfieldswererelativelyunmarkedspacesthat Most Andeanfarmingwasdoneinsimplefields( (Mayer, Denevan, mented inthehighlands,coast, andtropicallowlands(Erickson,1992;Kolata,1993 ; impressive and well-studied forms of Andean agriculture and have been docu- Raised fields(S. Stone-walled corralsofherdersathighaltitudeareused togatherandprotect 2002). 2001; Figure Not Taylor andFrancis Minka is communal labor of multiple farm families organized by a camellones, Q.waruA.sukakollus)areoneofthemost 2.1). Raisedfields aregenerallyfound inflatareas thatare for FARMING AGROSYSTEMS Dry fields/permanentfields — Clark L. Erickson — Raised fields distribution 32 chacra) wateredbyrainfallandperi 2003). Inthe ------Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 Sanchez, Baveye,andRiha, 1994). raised fieldplatforms,providing protectionagainstfrequentfrosts(Erickson, the canals can store solar energy as heat that warms the air and soil of surrounding serve asroadsduringthedryseason.Experimentshave shownthatstandingwaterin routes for accessto households, raised fields, and open water in the wet season and settlements onnearbyhillsandmoundsinthewetlands provideaquaticnavigation storage ofwater,dependingonfarmingneeds.Long straight canalsradiatingfrom field canalscanbeopenedfordrainageofexcesswater orclosedforcaptureand aquatic birdsthatthriveinthishabitat.Acomplex web ofinterconnected raised duckweed, andcropdebris;animalssuchasfrogs, fish,snails,insects,and soil erodingfromthefieldplatforms;decomposing blue-green algae,totorareed, other nutrientsintheformofwaterbornesedimentsfrom nearbyhillslopesandtop application as irrigation. Thesewater-filled canals provideda“green manure” and ing forusecropsontheplatformsthroughpercolationtorootzoneordirect local drainage,andcreatesadrysurfaceforfarming. The processofconstruction,ineffect,doublesthedepthfertiletopsoil,provides sizes. Rectangularflatplatformsaremadeofearthexcavatedfromadjacentcanals. forms andcanalsofconsistentpatternsgroupings,orientations,wavelengths, to survivetheseconditions;thusfarmerscreatedalternatingraisedearthworkplat or artificiallyenhancedwetlands.Sufficientlocaldrainagemustbecreatedforcrops prone toshallowseasonalfloodingand/orhighwaterlogging,oftenlocatedinnatural The canalstrap,captureandstorewaterfromrain,runoff,riverlakeflood Figure 2.1 Not Taylor andFrancis — The domesticatedlandscapesofthe Andes —

Experimental raisedfieldplantedinpotatoesHuatta,Peru1982 for Photo credit:KayL.Candler. distribution 33 1992; - - - Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 2005; Baveye,2012Renardetal.,). tainable agriculturehavebeenintense(e.g.,Erickson, construction. Debatesabouttheirroleinpre-Columbianlifewaysandstatusassus can be highly productive and efficient, despite the initial high labor costs of their programs torehabilitatepre-Columbianagriculturehaveshownthatraisedfields were finallyabandonedwiththeSpanishConquest,experimentalarchaeologyand establishment of dry and irrigated terracing (Q. The mostvisibletransformationoflandscapeforagriculturalproductionwasthe of anadjacentterracewallupslopeisconstructed,creatingacontinuousstair-like In general,atthesamelevelofaterracewalltopandplatformsurface,base the cuttingintoslopeforearthfilltolevelaplatformcropsbehindeachwall. along thecontoursofahillslope,constructionsturdystoneretainingwall,and agriculture. Formalterracinginvolvestheexcavationofawallfoundationditch poorly maintainedandmany have beenmodified ordestroyedthrough mechanized level them.MostAndeanterracescontinueinusetoday,althoughtheytendtobe (lynchettes) and later developed into formal stone faced retaining walls andfill to with simpleearthbermsprotectedbyvegetationrunningalongslopecontours slopes throughouttheAndes(Donkin,1979;Figure2.).Terracingprobablybegan Although raisedfieldscycledinandoutofuseatvarioustimesprehistory Not Taylor andFrancis Figure 2.2

Terraced landscapesoftheColca Valley,Peruin1985 for — Clark L. Erickson — Photo credit:ClarkL.Erickson. distribution Terraces 34 andenes, A. 2003; Swartley, pata )on steep 2002; Bandy -

Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 1994; Donkin, drainage andpreventedwaterlogging,collapse,landslides(TreacyDenevan, and earth, from coarse on the bottom to fine on the top, which permitted internal Moray, andCuzco.Benchterracesoftenhadcarefullylayeredsoilfillsofgradedrock fields of important Inca sites such as Machu Picchu, Chinchero, Ollantaytambo, terraces, carefullyengineeredmassiveretainingwallssupportingstonebuildingsand ing walltocreateaflattenedplantingsurface.Themostcomplexexamplesarebench slope contouranderosiongraduallypassivelyfillsbuildsupbehindtheliv chettes, wherearowofdensevegetation(suchasmagueyorgrass)isplantedalong of well-builtstone-facedarchitecturecoveringmountainsides.Thesimplestarelyn the Andeanhighlands(Donkin,1979;Denevan,2001). scape ofeverydaylife.Pre-Columbianterracesareestimatedtocoverlargeareas arrangement from valleyfloortoridge topinmanyvalleys—amonumental land density ofthesefeaturesinthis location,thethousandsofsimilarfeatures throughout high-water table(Craigetal., River basinispossibledueto athickimpermeableclaylayerthatcreatedperched or Craig et al., ied aretheqochasofLakeTiticaca(Flores-Ochoaand Paz (totora, algae,organicmatter,smallfish)foragriculture (Figure2.3).Thebeststud- ponds, lakes, and sinkholes that are used to manage water and other resources cotaña, cota)areshallowartificial“sunken”gardensorheavily modifiednatural Qochas (S.chacrashundidas,pozas,ojosdeagua 2008; Nanavatietal.,2016). fertility andmanyarestillinuse(SandorEash, and lackofmaintenanceoverthepast same laborinputasadry,rainfedfield.Despiteabandonment,nosoilamendments, well-built terraces,onceconstructedthefieldscanproducefordecadeswithabout (Grace, 1983;Earls,1989). low-lying areaswherefreezingairfromfrostsdrainsandaccumulatesathighaltitude crops peryear.Byterracing,farmersalsotookadvantageofwarmerslopesabove irrigation increasedcropproduction,reducedrisksofdrought,andallowedmultiple winding aroundmountainslopestobedistributedwhereneeded.Theadditionof Water wasoftenbroughtfromdistantglacialsourcesthroughirrigationcanals water, runoff,and/orrainfallevenlyandeffectively(TreacyDenevan, note that the purpose of terracing is to create flat surfaces to distribute irrigation simple patterns. drops orslidesfromonefieldtothenext;andstonesofcontrastingcolorscreate age or refuge for workers during storms; irrigation canals to distribute water; water stairs to allow movement vertically up and down field systems; wall niches for stor from above. Farmers often incorporated projecting stones in walls that served as lected onsiteduringsurfaceclearingandconstruction,oftenrolledorsliddownslope Terraces canrangefromsimpleisolatedearthfacedplatformstocomplexnetworks Although considerable cooperative community labor isnecessary to construct Although terracingisarecognizedstrategyofsoilconservation,Andeanfarmers Not Taylor andFrancis — The domesticatedlandscapesofthe Andes — 2011). Some scholars arguethatthesustained use of qochasintheRamis 1979). Mostterracewallswereconstructedoflocalfieldstonescol for 2011). Whilethisgeologicalinsight explainsthehigh Sunken gardens distribution 500 years,terracesoilsmaintainconsiderable 35 ; Q.q’ochasorkochasA.q’otanas, 1991; 1983; Albarracín,1996 1995; Goodman-Elgar, 1994). - - - - - Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 of obtainingwaterfromdeep aquifersforirrigationusingundergroundaqueducts Throughout thehighlands and southerndesertcoastofPeru,asophisticatedmeans Qochas havebeendatedtotheEarlyIntermediatePeriod( the regiondemonstratewidespreaduseoftechniqueinavarietycontexts. networks ofcanalsthatregulatewaterlevels. of years.Qochasmanagedbyafamilyoraylluareoften interconnectedbycomplex the nowdryandfertilesurfacesplantedwithpotatoes andothercropsoveraseries reed boatscanbecultivatedandsmallfishraised.Theqochasarethendrained aquatic plantsandsedimentsoveraperiodofyears.Totorareedsusedforthatch When theyarenotfarmed,thewaterbodiesaccumulateorganicmatterinformof to reachthewatertableandcapturerainfall.Themanagementstrategyisimpressive. tinue inusetoday.Mostshowevidenceofhavingbeenexcavatedlow-lyingareas the surfacetocreatefieldswithexcavatedfillformingrectangular gridsoflowberms. recapture irrigationwaterlosttoseepageandaccessground water,oftenmetersbelow for irrigationfarupstream.Farmersfoundthattheycould digthroughthedesertto In thewidedeltasinlowercourseoftheserivers,most riverwaterhasbeentapped (Q. Figure 2.3 Another formofsunkengardenscharacteristicthecoastal valleysare ). wachaques), whicharelocatedonthecoastofPeru(Denevan, 2001; Lane,2014).

Not Taylor andFrancis Sunken gardenpreparedforpotatoes(foreground)andsunkeninfallow with water(background)nearNicasio,Peruin1985 for — Clark L. Erickson — Photo credit:ClarkL.Erickson. Filtration galleries distribution 36 200 bce–600 ce) andcon- mahamaes

Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 was developed.Filtration galleries or and highflow(Ortloff, water drops,andchannel“friction”structurestodissipate someoftheforcerapid ing aqueductscrossingravinesandvalleys,stoneretaining wallsonsteepslopes, 1988). Highvolumecanalsareoftenassociatedwithotherengineering worksinclud of water established optimal grade levels for the volume of water necessary (Ortloff, and errororpossiblythecreationofsimplesurveying devices usingopencontainers was tooslow,sedimentsbuiltupandfilledthecanals. Constructionthroughtrial the watermovedtoofast,sidesofcanalcouldbe erodedandbreached;ifflow conditions predominatebutgoodsoilsarepresent(Denevan, 2001;Lane,2009). impressive irrigationsystemswereestablishedinthenorthcoastalvalleyswherearid Although usedinthehighlandstoextendgrowingseasonsandmitigaterisks,most cess ofteninvolvedcomplexhydraulicengineeringandcoordinationoverlargevalleys. from locationswhereitwasabundanttodryareasthatwerebefarmed.Thepro solutions practicedworldwide,Andeanfarmersdevelopedirrigationtomovewater irregular rainfall,makingagriculturerisky.Inamannersimilartootherindigenous In additiontoexperiencingfrequentdrought,muchoftheAndeanregionisaridorhas in theNascaandIcavalleys(SchreiberLancho,2003). occupation byfarmersintheregionhavebeenusedtoclaimpre-Columbianorigins Period sites( to argue for late introduction (Barnes and Fleming, the MiddleEastandearlyhistoricaldocumentsmentioningtechniqueareused Similarities betweengallerypuquiosandthewidespread and manyarestillinuse. Puquios oftencombinebothtrenchandgallerystructuresthroughouttheircourse the groundsurfacetotunnelprovidelightandaccessforperiodicmaintenance. nel canvaryfromacrawltowalkspace.Aseriesofstone-linedverticalshafts to createanarrowtunnel or filled-trench gallery. Inbothtypes, the size of thetun are thenstonedlined,roofedwithwoodbeams,andcoveredadeeplayerofsoil water table—isconstructed.Inunstablesoil,trenchpuquiosaremadeandthewalls stable, agallerypuquio—alonghorizontaltunnelexcavatedthroughtheearthto are linedwithstone(SchreiberandLancho, plains, oftenoverlongdistances.Toprevent erosion, theopenwallsoftrench slightly slopedtodirectflowtowardsirrigationcanalsandfieldsintheriverflood Lane, 2017). the surfaceforirrigation(BarnesandFleming, zonal gallery/tunnelthatserveascanalstocaptureanddirectundergroundwater droughts, floods,andlandscape changes.Tectonicupliftcausedbythemeeting of crop productiononthecoast (OrtloffandMoseley,2009). ley irrigationnetworkswherelongcanalscrossedadjacent riverbasinstoincrease In layingoutcontourcanalsoverlongdistances,farmers hadtobeawarethatif Scholars debatewhetherthepuquiosareindigenousorintroducedbyEuropeans. Trench puquiosaredugdowntothewatertablewithflooroftrench The Andeanregionisdynamic andirrigationfarmershadtoconstantlymitigate Not Taylor andFrancis — The domesticatedlandscapesofthe Andes — 400–500 ce), artisticrepresentations,andthelonghistoryofdesert 1988). Themostambitiousprojectswerethreevastinterval for Canal irrigation distribution puquios areeither an opentrenchorahori 37 2003). Wherethesoiliscompactand 1991; SchreiberandLancho, 1991). Association with Nasca qanāts ofnorthAfricaand 2003; ------Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 ficial wetlands created through irrigation, and enhanced natural wetlands through uments, bofedalescanbeclassified intothreetypes:naturalspring-fedwetlands, arti traditionally usedforgrazing ofcamelids.InAndeanethnographyandhistoricaldoc political power. primary goalsmayhavebeentostraightentheriverfor aestheticeffectandtoshow While thismassiveundertakingprovidedfloodcontrol andadditionalfarmland,the of amassivestone-walledchanneltenskilometers toserveasthenewcourse. and containthemeanderingriverbytemporarilyrerouting waterfortheconstruction the Incaempiremobilized Urubamba riversnearCusco(Farrington, water andsoilfromthemountains(Burger,2003). constructed inLurínValleytoprotecttemplesandfieldsfromtheperiodicwavesof By theInitialPeriod(1800 control structurestoprotectthesunkengardensfromsimilarfate(Knapp, The earthbermsofthemahamaesameareahavebeenproposedasflood canals inthecoastalvalleys(OrtloffandMoseley, landslides ofmudandrock,whichinturnlaydownthicksedimentsfields earthquakes haveloosenedsoilstructure,theseeventscausemassiveerosionand currents disruptglobalclimate,heavyrainscauseflooding.Whenpreviousmajor During ElNiñoyearswhenperiodicandabruptchangesinoceantemperature conservation ofresources. retain infrequentrunoffwaterandrichtopsoilerodedfromaboveforcultivation of earthandstonebuiltacrossravinesnarrowvalleysindryareastocapture runoff andglacialmelt(Salomon, have beendocumentedformanyhighlandregions,andarestillinusetapping voirs ofstoneandearthwithcomplexinlets,outlets,otherhydraulicengineering for useatvarioustimesoftheyearinfieldsbelow.Pre-Columbiandamsandreser Some Andeanirrigationsystemsrequirecollectionandstorageofwaterfarupstream irrigated areas. slides maketheestablishmentofcanalintakesimpossible,resultinginreductions river watermigratestothebaseofAndeswherehighervelocityandland along the rivers (Moseley, 1983). Over time, the locations for maximum capture of to whereriverwatercanbedivertedintoirrigationcanalsforfieldsinthedesert rivers adjust byeroding deeper in the channels, thus increasing the distance upstream 1.8 cm/year.Overtime,theaccumulatedimpactofthisphenomenonissignificantas two continentalplateswhichformtheAndesmountainsraisesgroundsurface Bofedales (S. The most impressive hydraulic feat was the channelization of the Vilcanota/ Not Taylor andFrancis Channelized riversandotherfloodcontrolengineering bofedal, A. for oqho) arelarge,highaltitudespring-fedwetlandsorbogs 40,000 workerswhoworkedformanyyearstostraighten — Clark L. Erickson — bce), massiveearthenfloodbarriersanddiversionswere Dams andreservoirs Artificial pasture 1998; Lane,2009).Checkdamsaresimplebarriers distribution 38 1983). Accordingtocolonialdocuments, 2009; Sandweissetal., 1982). 2009). - - - - Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 Marcone, 2017). caravans transportingresourcesthroughouttheempire (Hyslop, lodging in waystations or royal road,anetworkofover considerable maintenanceandprotection(Palacios,1977). to establish and are easily degraded through overuse or neglect; thus, they require finicky diet,thriveontheartificialpastureofbofedales.Irrigatedbofedalestakeyears alpacas, themostvaluableofcamelidsfortheirwoolandmeatbutwithmore vans carrying cargo to camps and waystations along trails and roads. Large herds of forage year-round,thus solving theproblemofseasonalavailabilityforcamelid cara hectares tomanysquarekilometers.Abofedalunderartificialirrigationprovides springs andanetworkofdendriticsecondarycanalstodistributewateroverfew Bofedales ofteninvolvetheconstructionoflongcanalstappingwaterfromdistant addition ofcanals(Palacios, of diverse colors as crops mature and a vibrant example of everyday life at harvest continuously from valley bottom to mountain top, creating a stunning visual pattern metric patterningofagricultural fieldsandfarminfrastructure,oftendistributed through humanagency,theAndeanlandscapealsoholds allureduetotherichgeo millions ofpeopleandcivilizations.Whileobviously createdforpracticalreasons environment intoahighlyproductiveculturallandscape thateventuallysustained Columbian farmersandtheircommunitiesovertime transformedahighlydiverse When travelingthroughtheAndes,visitorssooncome toappreciatehowpre- Type waru, sukakollu) Raised fields(waru Terraces Canal irrigation Sunken gardens(qochas) (mahamaes) Sunken gardens (bofedales, oqho) Irrigated pasture (pukios) Filtration Galleries The IncastateestablishedadditionallargebofedalesalongtheQhapaqÑanor Not Taylor andFrancis Table 2.1 — The domesticatedlandscapesofthe Andes —

Guide toAndeanagriculturelandscapesonGoogleEarth for PEOPLE ANDTHEIRLAND tambos, bofedales met the needs of large traveling llama 30,000 linearkm.Combinedwithcorrals,storage,and 1977; Erickson,2000Maldonado,2014–2015). distribution Location Huatta Pomata Casma Corpa Chilca Nunoa Cantayo 39 Longitude/latitude 69°59’15.83”W 15°37’29.39”S; 69°19'21.01"W 16°17'42.49"S; 78°22'5.35"W 9°29'2.44"S; 70°14'41.37"W 15°11'4.83"S; 76°45'12.80"W 12°31'17.02"S; 70°31'45.77"W 14°34'12.16"S; 74 14°49'35.71"S; 1984; Arkushand °54'37.28"W - - Downloaded By: University of Pennsylvania At: 19:56 08 Feb 2020; For: 9781315621715, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315621715-3 tional labororganization,farmingtechniques,crops,and animals,howevermodified. farming communitiescontinuetothrivebyrelyingon time-testedelementsoftradi (Newson, have transformedhowcontemporaryAndeanpeoplesuseandmaintainlandscapes unequal landdistributionandappropriation;urbanmigrationovertime and political economies; inequality and colonialism; harsh native labor exploitation; tions afterSpanishconquestoftheAndes.Introductionforeigncrops,animals, due totheintroductionofOldWorlddiseases,civilwars,andpopulationreloca (Erickson, have alwaysfacedthisadversityanddevelopedstrategiesofsurvivalresilience change mayhavebeenafactor(OrtloffandMoseley, for thepre-Columbianpastdisappeared or been abandoned? Insome cases, climate technologies andpractices(Kendall,1985;Erickson,2003Renardetal.,2012). scholars arguethatthecontemporaryworldhasmuchtolearnfromthesetime-tested time onlandscapesthatareoftenconsideredmarginalformodernagriculture.Some supported largeanddenseurbanruralpopulationsoverconsiderableperiodsof and engineeringovergenerations.ArchaeologistshaveshownthatAndeanagriculture adding additional resources and potential for surplus production through their labor the “capital”ofavailableagriculturalresources.Andeanfarmerswerecontinuously case impliesthatsocietylivesoffthe“interest”withoutdrawinguponorexploiting tainable andappropriatewithinitstemporalspatialcontext.Sustainabilityinthis occupy anduse,attimes,politicalpower. represented community,territory,ancestors,sacredplaces,memory,legitimacyto erations offarmers who created and inhabited these farmed spaces, the landscape labor, engineering,patterning,andaesthetics(Erickson, were convertedintovastproductiveculturallandscapesasmonumentalintermsof sider Andean terracing, raised fields, and irrigation in which entire environments energy, materials,andengineering(BurgerRosenswig, terned, and beyond practical function often involving enormous amounts of labor, ered “monumental”:aestheticallypleasing,valuableculturalheritage,highlypat memory, andcommunitypride.Thefinestworksofcivilizationsareoftenconsid features built long ago remain impressive and can be appreciated as landscape art, nent landscape features of terraces, raised fields, qochas, irrigatedfields, andother time offarmerswherestillfarmed.Evenabandonedandinruins,theperma Barnes, M.andFleming,D., Bandy, M.,2005.EnergeticefficiencyandpoliticalexpediencyinTiticaca Basin raisedfield Arkush, E.andMarcone,G.,eds., Albarracín, J.1996.Tiwanakusettlementsystem:theintegrationofnestedhierarchies inthe Latin AmericanAntiquity,2(1 ), pp.48–68. agriculture. 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