The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536)

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Appendix A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536)

Petrus Apianus (Fig. A.1), also known as Peter Apian, Peter Bennewitz, and Peter Bienewitz, was one of the foremost mathematical publishers, instrument makers and cartographers of the sixteenth century. Born on 16 April 1495 in Leisnig, Saxony, he was one of four sons of Martin Bienewitz, a shoemaker of comfortable middle-class extraction. He was educated first at the Latin school in Rochlitz, and then from 1516 to 1519 at the University of Leipzig where he studied astronomy, mathematics, and cosmography. While at Leipzig, he Latinized his surname to “Apianus”, deriving from apis (“bee”) and equivalent to Biene in German. Apianus relocated to Vienna in 1519 to complete his degree at the University of Vienna, taking a B.A. 2 years later during an outbreak of plague. Fleeing the city, he landed first in Regensburg before settling in Landshut. He married Katharina Mosner, the daughter of a local councilman, in 1526 and by her had fourteen children. Among his sons was Philip Apianus, born 1531, who would later follow his father into the study of mathematics. Apianus was fascinated first and foremost by cosmography, a broad science of the Renaissance which set out to explain everything in the universe within a mathematical framework. He excelled in its study and later became one of its most famous practitioners; by modern standards, he can be thought of as one of the best applied mathematicians of his day. His interest in cartography was stimulated during one of the most momentous periods in European history: the Age of Exploration, witnessing the trailblazing voyages of the likes of da Gama, Columbus, and Magellan. His first published work was a world map, Typus orbis universalis (1520), itself based on a contemporary map drawn by the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller.1 The following year, Apianus published Isagoge, a geographical commentary on the 1520 map. The work that firmly established Apianus’ academic credentials was Cos- mographicus Liber, published at Landshut in 1524. Frequently known as the

1Waldseemüller (1470–1522) is traditionally credited with the ﬁrst recorded usage of the word “America” in honor of the Florentine explorer Amerigo Vespucci.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 147 J.C. Barentine, Uncharted Constellations, Springer Praxis Books, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-27619-9 148 A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536)

Fig. A.1 A portrait of Petrus Apianus in an engraving by the Dutch publisher Philip Galle (1537–1612), c. 1570

Cosmographia in later editions, it was a lavishly-illustrated treatise on astronomy, navigation, geography, cartography and weather; it contained digressions on various map projections, the shape of the Earth, and descriptions of the use of mathematical instruments. While the book would later appear in dozens of editions in four languages across Europe, it was not at ﬁrst a runaway hit. However, a 1533 edition edited and expanded by Gemma Frisius (born Jemme Reinerszoon, 1508–1555), a renowned Dutch physician and cartographer who was later a tutor to Gerardus Mercator, became a bestseller. Frisius had good cause to lend his name and effort to the revision, as his workshop produced the very instruments that Apianus described and illustrated. The Cosmographia attracted the attention of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V (1500–1558), who praised the work at the Imperial Diet of 1530 and issued printing monopolies to Apianus’ press in 1532 and 1534. In 1535, Charles granted Apianus the right to display a coat of arms. On the basis of the Cosmographia, Apianus was appointed Professor of Mathe- matics at the University of Ingolstadt in 1527, a post he held for the remainder of his life despite later appeals from universities at Leipzig, Padua, Tübingen, and Vienna. In addition to his work at the university, Apianus operated a printshop at Ingolstadt where he gained a reputation for producing high-quality editions of various texts on cartography and geography. He printed his own works on the press as well. In 1533 he published Horoscopion Apiani Generale . . . , a description of the ‘horoscopion,’ a device used to solve various astronomical measurement problems (Fig. A.2). His A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536) 149

Fig. A.2 The title page from Petrus Apianus’ Horoscopion Apiani generale . . . (1533) showing the eponymous device 150 A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536)

Instrumentum sinuum sive primi (1534) was a mathematical text that included the first sine tables calculated to every whole minute of arc, which he applied to a variety of problems in astronomy, navigation and architecture. In the same year, he published the first large-scale map of Europe, no known copies of which survive. He printed a single-sheet map, Imagines syderum coelestium . . . ,in1536, which showed the 48 Ptolematic constellations (less Serpens) and introduced new figures Rosa and Phaeton. Apianus’ magnum opus, Astronomicum Caesareum (“The Emperor’s Astron- omy”), followed in 1540. Dedicated to Charles V, it includes a number of then-new scientific ideas such as a method of computing longitude via observations of solar eclipses and the first published assertion that the tails of comets always point away from the direction of the Sun. Astronomicum Caesareum also introduced a technological innovation in publishing: the volvelle, or wheel chart (Fig. A.3). First developed by Islamic astronomers in the Medieval period, volvelles are paper constructions printed with various dials and numerical indicators that function as simple analog computers. Apianus developed volvelles into functional works of high art, showing examples of their use in the book to calculate the dates of historical eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Charles was delighted by his “Astronomy,” appointing Apianus the court mathematician and knighting the four brothers Bienewitz. He promised Apianus the sum of 3,000 guilders and in 1544 named him an Imperial Count Palatine, bestowing on him the right to legally legitimize children and grant degrees of higher learning. The royal attention served to further Apianus’ reputation as one of the most preeminent scientists of his time. Even as he tended to neglect his teaching duties at the university, Apianus remained involved in the development of new astronomical and surveying instruments, including his own designs for quadrants and armillary spheres. He died at Ingolstadt on 21 April 1552, succeeded in his post by his son, Philip. Petrus Apianus introduced two new constellations, neither of which survived beyond the end of the seventeenth century: • Phaeton (the son of Apollo-Helios) • Rosa (the Rose) Apianus also provided the earliest known European description of some indigenous constellations of Arabia: • Filiae Ursae Majoris (the Daughters of the Great Bear) • Pastor Canes et Oves (the Shepherd, the Dog and Sheep) • Duae Alae (the Two Wings) • Quinque Dromedarii (the Five Dromedaries) The figures Apianus drew occupy a unique place between handy asterisms, a recounting of indigenous folklore, and actual innovation. A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536) 151

Fig. A.3 A volvelle from Astronomicum Caesareum (1540) showing the conversion between celestial declination and horizon altitude coordinates. An outer wheel labeled “horizon” is rotated and the declination corresponding to the observer’s zenith is read from the pointer above the human ﬁgure. The Latin title reads “These may be clearly seen from the instrument”

Asterism from Cosmographicus Liber (1524)

Apianus’ ﬁrst major popular work, Cosmographicus Liber, was published by the printer and priest Johann Weyssenburger at Landshut in 1524. It was an immediate success enjoying at least 45 editions in four languages by at least 18 different publishers and remained in print for over a half-century after Apianus’ death. Gemma Frisius (1508–1555) carried out a careful correction and annotation of the 1524 version; the result was published in 1529 as a second edition, entitled Cosmographia von Petrus Apianus. Two years later, a less expensive, abridged version of Apianus’ original called Cosmographiae introductio was published at Ingolstadt. But it was the 1533 edition of Frisius’ annotated version, including his short works De locorum describendorum ratione (Concerning the method of describing places) and De eorum distantijs inueniendis (On the determination of distances), that earned the book its greatest popularity and secured its place in history. 152 A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536)

However, some of Apianus’ success was merely the result of fortuitous timing: a European reading public with an appetite for all things related to the New World ate up the book’s detailed discussion of newly-discovered lands in America. Again, he seems to have merely recycled content from previous authors; his information appears to be substantially drawn from the accounts in Cosmographiae introductio by Martin Waldseemüller, published at St. Die in 1507, and Johann Schöner’s Luculentissima quaeda[m] terrae totius descriptio (The most brilliant description of the entire Earth), printed in 1515 at Nuremburg. Apianus’ work so strongly resembles Schöner’s book that Cosmographicus Liber may simply be an abridgment of its text. Cosmographicus Liber was a treatise on astronomy and navigation, but more broadly it was aimed at an educated lay audience as a kind of “popular science” of the day. The content was largely appropriated directly from Ptolemy, but it is the book’s volvelles that represent its main selling point and principal innovation. Whereas earlier books of similar content were largely constructed around sets of tabular information, Apianus’ volvelles turned the pages of Cosmographicus Liber into functional computers, enabling skilled users to make calculations involving navigation, distances and time. Apianus introduced one new figure in Cosmographicus Liber, an alternate figure for the bright stars of Ursa Major he called “Plaustrum” (Fig. A.4). Apanius’ figure shows a team of horses pulling a wagon, consistent with the European alternate view of Ursa Major as a four-wheeled wagon or “wain.” The dualism of the Bear/Wagon is at least as old as ancient Greece.2

Fig. A.4 Plaustrum (left roundel)asshowninCosmographicus Liber (1524). In the roundel at right, its stars are shown in their conventional role in Ursa Major

2E.g., “He wrought the earth, the heavens, and the sea; the moon also at her full and the untiring sun, with all the signs that glorify the face of heaven- the Pleiads, the Hyads, huge Orion, and the A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536) 153

The identification of these stars as a team of draught animals pulling a cart may have to do with their circumpolar situation that has them endlessly circling the north celestial pole. F. Max Müller provided some clues in Volume 2 of his Lectures on the science of language3: Another name of the Great Bear, or originally the Seven bears, or really the seven bright stars, is Septemtriones. The two words which form the name are occasionally used sepa- rately; for instance, ‘quas nostri septem soliti vocitare triones.4’ Varro 5 (L. L. vii. 73–75),6 in a passage which is not very clear, tells us that triones was the name by which, even at his time, ploughmen used to call oxen when actually employed for ploughing the earth. If we could quite depend on the fact that oxen were ever called triones, we might accept the explanation of Varro, and should have to admit that at one time the seven stars were conceived as seven oxen. But as a matter of fact, trio is never used in this sense, except by Varro, for the purpose of an etymology; nor are the seven stars ever again spoken of as seven oxen, but only as ‘the oxen and the shaft,’ boves et Temo, a much more appropriate name. Varro himself offered an explanation7 for the Latin word implying a connection to the ancient practice of keeping calendars to ensure successful planting and harvesting: The marks of this one are, that the Greeks, for example Homer, call these seven stars the Wagon and the sign that is next to it the Ploughman, while our countrymen call these seven stars the Triones ‘Plough-Oxen’ and the Temo ‘Wagon-Pole’ and near them the Axis ‘axle of the earth, north pole’ : for indeed oxen are called the Triones by the ploughmen even now, especially when they are ploughing the land ; just as those of them which easily cleave the glebae ‘clods of earth’ are called Mighty glebarii ‘clod-breakers,’ so that all that ploughed the land were from terra ‘land’ called terriones, so that from this they were called triones, withthelossoftheE....Myopinionisthatinoldtimesthefarmersfirstnoticedcertain signs in the sky which were more conspicuous than the rest, and which were observed as suitable to indicate some profitable use, such as the time for tilling the fields. The Latin word “triones” is a hapax legomenon, a word that occurs only once within a particular context, and is attested by its single instance in De lingua Latina. If Varro’s derivation is correct, the significance of the wagon becomes clear: the seven stars of Plaustrum endlessly circle about the pole like oxen around a circular threshing-floor. Furthermore, the Latin word for ‘north,’ septentrion¯ es¯ , appears to derive from a fusion of septem and Varro’s word trion¯ es¯ , indicating the seven stars of the wagon always found toward the north. Apianus repeated the figure in his Horoscopion Apiani generale . . . (1533; Fig. A.5), in which he elaborated further on the meaning of the figure. In this work,

Bear, which men also call the Wain and which turns round ever in one place, facing” (Homer, Iliad, 18.483–8, trans. S. Butler.). 3London: Longmans, Green and Co. (1885), pp. 399–400. 4“The seven that we commonly call the ploughing-oxen”. 5Marcus Terentius Varro (116 BC–27 BC) was a scholar and writer during the late Roman Republic period. 6De lingua Latina, ﬁrst century BC. 7De lingua Latina 7.73–4, trans. R.G. Kent. 154 A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536)

Fig. A.5 Ursa Major is marked Ursa Maior sive Plaustrum (“Ursa Major, or the Wagon”) in Horoscopion Apiani generale . . . (1533)

Plaustrum is shown relative to Ursa Minor and the Pole Star in its tail, along with a time-telling device. Here, Apianus gives a graphical representation of an old folk method of telling time at night by noting the position of the Dipper relative to Polaris. The asterism functions as the hour hand on a clock; knowing the season, one infers the local time according to its orientation in the northern sky.

Asterism from Horoscopion Apiani Generale . . . (1533)

In 1533, Apianus published a pair of identical maps in two separate works, both printed at Ingolstadt: Horoscopion Apiani generale dignoscendis horis cuiuscumque generis aptissimum and Instrument Buch. Horoscopion is divided into four sections. Following the requisite dedication to Charles V, a description of the instrument is given. The second part is a straightforward exposition of astronomy, while the third part is dedicated to the problem of determining sizes, distances and heights of objects that are out of the direct reach of the observer. In the last section, Apianus describes the use of the instrument for measuring intervals of time. The astronomy section contains a pair of maps. Each shows a polar-projection view of the northern sky from the observer’s ground-based vantage point, extending from the north pole to slightly beyond the celestial equator. While one map shows the Ptolemaic canon of northern constellations, the other includes curious ﬁgures that did not previously appear on European charts. Kunitzsch (1987) studied these A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536) 155 maps, to which he referred as “ordinary” and “extraordinary,” respectively, in detail, concluding that Apianus must have been exposed to the Book of Fixed Stars by the tenth-century Islamic astronomer known as al-S. uf¯ ¯ı in its original Arabic. The “extraordinary” map (Fig. A.6) carries a set of instructions8 that suggest its use: The following ﬁgure sets forth an exact knowledge of the stars.

USE OF THE PRECEDING FIGURE

When you are able to find the time and hour from the above, and now you wish to be certain that you recognize all the errors of the proposed star, put forth to you the preceding figure, and this proposed star in the document or figure, turn it downward, and thus, of your face, take, nothing else imagined which of more or the center of this figure is above the zenith again. The identification of the strange figures on the map puzzled many historians, some of whom Kunitzsch quotes. Zinner (1967) regarded them as “of an unusual form,” while Przypkowski (1961) described the figures as “une sorte de fantaisie cosmologique.” It was only in 1979, according to Kunitzsch, that their nature was correctly explained by Deborah Warner: they were of the “Bedouin rather than Ptolemaic tradition.” Their knowledge among Europeans was new, although al-S. uf¯ ¯ı described them over five centuries before Apianus’ time. Given that no known Latin or vernacular translation of al-S. uf¯ ¯ı existed in the early sixteenth century, Kunitzsch asserted that his detailed knowledge of the locations, figures and names of these constellations must have been transmitted by an intermediary functional in Arabic. He speculated that this might have been a “helper” among Apianus’ cadre of associates, but that whatever relationship existed with this unnamed assistant must have later soured or otherwise broken off. Having received a printing privilege from Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1532 it seems likely that he intended to publish a full translation of the work of “Azophi,” but no such work appeared in the remaining two decades of Apianus’ life or afterward. Kunitzsch explained that the “extraordinary” map was drawn as a means of assisting readers in the operation of instruments described in the 1533 texts: “Looking closely, one can see that sixteen stars are designated by numbers on the map. ...This map, therefore, was not, like all its predecessors, designed for mere contemplation or instruction, but for immediate practical use.” While the figures along the ecliptic, which included the aforementioned numbered stars, were drawn according to Ptolemy, the figures in the incompletely-filled space between

8Exactam Stellae cognitionem sequens tibi proponit schema. USUS FIGURAE PRAECEDENTIS. Ubi iam tempus & horam ex supradictis inueneris, iamque certus esse cupis te stellam illam propositam cognoscere posse citra omnem errorem, propone tibi figura praecedentem, atque stellam istiam in instrumento sive figura propositam deorsum verte, & sic faciei tuae adhibe, non aliud imaginando qui si plus sive centrum in hac figura supra zenith rursus. 156 A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536)

Fig. A.6 The “extraordinary” map from Petrus Apianus’ Horoscopion Apiani generale . . . (1533). Sixteen principal northern hemisphere stars are shown along the ecliptic; additional constellations that Apianus believed to be part of the indigenous Arabian night sky appear at and below center. See main text for a translation of the caption the ecliptic and the pole are almost entirely different. Ursa Major is easily located, as is Boötes.9 But there are others without Western counterparts:

9Kunitzsch claimed the leashed dogs being led by the Herdsman were forerunners of Canes Venatici, introduced by Hevelius a century and a half later, but comparison with modern maps shows that this cannot be so. A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536) 157

Near the North Pole there appear three female figures in front of a woman sitting on something like a chair, or sofa; to their left is a shepherd with a dog and a flock of sheep; below the group of females there are four big camels with a very small baby camel in their middle; and between the shepherd’s group and Cygnus, under the right wing of the bird, there appear two stars surrounded in their lower part by a ring of feathers or something the like. Apianus provides labels for these figures in the text. The group of four women correspond to Ursa Minor; al-S. uf¯ ¯ı called these banat na’sh, which Apianus rendered 10 as “Daughters of the Bier” (Bear). al-S. uf¯ ¯ıwrote, : He (AbuH¯ . an¯ıfa) also mentioned that Banat¯ Na‘esh al-Kubra (The Great Daughters of the Bier or Coffin) consist of seven stars similar to the smaller (sisters11). The astronomers call them the Great Bear. However he did not know that they are part of the constellation Ursa Major. The Arabs used the same term for both Ursa Major and Minor based on the similarity of their forms, distinguishing them with descriptive terms translated as “Greater” and “Lesser.” The trio of shepherd, sheep and dogs was rendered in Latin as “Pastor Canes et Oves,” while the five camels were the “Quinque Dromedarii.” Lastly, the “two stars surrounded in their lower part by a ring of feathers” was labeled “Duae Alae” (literally “Two Wings”; Fig. A.7), although Kunitzsch suggests there is no such counterpart in al-S. uf¯ ¯ı’s original and that whatever word was translated as “Alae” may have been a misprint in Apianus’ copy of al-S. uf¯ ¯ı. These figures are described in further detail below. An interesting question, unanswered by the available evidence, is whether Apianus would have published a full map of the Arabian sky had he completed a successful translation of al-S. uf¯ ¯ı. It is also unclear why these four indigenous figures were included on the instructional 1533 map and did not turn up in any of his earlier or later works. It seems likely that Apianus did not suggest the Arabian figures for widespread adoption in Europe, considering that they included parts of some very recognizable Ptolemaic figures such as Cassiopeia, Cepheus, Draco, and Ursa Minor. Rather, Apianus may have been simply filling some space with a curiosity while intending to keep the map otherwise uncluttered (Fig. A.8).

Constellations from Imagines Syderum Coelestium . . . (1536)

In his third major work, Apianus plotted a very dense map of the northern sky (Fig. A.9). On this map he introduced one new ﬁgure: a single rose blossom for

10The Book of Fixed Stars. Folio 13 (MS Marsh 144, Bodleian Library, Oxford) translated by Hafez (2010). 11 Here al-S. uf¯ ¯ı is drawing a comparison between the shape of the Dipper and the Pleiades; Hafez (2010), p. 92. 158 A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536)

Fig. A.7 Duae Alae (the “two wings”) depicted in Horoscopion Apiani generale (1533)asthe “crown” device to the left of and below Cygnus (center) a small group of faint stars (Fig. A.10). In the text accompanying the map, Apianus wrote12: There are also seen other stars near the tail of Leo, of which one [is] called “Triches” and the other “Rosa”. Triches is a nebulous star, which is also called Berenice’s Hair, for the Greeks call Triches “hair”. It rises 9 August, sets 27 September; Rosa [rises] 18 August, sets 15 November. Brown (1932) argued that Rosa must represent the star Cor Caroli (˛ CVn) on the presumption that Apianus intended the dogs following Boötes on his chart to indicate the same stars later identified by Bayer as Canes Venatici. An examination Apianus’ map shows this clearly cannot be. Allen (1899) mentioned a figure called “Rosa,” although based on his description it is unclear whether this is the same one drawn decades earlier by Apianus: Bayer also mentioned Rosa, a Rose, or a Rose Wreath; but he figured it on his plate of Boötes as a Sheaf of Wheat, in reference to the Virgo Ceres close by; indeed, Karsten Niebuhr,13 at Cairo in 1762, heard it called Al Huzmat, the Arabic term for that object, or

12“Videntur etia aliae stellae iuxta Leonis caudam, e quibus altera Triches, altera Rosa dicitur, Triches stella nebulosa est, quae crines Berenices quoque dicitur, Trichas enim graeci crines vocant. Oritur 9 Augusti, 27 Septen. occidit, Rosa 18 August oritur, 15 Nouembris occidit.” 13Niebuhr (1733–1815) was a German cartographer and explorer best known for his work for Denmark during the Danish Arabia Expedition (1761). A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536) 159 ) overlaid on 1533 ( Horoscopion Apiani generale . . . ı shown by Apianus are (1) Daughters Of The Great Bier; (2) Pastor Canes et Oves; (3) Quinque Dromedarii; ¯ ¯ uf . Selected constellations from the “extraordinary” Northern Hemisphere map in Petrus Apianus’ a modern chart. The Bedouin ﬁgures from al-S Fig. A.8 and (4) Duae Alae. Apianus also depicted Caput Medusae (5; Chap. 4) and interpreted part of Auriga (6) as a goat marking the star Capella 160 A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536)

Fig. A.9 Imagines syderum coelestium . . . , a single-sheet map published by Apianus at Ingolstadt in 1536. The contents were reproduced identically in Apianus’ later masterwork, Astronomicum Caesareum (1540). Original page dimensions approximately 42 30 cm A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536) 161

Fig. A.10 Rosa (slightly above center)depictedinImagines syderum coelestium:::(1536)

for a Pile of Fruit, Grain, or Wood. The Dresden globe14 has it as an Ivy Wreath, or, just as probably, a Distaff held in the Virgin’s hand, which has been designated Fusus vel Colus, Fila et Stamina, the Distaff, Thread, and Woof; or perhaps the Caduceus of Mercury, placed here when Coma was a part of Virgo and this latter constellation the astrological house of that planet. Overlaying Apanius’ ﬁgure on a modern map (Fig. A.11) reveals what Rosa was drawn to represent. Its position coincides with a loose open cluster of stars known as the Coma Star Cluster or Melotte 111 after its number in the 1915 star cluster catalog of Philibert Jacques Melotte (1880–1961). The cluster members number about 40 stars between magnitudes +5 and +10 lying at a distance of some 86 parsecs (280 light years). Its brightest stars are barely visible to the naked eye

14It is unclear to which globe Allen refers. Given the reference to Karsten Niebhur and the Middle East, he may mean the brass celestial globe in the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen attributed to Muhammad ibn Mu’ayyad al-’Urd’i (late thirteenth century). 162 A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536) ) overlaid on a modern chart 1536 ( Imagines Syderum Coelestium The ﬁgure of Rosa from Petrus Apianus’ Fig. A.11 A The Constellations and Asterisms of Petrus Apianus (1524–1536) 163 under good conditions, and the fainter stars, unresolved to the eye, explain Apianus’ description of a “nebulous star.” However, it appears that Apianus confused Melotte 111 with the star ˇ Comae Berenices, at least according to how he drew “Triches” and “Rosa”. In any case, Rosa is evidently unique among the lost constellations, in that it is the only named ﬁgure representing a star cluster. Appendix B The Constellations of John Hill (1754)

The practice of suggesting new constellations remained in vogue during the mid- eighteenth century, and opportunities then still existed for gentleman-scientists to introduce figures that others might adopt for their own charts. However, there were progressively fewer bright stars still up for grabs after 1700, and enterprising mapmakers had to find increasingly creative means of proposing new constellations. A set of fanciful new creations was devised and introduced by John Hill in Urania: or, A Compleat View of the Heavens (1754), but his contribution is largely forgotten by history (Fig. B.1). Hill was an English botanist, son of the Reverend Theophilus Hill, born in the Soke of Peterborough, Northamptonshire, in 1714. He obtained a medical degree from Edinburgh and was apprenticed to an apothecary; on completing his apprenticeship he established his own shop in St. Martin’s Lane, Westminster. With his knowledge of medicinal herbs, he practiced as a quack doctor and amassed a considerable fortune from the preparation and sale of various plant-based medicines. He authored a number of books beginning with an English translation of Theophrastus’s History of Stones in 1746, and he wrote many articles for scholarly journals. In the same year he became the editor of the British Magazine,aposthe held until 1750. During 1751–1753 he wrote a daily column called “The Inspector” for the London Advertiser and Literary Gazette. His voluminous writing was not limited to scientific subjects; additionally, he produced several plays and novels. With the financial support of John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute (1713–1792) and Prime Minister of Great Britain (1762–1763) under George III, he devoted the last sixteen years of his life to a monumental botanical work: The Vegetable System, consisting of some 26 volumes and 1,600 copperplate engravings. For his efforts Hill was awarded the Order of Vasa from King Gustav III of Sweden in 1774. He used the title “Sir” thereafter despite the fact that it was not bestowed upon him under the British honours system.

Fig. B.1 John Hill (1716–1775) in a portrait from Makers of British Botany: A Collection of Biographies by Living Botanists (1913)

Hill’s writings often brought him into conflict with the established scientific and literary authorities of his day. During the 1740s Hill was a fixture at many meetings of the Royal Society, and despite authoring two publications in the Philosophical Transactions of the Society he failed to secure election as a Fellow.1 One to hold a grudge, Hill began to publish anonymous critiques of Philosophical Transactions papers in late 1749 and launched a public campaign to deride and discredit the Society and its members. Events culminated in the “Paper War” of 1752–1753 between Hill and Henry Fielding (1704–1754), the novelist and dramatist best known for his novel Tom Jones. Hill and Fielding traded barbs in a series of pamphlets with Fielding leading the charge against the so-called “armies of Grub Street,” a loose association of authors based in and around the impoverished London district of Moorfields. Described by his biographer, George Rousseau (2012), as “one of Georgian England’s most vilified men despite having contributed prolifically to its medicine, science and literature,” Hill died in London on 21 November 1775. Among Hill’s many published works he wrote about astronomy in Urania (1754;Fig.B.2), an exhaustive compendium of astronomical terms in the form of a dictionary.2 Hill intended it to be the first of six volumes:

1K.J. Fraser, “John Hill and the Royal Society in the Eighteenth Century.” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 43–67 (1994). 2Urania was dedicated to the astronomer George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesﬁeld, FRS (c. 1695/7– 1764). He was styled Viscount Parker between 1721–1732 and served as MP for Wallingford (now in Oxfordshire) from 1722–1727. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1722, making many of his astronomical observations from the seat of his viscountcy at Shirburn Castle, Oxfordshire. B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 167

Fig. B.2 The title page from John Hill’s Urania: or, A Compleat View of the Heavens (1754) 168 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754)

The whole will be A compleat System of Natural and Philosophical Knowledge, in six volumes, quarto. And in there will be contained, a general and particular explication of the SYSTEM of the UNIVERSE ; with an history of the heavens and earth ; their inhabitants and contents ; or a review of the works of the visible creation. Despite its subject, Urania was not intended to benefit the astronomical community specifically. “Had this work been written for astronomers,” Hill noted, “a very different method had been pursued ; the form had been that of a system, not a dictionary, and entertainment had given place to the abstruser sciences, on which this is founded.” Hill used the dictionary entries of Urania to introduce 15 new constellations that he submitted “to the reception of the astronomers.” In the book’s preface he reasoned that if they accept [them], the author will have a pride, as well as pleasure, in having added something to the science. It is his intent, that this volume may stand as a specimen of a work has a great desire to render useful : and it will be his care to compleat the others in no inferior manner. Certainly to his chagrin, not one of his figures was adopted by astronomers or celestial cartographers despite his assertion that “if they are neglected, there is only a little trouble lost.” Ironically, in many cases the stars from which Hill drew in forming his constellations were later appropriated by other authors for the same purpose—all of which also became extinct. The following table summarizes the names of the figures and those of other constellations from which Hill took stars to create them. Sources in italics indicate

Name Meaning Source(s) Anguilla The Eel Equuleus, Delphinus Aquila, Serpens Aranea The Long-Legged Spider Virgo Bufo The Toad Turdus Solutarius / Noctua Dentalium The Tooth-Shell Norma Nilotica Gryphites The Gryphaea Shellfish Cereberus et Ramus Pomifer Hippocampus The Pipefish Psalterium Georgianum Hirudo The Leech Taurus Limax The Slug Sceptrum Brandenburgicum Lumbricus The Earthworm Canis Minor, Cancer, Gemini, Cancer Minor Manis The Pangolin Honores Frederici, Andromeda, Cygnus Patella The Limpet Taurus Poniatovii Pinna Marina The Pen Shell Scutum, Antinoüs Scarabaeus The Rhinoceros Beetle Scorpius Testudo The Tortoise Cetus, Pisces Uranoscopus The Stargazer Fish Telescopium Herschelii Major B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 169 an obsolete constellation discussed in Volume 1 except Norma Nilotica, which is included here in Chap. 10. Hill’s obscure work has not been since reprinted but his writings on invented constellations are reproduced here in their entirety. In cases where reconstructions of Hill’s constellations are possible, finder charts are included.

Anguilla (The Eel)

ANGUILLA, the Eel. A constellation now first offered to the astronomical world, and comprising a number of unformed stars, some of them very conspicuous, over the heads of Capricorn and Sagittary.3 It is an asterism of considerable extent, and, in proportion to the space that it occupies in the heavens, is not ill furnished with stars. The figure is that of the common eel in that convoluted state in which it is usually seen when in motion. But the contortions of its body are not many nor violent, so they make it very happily comprise the stars. The constellations, between and among which the Anguilla is placed, are the Equuleus, the Dolphin, the Eagle, and the Serpent of Ophiuchus.4 These are above and before it. And it seems running from Aquarius, and over the heads of Capricorn and Sagittary. The conspicuous stars in this constellation are thirty-seven, and several of them are very large and bright ones; in general they are so placed as to mark the figure, and make it very distinguishable in its whole course. They are disposed in the following manner; there is one at the tip of the snout, or verge of the mouth of the Eel, and, at some distance behind this, there are two at the sides of the upper part of the head, which stand as eyes; these three are all very bright and conspicuous; that at the mouth is the largest of them. At the first bend of the body there are three, all near the outlines, two are near the upper and one at the centre of the bend at the under: this is a large star, as is also the first of the others; the more remote is smaller, and, when nicely examined, is found to be a double star, or composed of two lesser ones. Beyond these are four more in a kind of cluster, one is in the out-line near the bend, the other three are at a little distance behind and above this; they fall in nearly a strait line from the upper outline; the two upper are small, the lower is a very large and bright star. At some distance behind there is one little star in the lower outline; at a distance behind this there are three in the body in an oblique line, all small; beyond these are three other also small, more distance from one another, and in more oblique line; and the middle one of these is a very large and bright one. Beyond these stands a single small star in the upper out-line; there is also, in the upper out-line, a very large one. At a distance behind these are two in the body; and at the next bend a large star in the lower, and a much larger in the upper out-line. Beyond these are three near the lower out-line; then three more, two near the lower and one near the upper; then two more both near the lower;

3The zodiacal constellation Sagittarius. 4Hill’s ﬁgure appropriated stars long considered formal members of the classical constellations he names. His text does not include an illustration of the proposed constellation. 170 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) and lastly, two at the extremity of the tail, both small. Thus is marked from near the body of the Serpent, where the hand of Ophiuchus has hold of it, to the shoulder of Aquarius, and all the way in a distinct manner.

Aranea (The Long-Legged Spider)

ARANEA. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and composed of a cluster of unformed and very conspicuous stars near the sign Virgo. The creature, under the out-lines of whose figure they are comprehended, is the common long- legged spider, which we see in fields among the grass in summer, and which the old writers on natural history have all described under the name of the field spider, and the late ones under that of the long-legged spider, or Acarus.5 It is a little constellation, but for the space it occupies is not ill provided of stars, and they are very happily disposed to answer to the principal parts of the figure; it is represented in a posture of walking, raised from the ground by its long legs, and marching from the constellation Virgo toward the lower part of that of Hydra6 The only constellation, beside these, which is near to it, is the Raven on the back of the Hydra, and at some distance are the scales of the sign Libra. It occupies a space between these, but does not fill it up, or become at all confounded with them although it takes in all the stars that are left unformed by those; these stars luckily stand in a cluster together about the middle of the space, and are all placed in some particular part of the figure of this insect. The hinder part of the spider is very near to the knee of Virgo, and to the spike or ear of corn in the left hand: its head is directed toward that part of the body of the Hydra a little below where the raven sits, but at some distance; the tail of the raven is nearly at an equal distance from the left legs of the spider, its right legs are near a part of the robe of Virgo, and are turned toward the sign of Libra; but this is at a considerable distance. The conspicuous stars in the constellation Aranea are thirteen, and they are far the greater part of such magnitudes as to make a very bright appearance. There is one placed just at the meeting of the forceps before the head, and one star at the extremity of the body, or at the rump of the creature. The rest are disposed about the legs and feet. With respect to the four legs on the right side, there is one star at the extremity or foot of each; and on the third there is also another star about the joint of the knee. With respect to the four on the left side, the first leg has two stars almost close together at the extremity or foot; the second has one at the upper joint, and one at the foot; the third has none at the foot, but one at the middle joint; and the fourth

5Acarus is a genus of mites in the family Acaridae ﬁrst described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Hill may have been confused, or used an otherwise obsolete name for a spider genus. 6The stars used by Hill to form Aranea are a handful of ﬁfth- and sixth-magnitude objects between Spica (˛ Virginis) and Hydrae. They traditionally belonged to Virgo and bear Flamsteed numbers ranging from 53 to 89. B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 171 has one at the foot, and none in any other part. These are all remote enough from the nearest of those of any other constellation, and there is no confusion (Fig. B.3).

Bufo (The Toad)

BUFO. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and composed of a number of unformed stars near the sign Libra. The animal, under the out-lines of whose figure these are arranged, is the common toad, mentioned by all the writers on natural history, and celebrated among the vulgar, to a proverb, for the brightness of its eyes, one of which is represented by the most considerable star in the constellation. It is but a small asterism, but for the space which it occupies in the heavens, it contains a very fair portion of stars; these have always been considered as a conspicuous cluster, and it is wonderful that they have not before been arranged under the form of some animal, in the manner of those clusters which form the Lynx, and the others. The constellations, between and among which the Toad is placed, are Libra, the tail of the Hydra, the Centaur, and Wolf, and the Scorpion.7 Its head is toward the Scorpion; and its rump toward the tail of the Serpent. One of the claws of the Scorpion comes very near to the front of the Toad’s head, and the lower part of the under scale in Libra, is as near to the upper part, or crown of its head: one of the feet of Virgo is over its back, but this is at some distance; the bright star in the tail of the Hydra comes very near the hinder part, and the belly and feet are over the Wolf and the Centaur. The conspicuous stars in the constellation Bufo are fifteen, and some of them are remarkably bright and considerable; in the head there are only two, one is near the extremity or mouth, and this a small one; the other, which may be called the Toad’s Eye, is a very fine one of the second magnitude. There are two on the upper part of the neck, and two more in the fore paw. Upon the anterior part of the body there stand seven, they are of different magnitudes, but two toward the back are large, and one at the side, toward the thigh of the fore leg, is yet larger. There is also a large one in the hinder thigh, and another in the rump, or at the hinder extremity of the body. There is not any one of these that is very near any of the other constellations, but they are absolutely a detached cluster (Fig. B.4).

Dentalium (The Tooth-Shell)

DENTALIUM. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and composed of certain unformed stars near the shoulder of Aquarius. The creature, under whose out-lines these stars are comprised, is a shell-ﬁsh, an inhabitant of the shallow

7Hill’s figure almost exactly overlaps the obsolete constellation known alternately as Turdus Solitarius and Noctua introduced by Pierre-Charles Le Monnier in 1776; see Volume 1. 172 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The figure of Aranea (the Long-Legged Spider) from John Hill’s Fig. B.3 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 173 ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The figure of Bufo (the Toad) from John Hill’s Fig. B.4 174 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) seas, and is frequent in the collections of the curious.8 It has its name from the resemblance which it bears to the tusk of some animal, and is described by all who have written on natural history. It is a small constellation, but, for its extent, it contains a considerable number of stars. The constellations between which it is placed, are Aquarius, the Dolphin, Antinous, and Capricorn.9 Its open part, or mouth, is towards Antinous, and its extremity, or point, towards Aquarius. This point comes very near the shoulder of that figure, and the lower part of the bend of the shell is also near the hand, and a part of the robe. The tail, or lower part of the Dolphin, is over the open part of this constellation, but at some distance; one of the hands of Antinous is very near to the same open part, and the head of the sign Capricorn is under it at a distance, about equal to that at which the Dolphin is above it. The conspicuous stars in the Dentalium are fifteen, and they are disposed, as it were, in four clusters at some distance from one another. The first cluster consists of five, and marks the mouth, or opening. One is placed at each limit of the shell, but these are both small ones. The three others are situated between these, and are larger, two are nearly upon a level with one another, and the third is lower on the shell. The second cluster consists of three little stars, it is at some distance above the middle of the shell, two of them are near together, the third is single, and is a little above these, and something larger. The third cluster is also of three, this is somewhat beyond the middle of the shell, and these are placed nearly at an equal distance from one another; one of these is on each out-line, and the third nearly in the midst of the shell. The fourth cluster consists of four stars, or rather of two lesser clusters, of two each. The first two are small, and at some distance from one another, they stand at a small space from the extremity of the shell; the other two are almost close together, and are very near the point of the extremity: these are just over the shoulder of Aquarius ; and the third cluster is almost immediately over his hand (Fig. B.5).

Gryphites (The Gryphaea Shellﬁsh)

GRYPHITES. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and formed out of certain conspicuous stars near the sign Hercules in the northern hemisphere. It is a small constellation, but for its extent very well set with stars. The Gryphites, from which it obtains its name, and under the out-lines of whose ﬁgure the stars very happily fall, is a species of shellﬁsh, the remains of which are very frequent in beds of stone, and at depths in the earth, but which, in its recent state, is an inhabitant of the deep seas only, and scarce ever is washed on shore:

8Dentalium is a genus of marine scaphopod molluscs in the family Dentaliidae comprising about 50 extant and 50 extinct species. Their name is derived from the curved and conical shape of the animal’s shell, usually whitish in color, which superficially resembles a canine tooth. 9Hill’s figure takes up some faint stars later shown among Norma Nilotica (Chap. 10), a device borne in the left hand of Aquarius. B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 175 ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The figure of Dentalium (the Tooth-Shell) from John Hill’s Fig. B.5 176 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) it is of the oyster kind, but has a figure approaching to the Nautilus. Most of the writers on natural history have mentioned it, and it is described and figured in the history of fossils.10 Its figure and place in the heavens will be seen in the same plate with Hercules; it is situated between that constellation and those of Lyra, Vulpis et Anser, Aquila, and the Serpens Ophiuci.11 It is placed in an inverted posture with respect to Hercules, and is at a small distance over his left arm; the horns of the Lyra are at some distance over the head of the Shell, it is in a line with the Fox and Goose, and the head of it stands opposite to the wing of the Goose. The tail of the Eagle comes also toward its head, and the sweep of the lower part, or back of the shell, is over the tail of Ophiuchus’s Serpent, and in part over the head of Ophiuchus. The upper part or hollow of the shell is opposite to the lower part of the arm of Hercules, his hand is against its middle, and the lip, or turning-up of the shell, is opposite to his shoulder. The Gryphites consists principally of eleven stars, and these almost all very conspicuous; they are so well disposed also in the figure, that ‘there is not a constellation in the heavens better marked, or more easily distinguished. They are situated principally toward the head and toward the lip of the shell, in the middle there is a vacancy, there is one in the head, and another a little below it; beyond this, toward the body, there are two, one of them near the upper, and the other near the under out-line of the shell, and a little above and beyond that of the upper out-line there is a fifth smaller than any of the others, but sufficiently conspicuous. Toward the extremity there are two in the lower part near one another, and very conspicuous. Beyond these, where the shell turns up, there are three others, one near the lower, one near the upper out-line and a larger and more conspicuous than either a little beyond and between them. This tenth star is the largest in the whole constellation. The eleventh and last is a small, but very bright one, placed at the verge of the lip. The whole constellation is as bright a cluster of stars as any in the heavens (Fig. B.6).

Hippocampus (The Pipeﬁsh)

HIPPOCAMPUS. A constellation offered to the astronomical world in the plates of this work, and composed of certain conspicuous and unformed stars under the feet of the constellation Taurus. It is of some considerable extent in the heavens, and, for the space it occupies, is ornamented with no inconsiderable number of stars, and these are all happily disposed, and some of them sufﬁciently conspicuous.

10Gryphaea was a genus of marine bivalve mollusks, now extinct, that lived from the Triassic to the Tertiary periods. Their fossils, commonly called “Devil’s toenails,” are found widely in Britain andwouldhavebeenfamiliartoHill. 11Hill’s constellation was positioned in roughly the same part of the sky as the earlier creation Cerberus et Ramus Pomifer; see Volume 1. B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 177 ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania Shellﬁsh) from John Hill’s Gryphaea The ﬁgure of Gryphites (the Fig. B.6 178 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754)

The creature from which it takes its name is one of the most singular animals in the world, it is frequently met with dried in the collections of the curious, and its long and narrow head, its curled body, and bent neck make it very remarkable. It is a fish of the Syngnathus,12 or Needle Fish kind. Most of the naturalists have named it, and it is described and figured in the history of animals, published some little time since by the author of these observations. The Hippocamp is placed between Orion, the Bull, the Whale, and the Eri- danus.13 There is a vacant space between these in the centre of which are several loose stars, and this figure comprehends them all. The head of the Hippocamp is pointed at the breast of the Whale, and comes between the head of that monster and Eridanus. Its tail points at the side of Orion, and comes near to the lion’s skin he holds up in his left hand. The fore feet of the Bull are over the hinder part of its body, and the Eridanus runs in some degree parallel under it. There might be an objection started against the making so small a fish as the Hippocamp extend over so large a space of the heavens; but there is an example very near at hand, that proportion has not been observed between the several figures. When we see the paw or fin of the Whale cover the whole breadth of the river Eridanus, we are not to except against making the little Hippocamp longer than the club of the Great Orion. The considerable stars in the constellation of the Hippocamp are twenty-one, there are many of them very conspicuous, and their exact places and situations will be seen in the figure of the constellation, which is given in the same plate with that of Taurus. They are in general terms disposed in the following manner. In the head there are four, two near to one another about the end of the snout, and two others near also to one another about the upper part of the head, these are all small, but distinctly enough to be seen. In the rising part of the neck there are two near the upper out-line of the figure both large, but the hinder one the larger and brighter; in the descending out-line of that bend there are four, three near the same out-line, and one more in the body, the lower one of the three, and the single star are both large and bright. In the lower part of the bend, near the out-line are three, one larger, and distant two smaller, and near to one another; beyond these, in the out-line also, are three in a cluster very near to one another, one of these is large, and two are smaller. A little beyond these, near the upper out-line, are two very conspicuous, and the three last are at the tail, one at the extremity of it, and two a little distant, one in the upper, and the other in the lower out-line. By these the whole figure is very well described (Fig. B.7).

12Syngnathus is a genus of pipefishes in the family Syngnathidae, commonly known as the ‘Seaweed pipefish’. 13Hippocampus incorporates some stars that, 35 years later, were drawn by Maximilian Hell as the constellation Psalterium Georgianum; see Volume 1. B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 179 ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The figure of Hippocampus (the Pipefish) from John Hill’s Fig. B.7 180 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754)

Hirudo (The Leech)

HIRUDO. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and composed of a series of conspicuous unformed stars over the head of Orion. The creature, under whose out-line these stars are arranged, is the common Leach14; the insect used in bleeding; common in shallow waters, and described by all the writers on natural history. It is a small constellation; but in proportion to the little space that it occupies in the heavens it contains a considerable number of stars. It is represented under the figure of that animal, not stretched out at length, but in its ordinary position bent, and with the head directed back again toward the tail. The stars are very happily comprehended under the lines of this figure, and there is this peculiar advantage, that as a part of them are much larger than the others, those are all disposed toward the tail, and the small ones run in a series along the part toward the head, which, when the creature extends itself, is much the smaller part of its body. The constellations between which the Hirudo is placed are Orion and the Bull, and these are so disposed that there are no others that can properly be called in to ascertain its place. The lion’s skin in the left hand of Orion is held up to the knee of the Bull,15 and his club is in such a position as to come very near the top of the horn16; by this means, between the two arms of Orion and the front of the Bull,there is left a space vacant, and in that part of this space, which is just over the head of Orion, stands the new constellation.17 Its tail, or larger extremity, is near the back part of the head of Orion, the thicker portion of its body runs parallel with the club in his right band, and the bend toward the smaller part comes near the horn of the Bull; from this the head is bent again downwards, and is pointed toward the crown of Orion’s head, but at a greater distance than the tail. The conspicuous stars in the constellation Hirudo are twenty, and eight of these, which are toward the head are of the smallest magnitude that can be called conspicuous; there is a ninth among them a little larger, but it owes its seeming size to, their particular littleness. They are disposed about the figure in the following manner: there is one small star in the top of the head: at some distance from this there is a cluster of six, of these two are in the lower out-line of the figure, and three in the upper, and one is on the body; this single star is that of the first nine that is larger than the rest. At a distance beyond these there is another cluster of two, also small ones, these are the last of the nine little stars of the constellation; after these stands a single larger star in the upper out-line, beyond this there is

14Leeches are segmented, largely hematophagous worms belonging to the subclass Hirudinea within the phylum Annelida. Nearly 700 species of leech are recognized; of these, 100 are marine, 90 are terrestrial and the balance are freshwater. 15 Tauri. 16 Tauri. 17These are an assortment of fourth- to sixth-magnitude stars traditionally belonging to Taurus, and bearing Flamsteed numbers from 111 to 130. B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 181 another single one of nearly the same size also in the upper out-line, then there are three following one another along the lower outline; beyond these there are ﬁve in a cluster, or rather in two clusters, three of them are against the upper, and two against the under out-line. The twentieth is a single star, and is placed in the centre of the hollow of the tail (Fig. B.8).

Limax (The Slug)

LIMAX, the naked Snail. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and composed of certain conspicuous unformed stars near the foot of Orion, and under the Eridanus. It is a constellation of small extent, and contains only a few stars; but some of these are very considerable and bright ones. The creature, under whose out-line they are arranged, is the black naked snail,18 which is frequent in gardens and damp places, and is described by all the naturalists. The stars are disposed principally toward the head, and toward the lower part of the body, the middle is less characterised by them. The constellation Limax stands between Orion, the Hare, and the Eridanus.19 Its head comes up toward the edge of the river, at some distance from the foot of Orion, and its body falls at some distance before the head and fore feet of the Hare. The tail points at another part of the Eridanus after its first bend; but this is at a very considerable distance. In all this space, however, there are no very remarkable stars, nor indeed any where else about it. The conspicuous stars, of which the constellation Limax is composed, are nine. Their exact places may be seen in the figure given in the same plate with that of Orion. In general they are disposed as follows. There is one at the extremity of the head, one at the hinder part of it near the out-line, and these are both large and bright ones. A little distant from these, near the opposite out-line, toward the hinder part of the head, are two small stars placed near one another, after these is a vacant space in the figure, till toward the lower part of the body, where there is in the out- line a single large and conspicuous star; a little lower than this, and at the opposite out-line, stand three in a cluster together in the last, which is also a tolerably large and bright one, is at the tip of the tail (Fig. B.9).

18Slugs are gastropod molluscs which lack apparent shells, unlike their kin known as snails whose shells are large enough such that the animal may fully retract itself within. Most slugs are found in either marine environments or on land, but one genus (Acochlidium) lives in freshwater. 19Gottfried Kirch published many of the same stars described here as the obsolete constellation Sceptrum Brandenburgicum in 1688; see Volume 1. 182 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The ﬁgure of Hirudo (the Leech) from John Hill’s Fig. B.8 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 183 ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The ﬁgure of Limax (the Slug) from John Hill’s Fig. B.9 184 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754)

Lumbricus (The Earthworm)

LUMBRICUS. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and composed of a series of conspicuous and unformed stars between the signs Cancer and Gemini. The creature, under the out-line of whose figure these are arranged, is the common earth-worm,20 or dewworm, which we see coupled above the surface of the ground in damp mornings. It is a small constellation, and it comprehends only a few stars, but these are in so remarkable a place that it is very fit they should be ascertained within the lineaments of some figure. The creature, that is made to answer this purpose, is drawn in a crawling posture, a little convoluted, and running up from the Little Dog to Gemini.21 These are the three constellations between which it is placed, its head is very near the shoulder of one of the twins, the greater part of its body runs up between that sign and Cancer, and the lower, or bent part of the body toward the tail, runs over the back of the Little Dog, and that but at a small distance. The conspicuous stars, in the constellation Lumbricus, are nine, and they are of very different sizes, though none of them of the larger magnitudes. There is one22 at the extremity of the head, this is very near the shoulder of one of the Twins; at some distance below this is a single star23 in the middle of the neck; a little lower than this, at the thickened part of the Worm, there are three stars, two on the one,24 and one25 on the other out-line. At a distance, below these, there are two single stars26 also on the out-line; and finally, there are two others at the end of the bended part, the one27 of these is at the very top of the tail, and the other28 is a little before the tip. These stars are very well comprised within the outline of the figure, and there is yet this farther advantage, that there is no conspicuous star any where about it that is left unformed so as to create confusion (Fig. B.10).

20Earthworms are a kind of terrestrial or aquatic segmented worm in the phylum Annelida commonly found feeding on dead organic matter in soil. Most worms commonly referred to as “earthworms” are organized into the class Oligochaeta, and all are hermaphroditic. 21To create this figure Hill appropriated some unformed stars of the fourth to sixth magnitudes in northern Canis Minor, western Cancer and eastern Gemini. Some were previously identified by Petrus Plancius as part of the obsolete constellation Cancer Minor as early as 1612; see Volume 1. 22There is no plausibly bright star at the position Hill indicates. 2385 Geminorum. 243and5Cancri. 25Probably 1 Cancri. 2611 Canis Minoris and, likely, HD 63352 (V=+6.04). 271 Canis Minoris. 286 Canis Minoris. B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 185 ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The figure of Lumbricus (the Earthworm) from John Hill’s Fig. B.10 186 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754)

Manis (The Pangolin)

MANIS. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and composed of a series of very conspicuous unformed stars near the constellation Cepheus. The creature, under the out-lines of whose figure these are arranged in this new- made constellation, is one of the most singular in the world.29 It is preserved in some of the most curious museums, and has been mentioned by some of the late writers under the name of the scaly lizard, but it is not at all of the lizard kind, although it, in some degree, resemble them in figure. The antients were unacquainted with it, and but few writers, who have spoken of it, have done this with any degree of accuracy. It will be found described and figured from the real animal in the history of animals lately published by the author of this work. The creature is represented in this constellation in its usual position of squatting down upon the ground with its legs spread out, its tail a little bent, and its long tongue extended. It is in this manner that in the woods it watches for its prey; it is of the colour of withered leaves, and its scales somewhat of their shape, so that it is unobserved, and its tongue is thrust out that flies and ants may fix upon it, and it feeds on these by drawing it in again. The constellation is of considerable extent in the heavens, and comprehends a great many stars; some of these are very considerable, and were very ill counted before under the name of this, or that constellation. It is placed between Cassiopeia, Cepheus, the Swan, and the Lizard.30 There is a great extent of the heavens left vacant between these, and all the considerable stars in that space are comprehended in this constellation. Its head is at a small distance from the right arm of Cassiopeia, and its tongue is extended toward the palm-branch, which he holds in her left. The body of the creature runs between the sceptre in the hand of Cepheus and the Lizard, and the tail is continued down between the head of Cepheus and the head of the Lizard, and by the tail of Cygnus. The conspicuous stars in the constellation Manis are twenty-one in number, and some of them are of very considerable magnitudes; they follow one another in a crooked series, and are very happily comprehended within and upon the out-lines of this figure. There are two on the head, a considerable one31 at the tip of the nose,

29The pangolin, from the Malay word pengguling (“something that rolls up”), is a mammal of the order Pholidota native to tropical Africa and Asia. Hill’s name for the constellation, Manis, is also the name of a genus represented by four species living in Asia: the Indian pangolin (M. cras- sicaudata), the Chinese pangolin (M. pentadactyla), the Sunda pangolin (M. javanica)andthe Philippine pangolin (M. culionensis). A fifth species, the Asian giant pangolin (M. paleojavanica), is extinct. 30Hill made use of ˇ Lacertae, and Andromedae, and several stars of the fourth through sixth magnitudes in Andromeda with Flamsteed numbers 3 to 18 to form this constellation. 2 Cygni probably marks the tail. Some of the stars were used by the German astronomer Johan Elert Bode to create the obsolete constellation Honores Frederici in 1787; see Volume 1. 31 Andromedae. B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 187 and another32 much larger at the eye; and there is a third also, a conspicuous and beautiful star, at the extremity of the tongue. At each of the fore feet there is also one star,33 and on the lower part of the back there runs a series of five.34 Below these there is one35 larger and more conspicuous at the origin of the hinder leg on the right side; and at the foot of the hinder left leg there is another very considerable one36; this stands very near the head of the Lizard. At the beginning of the tail there is a small star37 on the left side, and a little lower, on the same side, there is another38 at a considerable distance; below this there stand two more almost opposite to one another,39 and placed one on each side of that part of the tail. These are opposite to the right hand of Cepheus. At some distance below these is a single and very conspicuous star, this is on the right side of the tail toward the end, and it is very near the little star40 at the extremity of the tail of Cygnus. The remaining stars of the Manis are only four, one of them stands at some distance below, this is in the middle of the tail, and beyond this there are two near together also in the middle, and, finally, one at the extremity of the tail, not an inconsiderable one, though smaller than many of the others (Fig. B.11). This and twelve others are the constellations, added to those already formed, in this work. There appeared a deficiency of some figure in those places where they are situated, and these figures very happily fill them. If they are accepted by those who profess astronomy, I shall be glad to have added something, be it ever so little, to the science; if they are neglected, there is only a little trouble lost. They have taken up but about as many pages in the description, and the stars, of which they are composed, must have stood in the plates where they are given, whether or not they had been connected together by the faint out-line under which they are disposed.

Patella (The Limpet)

PATELLA. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and composed of a little cluster of very conspicuous unformed stars, near the right shoulder of Ophiuchus.41 The creature, under the out-lines of whose ﬁgure these are disposed,

32 Andromedae. 334 and 18 Andromedae. 347, 8, and 11 Andromedae; the other two Hill mentions are unclear. 353 Andromedae. 36˛ Lacertae. 379 Andromedae. 38ˇ Lacertae. 39One of these stars is 2 Cygni; the other is unclear. 40Hill may have meant Cygni. 41Hill appears to have appropriated the fourth- through fifth- magnitude stars 66, 68 and 70 Ophiuchi to form this constellation. Along with 73 Ophiuchi, these stars were formed into the obsolete constellation Taurus Poniatovii by Marcin Odlanicki Poczobut in 1777 (see Volume 1). Hill’s text does not provide an illustration for Patella. 188 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) ) overlaid on a modern chart. Hill’s figure was drawn, incompletely, near the edge 1754 ( Urania Lacertae to the tip as shown here are conjecture based on Hill’s narrative description in the main text ˇ The figure of Manis (the Pangolin) from John Hill’s of a map; the pangolin’s left rear foot and its tail from Fig. B.11 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 189 is the common Limpet,42 a shell-fish, frequent about our rocks, and very familiarly known to all who have at all considered that part of the animal creation; it is placed with its opening, or broad part, opposite to the shoulder of Ophiuchus. The Patella is a small constellation, and contains only a few stars; their exact place and situation may be seen in its figure given with that of Ophiuchus. The constellations, between which it is situated, are Ophiuchus, the Serpent, and the Eagle; but it is more distant from the two latter, and its situation is sufficiently ascertained with respect to the former only. The stars of which it is composed are easily counted, for, they are only four, but they are all large and beautiful ones; three43 of these which are disposed almost in a line, mark the bottom of the shell, and one44 which stands single over them, the top.

Pinna Marina (The Pen Shell)

PINNA, or Pinna Marina. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and formed of a cluster of very conspicuous stars near the left foot of Antinous. The occasion of making new constellations is in no part of the heavens so conspicuous as with respect to this of Antinous. The stars of which it is composed, although of a very considerable consequence as to the size, and of considerable number, were formerly reckoned among those of the Eagle, or rather were counted with them under the name of the unformed stars of the Eagle; although some of them are very remote from that constellation. It was a great assistance to the astronomers to arrange these into a new constellation, and yet this has not done what was intended perfectly, for still there remain a cluster of considerable stars between Antinous and Ophiuchus’s Serpent, so situated, that they are as near one as the other, and as proper to be added to the numbers of one as of the other. It is of these that the new constellation, here proposed, is formed. It is of small extent, and it takes in but few stars, but they are large, conspicuous, and, as has been already observed, remote from all the other constellations. The creature, under the out-lines of whose figure they are represented, is a shell-fish,45 an inhabitant of the seas, somewhat approaching to the nature of the muscle kind, but very large, and having, in the place of their beard, a tuft of fine silky matter of

42Limpets are aquatic snails whose shells are relatively flat and roughly conical in shape; used generically, the term refers to any gastropod whose shell shows no obvious sign of coiling. Hill’s name for the constellation comes from the genus Patella, so named for its ‘dish-shaped’ shell. 4366, 67 and 68 Ophiuchi. 4470 Ophiuchi. 45Pen shells are bivalve molluscs belonging to the genus Pinna and whose origins date to the Carboniferous period. Hill likely refers to the type species P. nobilis, a Mediterranean variety that was important historically as the main source of sea silk, a very fine and valuable fiber made from the byssus secreted by a gland in the animal’s foot and used to secure its shell to the sea floor. 190 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) great length, of which, in some places, they make gloves and other manufactures. It is represented in the constellation with the smaller end, or head, upwards, the lip downward, and the tuft, or beard, extended. The constellations, between which it is placed, are Antinous, the Serpent, and Sagittary.46 There is a large extent of the heavens between these, but it is only in that part of it near Antinous that there are any conspicuous stars, all about the head of Sagittary is in a manner vacant. These stars, toward Antinous, are the cluster which make the new constellation; the whole figure of the shell stands between the tail of the Serpent and the two feet of Antinous, and the beard is extended almost to one of those feet ; the head of Sagittary is directly under the shell, but it is at a great distance. The conspicuous stars in the Pinna are only seven, but they are very conspicuous, and they are disposed in the following manner. One of them47 is at the extremity or head of the shell; this is not a very inconsiderable star, and yet it is smaller than any of the other six. There is another single star48 a little lower down, just, where the beard has its passage out of the shell. In the beard itself there are two, one49 at the extremity, and the other50 at a little distance from it, and the other three are at the other end of the shell near the lip of it, one51 of them is at one corner of the lip, another52 is in the out-line a little above it, and the last53 is on the verge of the lip, but not at the corner (Fig. B.12).

Scarabaeus (The Rhinoceros Beetle)

SCARABÆUS. A constellation offered to the astronomical world, and formed of a cluster of conspicuous stars, which occupy a little space in the heavens, left between the constellations Ophiuchus, Libra, and Scorpio.54

46Hill completely ignored here the constellation Scutum Sobieskii introduced by Johannes Hevelius in 1684 and published in his Firmamentum Sobiescianum (1687), which was in wide circulation by the mid-18th century. He also borrowed two stars from the obsolete constellation Antinoüs (see Volume 1) now catalogued as Á Scuti and 12 Aquilae. 47ˇ Scuti. 48The variable R Scuti (V = +5.2) is the only plausible candidate star in this area. 4912 Aquilae. 50Á Scuti. 51ı Scuti. 52 Scuti. 53˛ Scuti. 54To form Scarabaeus, Hill took a handful of fourth magnitude and fainter stars below the body of Serpens and almost directly above the head of Scorpius including , , , 16 and 18 Scorpii, stars traditionally associated with Scorpius’ northern claw in antiquity and later with Libra; see, B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 191 ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The ﬁgure of Pinna Marina (the Limpet) from John Hill’s Fig. B.12 192 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754)

The species of Beetle, under the out-lines of whose form these are arranged, is that singular and beautiful one, known by the name of the Rhinoceros Beetle,55 and preserved in all the cabinets of the curious; it is represented in a posture of moving, with his back toward the leg of Ophiuchus, and its horn turned up towards his thigh. It is a very small constellation, but in proportion to the extent that it occupies in the heavens, it contains a sufficient number of stars, and these, in general, very conspicuous: they have been used to be accounted among the unformed stars of the other constellations, but this is so uncertain, and confused a method of speaking of them, that it is certainly better to have them, like the stars of those constellations, arranged under the lines of some figure, and much more familiar and perspicuous; for instance, to call one of them the upper or the lower star in the horn of the Beetle, than by any number of the unformed ones of such a constellation, though with the addition of a letter from Bayer. The Scarabæus is situated but at a small distance from any of these constellations which are about it. The whole space left between the three is not equal to more than half one of the scales of the balance, and the little constellation is nearly in the middle of it, but nearer to the two others than to Ophiuchus. The Serpent is over the Beetle’s head, its horn runs parallel with the arm of Ophiuchus, and is pointed, as before observed, at his thigh; one of the scales of Libra is under the hinder part of its belly, and its rump is turned to the Scorpion, almost touching the extremities of two of his fore legs. The conspicuous stars in the Beetle are nine, they stand in a pretty cluster, and some of them are very conspicuous; there is one56 in the extremity of the head, just at the insertion of the horn, this is a small one, but in the horn there are two both large, and very conspicuous, one57 of these is toward the insertion, and not at a great distance from that at the root, the other58 is more than twice as far from that, as that is from the firsts this is a very bright star, and stands at the tip of the horn; at the joining of the head to the back there is also one,59 and that a bright star, and there are two in the legs,60 one at the extremity of the first, and the other at the extremity of the second leg; there is also one61 on the lower out-line of the body, at

e.g., Figure Ii in Hevelius (1690). The constellation boundaries deemed official by the International Astronomical Union in 1928 assigned them entirely to Scorpius. 55Rhinoceros beetles (Dynastinae) are a subfamily of the scarab beetle family, Scarabaeidae,also commonly known as horn beetles. Over 300 species are known within the subfamily, reaching sizes of up to 15 cm. Despite their imposing appearance, they neither sting nor bite and are thus harmless to humans. 56It is unclear to which star Hill refers. 5716 Scorpii. 5818 Scorpii. 59 Scorpii. 60There are no plausible candidate stars at the location indicated by Hill. It is possible he intended the star 50 Librae, but that star does not match his figure particularly well. 61 Scorpii. B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 193 the insertion of the thigh of the hinder leg; and one62 almost opposite to this, at the out-line of the back. The ninth, or last star63 in the Beetle, is at the extremity of its rump, and comes between the toes of the first and second leg of Scorpio (Fig. B.13).

Testudo (The Tortoise)

TESTUDO. A constellation offered to the astronomical world in the plates of this work, and composed of certain conspicuous and unformed stars over the constellation Cetus64; it is not a very large one, but for the space it occupies in the heavens, it comprehends a considerable number of stars. The figure under which it is represented is that of a tortoise,65 drawing up its legs within, or nearly within the shell, and stretching out its neck, a common posture with that slow animal, when apprehensive of danger. The constellations between which the Tortoise is placed, are the Whale, the Fishes, and the water of Aquarius; there is left a vacant space in the heavens between these, and this is very happily occupied by the figure; it seems crawling over the tail, and toward the back of the Whale. The two fishes are carried almost parallel over its back, and its tail is pointed toward the urn of Aquarius, it is in its hinder part, very near one of the fishes, but at a greater distance from Aquarius, and it is toward the head, very near the Whale. The conspicuous stars in the constellation Testudo are twenty-six. Six of these are in the head, five in the tail, and three in the fore, and two in the hind foot; and the rest are distributed over the body. Of those in the head, there is one66 at the extremity, and two67 near the upper out-line; there is a single star68 near the insertion of the neck to the shell, and there are four69 toward the anterior part, and five toward the hinder part of the shell; one of these last is almost lost by being close to a larger. In the fore paw there are three, two of these very close to one another,70 and the

62 Scorpii. 6311 Scorpii. 64Hill formed Testudo from an assortment of fourth-magnitude and fainter stars in northern Cetus and southern Pisces mostly east of the vernal equinox point. 65Tortoisesareafamily(Testudinidae) of exclusively land-dwelling reptiles in the order Testudines that vary in adult size from a few centimeters to 2 m. The animals are protected from predators by a bony shell fused to the vertebrae and the ribcage into which they can partially or wholly withdraw. Tortoises are generally reclusive and diurnal to crepuscular depending on the ambient temperature. 6643 Ceti. 6742and38Ceti. 6834 Ceti. 69It is unclear to which stars Hill here refers. 70Unclear. 194 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The figure of Scarabaeus (the Rhinoceros Beetle) from John Hill’s Fig. B.13 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 195 other71 at a distance, in the hinder foot one of the two, the anterior one72 is a large and bright star, and the other73 is equal to most of the others. Of the five at the tail, one74 is very near its insertion to the body, and the other four75 are very near its extremity, and near to one another; these are at a small distance from the lower fish (Fig. B.14).

Uranoscopus (The Stargazer Fish)

URANOSCOPUS, the Star-Gazer. A constellation offered to the astronomical world in these observations, and composed of certain conspicuous and unformed stars between the constellation Lynx and the sign Gemini76. The figure, place, and situation of the stars of which it is composed, have been exhibited in the same plate with the constellation Gemini. The Uranoscope is a sea-fish of peculiar figure,77 and has its name from its eyes being in such a position that it always looks upwards. Nature has destined it for living at the bottom of the seas, and its prey being always above it, this is the only direction of the eyes that could be useful. Most of the writers in natural history have named it, and it will be found figured and described at large in the history of animals, published, some time since, by the author of these observations. The constellation is of considerable extent, and, in proportion to the space it occupies in the heavens, is not ill furnished with stars. These are happily enough disposed to represent the figure, and the constellation is in this the more marked, that it takes in all the visible stars in that part of the space which it occupies; and without any forcing of the out-line, does not leave one out any where. The figure is that of a fish with a large head, the eyes looking upward, a body very thick toward the head, but thinner all the way to the tail, and that fin a broad one. It is very well marked in its place in the heavens, for it is over the head of Gemini, and under the belly of the Lynx, the rest of the constellations about it are Auriga and Cancer, there

7125 Ceti. 7230 Piscium. 73Unclear. 7420 Piscium. 7513 and 14 Piscium, and HD 221146 and HD 221147. 76To form Uranoscopus, Hill made use of three fifth-magnitude stars in northern Gemini (o, and 70 Geminorum) and several in eastern Auriga (including 63, 65, 66, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8 Aurigae). Many of the same stars became part of Maximilan Hell’s now-defunct constellation Telescopium Herschelii Major in 1789; see Volume 1. 77Uranoscopus is a genus of venomous, perciform ‘stargazer’ fishes in the family Uranoscopidae, so named for their eyes placed atop their heads. The family consists of 51 extant and one extinct species in eight genera. All living species are found in marine environments, inhabiting both shallow and deep waters. 196 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The figure of Testudo (the Tortoise) from John Hill’s Fig. B.14 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) 197 is a small space left between these four constellations, in the middle part of which, and not very near to any of them, are the arrangement of stars, now thrown into a constellation, under the form of the Uranoscope; that sign is thence detached from all of them, and, as it were, situated at equal distance among them. The belly of the Lynx runs almost parallel with the body of this fish, its head is under the fore legs of the Lynx, and at a small distance from the right shoulder of Auriga; its tail is just over the head of Gemini, and its body over the extended arm of one of them, that which holds the dart. Cancer is at some little distance behind its tail, and below it. The conspicuous stars in the constellation Uranoscope are seventeen, and of these there are several very considerable; there is one78 at the extremity of the head, and a little behind it another79 smaller, at some little distance behind these stand two80 in the place of the eyes, both conspicuous and bright, a little beyond these are two81 placed on the lower out-line, and at some distance beyond these is a cluster of four,82 placed also near the lower out-line, at the head of the body; after this there are three, two83 of these are near the upper outline, and one84 is in the middle; beyond these is a single one85 near the middle, then two86 others also near the middle, and the last,87 or seventeenth, is in the centre of the fork of the tail; this is smaller than the rest, but it is sufficiently conspicuous (Fig. B.15).

78 4 Aurigae. 79 5 Aurigae. 80 2 and 7 Aurigae. 81 3 and 51 Aurigae. 8259, 8 and 62 Aurigae, and HD 50576(?). 8364 and 66 Aurigae. 8463 Aurigae. 8565 Aurigae(?). 86o and 70 Geminorum. 87 Geminorum. 198 B The Constellations of John Hill (1754) ) overlaid on a modern chart 1754 ( Urania The ﬁgure of Uranoscopus (the Stargazer Fish) from John Hill’s Fig. B.15 Appendix C The Modern Constellations

Nominative Genitive Abbreviation Origin Andromeda Andromedae And Ancient (Ptolemy) Antlia Antliae Ant Lacaille (1763) Apus Apodus Aps Keyser & de Houtman Aquarius Aquarii Aqr Ancient (Ptolemy) Aquila Aquilae Aql Ancient (Ptolemy) Ara Arae Ara Ancient (Ptolemy) Aries Arietis Ari Ancient (Ptolemy) Auriga Aurigae Aur Ancient (Ptolemy) Bötes Böotis Boo Ancient (Ptolemy) Caelum Caeli Cae Lacaille (1763) Camelopardalis Camelopardalis Cam Plancius (1613) Cancer Cancri Cnc Ancient (Ptolemy) Canes Venatici Canum Venaticorum CVn Hevelius (1690) Canis Major Canis Majoris CMa Ancient (Ptolemy) Canis Minor Canis Minoris CMi Ancient (Ptolemy) Capricornus Capricorni Cap Ancient (Ptolemy) Carina Carinae Car Lacaille (1763) Cassiopeia Cassiopeiae Cas Ancient (Ptolemy) Centaurus Centauri Cen Ancient (Ptolemy) Cepheus Cephei Cep Ancient (Ptolemy) Cetus Ceti Cet Ancient (Ptolemy) Chamaeleon Chamaeleontis Cha Keyser & de Houtman Circinus Circini Cir Lacaille (1763) Columba Columbae Col Plancius (1592) (continued)

Nominative Genitive Abbreviation Origin Coma Berenices Comae Com Bayer (1603) Corona Australis Corona CrA Ancient (Ptolemy) Corona Borealis Corona CrB Ancient (Ptolemy) Indus Indi Ind Keyser & de Houtman Lacerta Lacertae Lac Hevelius (1690) Leo Leonis Leo Ancient (Ptolemy) Leo Minor Leo Minoris Lmi Hevelius (1690) Lepus Leporis Lep Ancient (Ptolemy) Libra Librae Lib Ancient (Ptolemy) Lupus Lupi Lup Ancient (Ptolemy) Lynx Lyncis Lyn Hevelius (1690) Lyra Lyrae Lyr Ancient (Ptolemy) Mensa Mensae Men Lacaille (1763) Microscopium Microscopii Mic Lacaille (1763) Monoceros Monocerotis Mon Plancius (1613) Musca Muscae Mus Keyser & de Houtman Norma Normae Nor Lacaille (1763) Octans Octantis Oct Lacaille (1763) Ophiuchus Ophiuchi Oph Ancient (Ptolemy) Orion Orionis Ori Ancient (Ptolemy) Pavo Pavonis Pav Keyser & de Houtman Pegasus Pegasi Peg Ancient (Ptolemy) Perseus Persei Per Ancient (Ptolemy) Phoenix Phoenicis Phe Keyser & de Houtman Pictor Pictoris Pic Lacaille (1763) Pisces Piscium Psc Ancient (Ptolemy) Piscis Austrinus Piscis Austrini PsA Ancient (Ptolemy) Puppis Puppis Pup Lacaille (1763) Pyxis Pyxidis Pyx Lacaille (1763) Reticulum Reticuli Ret Lacaille (1763) Sagitta Sagittae Sge Ancient (Ptolemy) Sagittarius Sagittarii Sgr Ancient (Ptolemy) Scorpius Scorpii Sco Ancient (Ptolemy) Sculptor Sculptoris Scl Lacaille (1763) Scutum Scuti Sct Hevelius (1690) Serpens Serpentis Ser Ancient (Ptolemy) Sextans Sextantis Sex Hevelius (1690) Taurus Tauri Tau Ancient (Ptolemy) Telescopium Telescopii Tel Lacaille (1763) Triangulum Trianguli Tri Ancient (Ptolemy) Triangulum Australe Trianguli Australis TrA Keyser & de Houtman Tucana Tucanae Tuc Keyser & de Houtman (continued) C The Modern Constellations 201

Nominative Genitive Abbreviation Origin Ursa Major Ursae Majoris UMa Ancient (Ptolemy) Ursa Minor Ursae Minoris UMi Ancient (Ptolemy) Vela Velorum Vel Lacaille (1763) Virgo Virginis Vir Ancient (Ptolemy) Volans Volantis Vol Keyser & de Houtman Vulpecula Vulpeculae Vul Hevelius (1690) Ursa Major Ursae Majoris UMa Ancient (Ptolemy) Ursa Minor Ursae Minoris UMi Ancient (Ptolemy) Vela Velorum Vel Lacaille (1763) Virgo Virginis Vir Ancient (Ptolemy) Volans Volantis Vol Keyser & de Houtman Vulpecula Vulpeculae Vul Hevelius (1690) References

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Symbols ˇ Boötis (star), 18 ˛ Aquilae (star), 22 ˇ Carinae (star), 21 ˛ Aurigae (star), 159 ˇ Centauri (star), 16 ˛ Boötis (star), 57, 58 ˇ Comae Berenices (star), 163 ˛ Cygni (star), 22 ˇ Cygni (star), 18 ˛ Lacertae (star), 187 ˇ Delphini (star), 19 ˛ Lyrae (star), 22 ˇ Draconis (star), 21 ˛ Scuti (star), 190 ˇ Lacertae (star), 127 ˛ Serpentis (star), 57, 58 ˇ Librae (star), 17, 57 ˛ Virginis (star), 170 ˇ Pegasi (star), 19 ˛ Andromedae (star), 19 ˇ Persei (star), 35, 38, 46 ˛ Aquilae (star), 21 ˇ Reticuli (star), 86 ˛ Boötis (star), 6, 18, 57 ˇ Ursae Majoris (star), 16 ˛ Canem Venaticorum (star), 158 ˇ Ursae Minoris (star), 16 ˛ Canis Majoris (star), xii, 6, 21 Scorpii (star), 190, 192 ˛ Canis Minoris (star), 21 ı Scuti (star), 190 ˛ Carinae (star), 101 ı Boötis (star), 18 as ‘MUL.NUN.KI’, 101 ı Cygni (star), 18 ˛ Centauri (star), 16 ı Delphini (star), 19 ˛ Columbae (star), 21 ı Sagittarii (star), 19, 21 ˛ Cygni (star), 18, 21 ı Velorum (star), 16, 21 ˛ Delphini (star), 19 Herculis (star), 20 ˛ Eridani (star), 101, 104 Scuti (star), 190 ˛ Lacertae (star), 127 Carinae (star), 16, 21 ˛ Leonis (star), 19 Cygni (star), 18 ˛ Librae (star), 17 Herculis (star), 19 ˛ Lyrae (star), 6, 21 Leonis (star), 19 ˛ Orionis (star), xii, 21 Sagittarii (star), 19 ˛ Pegasi (star), 19 Á Herculis (star), 20 ˛ Reticuli (star), 86 Á Scuti (star), 190 ˛ Ursae Majoris (star), 16 Á Virginis (star), 28 ˛ Ursae Minoris (star), 16, 154 Á Aquarii (star), 19 ˇ Lacertae (star), 186, 187 Á Herculis (star), 19 ˇ Librae (star), 57, 58 Á Leonis (star), 19 ˇ Scuti (star), 190 Á Scorpii (star), 95

Hydrae (star), 170 Puppis (star), 21 Aquarii (star), 19 Sagittarii (star), 19 Boötis (star), 18 o Andromedae (star), 127 Delphini (star), 19 o Geminorum (star), 195, 197 Doradus (star), 85 2 Andromedae (star), 186 Draconis (star), 21 2 Cygni (star), 187 Leonis (star), 19 2 Aurigae (star), 195, 197 Pegasi (star), 19 3 Aurigae (star), 195, 197 Piscium (star), 21 4 Aurigae (star), 195, 197 Sagittarii (star), 19 5 Aurigae (star), 195, 197 Ã Andromedae (star), 127 6 Aurigae (star), 195 Ã Carinae (star), 16, 21 7 Aurigae (star), 197 Ã Herculis (star), 21 8 Aurigae (star), 195, 197 Ã Piscium (star), 21 Acochlidium (slug genus), 181 Ä Andromedae (star), 127 Annelida (phylum), 180, 184 Ä Piscium (star), 21 Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus), 42, 44 Ä Velorum (star), 16, 21 De lingua Latina (Varro), 153 Andromedae (star), 186, 187 Dynastinae, 192 Andromedae (star), 127 Hirudinea (leech subclass), 180 Piscium (star), 21 Metamorphoses (Ovid), 43 Sagittarii (star), 19 Oligochaeta (worm class), 184 Virginis (star), 57, 58 Pinna nobilis, 189 Leonis (star), 19 Pinna (pen shell genus), 189 Tauri (star), 180 Testudinidae, 193 ! Carinae (star), 21 Theogony (Hesiod), 42 Sagittarii (star), 19 Uranoscopidae (family), 195 Geminorum (star), 195, 197 Uranoscopus (genus), 195 Herculis (star), 20 Almagest (Ptolemy), 8 Aquarii (star), 19 Antigone (Sophocles), 43 Herculis (star), 19 Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus), 44 Andromedae (star), 186 Book of Prophecies (Columbus), 89 Scorpii (star), 190, 192 Cosmographicus Liber (Apianus), 151 Andromedae (star), 127 Délimitation scientiﬁque des constellations Cygni (star), 187 (Delporte), 14 Boötis (star), 18 Danaë’s Lament (Simonides of Ceos), 43 Cygni (star), 127 Eranos,44 Boötis (star), 18 Glaucomys sabrinus, 138 Sagittarii (star), 19 Glaucomys volans, 138 Virginis (star), 57, 58 History of Stones (Theophrastus), 165 Sagittarii (star), 19 Idomeneo (opera), 74 Virginis (star), 57 Imago Mundi (d’Ailly), 88 Â Carinae (star), 21 Kibisis, 44, 45 Â Piscium (star), 21 London Advertiser and Literary Gazette, 165 Â Scorpii (star), 95 Metamorphoses (Ovid), 104 Carinae (star), 21 Niña (ship), 89 †385 (star), 137 Pinta (ship), 89 Scorpii (star), 190, 193 Prodromus Astronomiae (Hevelius), ix Draconis (star), 21 Ruta graveolens,64 Boötis (star), 58 Santa Maria (ship), 89 Herculis (star), 20 Shield of Heracles,42 Tauri (star), 180 Suda (encyclopedia), 102 Aquarii (star), 19 TheVegetableSystem(Hill), 165 Herculis (star), 19 Theogony (Hesiod), 42 Leonis (star), 19 Timaeus (Plato), 106 Index 209

Urania: or, A Compleat View of the Heavens 65 Aurigae (star), 197 (Hill), 166, 168 65 Geminorum (star), 195 Uranographia (Bode), ix 66 Aurigae (star), 197 Cygnus (constellation), 157 66 Geminorum (star), 195 Gorgons (Greek mythology), 41 66 Ophiuchi (star), 189 Hades (Greek mythology), 41 67 Ophiuchi (star), 189 Medusa (Greek mythology), 41, 42 68 Ophiuchi (star), 189 Pegasus (constellation), 40 69 Aquilae (star), 117 Perseus (Greek mythology), 41 7 Andromedae (star), 127, 187 Perseus (constellation), 45 70 Aquilae (star), 117 Spain 70 Geminorum (star), 195, 197 Palos de la Frontera (city), 89 70 Ophiuchi (star), 189 ‘Abbas¯ I of Persia, 111 71 Aquilae (star), 117 1 Aquarii (star), 117 8 Andromedae (star), 127, 187 1 Cancri (star), 184 85 Geminorum (star), 184 1 Canis Minoris (star), 184 9 Andromedae (star), 187 1 Lacertae (star), 127 9 Lacertae (star), 127 1 Pegasi (star), 27, 28 9 Pegasi (star), 27, 29 11 Andromedae (star), 187 11 Canis Minoris (star), 184 11 Scorpii (star), 193 A 12 Aquilae (star), 190 Aachen (Germany), 135 12 Lacertae (star), 127 Aachen Cathedral, 134 13 Piscium (star), 195 Abbasid dynasty, 96 14 Piscium (star), 195 Achernar (star), 101, 104 15 Lacertae (star), 127 Acrisius (Greek mythology), 40, 43 16 Scorpii (star), 190, 192 Adad (Akkadian mythology), 95 18 Andromedae (star), 187 Adhafera (star), 19 18 Scorpii (star), 190, 192 Adriatic Sea, 106 2 Lacertae (star), 127 Africa, 87, 88, 105 20 Piscium (star), 195 Cape of Good Hope, 88 25 Ceti (star), 195 Afrikaans (language), 19 3 Andromedae (star), 127, 187 Age of Exploration, 147 3 Aquarii (star), 117 Ahab (literary ﬁgure), 81, 82 3 Cancri (star), 184 Akkadian culture, 95 30 Piscium (star), 195 Al Jabhah (star), 19 34 Ceti (star), 193 al-S. uf¯ ¯ı, ‘Abd al-Rahman, 155, 157 38 Ceti (star), 193 as “Azophi”, 155 4 Andromedae (star), 187 al-Mutawakkil (Abbasid caliph), 96 4 Aquarii (star), 117 Albert I, Elector of Brandenburg, 64 4 Lacertae (star), 127 Albert the Bear, 64 42 Ceti (star), 193 Albireo (star), 18 43 Ceti (star), 193 Alcázar Castle, 89 5 Cancri (star), 184 Alexander III of Macedon (“the Great”), 17 50 Librae (star), 192 Alexandria (Egypt), 8, 17 51 Aurigae (star), 197 Alfonso V of Portugal, 87 59 Aurigae (star), 197 Alfraganus (astronomer), 88 59 Sagittarii (star), 21 Alfred, Lord Tennyson (poet), 94 6 Canis Minoris (star), 184 Algenib (star), 19 60 Sagittarii (star), 21 Algieba (star), 19 62 Aurigae (star), 197 Algol (star), 35, 38, 46 62 Sagittarii (star), 21 Alhambra Decree, 133 63 Geminorum (star), 195 Alnasl (star), 19 64 Aurigae (star), 197 Alpheratz (star), 19 210 Index

Alsace, 131 70 Aquilae (star), 117 Altair (star), 21, 22 71 Aquilae (star), 117 Americas, 88–91 HD194244 (star), 117 Anaximander of Miletus, 144 HD194263 (star), 117 Ancien Régime (French history), 135 Ara (constellation), 95 Andromeda (constellation), 35, 39, 40, Aragón (Spain), 89 125–127, 129 Arana, Beatriz Enríquez de, 87 ˛ (star), 19 Aranea (constellation), 170 Ã (star), 127 Arctophylax, 109 Ä (star), 127 Arcturus (star), 6, 18, 57 (star), 127, 186, 187 Argo Navis (constellation), xii, 8, 17, 18, 59, (star), 127, 186 77, 110, 111 o (star), 127 Partition by Lacaille, 17 11 Andromedae (star), 187 Argos (Greece), 43 18 Andromedae (star), 187 Ariadne (Greek mythology), 51 3 Andromedae (star), 127, 187 Ascella (star), 19 4 Andromedae (star), 187 Asia, 87–90 7 Andromedae (star), 127, 187 Aspidiske (star), 16, 21 8 Andromedae (star), 127, 187 Assyrian culture, 7 9 Andromedae (star), 187 Asterism, 15, 16 Andromeda (Greek mythology), 39, 41 Alias, 18 Anguilla (constellation), 169 Cross-border, 18, 21 Anna Sophie of Denmark, 61 Non-sectional, 18, 19 Anne of Austria, 129–131 Sectional, 18 Anser (constellation), 176 Astraea (Greek mythology), 17 Antinoüs (constellation), 67, 70, 71, 93, 117, Astraeus (Greek mythology), 17 174, 189, 190 Aswan High Dam (Egypt), 98 Antlia (constellation), xi, 82 Athena (Greek mythology), 43, 44 Aphrodite (Greek mythology), 17 Atlantic Ocean, 88–91 Apianus, Petrus (cartographer), 147, 148, 150, Atlantis, 106 152, 154, 155, 157, 160 Atlas (Greek mythology), 8 Apianus, Philip (mathematician), 147, 150 Atlas, King of Mauretania (Greek mythology), Apollo (Greek mythology), 51, 52, 104, 105 45 as “Apollon Musegetes”, 51 Augsburg (Germany), 49, 53 Aquarius (constellation), 67, 70, 71, 93–97, 99, Augustus II of Poland, 62 169–171, 174, 193 Auriga (constellation), 159, 195 Á (star), 19 ˛ (star), 159 (star), 19 2 (star), 195, 197 (star), 19 3 (star), 195, 197 (star), 19 4 (star), 195, 197 “Fluvius Aquarii”, 95 5 (star), 195, 197 1 Aquarii (star), 117 6 (star), 195 3 Aquarii (star), 117 7 (star), 197 4 Aquarii (star), 117 8 (star), 195, 197 Association with the Nile, 96 51 Aurigae (star), 197 Flood imagery, 96 59 Aurigae (star), 197 Heliacal setting, 96 62 Aurigae (star), 197 Relation to Egyptian Hapi, 96 64 Aurigae (star), 197 Zodiac symbol, 96 65 Aurigae (star), 197 Aquila (constellation), 52, 67, 70, 117, 169, 66 Aurigae (star), 197 176, 189 HD 50576 (star), 197 ˛ (star), 21, 22 Austria, 63, 120, 121, 131 12 Aquilae (star), 190 Salzburg (city), 49, 51, 53, 54 69 Aquilae (star), 117 Seckau (city), 53, 54 Index 211

Tyrol (region), 49 Book of Job, 7 Vienna (city), 63, 117–119, 121 Bourbon, Louis-Auguste de (Duke of Maine), Austrian Netherlands, 73 133 Avior (star), 16, 21 Brahe, Tycho (astronomer), 17 Avrillon, Marie Jeanne Pierrette, 135 Brandenburg (Germany) Azores, 88 Margraviate of, 62, 64 Brazil, xi British Magazine, 165 B Brussels (Belgium), 13, 72 Babylonian culture Bufo (constellation), 171 Neo-Babylonian, 7 Bute, John Stuart (3rd Earl), 165 Old Babylonian, 7 Byzantine Empire, 87 Baden-Württemberg (Germany), 69 Byzantium Balkan peninsula, 64 Constantinople (city), 87 Barbarossa, Frederick, 64 Baroque style, 62, 74 Battery of Volta (constellation), xi, 23, 27–29, C 33 Córdoba (Spain), 89 Battle of Vienna (1683), 63, 121 Caduceus, 161 Bavaria (Germany), 73, 74 Cairo Nilometer, 96, 97 Belgium Camelopardalis (constellation), 49, 137 Brussels (city), 13, 72 †385 (star), 137 Drogenbos (city), 72 CE (star), 137 Royal Observatory, 13 HD 21291 (star), 137 Uccle (city), 13 HD 21389 (star), 137 Berenice II of Egypt, 17 HD 22764 (star), 138 Bergen op Zoom (Netherlands), 72 HD 24480 (star), 138 Berndt, Johann Christoph (engraver), 49 HD 26670 (star), 138 Bernhard of Anhalt and Ballenstedt, 64 HD 27245 (star), 138 Berossus (astronomer), 144 Camnago (Italy), 31 Bertini, Giuseppe (painter), 32 Canada Besta Palace (Italy), 103 Newfoundland (region), 87 Betelgeuse (star), xii, 21 Canary Islands (Spain), 88 Bianchini, Francesco, 8 Cancer (constellation), 184, 195, 197 Bible 1 Cancri (star), 184 Old Testament, 16 3 Cancri (star), 184 Bienewitz, Martin (shoemaker), 147 5 Cancri (star), 184 Big Dipper (asterism), 6, 16, 154 Cancer Minor (constellation), xiii as “Plaustrum”, 152 Canes Venatici (constellation), xii, xiii, 156, Boötes (constellation), 57, 60, 109, 156, 158 158 ˛ (star), 158 ˛ (star), 6, 18, 57, 58 Canis Major (constellation), xii, 110 ˇ (star), 18 ˛ (star), xii, 6, 21 ı (star), 18 Canis Minor (constellation), xii, xiii, 184 (star), 18 ˛ (star), 21 (star), 18 1 Canis Minoris (star), 184 (star), 18 11 Canis Minoris (star), 184 (star), 58 6 Canis Minoris (star), 184 as “Arctophylax”, 109 HD 63352 (star), 184 Bohemia, 118, 120 Canopus (star), 101 Bologna (Italy), 31, 68 Cape of Good Hope, 88 Bolzano (Italy), 53 Capella (star), 159 Bonaparte, Napoleon, 32, 134, 135 Capricornus (constellation), 93, 96, 99, 117, Coronation, 134 169, 174 212 Index

Caput Medusae (constellation), xii, 19, 21, 35, Circlet (asterism), 21 38–40, 45–48, 103, 159 Classicism, 74 association with Algol, 46 Claudia Felicitas of Austria, 119 Caribbean Sea, 89 Clock, 145 Carina (constellation), 17 Clymene (Greek mythology), 104 ˛ (star), 101 Code Louis, 132 ˇ (star), 21 Colombo, Domenico, 87 (star), 16, 21 Columba (constellation), 109, 111 Ã (star), 16, 21 ˛ (star), 21 ! (star), 21 Columbus, Christopher (explorer), 85, 87–91, Â (star), 21 147 (star), 21 Appearance, 87 Cassiopeia (constellation), 35, 39, 40, 157, 186 as “Admiral of the Ocean Sea”, 89 Casteels, L. (astronomer), 13 Early life, 87 Castile (Spain), 87–89 Family, 87, 89 Catholic Monarchs, 88, 89 First voyage (1492), 89 CE Camelopardalis (star), 137 Marriage, 87 Celestial poles, 11 Voyages to the Americas, 89 Celestial sphere Columbus, Diego, 87 Declination, 11 Columbus, Ferdinand, 87 Hour circles, 13 Coma Berenices (constellation), xii, xiii, 17, Poles, 11 161 Right ascension, 11 ˇ (star), 163 Centaurus (constellation), 17, 59, 171 as “Berenices Crinis”, 17 ˛ (star), 16 as “Triches”, 158 ˇ (star), 16 Coma Star Cluster, 161, 163 Cepheus (constellation), 39, 40, 125–127, 157, Comets, 150 186, 187 Common rue, 64 Cepheus (Greek mythology), 39 Como (Italy), 30, 31 Cerberus (Greek mythology), 19 Congregation of the Mission, 69 Cerberus et Ramus Pomifer (constellation), Conon of Samos (astronomer), 17 xiii, 19, 176 Constantinople (Byzantium), 87 Ceres (Greek mythology), 17 Constellation Names, x Cetus (constellation), 40, 96, 178, 193 Abbreviations, xiii 25 Ceti (star), 195 Genitives, xi 34 Ceti (star), 193 Constellations 38 Ceti (star), 193 Abbreviations, 13 42 Ceti (star), 193 Boundaries, 11–14 43 Ceti (star), 193 Cor Caroli (star), 158 Chamaeleon (constellation), 18, 59 Corona Australis (constellation), xii, 52 Chambers, George F., 10 Corona Borealis (constellation), xii, xiii, Charlemagne, 134, 135 49–51, 53 Charles II August (Duke of Zweibrücken), 73 Corona Firmiana (constellation), 24, 50, 52, Charles II of Spain, 118, 132 53, 55 Charles III Philip of Bavaria, 72, 73 Corsica, 106 Charles IV (Holy Roman Emperor), 63, 74 Corvus (constellation), 170 Charles V (Holy Roman Emperor), 148, 150, Count Palatine, 72 154, 155 Counter-Reformation, 54 Charles V of Lorraine, 63 Croatia, 118 Charles VI (Holy Roman Emperor), 119 Crossed Swords of Saxony, 62–64 China, 88 Croswell, William, 85 Chip log, 78 Crown jewels of France, 134 Chysaor (Greek mythology), 44 Crux (constellation), 109–111 Circle of the Rhine, 75 as the Southern Cross, 16, 21 Index 213

Cujam (star), 19, 20 Dresden (Germany), 61–63 Cycnus (Greek mythology), 106, 107 Allied firebombing (1945), 62 Cygnus (constellation), 18, 127, 157, 158, 186, Fire of 1685, 62 187 Drie Susters (asterism), 19 ˛ (star), 18, 21, 22 Drogenbos (Belgium), 72 ˇ (star), 18 Duae Alae (Bedouin constellation), 150, 157, ı (star), 18 159 (star), 18 Dubhe (star), 16 (star), 187 Duchy of Bavaria, 69 (star), 127 Duchy of Jülich, 74 2 (star), 186, 187 Duchy of Milan, 30 Duke of Bavaria, 72, 73 Duke of Hanover D as Prince Elector, 120 d’Ailly, Pierre (astronomer), 88 Duke of Saxony, 61, 64 d’Aubigné, Françoise, Marquise de Maintenon, Dutchman’s log, 80 132 Dürer, Albrecht, 35 Danaë (Greek mythology), 39, 40, 43, 44 E Danube (river), 68 Earth (planet), 11 Daughters of the Bear (Bedouin constellation), Circumference, 88 157, 159 Precession of rotation axis, 11 David (Biblical figure), 46 Earthworm, 184 de Gama, Vasco (explorer), 147 East Indies, 112 de Houtman, Frederick (explorer), 112 East Prussia, 54 Dead reckoning, 81 Eclipsing binary, 46 Declaration of the clergy of France (1682), Edict of Expulsion of Protestants (1731), 54 132 Edict of Nantes (1598), 133 Declination, 11 Edinburgh (Scotland), 165 Delphi (Greece), 43 Egypt, 97 Delphinus (constellation), 27, 29, 93, 96, 169, Alexandria (city), 17 174 Egyptian X (asterism), 21 ˛ (star), 19 Elbe (river), 62 ˇ (star), 19 Elector of Bavaria, 73 ı (star), 19 Elector of Saxony, 61 (star), 19 Elector Palatine, 69, 73, 75 Job’s Coffin (asterism), 19 Electoral Palatinate, 69 Delporte, Eugène Joseph (astronomer), 13 Electorate of Saxony, 61, 63, 64 Demeter (Greek mythology), 17 Eleonore Magdalene of Neuburg, 119 Deneb (star), 18, 21, 22 Elijah (Biblical figure), 59 Dentalium (constellation), 174 Elisabeth Auguste of Sulzbach, 67, 69, 70, 72, Dial of Ahaz, 144 73 Diamond Cross (asterism), 21 Elmina (Ghana), 87 Dias, Bartolomeu (explorer), 88 Emigrationspatent (1731), 54 Dictys (Greek mythology), 44 England, 87 Dike (Greek mythology), 17 London (city) Dionysius (Syrian Orthodox Patriarch), 96 Moorfields (district), 166 Dolphin (constellation), 117 Westminster (borough), 165 Dorado (constellation), 85, 141 Northamptonshire (county), 165 (star), 85 Oxfordshire (county), 166 Draco (constellation), 157 Shirburn Castle, 166 ˇ (star), 21 Peterborough (soke), 165 (star), 21 Wallingford (city), 166 (star), 21 Enoch (Biblical figure), 59 214 Index

Enyo (Greek mythology), 42 New World, 138 Eos (Greek mythology), 17 Old World, 138 Epoch (time), 11 Fontanarossa, Susanna, 87 Equinox (time), 11 Fraccus, Ambrosius Novidius (poet), 46 1875.0, 13 France, 62, 63, 120, 121, 126, 131–134 Equuleus (constellation), 27, 29, 67, 70, 169 Lascaux (village), 7 Eridanus (constellation), 96, 101–106, 178, Metz (city), 131 181 Paris (city), 68, 132 ˛ (star), 101, 104 Toul (commune), 131 Eridanus (Greek mythology), 102 Verdun (city), 131 Eridu (city), 101 Versailles (city), 132, 133 Erzmarschall, 64 Francis II (Holy Roman Emperor), 74 Etamin (star), 21 Francis Louis Joseph of Bavaria, 73 Eudoxus of Cnidus, 7, 8 Franco-Spanish War, 118 Euphrates (river), 101 Franconia (Germany), 63 Eurasia, 88 Frankfurt (Germany), 49 Europe, 87, 88, 90, 91 Franz Xavier of Saxony, 68 European Wars of Religion, 121 Frederick Augustus of Saxony, 62 Euryale (Greek mythology), 41, 42, 44 Frederick I Barbarossa (Holy Roman Emperor), 64 Frederick I of Prussia, 120, 122 F Frederick II of Prussia, 73, 74 Fürstenbund, 73 Frederick III of Denmark, 61 Fürstenhoff, Johann Georg Maximilian von, Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg 62 as “King in Prussia”, 120, 122 False Cross (asterism), 16, 21 Frederick William I of Prussia, 54 Farnese Atlas, 8 Frederick William of Brandenburg, 63 Farnese Villa (Italy), 103 Freemasonry, 94 Farnese, Alessandro Cardinal, 8 Freiberg (Germany), 63 Felis (constellation), 77 French Revolution, 74, 131, 133, 135 Ferdinand Charles of Austria, 119 French Wars of Religion, 133 Ferdinand II of Aragón, 88–91 Frisius, Gemma (cartographer), 148, 151 Ferdinand III (Holy Roman Emperor), 118, Fronde (French history), 131 131 Frying Pan (asterism), 18 FerdinandIVofGermany,118 Fertile Crescent, 7 Fielding, Henry (novelist), 166 G Filiae Ursae Majoris (Bedouin constellation), Galilean satellites (Jupiter) 150 as “Medicean Stars”, 59 Finland, 138 Galilei, Galileo (astronomer), 4, 59 Firmian family, 49–51, 53, 54 Galileo Galilei (astronomer), 145 Firmian, Cardinal Leopold Ernst von, 54 Galvani, Luigi (physicist), 31 Firmian, Franz Wilhelm Freiherr von, 53 Gemini (constellation), 184, 195, 197 Firmian, Karl Joseph von, 54 (star), 195, 197 Firmian, Leopold Anton von (Prince- o (star), 195, 197 Archbishop), 49, 52–54 63 Geminorum (star), 195 as the “Salzburg Apollo”, 51 65 Geminorum (star), 195 First Punic War, 145 66 Geminorum (star), 195 First World War, 13 70 Geminorum (star), 195, 197 Fischer, Johann Nepomuk (astronomer), 69 85 Geminorum (star), 184 Fishhook (asterism), 18 Genoa, 87 Flintsbach (Germany), 68 George III of Great Britain, 165 Florence (Italy), 45 George William of Brunswick-Lüneburg, Flying squirrel, 138 63 Index 215

Germany, 54, 63 Peloponnesus (region), 63 Aachen (city), 135 Serifos (island), 44 Augsburg (city), 49, 53 Green, Jacob (author), 40, 42 Baden-Württemberg (region), 69 Greuter, Matthaeus (engraver), 103 Bavaria (region), 73, 74 Grumium (star), 21 Dresden (city), 61–63 Gryphites (constellation), 174, 176, 189 Flintsbach (town), 68 Gustav III of Sweden, 165 Franconia (region), 63 Frankfurt (city), 49 Freiberg (city), 63 H Heidelberg (city), 68 Hadar (star), 16 Ingolstadt (city), 148, 150, 154 Hades (Greek mythology), 44 Karlsruhe (city), 69 Halley, Edmond (astronomer), 59 Landshut (city), 147, 148, 151 Hand of Justice, 134, 135 Lauenburg (city), 64 Hapi (Egyptian mythology), 96 Leipzig, 147, 148 HD 194244 (star), 117 Leisnig, 147 HD 194263 (star), 117 Mainz (city), 63 HD 21291 (star), 137 Mannheim (city), 67–69, 72, 74 HD 21389 (star), 137 Munich (city), 53, 68–70, 74 HD 221146 (star), 195 Nazi regime, 64 HD 221147 (star), 195 Passau (city), 54 HD 22764 (star), 138 Regensburg (city), 120, 147 HD 24480 (star), 138 Rochlitz, 147 HD 26670 (star), 138 Rosenheim (district), 68 HD 27245 (star), 138 Saxony (federal state), 62 HD 50576 (star), 197 Schwetzingen, 74 HD 63352 (star), 184 Schwetzingen Castle, 68 Heidelberg (Germany), 68 Tübingen (city), 63, 148 Heliades (Greek mythology), 106 Upper Lusatia (region), 62 Helios (Greek mythology), 104–106 Weinheim (city), 73 Hell, Maximilian (astronomer), 178 Wittenberg (city), 54, 64 Helm of Hades, 44 Ghana, 87 Henry IV of France, 133 Elmina (city), 87 Henry the Lion, 64 Gienah (star), 18 Herbert, Sir Thomas (traveler), 110 Gladii Electorales Saxonici (constellation), Herculean Labours, 19 xiii, 21, 57, 58, 60, 65, 115 Hercules (constellation), 19, 174, 176 Globus Aerostaticus (constellation), xi (star), 19, 20 Globus cruciger, 121, 122 Á (star), 19, 20 Goa (India), 111 Ã (star), 21 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (writer), 54 (star), 19, 20 Golden Bull of 1356, 74, 75 (star), 19, 20 Goliath (Biblical ﬁgure), 46 Hercules (Greek mythology), 42 Goodricke, John (astronomer), 46 Hermes (Greek mythology), 44 Gorgons (Greek mythology), 41, 42, 44 Herschel, John (astronomer), 17 Gould, Benjamin Apthorp (astronomer), 13 Hesiod (poet), 42 Gout, 90 Hesperides (Greek mythology), 19, 42, 44 Graeae (Greek mythology), 42, 44 Hesperus (Greek mythology), 44 Granada (Spain), 88, 89 Hill, John (botanist), 39, 45, 165, 166, 168 Great Square (asterism), 19 Hill, Rev. Theophilus, 165 Great Turkish War (1683–99), 63 Hipparchos of Nicaea (astronomer), 17, 35, 39, Greece, 87, 106 47 Argos (city), 43 Hippocampus (constellation), 176, 178 Delphi (town), 43 Hippodamia (Greek mythology), 44 216 Index

Hirudo (constellation), 180 Como (city), 30, 31 Holy Roman Emperor, 120 Duchy of Milan, 30 Holy Roman Empire, 121 Farnese Villa, 103 Imperial Diet, 120, 131 Florence (city), 45 Imperial Estates, 54 Lake Maggiore, 30 Reichsvikar, 74 Liguria (region), 106 Honores Frederici (constellation), 23, 127, 186 Lombardy (region), 30 Horologium (constellation), 85, 141, 143, 146 Milan (city), 54 Horoscopion, 148 Naples (city), 8 House of Ascania, 64 Padua (city), 148 House of Bourbon, 132, 135 Rome (city), 54, 145 House of Habsburg, 73, 118–120, 131 Savona (city), 87 House of Palatinate-Birkenfeld, 73 South Tyrol (region), 53 House of Palatinate-Sulzbach, 72, 73 Teglio (city), 103 House of Palatinate-Zweibrücken-Birkenfeld, Izar (star), 18 74 House of Wittelsbach, 73, 74 House of Palatinate-Birkenfeld (branch), J 73 Jacob (Biblical ﬁgure), 16 House of Palatinate-Neuburg (branch), 73 Japan, 88, 138 House of Palatinate-Sulzbach (branch), 72 Job’s Cofﬁn (asterism), 19 Hungary, 118, 120, 121 Johann Christian of Bavaria, 72 Hyades (star cluster), 7 Johann Georg II of Saxony, 61 Hydra (constellation), 6, 82, 96, 170, 171 Johann Georg III of Saxony, 57, 59–63, 121 (star), 170 as the “Saxonian Mars”, 62 Hydrogen, 30 Death, 63 Hydrus (constellation), 141 Early life, 61 Marriage, 61 Mistresses, 62 I Johann Georg IV of Saxony, 63 Iberia, 88 John George IV of Saxony, 61, 62 Ice Cream Cone (asterism), 18 John II of Portugal, 88, 89 Iceland, 87 John III of Poland, 59 Ilha das Sete Cidades (legendary island), 88 Johnson, Joseph (publisher), 28 India Joséphine de Beauharnais, Empress of the Goa (state), 111 French, 135 Indian Ocean, 88 Joseph Charles of Sulzbach, 73 Ingolstadt (Germany), 148, 150, 154 Joseph I (Holy Roman Emperor), 119 Institute of Arts and Sciences (Bologna), 68 Joseph II (Holy Roman Emperor), 73 International Astronomical Union (IAU), x, xii, Jupiter (Greek mythology), 39, 41, 105, 106, xiii, 13 121 Commission 3 (Notations), 13, 14 Jupiter (planet), 59 II General Assembly (1925), 13 Galilean satellites, 59 III General Assembly (1928), 13, 14 Inzaghi, Maria Maddalena, 30 Ireland, 87 K Isabella I of Castile, 88, 89, 91 König, Karl-Joseph (astronomer), 67–69, 71 Isar (river), 68 Kant, Immanuel (philosopher), 5 Ishkur (Sumerian mythology), 95 Karl Theodor of Bavaria, 67–70, 72–74 Italy, 106 as Duke of Bavaria, 73 Besta Palace, 103 as Elector of Bavaria, 74 Bologna (city), 31, 68 Death, 74 Bolzano (city), 53 Early life, 72 Camnago (town), 31 Family, 73 Index 217

Marriage, 73 (star), 19 Patron of arts, 74 Á (star), 19 Karlsruhe (Germany), 69 (star), 19 Kaus Australis (star), 19 (star), 19 Kaus Brealis (star), 19 (star), 19 Kaus Media (star), 19 Leo Minor (constellation), xii Keto (Greek mythology), 42 Leo Palatinus (constellation), 23, 67, 68, 70, Keyser, Pieter Dirkszoon (navigator), 112 71, 93, 118 Kingdom of Bavaria, 75 Leopold I (Holy Roman Emperor), 61, 63, 115, Kingdom of Hungary, 54 117–122, 131 Kingdom of Naples, 87 as heir apparent, 118 Kingdom of Transylvania, 121 Death, 121 Kirch, Gottfried (astronomer), 57, 58, 60, 126, Early life, 118 181 Libra (constellation), 17, 57, 60, 97, 170, 171, Kite (asterism), 18 190, 192 Klemens Franz de Paula of Bavaria, 73 ˛ (star), 17 Klengel, Wolf Caspar von (builder), 62 ˇ (star), 17, 57, 58 Klepper, Max Francis (painter), 105 50 Librae (star), 192 Knot (measurement unit), 79 Libya, 42 Kochab (star), 16 Light pollution, 3 Ku-ir-ku (Akkadian mythology), 95 Liguria (Italy), 106 Ligurian Sea, 106 Lilium (constellation), 38, 126 L Linschoten, Jan Huyghen van (traveler), 111 Lacaille, Nicolas Louis de (astronomer), 18, Lion (heraldic symbol), 74 77, 85 Lisbon (Portugal), 87 Lacerta (constellation), 23, 125, 127, 129, 186, Littrow, Joseph Johann, 46 187 Lochium Funis (constellation), 21, 77–80, 82, ˛ (star), 127, 187 83 ˇ (star), 127, 186, 187 Log and line, 80 “Stellio”, 129 use, 78, 81 1 Lacertae (star), 127 Lombardy, 30 12 Lacertae (star), 127 Louis XIII of France, 129, 130 15 Lacertae (star), 127 Louis XIV of France, 62, 63, 118, 125–127, 2 Lacertae (star), 127 129, 131–135 4 Lacertae (star), 127 Birth, 129 9 Lacertae (star), 127 Death, 133 as “Stellio”, 128 Early years, 129 Lake Maggiore (Italy), 30 First marriage, 132 Lalande, Joseph Jérôme Lefrançois de Illegitimate children, 132 (astronomer), 53 Legacy, 133 Landshut (Germany), 147, 151 Legitimate children, 132 Langren, Michael Florent van (astronomer), 59 Persecution of Protestants, 133 Large Magellanic Cloud, 10 Personal rule, 131 Lascaux (France), 7 Personality cult, 132 Lascaux cave, 7 Regency, 130 Lauenburg (Germany), 64 Relations with the Church, 132 Le Monnier, Pierre-Charles (astronomer), 171 Second marriage, 132 League of Augsburg (1686), 63 Suppression of the nobility, 132 League of the Rhine, 118, 131 Louis XV of France, 133 Leipzig (Germany), 147, 148 Louis, le Grand Dauphin, 132, 133 Leisnig (Germany), 147 Louis, Duke of Burgundy, 133 Leo (constellation), 17, 52, 158 Lozenge (asterism), 21 ˛ (star), 19 LudwigIofBavaria,75 218 Index

Lumbricus (constellation), 184 Mesopotamia, 74, 101 Lupus (constellation), 17, 171 Eridu (city), 101 Luther, Martin (theologian), 54 Mesopotamian culture, 6, 7, 95, 96 Lynx (constellation), 171, 195, 197 Metz (France), 131 Lyra (constellation), 52, 176 Miaplacidus (star), 21 ˛ (star), 6, 21, 22 Milan (Italy), 54 Milky Way, 3–5, 137 Center, 5 M Origin, 5 Macclesfield, George Parker (2nd Earl), 166 Structure, 4, 5 Machina Electrica (constellation), xi Minerva (Greek mythology), 41, 42 Magdalena Sibylla of Neidschutz, 62 Minos of Crete (Greek mythology), 51 Magdalene Sybille of Brandenburg-Bayreuth, Mons Maenalus (constellation), 60 61 Moravia, 120 Magellan, Ferdinand (explorer), 147 Moses (Biblical figure), 94 Magellanic Clouds, 10 Mosner, Katharina, 147 Magnate conspiracy, 121 Mozart, Leopold (composer), 54 Main de Justice, 134, 135 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus (composer), 54, Mainz (Germany), 63 74 Malthus, Thomas (economist), 28 MUL.AS.IKU˘ (Babylonian constellation), 19 Malus (constellation), 17 MUL.APIN tablets, 6, 7 Manis (constellation), 186, 187 Munich (Germany), 53, 68–70, 74 Mannheim (Germany), 67–69, 72, 74 Musca Borealis (constellation), 38 Mannheim Observatory, 67–70 Mannheim Palace, 68 Margarita Teresa of Austria, 119 N Maria Anna of Spain, 118 Naos (star), 21 Maria Anna of Sulzbach, 73 Naples (Italy), 8 Maria Leopoldine of Austria-Este, 73 Napoleonic Wars, 75 Maria Theresa of Spain, 132 Navarre, 134 Marie-Anne-Henriette-Leopoldine de La Tour Neo-Babylonian culture, 7 d’Auvergne, 72 Neolithic period, 6 Marinus of Tyre (geographer), 88 Netherlands, 131 Markab (star), 16, 19 Bergen op Zoom (city), 72 Marmor Sculptile (constellation), 23, 85, 86, Zeeland (region), 54 92, 137, 143 New Testament, 45 Mauretania (Africa), 44 New World, 89, 90 Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria, 74 Newfoundland (Canada), 87 Maximilian III Joseph of Bavaria, 73 NGC 5746 (galaxy), 57 Mayer, Christian (astronomer), 68, 69 Nile (river), 95, 96 Mazarin, Cardinal Jules (minister), 130, 131 and Egyptian Hapi, 96 Medici family, 59 Annual flood, 96 Medusa (Greek mythology), 35, 39–45, 47 Association with Aquarius, 96 Mehmed IV (Ottoman Emperor), 121 Nilometer, 93, 96–98 Meissen porcelain, 64 as architecture, 96, 97 Melotte 111 (star cluster), 161, 163 Norma Nilotica (constellation), 21, 93–96, 99, Melotte, Philibert Jacques (astronomer), 161 118, 174 Melville, Henry (author), 94 North Celestial Pole, 157 Melville, Herman, 81 North Sea, 106 Merak (star), 16 Northamptonshire (England), 165 Mercury (Greek mythology), 41 Northern Cross (asterism), 18 Mercury (Roman mythology), 161 Nunki (star), 19 Mersin (Turkey), 17 Nuremburg (Germany), 152 Index 219

O Pemphredo (Greek mythology), 42 Oceanid (Greek mythology), 104 Pequod (literary ﬁgure), 81 Oceanus (Greek mythology), 42 Peregrini, Teresa, 31 Oenomaus (Greek mythology), 44 Perestrelo, Filipa Moniz, 87 Olbers, Heinrich Wilhelm Matthäus, 60 Permoser, Balthasar (sculptor), 62 Old Babylonian culture, 7 Perseus (constellation), 38, 39, 46–48, 103, 137 Old Testament, 16 ˇ (star), 35, 38, 46 Old World, 90 Sword asterism, 39 Ophiuchus (constellation), 6, 169, 170, 176, Perseus (Greek mythology), 39–45 187, 189, 190, 192 Petauristini, 138 66 Ophiuchi (star), 189 Peterborough (England), 165 67 Ophiuchi (star), 189 Phact (star), 21 68 Ophiuchi (star), 189 Phaeton (constellation), 21, 102–104, 150 70 Ophiuchi (star), 189 Phaeton (Greek mythology), 101–108 Oracle of Delphi (Greek mythology), 43 Depiction as a woman, 102 Orb, 119–121 Philip II, Duke of Orléans, 133 Ancient world, 121 Philip V of Spain, 132, 133 as “globus cruciger”, 121 Philippe de France (Duke of Anjou), 118 Order of Vasa, 165 Phillip IV of Spain, 132 Orion (constellation), xii, xiii, 6, 7, 152, 178, Phorcys (Greek mythology), 42 180, 181 Pigage, Nicolas de, 74 ˛ (star), xii, 21 Pinna (constellation), 189, 190 Messier 42 (nebula), 19 Pinzón, Martín Alonso (sailor), 89 Orion Nebula, 19 Pisces (constellation), 96, 193 Orion’s Belt (asterism), 19 (star), 21 as the “Drie Susters”, 19 Ã (star), 21 Ottoman Empire, 63, 121 Ä (star), 21 Oxfordshire (England), 166 (star), 21 Shirburn Castle, 166 Â (star), 21 Ozanam, Jacques (mathematician), 51 13 Piscium (star), 195 14 Piscium (star), 195 20 Piscium (star), 195 P 30 Piscium (star), 195 Padua (Italy), 148 HD 221146 (star), 195 Palatine Lion, 69, 74, 75 HD 221147 (star), 195 Palazzo Farnese, 8 Piscis Austrinus (constellation), xii, xiii, 96, Palos de la Frontera (Spain), 89 109, 111 Paris (France), 68, 132 Plancius, Petrus (cartographer), 184 Parlement de Paris, 130, 131 Plaustrum (asterism), 152, 153 Passau (Germany), 54 Pleiades (star cluster), 6, 7 Pastor Canes et Oves (Bedouin constellation), Pliny the Elder, 35, 39, 87 150, 157, 159 Plough (asterism), 16 Patella (constellation), 189 Po (river), 105, 106 Pavo (constellation), 109 Pointers (asterism), 16 Peace of Vasvár (1664), 121 Polaris (star), 16, 154 Peace of Westphalia (1648), 54, 120, 131 Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, 62 Pegasus (constellation), 27, 29, 125, 126, 129 Polo, Marco, 87 ˛ (star), 19 Polophylax (constellation), 21, 109–111, 113 ˇ (star), 19 Polydectes (Greek mythology), 44 (star), 19 Pomum Imperiale (constellation), 23, 60, 93, 1 Pegasi (star), 27, 28 117, 122, 123 9 Pegasi (star), 27, 29 Pope Benedict XIII, 54 Pegasus (Greek mythology), 40, 44 Pope Clement XI, 54 Peloponnesus (Greece), 63 Pope Urban VII, 59 220 Index

Porto Santo (Portugal), 87 Rochlitz (Germany), 147 Portugal, 87–89 Rome (Italy), 54, 145 Lisbon (city), 87 Rosa (constellation), 150, 158, 161, 162 Porto Santo (island), 87 Rosenheim (Germany), 68 Poseidon (Greek mythology), 43, 44, 94 Rotanev (star), 19 Potnia Theron (Greek mythology), 41 Royal Observatory of Belgium, 13 Precession of the equinoxes, 11 Royal Society, 166 Priestly, Joseph (clergyman), 28 Rudolf I (Duke of Saxe-Wittenberg), 63, 64 Princeps (star), 18 Rukh (star), 18 Procyon (star), 21 Russia Psalterium Georgianum (constellation), 23, St. Petersburg (city), 68 178 Pseudo-Apollodorus (author), 42, 44 Pteromyini, 138 S Pteromys (genus), 138 Sadachbia (star), 19 Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, 17 Sagitta (constellation), xiii Ptolemy, 8, 46, 87, 88 Sagittarius (constellation), xiii, 169, 190 Ptolemy III Euergetes of Egypt, 17 ı (star), 19 Puppis (constellation), 17, 82 (star), 19 (star), 21 (star), 19 Pyxis (constellation), 17, 23, 77, 82, 83 (star), 19 ! (star), 21 (star), 19 Q (star), 19 Quadrant, 81 (star), 19 Quinque Dromedarii (Bedouin constellation), (star), 19 150, 157, 159 59 Sagittarii (star), 21 60 Sagittarii (star), 21 62 Sagittarii (star), 21 R Salicola, Margarita (opera singer), 62 R Scuti (variable star), 190 Salvator Mundi, 121 Ras Elased (star), 19 Salzburg (Austria), 49, 51, 53, 54 Rasalas (star), 19 Samnite Wars, 145 Rastaban (star), 21 San Sebastián de La Gomera (Spain), 89 Reconquista, 88 Savona (Italy), 87 Regensburg (Germany), 120, 147 Saxe-Wittenberg (Germany duchy), 63 Regulus (star), 19 Saxony (German state) Reichsvikar, 74 Arms, 64 Reiter’s syndrome, 90 Saxony (Germany), 62 René of Anjou, 87 Army, 62 Republic of Venice, 63 Sceptrum Brandenburgicum (constellation), Reticulum (constellation), 23, 85, 141, 143 23, 60, 117, 122, 129, 181 ˛ (star), 86 Sceptrum et Manus Iustitiae (constellation), ˇ (star), 86 24, 51, 125–127, 129, 134, 136 Rhenish Palatinate, 75 Schöner, Johann (cartographer), 152 Rhine (river), 75, 106 Scheat (star), 19 Rhoda (island), 97 Schickard, Wilhlem (astronomer), 45 Rhone (river), 106 Schiller, Julius (cartographer), 23, 45 Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, Schloss von Oggersheim (Germany), 73 Cardinal-Duke of, 130, 131 Schwetzingen Castle (Germany), 68, 74 Right Ascension, 11 Schyrleus, Anton Maria (optician), 59 Rigil Kentaurus (star), 16 Sciuridae (family), 138 Rijl al-Awwa (star), 57 Sciurus Volans (constellation), 23, 85, 137, Robur Carolinum (constellation), 23, 59 138 Index 221

Scorpius (constellation), 93, 95, 171, 190, 192, Aragón (region), 89 193 Córdoba (city), 89 (star), 190 Canary Islands, 88 Á (star), 95 San Sebastián de La Gomera (city), 89 (star), 190 Castile (region), 87–89 Â (star), 95 Granada (city), 88, 89 (star), 190 Palos de la Frontera (city), 89 Chelae, 16, 17 Valladolid (city), 90 11 Scorpii (star), 193 Spica (star), 170 16 Scorpii (star), 190, 192 St. Petersburg (Russia), 68 18 Scorpii (star), 190, 192 St. Vincent de Paul, 69 Fishhook (asterism), 18 Star cluster Scotland Coma (Melotte 111), 161, 163 Edinburgh (city), 165 Hyades, 7 Scutum (constellation), 23, 51, 57, 59, 60 Pleiades, 7 ˛ (star), 190 Sthenelus (Greek mythology), 106 ˇ (star), 190 Sthenno (Greek mythology), 41, 42 ı (star), 190 Sualocin (star), 19 (star), 190 Summer Triangle (asterism), 21 Á (star), 190 Sun, 4 R Scuti (star), 190 Sundial, 143 Sea silk, 189 Design of Berossus, 144 Seat (star), 19 History, 144 Seckau (Austria), 53, 54 Second World War, 75 Seginus (star), 18 T Seleucid Empire, 17 Tübingen (Germany), 63, 148 Serifos (Greece), 44 Taurus (constellation), xiii, 6, 7, 178, 180 Serpens (constellation), 6, 150, 176 (star), 180 ˛ (star), 57, 58 (star), 180 Serpens Caput (asterism), 57, 60 Pleiades (star cluster), 6, 7 Serpens Cauda (asterism), 57 Taurus Poniatovii (constellation), 23 Shirburn Castle (England), 166 Teapot (asterism), 19 Sicily (Italy), 145 Teglio (Italy), 103 Sickle (asterism), 19 Telescopium Herschelii Major (constellation), Siege of Vienna (1683), 121 xiii, 195 Sigmundskron Castle, 53 Tennyson, Frederick (poet), 94 Silk Road, 87 Terebellum (asterism), 19 Simonides of Ceos (poet), 43 Tertiary (geologic period), 176 Sirius (star), xii, 6, 21 Testudo (constellation), 193 Skelton, Joseph John (engraver), 28 Theophrastus (philosopher), 165 Small Magellanic Cloud, 10, 111 Third Syrian War, 17 Sobieski, John (King of Poland), 59 Thirty Years’ War, 54, 62, 120, 132 Solarium (constellation), 23, 141–143, 146 Thomas, Corbinianus (cartographer), 49–51, Solon, 106 53 Sophie Amalie of Brunswick-Lüneburg, 61 Thun, Johann Ernst von, 53 Sophocles (playwright), 43 Thun, Maria Viktoria von, 53 South Africa, 18, 19 Tischbein, Johann Heinrich (the Elder), 72 South celestial pole, 18, 111 Titan (Greek mythology), 8 South Tyrol (Italy), 53 Toscanelli, Paolo dal Pozzo (astronomer), 87, Southern Cross (asterism), 16, 21 88 Southern Pointers (asterism), 16 Toul (France), 131 Spain, 88–91, 131, 133 Treaty of Teschen (1779), 73 Alcázar Aastle, 89 Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659), 132 222 Index

Triana, Rodrigo de (sailor), 89 Virgo (constellation), 16, 17, 57, 60, 158, 161, Triangulum (constellation), 35, 38 170, 171 Triangulum Australe (constellation), xii, 110, ˛ (star), 170 111 Á (star), 28 Triassic (geologic period), 176 (star), 57, 58 Tucana (constellation), 109 (star), 57 Tupi (language), xi Volans (constellation), 59 Turkey Volta’s Law, 31 Mersin (city), 17 Volta, Alessandro (physicist), 27, 28, 31, 32 Tyrol (Austria), 49 Career, 30 Tyrol, County of, 120 Discovery of methane, 30 Early life, 30 Volta, Filippo, 30 U Voltaic pile, 31, 32 Uccle (Belgium), 13 Volvelle, 150–152 Unformed stars, 16 Vopel, Caspar (cartographer), 17 University of Ghent, 13 Vulcan (Greek mythology), 51 University of Ingolstadt, 148 Vulpecula (constellation), 176 University of Leipzig, 147 University of Pavia (Italy), 30 University of Salzburg, 49 W University of Vienna, 147 Waldseemüller, Martin (cartographer), 147, Unukalhai (star), 57 152 Upper Lusatia (Germany), 62 Wallingford (England), 166 Urania (Hill), 166 War of Bavarian Succession (1778–9), 73 Urania (Greek mythology), 51, 52 War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), 118, Uranoscopus (constellation), 195, 197 133 Ursa Major (constellation), xii, xiii, 7, 16, 109, Water Jar (asterism), 19 111, 153, 154, 156, 157 Weigel, Johann Christoph (publisher), 51 ˛ (star), 16 Weinheim (Germany), 73 ˇ (star), 16 Westminster (England), 165 “Big Dipper” (asterism), 6, 16 Weyssenburger, Johann (printer), 151 “Pointers” (asterism), 16 Wilcke, Johan (physicist), 30 Ursa Minor (constellation), xii, 109, 111, 157 William III of England, 63 ˛ (star), 16, 154 William III of Orange, 63 ˇ (star), 16 Winter Triangle (asterism), 21 Ursula Margarethe of Haugwitz, 62 Wittenberg (Germany), 54, 64 Wollstonecraft, Mary (philosopher), 28 V World War I, 13 Valladolid (Spain), 90 World War II, 75 Variable star Wright, Thomas (astronomer), 5 Eclipsing binary, 46 Varro, Marcus Terentius (writer), 153 Vega (star), 6, 21, 22 Y Vela (constellation), 17 Yoke Star, 6 ı (star), 16, 21 Young, Thomas (scientist), 27 Ä (star), 16, 21 Venus transit of 1761, 68 Z of 1769, 68 Zeeland (Netherlands), 54 Verdun (France), 131 Zephyrium (ancient city), 17 Versailles (France), 132, 133 Zeus (Greek mythology), 43, 44 Vienna (Austria), 63, 117–119, 121, 147, 148 Zubenelgenubi (star), 17 Vincentians, 69 Zubeneschamali (star), 17, 57, 58