Fire Operations in the Wildland/Urban Interface S-215
Student Workbook NFES 2171 SEPTEMBER, 2003
Description of the Performance Based System
The NWCG Wildland and Prescribed Fire Qualifications System is a “performance-based” qualifica- tions system. In this system, the primary criterion for qualification is individual performance as observed by an evaluator using approved standards. This system differs from previous wildland fire qualifications systems which have been “training based.” Training based systems use the completion of training courses or a passing score on an examination as a primary criteria for qualification.
A performance-based system has two advantages over a training based system:
• Qualification is based upon real performance, as measured on the job, versus perceived performance, as measured by an examination or classroom activities.
• Personnel who have learned skills from sources outside wildland fire suppression, such as agency specific training programs or training and work in prescribed fire, structural fire, law enforcement, search and rescue, etc., may not be required to complete specific courses in order to qualify in a wildfire position.
1. The components of the wildland fire qualifications system are as follows:
a. Position Task Books (PTB) contain all critical tasks which are required to perform the job. PTBs have been designed in a format which will allow documentation of a trainee’s ability to perform each task. Successful completion of all tasks required of the position, as determined by an evaluator, will be the basis for recommending certification.
IMPORTANT NOTE: Training requirements include completion of all required training courses prior to obtaining a PTB. Use of the suggested training courses or job aids is recommended to prepare the employee to perform in the position.
b. Training courses and job aids provide the specific skills and knowledge required to perform tasks as prescribed in the PTB.
c. Agency Certification is issued in the form of an incident qualification card certifying that the individual is qualified to perform in a specified position.
2. Responsibilities
The local office is responsible for selecting trainees, proper use of task books, and certification of trainees, see appendix A of the NWCG Wildland and Prescribed Fire Qualification System Guide, PMS 310-1, for further information. Fire Operations in the Wildland/Urban Interface S-215
Student Workbook SEPTEMBER, 2003 NFES 2171
Sponsored for NWCG publication by the NWCG Training Working Team
Comments regarding the content of this publication should be directed to: National Interagency Fire Center, National Fire Training Support Group, 3833 S. Development Ave., Boise, Idaho 83705. Email: [email protected].
Additional copies of this publication may be ordered from National Interagency Fire Center, ATTN: Great Basin Cache Supply Office, 3833 South Development Avenue, Boise, Idaho 83705. Order NFES 2171.
PREFACE
S-215 Fire Operations in the Wildland/Urban Interface is required training for single resource bosses (tractor/plow, dozer, engine, or crew) who are seeking certification as incident commander Type 4 (ICT4) and/or strike team leader (STLP, STDZ, STEN, STCR) as identified in the National Wildfire Coordinating Group (NWCG), Wildland and Prescribed Fire Qualification System Guide (PMS 310-1).
This course was developed by an interagency group of experts with direction and guidance from Fire Training located at the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC).
The primary participants in this development effort were:
Gil Gray - Rapid City Department of Fire and Emergency Services
Dan Snow - USDA Forest Service
Robert Pantrich - USDI Bureau of Indian Affairs
Pete Peterson - USDA Forest Service
Joe Mazzeo - USDI Park Service
Dan Dyer - California Division of Forestry
Craig Cook - USDI Bureau of Indian Affairs
The NWCG appreciates the efforts of these personnel and all those who have contributed to the develoment of this training course including Al Crouch, USDI Bureau of Land Management, for his original electronic presentation program.
i ii CONTENTS
Preface...... i
Contents ...... iii
Introduction ...... 1
Course Instructions...... 3
Unit 1 - Interface Awareness ...... 1.1
Unit 2 - Size-Up ...... 2.1
Unit 3 - Initial Strategy and Action Plan...... 3.1
Unit 4 - Structure Triage ...... 4.1
Unit 5 - Structure Protection Tactics
Lesson A - Initial Operations and Site Preparation...... 5A.1
Lesson B - Engine Operations, Water Use and Class A Foam ...... 5B.1
Lesson C - Support Resources ...... 5C.1
Lesson D - Firing Operations ...... 5D.1
Unit 6 - Action Plan Assessment and Update ...... 6.1
Unit 7 - Follow-up and Public Relations...... 7.1
Unit 8 - Firefighter Safety In The Interface ...... 8.1
Appendix A - Glossary of Terms ...... A-1
iii iv INTRODUCTION
S-215 Fire Operations in the Wildland/Urban Interface is a 28 hour course designed to meet the training needs for incident commanders (Type 4), strike team leaders, and company officers confronting wildland fire that threatens life, property and improvements in the wildland/urban interface.
This workbook is designed to help the student learn the principles used in suppressing wildland fire and/or protecting structures in the wildland/urban interface area; hereafter referred to as the “interface.”
The majority of the workbook is to be used as a note taking guide, but other practical information and exercises are included.
Many terms used by both wildland and structure firefighters have different meanings to each. A glossary is included for your reference and/or review.
To measure how well you received and retained this information, there will be unit tests covering the material presented and a final examination covering all the course material. Students must obtain an average score of 70 percent or higher on the closed book unit tests and final examination to receive a certificate of course completion.
1 COURSE OBJECTIVE
This course provides the student with the skills and knowledge to size-up a wildland/urban interface fire incident, evaluate the potential situation, order and deploy the necessary resources, and apply safe and effective strategy and tactics to minimize the threat to life and property.
Unit objectives are located at the beginning of each unit in the student workbook and define what the student will be able to do at the completion of the unit.
2 Fire Operations In the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 1 - Interface Awareness
OBJECTIVES:
1. Discuss how preparing for and responding to interface fires is a shared responsibility.
2. Describe the human and environmental factors in the interface that affect critical decision making and require situational awareness for firefighter safety.
3. Identify the value of the Incident Command System as an effective tool to manage interface fires.
4. Discuss the importance of knowing your agency policy relating to interface fires.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
The wildland/urban interface is a zone where human-made improvements intermix with wildland fuels. The wildland/urban interface will hereafter be referred to as the “interface” in this course.
Due to the growing number of homes and other structures in America’s interface, it is almost inevitable that wildland and structure firefighters will find themselves in dangerous role reversals for which they may not be mentally prepared, adequately trained, or physically equipped. Wildland firefighters may be called on to protect threatened structures, and structure firefighters may be called on to help suppress fires in wildland fuels that threaten structures.
The trend throughout the country is for increased growth and development in the interface. With this increased growth comes a corresponding increase in exposure for the nation’s wildland and structure firefighters to interface fires. It is therefore critical to find ways to increase firefighters’ safety under these conditions.
The most direct way to improve the safety of both structure and wildland firefighters is cross-training, mental preparation, and improved equipment. Cross-training is being done in some regions throughout the country, however, it is not standard practice in all regions. Some regions are improving and updating their fire fighting equipment. Until cross-training programs and equipment updates become universal, a good understanding of situational awareness may be the tool that saves firefighters’ lives.
Over the past ten years, wildland/urban interface fires have occurred in almost every state in the United States. Statistics show that over 300 structures have burned each year since 1985. While the natural fuels may differ across geographic areas of the country, one factor remains constant: the risk to firefighters who suppress interface fires.
The interface offers a uniquely hazardous environment in which the wildland and structure firefighters operate. Due to the nature of interface fires, firefighters face an increased risk for entrapment, exposure to hazardous materials and chemicals, and possible injury or death, if mistakes are made.
1.2 I. PREPARING FOR AND RESPONDING TO WILDLAND/URBAN INTERFACE FIRES IS A SHARED RESPONSIBILITY
A. Wildland/Urban Interface Fire Definition
A wildland/urban interface fire needs to be defined in order to describe the shared responsibility necessary to manage this kind of situation.
The wildland/urban interface is the zone where human-made improvements meet and intermix with wildland fuels; commonly referred to as the “Interface” or “I-Zone.”
The wildland/urban interface will be referred to as the “Interface” in this course.
B. Groups Responsible for Sharing Responsibility
EXERCISE:
Identify what the groups (government, landowner/homeowner, firefighting agency, and firefighters) responsibilities are concerning fires in the interface.
1. Government’s (federal, state, and local) responsibility
2. Landowners’/homeowners’ responsibilities
1.3 3. Firefighting agencies’ responsibilities
4. Firefighters’ responsibilities
1.4 II. HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN THE INTERFACE
In the rapidly changing arena of interface fires there are many factors that will affect critical decision making and require situational awareness for firefighter safety.
EXERCISE:
1. Identify what challenges you think are unique to firefighters when fighting interface fires.
2. Identify what situational awareness things firefighters can do to keep themselves safe in these unique situations.
1.5 1.6 III. INCIDENT COMMAND SYSTEM (ICS) AS A TOOL FOR EFFECTIVENESS AND SAFETY FOR INTERFACE FIRES
A. The Solution to Chaos and Confusion
1. ICS was originally developed in California to improve response to wildland/urban interface fires (FIRESCOPE).
2. NFPA 1561 Standard for Incident Management System.
3. Accepted as the standard approach to incident management by all Federal Wildland Firefighting Agencies.
4. Widely accepted and used by many structure firefighting organizations.
5. Accepted as the standard approach to incident management by many other agencies (FEMA, National Fire Academy, DOT, U.S. Coast Guard, Military when responding to civil incidents, etc.).
6. Clearly defines the responsibility of an Incident Commander and provides a mechanism to define “who is in charge.”
7. Addresses multi-agency and jurisdictional issues.
8. Facilitates growth of the organization to support incident needs.
9. Provides common terminology for incident management.
1.7 B. Features of ICS
1. Management functions (only fill positions and functions as necessary)
• Command • Operations • Logistics • Planning • Finance/Administration
2. Organizational flexibility (add additional positions as incident requires)
• Initial attack (Type 5 incident) • Initial attack with mutual aid (Type 4 incident) • Extended attack (Type 3 incident) • Incident Management Teams (Type 2 and Type 1 incidents) • Consolidating separate incidents (Area Command)
3. Establishment and transfer of command
4. Unity of command
5. Management by objectives
6. Chain of command
7. Span of control
8. Common terminology
9. Resources management
• Single resources • Strike teams • Task forces
10. Incident action plan
1.8 IV. AGENCY POLICY
Fire suppression forces are increasingly being dispatched to incidents or situations that may not fall under their primary responsibilities. It is important to remember that agency policy limits which activities firefighters may engage in. Another limiting factor is firefighter personal protective clothing, equipment, and training levels.
If you never work together you’ll never know all the policies.
A. Firefighting Policy
Public relations problems
• The public doesn’t care about the color of the truck or the uniform.
• They pay taxes and want the fire put out or their home saved.
• They don’t care what agency policy has to take into account.
All firefighters must know and understand their agency policy.
• Wildland firefighting agencies involved with vehicle or structure fires.
• Structure firefighters involved with wildland firefighting.
EXERCISE:
Discuss the agency policy pertaining to interface fires of the students attending the course.
1.9 B. Out of Jurisdiction Responses
What authority is the criterion for agencies or departments to leave their jurisdiction?
1. Policy limitations stay with the employee.
a. You must follow your agency’s policy even if working for another agency.
b. Always inform supervisors of home agency policy.
2. Safety should always be the primary guide in decision making. Find a good quick reference book.
• “Standards for Fire and Aviation Operations” (Redbook) which has been adopted by most federal agencies (available on the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) Website at http://www.nifc.gov/fireinfo/linkspg.html)
• Department or State Policy Handbook
If you are uncomfortable in dealing with certain circumstances or situations, ask the people working with you. Someone may have experience in that area. If unsure, don’t go! If it’s a policy problem, asking about it on the fire is too late.
1.10 V. MUTUAL AID SITUATIONS
Mutual aid is a vital tool for today’s fire service. No single agency can “go it alone” when facing a major interface disaster. Faced with decreasing resources, ever expanding urban growth into traditional wildland areas and a demand for increased fire protection, local agencies must turn to their neighbors for assistance. In recent years we have witnessed a greater number of situations where neighbor helps neighbor, wildland firefighters help structure firefighters, structure engines work on wildfires, and everyone is working together on structure defense.
As is to be expected, there are issues that need to be resolved whenever two or more agencies are working together.
Agencies likely to work together must train together to:
• Gain valuable exposure to each other’s capabilities.
• Expose equipment and safety limitations.
• Reduce or eliminate agency differences.
• Overcome the lack of training and experience in various areas of firefighting.
• Develop a network for finding out about new tools and tricks of the trade.
1.11 VI. CONCLUSION
A. Coordination and Shared Responsibility
Coordinated efforts between government, home owners, firefighting agencies, and firefighters before the fire occurs are essential to ensure firefighter and civilian safety during these events.
After the fire starts, firefighting efforts must be performed within the context of standard operating procedures that mitigate risk to those performing their duties in the interface fire environment.
B. Unified Command
When establishing an incident command where multi-jurisdiction has brought both wildland and structural firefighting forces together, establish a unified command where both organizations are represented at the command level.
1.12 Fire Operations In the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 2 - Size-up
OBJECTIVES:
1. Describe items to consider when sizing-up an interface fire, prior to and after arriving at the scene.
2. Describe items to consider when sizing-up resources needed for an interface fire.
3. Describe the six components of a size-up report.
2.1 I. PRE-INCIDENT PLANNING
A. Firewise Communities/USA
Firewise Communities/USA is a unique opportunity available to America’s fire-prone communities. Its goal is to encourage and acknowledge action that minimizes home loss to wildfire.
The Firewise activities are sponsored by the National Wildland/Urban Interface Fire Program. Firewise publishes numerous educational materials, shares these publications and much more on its web site (www.firewise.org), and operates the Firewise Communities effort.
B. Pre-Attack Planning
Interface areas should be pre-planned to provide an overview of the possible actions, hazards, resources, etc., beneficial during an incident. These plans should be jointly prepared by all agencies potentially involved.
Different agencies may have different names for these plans, e.g., Pre- Attack Plans, Pre-Planned Dispatch, and National Fire Management Analysis Planning.
1. Initial attack incident commanders are advised to obtain these plans and be knowledgeable of their content.
Also learn and consider other environmental restrictions concerning threatened and endangered species, restrictions on firefighting resource use; minimum impact suppression tactics (MIST), etc.
2. Initial attack incident commanders should know how to activate mutual aid systems for their area of responsibility.
2.2 II. SIZE-UP
Size-up is a systematic process consisting of the rapid, but thorough consideration of all critical factors leading to the development of a rational plan of attack. The size-up process continues until the completion of the incident.
Size-up will produce the critical information you must have to make proper decisions and take appropriate action.
Sizing-up an interface fire is somewhat the same as sizing up a wildland fire. Size-up is accomplished by all individuals regardless of their level of authority and position on the incident. The principles that will be discussed should assist you in sizing-up any interface fire incident.
The size-up process consists of the following:
A. Pre-incident size-up
B. At the scene size-up
C. Resource size-up
D. Size-up report
III. STEP 1: PRE-INCIDENT SIZE-UP
The initial step in the size-up process should begin long before the incident occurs. Many factors are available to assist you in developing your action plan.
Most pre-incident planning documents or pre-attack plans have considered the factors necessary for a thorough pre-incident size-up and will save you this step. Obtain a copy of these plans.
2.3 If no plans are available considering the following factors will help you determine the general fire problem and fire potential for that area on that day.
A. Previous Fires
Knowledge of previous fires in an area can be a valuable tool. Wildfires tend to follow historic patterns, given similar weather conditions. Many “old-timers” made reputations using this type of knowledge and appeared only to make instinctive tactical moves. Most organizations can make fire history information available to you. Find it and use it.
B. Fuels
Know the predominant fuels in the area. Fuel type: grass, brush, timber, slash.
• Loading • Live and dead fuel moisture • Age arrangement • Structural fuels - Could there be structural fuels, wood shingles or shakes involved?
C. Weather
Know local weather conditions and forecasts.
• Temperature • Relative humidity • Projected wind speed and general direction • Atmospheric stability (Haynes Index) • Drought conditions (Palmer Drought Index). See local geographic area coordination center (GACC) website, exposure protection. The fire will get larger and expose more structures.
2.4 D. Topography
Observe the general layout of the area
• Canyons
- Are they wide or narrow? - Are they flat or steep? - Do they run parallel or perpendicular to the general winds? - Are they box or dead end canyons?
• Ridges - Notice steepness of ridge lines, saddles, and chimneys.
• Barriers - Notice physical barriers, both natural and artificial (potential control points).
• Elevation - Consider the general elevation. It will have an effect on your fuels (types and moisture) and your weather conditions (weather and temperatures).
• Position on slope - Consider whether the fire is on a lower slope, mid-slope, or near top.
• Aspect - north, east, south, or west. Will often determine fuels and fuel concentration levels. Also an effect on fuel moisture and temperature.
2.5 E. Time of Year/Day
(EXAMPLES: summer homes, occupancy elderly/retired community, latch key kids, school day, seasonal maintenance and upkeep)
• Summer vs. winter • Day vs. night • Seasonal areas - vacationers • The peak burning period for that day • The effect the season has on fuel moisture may determine fire intensity
F. Additional Information
Many times it is possible to get additional pertinent information from your communications center.
• Pre-attack plans • Fire weather forecast • Fire Danger for today • Projected fire conditions: flame length, spotting factors, rate of spread • Resource availability for your agency and cooperators • Potential for structural exposure • Location of structures in relation to surrounding wildland fuels, topography, elevation, barriers, etc. • Water supply • Feedback from other sources: detection, aerial reconnaissance flights, observers, lookouts, etc.
Evaluation of this information should begin to give you a good picture of the fire potential for a specific area on any given day. Your initial size-up prior to arrival at an interface incident should give you the foundation from which good future decisions may be built.
2.6 IV. STEP 2: AT THE SCENE SIZE-UP
The second step in your size-up process begins on your way to and arrival at the fire scene. It is important for you to quickly assess the situation. In an interface fire situation, this process will give you the additional information needed to determine the relative vulnerability of exposed structures and the needed information to order the necessary resources. Usually, the primary responsibility on these incidents is to protect structures and improvements.
Although rescue is not stressed in this lesson, we know that it takes precedence over firefighting. At times, extinguishing the fire is the best form of rescue. Do not forget about the wildland fire if you start rescue or exposure protection. The fire will get larger and expose more structures.
Consideration of the following factors will allow you to be better mentally prepared:
A. Structures and Improvements
First priority is protection of homes over other improvements. (The following is only a tickler list!)
• Number, arrangement and kinds of structures and the potential for them to contain hazardous materials.
• Look at the placement of improvements and anticipate fire behavior, note clearance around structure(s) (defensible space).
• Size, height and occupancy type.
• Construction features: roof coverings, wood shake or shingle roofs (probably the greatest single hazard), wood siding, decks, eaves (exposed vs. covered), attic vents, rain gutters (empty or full of debris).
2.7 • Safety and rescue. Evacuation could involve both people and animals. Note safe refuge areas (outside and inside or behind structures). Consider other hazards, some hidden (septic tanks, insecticide storage) and some obvious (power lines and LPG and fuel tanks).
• Water supplies - note location, availability and reliability.
• Combustibles located near structures - can they be removed?
B. Access
Ingress and egress, note one-way or narrow roads, dead end roads, and cul-de-sacs.
C. Fuel
• Type of fuel (grass, brush, timber, ornamentals). Note the size, arrangement, continuity, and their proximity to structures and improvements.
• Age of fuel - observe the amount of dead material in the fuel.
• Consider structure fuels - a very high volume fuel that produces large amounts of radiated and convective heat.
• Wood shake and shingle fires are difficult to extinguish and may cause spot fires.
D. Weather
• Wind - note wind speed and direction (probably the key element of wildland fire behavior). Local winds may be quite different from general winds. They will be influenced by topography, fuels, structures, and in major fire incidents, by the fire itself.
• Temperature - affects fire behavior as it affects your fuels (solar heating and drying).
2.8 • Humidity - dryer air is better able to pick up water vapor from the fuel. The result is that less time is required for heat to bring about combustion.
• Atmospheric stability (stable vs. unstable) weather - are you experiencing major wind shifts and fire-whirls? Both are indicators of unstable weather.
E. Topography
Observe the following and anticipate their effects on fire behavior.
• Canyons - wide vs. narrow, box or chute
• Ridges - saddles and chimneys
• Slope - steep vs. flat terrain
• Physical barriers - both natural and artificial, roads, rivers, green belts, fuel breaks, cliffs, or large bodies of water
F. Fire Behavior
Observe local fire behavior.
• Base all actions on current and expected behavior of the fire; Standard Fire Order #3.
• Fire intensity, direction and rate of spread are the basic determinations of how fast it is moving and will tell you approximately how much time you have before it threatens structures.
• Firewhirls - spread flames and burning embers
• Structure fuels can affect fire behavior. Fire can spread from house to house whey they are close together, particularly if there is no defensible space.
2.9 • Spotting - can you anticipate spot fires prior to the fire front reaching you? This could affect your attack plan and the safety of your crew.
• Plume Dominated Fires - are not as predictable as wind-driven fires. We know that they may spread rapidly, but we do not know where or when major runs may occur. All unsecured portions of the fire perimeter are dangerous.
V. STEP 3: RESOURCE SIZE-UP
Time is now the critical factor. Is there enough time before the fire reaches the interface to order and receive additional resources?
• Consider a last-minute fuel clearance effort. Evaluate the terrain—is it suitable for dozers, tractor plows or hand crews?
• Consider structure preparation and work force. Consider firing out around structures. Do you have the necessary resources?
• Consider air support — fixed wing and helicopters. They both have limitations. Fixed wing may be ineffective in strong winds. Helicopters may not carry sufficient loads.
• Re-evaluate the terrain for access. May be suited only for smaller more versatile equipment.
• Re-evaluate your water needs and resources. Water tenders may be needed.
• Consider the need and availability of special equipment.
• Consider local hazards.
Remember - size-up is a continuous process. Fires are not static, neither should your size-up be static. Continue to review all critical factors through the mop-up and extinguishment phases.
2.10 VI. EXERCISE 1 - MADRAS FIRE SIZE-UP
You are the Engine Boss of a Type 4 Wildland Fire Engine with two crewmembers. You are engine boss qualified and will be the initial attack incident commander of the Madras Fire.
Size-up and write down what you see in each of the eight scenes on your way to the fire.
Scene 1 - Looking north from Black Creek Road
Scene 2 - Looking northeast from Black Creek Road
Scene 3 - Looking east from Black Creek Road
Scene 4 - Looking east from Black Creek Road
2.11 Scene 5 - Looking east from Black Creek Road
Scene 6 - Structure access road off Black Creek Road
Scene 7 - First structure off Black Creek Road
Scene 8 - Second structure off Black Creek Road
2.12 VII. STEP 4: SIZE-UP REPORT
Many agencies have developed their own size-up report forms.
Refer to the size-up report on the inside cover of the Incident Response Pocket Guide.
An accurate size-up report is essential to the success of initial attack and extended attack suppression operations, this report should paint a mental picture to the responding units, to the dispatch center, and other interested agency personnel. Radio size-up information should be brief and as accurate as possible. Conditions may change rapidly and you must update your report as conditions change.
The six components and information required for an accurate size-up report consists of:
A. Who Is In Command and Other Facilities
• Name of incident • Name of IC and location • Location of Incident Command Post (ICP) • Staging area locations • Other facilities
B. Fire Location
• Street address - county - federal road • Township and Range/Latitude and Longitude • Best location you can provide • Local description and clarification of access for responding units
2.13 C. What You Have
• Size of fire in acres, or length and width in feet • Type of fuel burning - grass, brush, timber, slash • Rate and direction of spread (slow < 1 mph) (moderate 1-2 mph) (rapid 2-3 mph) (extreme > 3 mph) • What is in the fire’s path • Structures involved - exposed or in the area • Describe fire behavior - flame length, surface, crowning • Torching, spotting, backing, or head fire
D. What You Are Doing (special instructions)
• Attacking the fire - method of attack • Protecting structures • Other actions being taken - evacuation
E. What You Need
• Are your initial attack resources adequate?
• Do you need additional resources - type and kind?
• Where to report
• Do you need more overhead - span of control?
• Is it beyond your capability? During the size-up process is a good time to complete an incident complexity analysis to help determine if it is beyond your capability. If you determine an incident management team is need, now is the time to include this in your report. (See Extended Attack Transition Analysis in the Incident Response Pocket Guide, page 15.)
2.14 F. Special Instructions and Hazards
• Power lines • Bridges • Ingress/egress • Hazardous materials
Take some time to size-up and write your initial size-up report before you broadcast the report. Collect yourself and give a complete report. Save your report notes for documentation.
VIII. EXERCISE 2 - AT SCENE SIZE-UP REPORT
Read the example size-up report. Record the key information you would report in each category.
Example of an initial size-up report.
Dispatch, Engine 1 is at the intersection of Sheridan Lake Road and Copper Mountain Road. The fire is one quarter mile north of Sheridan Lake Road. It has reached the east side of Copper Mountain Road, but has not gone over the road.
The ICP will be at the intersection of Sheridan Lake Road and Copper Mountain Road. Engine 1 will be Copper Mountain IC.
The fire is about ten acres, burning in grass and starting into the timber. The fire is moving north upslope at a moderate rate of spread. The fire is burning in surface fuels with isolated torching of small pockets of timber. This is a head fire with flame lengths of five to fifteen feet, the torches have flame lengths of sixty feet. Short range spotting is occurring. Copper Mountain Subdivision is one mile north of the fire with continuous fuel between the fire and the subdivision.
Initial attack forces will attack the fire. We will anchor to Copper Mountain Road and heel and flank the fire on the east side and hold the fire east of Copper Mountain Road.
2.15 This fire will escape initial attack resources. Additional resources are needed. We need five type six engines, one twenty person type two hand crew, strike team leader engine, two division supervisors, and a type three IC. These resources need to report to the intersection of Sheridan Lake Road and Copper Mountain Road. We also need five type one engines, a structural strike team leader, the County Sheriff and Highway Patrol to report to Copper Mountain Subdivision to evacuate and start structure protection operations.
Record the key information you would report for each category.
A. Who Is In Command and Other Facilities
B. Fire Location
C. What You Have
D. What You Are Doing
E. What You Need
F. Special Instructions and Hazards
2.16 Example Pre-Attack Plan
02-01-S215-SR 2.17 Page 1 of 2 02-01-S215-SR 2.18 Page 2 of 2 Fire Operations in the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 3 - Initial Strategy and Action Plan
OBJECTIVES
1. List the three incident priorities.
2. Describe the three operational modes.
3. List five items which would influence ordering resources.
4. List four subject areas to include when briefing resources for assignment.
3.1 I. INTRODUCTION
The successful management of an interface incident begins with the first responding company officer or initial attack incident commander.
If this person correctly interprets the size-up factors and quickly recognizes the interface potential, the result may be just another wildland fire. But if this person fails to recognize the interface potential, you fall behind the resource power curve.
II. INCIDENT ACTION PLAN DEVELOPMENT
A. Incident Priorities
Operations can vary to some degree on every incident, but the following priorities must be considered when developing incident management objectives:
1. Protect life and safety
• Civilians and firefighters • Always first priority
2. Incident stabilization
• Save property that can be saved • Control wildfire
3. Property/Resource conservation
• Minimize damage to property, improvements, and natural resources • Conserve resources to be able to fight fire until the job is done
These three priorities should guide you during the development of your incident management objectives, strategies, tactics, and incident action plan.
3.2 B. Incident Management Objectives
Using the incident priorities, determine your incident management objectives. Incident management objectives should have the following characteristics:
1. Attainable
They must be achievable with the resources that the agency and assisting agencies can allocate to the incident, even though it may take several operational periods to accomplish them.
2. Measurable
The design and statement of objectives should make it possible to conduct a final accounting as to whether objectives were achieved.
3. Flexible
Objectives should be broad enough to allow for consideration of both strategic and tactical alternatives.
4. Examples of incident management objectives:
a. Ensure the safety of all firefighters and the public.
b. Prevent fire spread into Big Creek drainage.
c. Protect structures and improvements threatened by the fire.
3.3 C. Strategy
Strategy is the general plan or direction selected to accomplish the incident objectives.
From the previous examples of objectives an example of strategy might include:
1. Prepare an Evacuation Plan for all residents threatened by fire.
2. Use mechanized equipment to prevent fire spread into Big Creek Drainage.
3. Use structure protection groups to protect structures threatened by fire.
On small incidents, the task of developing incident objectives and strategies is the responsibility of the incident commander. This may only take a few minutes.
On larger incidents the agency administrator and members of the command and general staff will contribute to this process.
D. Tactics
Tactics are the short term, site-specific actions taken by incident resources to accomplish the desired strategy.
From the previous examples of strategy an example of tactics might include:
1. Evacuate all residents if fire comes within five miles of XYZ Subdivision.
2. Construct a two-blade wide dozer line on Sunup Ridge in Division A. Improve line and burnout with handcrews.
3. Protect XYZ Subdivision on west side of fire with three Type 1 engine strike teams.
3.4 E. Operational Modes
Refers to how firefighting resources are used to either suppress the fire, protect structures or a combination of both.
The operational mode is determined by the types and amounts of resources available and the fire size and behavior.
Tactics can be developed using either of the operational modes (offensive, defensive, or a combination of both).
1. Offensive mode
Resources are assigned to attack and contain the fire.
If ample resources are available, then an offensive mode using direct or indirect attack may accomplish your strategy.
2. Defensive mode
Resources are assigned to defend structures where possible, and continue efforts toward fire containment where possible.
If resources are limited, then a defensive mode may minimize losses and accomplish some of your strategy (based on priority) until enough resources arrive to control the fire.
3. Combination of offensive and defensive modes.
F. Develop an Incident Action Plan
The established tactics and the operational mode basically become your incident action plan (IAP).
1. Keep a written record of the IAP.
a. Even on simple incidents documentation of your actions is a good practice. ICS-214 Unit Log may be sufficient.
3.5 b. The more complex an incident, the greater the need for a written IAP.
c. Any interface fire poses the possibility of public/legal actions, therefore documentation is critical.
• ICS-201 Incident Briefing • Size-up form (Incident Response Pocket Guide) • Crew briefing checklist • Map sketch • ICS-213 General Message Form • Notebook • Tape recorder • Photos • Palm Pilot
2. Always obtain a map of the incident.
A hand drawn map is better than no map.
III. RESOURCE NEEDS
The ability to estimate the proper amount of resources is something that is extremely difficult and comes only with training and experience.
A. Start with the Size-up Process
1. Structures and improvements
2. Fuels
3. Weather
4. Topography
5. Fire behavior
3.6 6. Evacuation possibilities
a. Will you need to commit firefighting resources to assist in evacuation?
b. What will be done with livestock in the area?
c. Law enforcement availability
7. Access
Ingress and egress. Narrow, steep, and dirt/gravel roads may restrict large equipment (Type 1 Engines).
8. Utility companies may be needed to turn off power, natural gas, etc.
9. Response times
a. What is the expected delay before certain resources reach the incident?
b. Be sure to calculate the additional fire spread for longer response times.
B. What Resources Do I Need (kind, type and number)?
1. Determine the kind of resources needed.
a. Helicopters or airtankers, wildland engines or structure engines
b. Handcrews or dozers
2. Order resources by ICS type.
a. Use national standard
b. Specific requests for specialized equipment
3.7 3. Configuration of resources.
• Strike team, task force, or single resource
4. Order enough to meet your needs.
a. The resource order can make or break you. Order too little and the fire escapes; order too much and people grumble about nothing to do.
b. A guideline to use for ordering engines is:
• For separated structures mostly surrounded by wildland fuels: 1 engine per structure.
• For continuous structures, like a subdivision less than 50 feet apart: 1 engine per 2 structures.
3.8 STRUCTURE AND WILDLAND ENGINE EXERCISE
Group 1: Identify the pros and cons of using structure engines on an interface fire.
Group 2: Identify the pros and cons of using wildland engines on an interface fire.
3.9 STRUCTURE AND WILDLAND ENGINE EXERCISE
Group 3: Identify the pros and cons of using engine strike teams on an interface fire.
Group 4: Identify the pros and cons of using engines as single resources on an interface fire.
3.10 IV. BRIEFING AND DEPLOYMENT
A. Make assignments based upon priority and resource abilities.
B. Give all resources a thorough briefing and stage or assign.
C. Ensure everyone understands the chain-of-command, who they will report to, and their command responsibilities.
D. Provide contingency plans.
E. Discuss communication plan.
F. Ask questions, be sure everyone understands.
G. Provide maps and preplans, if available.
H. Stress Safety (LCES) and Risk Management Process
V. ESTABLISH UNIFIED COMMAND AS NEEDED
A. Definition: A command structure which provides for all agencies or individuals who have jurisdictional responsibility, either geographical or functional, to jointly manage an incident through a common set of objectives.
B. Implementation: When responding to an incident where two or more agencies have jurisdiction, the command function may be comprised of an individual from each agency. These representatives will form the command function and will work hand in hand to make decisions by consensus.
3.11 VI. MEDFORD FIRE EXERCISE
This can be a group or individual student exercise.
The objective of this exercise is for the students to size-up, develop strategy, develop an incident action plan, and determine additional resource needs for the Medford Fire.
Your agency was dispatched to the Medford Fire on 09/23/XX at 1800 hours.
Temperature = 93 degrees Wind = South at 0-5 mph R.H. = 16-21% 100 days since last rain Major fires throughout the west No lightning has occurred in last 7 days
Available initial attack resources are:
1 Type 4 Engine 6 Type 6 Engines 1 Type 2 Dozer 1 Lead Plane 1 Type 1 Airtanker 2 Type 2 Airtankers 2 Type 2 Helicopters
3.12 Size-up the situation you see in the following slides on your way to the Medford Fire.
Slide 1
This is what you see en route to the Medford Fire.
Slide #2
Going south on Spring Road you see houses #1 and #2.
Slide #3
Continuing south on Spring Road you see houses #3, #4, and #5.
Slide #4
You meet the county sheriff on Spring Road. He says the fire is getting close to house #6.
3.13 Student Exercise Requirements:
A. Develop strategy (strategic goals) for the Medford Fire based on the given fire situation, initial attack resources, and your fire size-up.
B. Develop an incident action plan to deploy the initial attack resources.
3.14 C. What additional (if any) resources would you order?
D. What items would you cover when briefing your resources for assignment?
3.15 1 2 Houses 6 3 4
5
Fire Starts
3.16 3.17 3.18 Suggested Accessory Equipment for Structure Engines Assigned to Wildland Fire Operations
1,000 feet SJRL 1½ inch Hose 600 feet SJRL 1 inch Hose One 1½ inch x 50 feet SJRL Hose with Nozzle for Engine Protection One 1½ inch Gated Wye Four 1½ inch Tee Valves Two 1½ inch x 1 inch Reducers Two Forestry Hose Clamps Three 1 inch Combination Nozzles Two 1½ inch Combination Nozzles One McLeod One Pulaski Two Shovels One Drip Torch or ½ case Fusees Four Head Lamps Web Gear for all personnel with Fire Shelters MRE’s for 24 hours Two Rolls Flagging One Belt Weather Kit Two Back Pack Pumps One Chain Saw and Chaps
3.19 03-01-S215-SR 3.20 Fire Operations In the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 4 - Structure Triage
OBJECTIVES:
1. List the three structure triage categories.
2. List five factors upon which to base structure triage decisions and give three examples of each.
3. List four conditions that may indicate a structure cannot be saved.
4.1 I. STRUCTURE TRIAGE
A. Introduction
Structure Triage—the sorting and prioritizing of structures requiring protection from wildland fire.
Triage may be required of anyone at any time on the incident—from the incident commander doing reconnaissance to the engine crew moving into position.
The first consideration of structural triage must always be firefighter safety.
The goal of triage is to do the most good with what you have, and to not waste limited resources or time. It requires you to quickly categorize threatened structures as:
B. Structure Triage Categories
• Needs little or no attention for now • Needs protection, but saveable • Cannot be saved
There are no fixed answers based just on the structure itself; no one can look at a house and the fuels alone and choose the category that will always apply.
4.2 II. THE DECISION PROCESS
This section outlines and illustrates a consistent and logical process for reaching a decision based on all the relevant factors.
A. Greatest Potential Threat
Look at the greatest potential threat, based on the assumption that the fire behavior will be the worst possible under the prevailing conditions. While you may not base your actions on such a possible threat, at least have an alternative plan should the worst develop. Consider:
1. Fuels (in your estimation of their driest condition), firebrands, worst weather that might occur, and terrain.
2. Greatest vulnerability of the structure.
B. Probable Threat
Look at the probable threat, based on the fire behavior that is most likely to occur under the conditions. It is this situation that should guide your decision on the action to take. Consider:
1. The actual fire intensity and firebrand problem you expect.
2. Those aspects of the structure that remain vulnerable under the expected fire behavior.
C. When will the fire arrive and how long will the threat to the interface last?
This will determine your preparation and commitment time. When other resources arrive will determine their usefulness. Consider:
1. Rate of spread.
2. Orientation of the fire as it moves into the structures.
3. Arrival times of other resources.
4.3 D. What can be done with the resources that are available?
This has to be your best judgement of what you can accomplish in the face of the expected threat.
You must reach your decision on where to put your effort. One approach is to imagine the effect of putting all required resources on the most threatened structure. Based on that outcome, look at the effect of shifting resources to other, less threatened structures. In the final analysis you want to save the most structures.
If the most threatened structure cannot be saved, forget it. Then access the next most severely threatened structure. If it cannot be saved either, then move to the next most threatened, etc.
If a threatened structure can be saved, you must still decide if that is the best thing to do. Even though you save one, the effort might cause you to lose others that could have been saved.
Ask what will happen if resources are applied to less threatened structures instead. If you can then save only a different structure, but no more than one, go for the tough ones. If, on the other hand, you can then save two or more structures, drop the more threatened ones. Continue the “what if” process until you feel you are at a point where you can save the most structures with the help you have.
III. FIVE FACTORS THAT AFFECT YOUR TRIAGE DECISION ARE:
• Structure itself • Surrounding fuels (defensible space) • Fire behavior • Available resources • Firefighter safety
4.4 A. Structure
Are the structure and exposure susceptible? Construction features and condition.
1. Roof
a. Combustible—wood shakes, tar paper, etc.
b. Not combustible—tile, metal or fiberglass, etc.
c. Pitch—debris on roof or in gutter.
2. Siding
a. Combustible—wood.
b. Not combustible—metal, brick, etc.
3. Heat traps
a. Open gable
b. Vents without screens or non-fire resistant screens
c. Overhanging decks
4. Windows
5. Size of building
6. Shape of building
7. Position on slope
4.5 B. Fuels (including surrounding and fuels that could produce spotfires)
1. Surrounding fuels
2. Size and arrangement
3. Age
4. Proximity
5. Loading
6. Types
a. Resistant or flammable
b. Landscape/ornamental
c. Grass, brush, timber, exotic (palmetto, etc.)
d. Wood piles
7. Landscaping—Railroad ties, cedar (wood) fences
8. Defensible space, access
9. Yard accumulation
10. Flame or heat duration
11. Explosive—LPG tanks, diesel or gas storage tanks
12. Other hazardous materials, vehicles, etc.
4.6 C. Fire behavior—how the fuels will burn.
1. Rate of spread and direction
2. Topographic influence
3. Weather influence
4. Flame length
5. Spotting/firebrands
6. Timing
7. Natural or other barriers
D. Resources—what is available and when.
1. On site resources (water, handtools, ladders, equipment)
2. Kind and type of equipment available
3. Number
4. Where they are (location)
5. When available-response time
6. Capabilities and limitations
a. Mobility
b. Water/foam/retardant
E. Firefighter Safety
1. Ingress/egress routes
a. Adjacent fuels
b. One way-two way
4.7 c. Canopy
d. Slope and steepness of road
e. Loops
2. Power lines
3. Smoke/visibility
4. Hazardous materials
5. LPG and fuel storage tanks
6. Many others (Remote wooden bridges, fire crossing road, etc.)
IV. CONSIDER ALL THE FACTORS
Triage is a logical process, not an answer or simple formula. It requires you to make basic predictions of fire behavior. It requires you to estimate the capabilities and availability of resources. You must base your decisions on probabilities, play the odds.
Several triage checklists have been developed for use by homeowners and firefighters. These checklists can be used for educating the homeowner in the procedure of making his/her home fire survivable. The same form can be used in emergency situations to analyze defensible space and help the firefighter determine actions that may be necessary to save the structure.
Currently, there are trends in fire-wise communities to develop placarding type systems designating houses that are fire safe. See internet website at http://www.firewise.com.
4.8 EXERCISE:
The following examples illustrates how you might reach different decisions in light of differing fire behavior and resource situations.
Two houses are adjacent, 50 feet apart. House #1 has wooden walls, a wood-shake roof, and is surrounded on three sides by brush. House #2 has better clearance, grass around the house, and a composition shingle roof.
Case 1: The fire is burning only the leaf litter, moving progressively past the two houses. You have a full 500- gallon tank of water and are the only engine available. What would you do?
Case 2: The fire is burning the brush, hitting broadside and threatening both houses at the same time. You have 250 gallons of water left and are the only engine available. House #1 will receive direct flame impingement; house #2 will receive only firebrands. What would you do?
Case 3: As in Case 2, the fire is burning the brush and threatening both houses at the same time. This time you have a full tank of water, 500 gallons. You can protect house #1 as the fire hits it and in the process will significantly diminish the intensity at the head of the fire. A second engine will be there within 5 minutes. What would you do?
4.9 V. DECISION MAKING EXERCISE
Exercise Scenario:
You are sent into an area with four houses. Burning conditions are so severe that you can expect the standing live fuels to burn readily. You have a full tank of water (500 gallons), but no other resources will be available until after the fire is well past.
The most threatened house (#1) is located in heavy fuels. It would require all your water to save, and the other houses would be involved by the time you could be free again.
The second worst house (#2) is located in moderately heavy fuels; it would require half your water and commitment of 10 to 20 minutes to save it.
The last two houses (#3 and #4) are threatened only by firebrands on the roof.
What would you do?
4.10 VI. WHEN STRUCTURES CANNOT BE SAVED
No simple rule will tell you when to try, or what time to abandon, a structure defense effort. Listed below are some factors or conditions worth noting. If any of these apply, then the attempt to save that structure deserves careful consideration before continuing.
A. The fire is making significant runs (not just isolated flare-ups) in the standing live fuels; for example, the brush or tree crowns and the structure is within 1 or 2 flame lengths of those fuels.
B. Spot fires are igniting around the structure or on the roof and beginning to grow faster than you can put them out.
C. Your water supply and stream flow will not allow you to continue firefighting until the threat subsides.
D. You cannot safely remain at the structure and your escape route could become unusable (blocked by fire, falling or rolling obstacles, etc.).
E. The roof is more than 1/4 involved, in windy conditions, and other structures are threatened or involved.
F. Interior rooms are involved and windows broken, in windy conditions, and other structures are threatened or involved.
VII. SUMMARY
If things change, or if you are losing the battle, rethink your plan, but do not continually question or regret your decisions. Time wasted in indecisions is very costly. This is not a situation that allows lengthy deliberations. The situation does not allow more than a best judgement and a good effort.
Make decisive judgements and make them without undue delay. Then go to work.
4.11 4.12 04-01-S215-SR 4.13 Page 1 of 2 04-01-S215-SR 4.14 Page 2 of 2 Structural Triage Assessment
Incident Name______Jurisdiction______
0 TO 20% = 1 TOPOGRAPHY Structure Location______(SLOPE %) 20 TO 40% = 3 GPS______
>40% = 5 Legal Description______Light =1 Prepared by______FUEL TYPE Moderate = 3 (Include yard Date______Time______accumulation) Heavy = 5 >100’ = 1 FUEL 30 TO 100’ = 3 CLEARANCE <30 feet = 5 Owners Name______<30% = 1 Address______AERIAL FUEL 30 – 70% = 3 Phone______(Crown Closures) Occupied yes/no______Locked yes/no______>70%= 5 Pets/livestock______Non-combustible =1 ROOF Non/w combust debris = 3
Combustible = 5 Non-combustible = 1 Photo SIDING Non/w combustible deck = 3
Combustible = 5 OTHER Discretion=0,1,3,5,10 Structures 2 ways in/out road = 1 ACCESS 1 good road in = 3 1 poor road in = 5 Road width >20’ = 1 Road width < 20’ = 5
Dead end roads: With turn-a rounds = 1 Without turn-a rounds = 5 Bridge/w load limits <12 Tons = 5 UTILITIES Underground = 1 Aboveground = 5 FIRE Water on site = 1 Site Map PROTECTION No water on site = 5 FUEL STORAGE Defensible = 1 (Propane, gas, Needs work to defend = 3,5,10 diesel) OTHER Discretion = 0,1,3,5,10 HAZARDS
Total Score
MATRIX RATING 20-30 = Easy; 35-50 = OK with work; >50 = Hard
4.15 04-02-S215-SR 4.16 Fire Operations In The Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 5 - Structure Protection Tactics
Lesson A - Initial Operations and Site Preparation
OBJECTIVES:
1. Identify lessons learned in structure protection.
2. List initial operations to be accomplished upon arrival at an incident or assigned area and describe their importance to firefighting actions.
3. Describe how to prepare structures and the surrounding area to minimize damage.
5A.1 I. INTRODUCTION
Structure protection can involve the use of both defensive and offensive tactics.
A. Actions taken prior to the arrival of the fire: site and structure preparation.
B. Actions taken as the fire front arrives: structure defense.
C. Actions taken after the fire front passes: secure structure and mop-up activities.
II. STRUCTURE PROTECTION: LESSONS LEARNED
A. Tactics employed in structure protection are the same for both wildland and structural firefighting agencies regardless of the type of resources utilized.
B. Most interface fires occur under high wind conditions, creating rapidly moving fires, extreme fire behavior, long range spotting and multiple fire fronts.
C. The scattered location of structures in the interface can limit tactics commonly used in wildland firefighting, such as direct attack or burnouts.
D. Spot fires create multiple fire fronts and firefighters protecting structures are often surrounded by flames, showered by burning embers and are subjected to dense smoke during the battle to save someone’s home.
E. Escape routes and safety zones are easily compromised in structure defense by remaining at the structure beyond what we would consider safe in wildland fire operations.
5A.2 F. Mobility is one of the most important tactics employed in structure defense.
Engines must be able to quickly move from house to house in the protection effort. Structure engines are larger and less mobile than wildland engines.
Consider actions in the deployment of firefighting equipment that will allow for rapid response to the changing fire environment, as well as maintaining the ability to escape to a safety zone.
G. Wise water use is critical to structural defense.
Water may be most effectively used in foam solutions to wet down structural exposures prior to the arrival of the fire front.
H. Coordination, organization and communications may not be adequate during initial operations.
I. Resources required may not be available and those on scene may not be able to control the spreading fire. Resources defending structures must be mobile, resourceful, and self-reliant.
J. The ability to communicate among all agencies responding to interface fires is an absolute must. Regular communication among all resources is essential.
K. Situational awareness is required due to the numerous factors that can quickly compromise the safety of everyone involved.
III. INITIAL OPERATIONS
Initial firefighting resources on scene often encounter panicked homeowners and traffic congestion from vehicles moving in and out of the fire scene, often in a very unsafe manner.
Maintain situational awareness, develop needed intelligence, organize available resources and order additional support.
5A.3 You must rapidly develop a mental action plan, set priorities and delegate responsibilities. Maintain the big picture at all times, scout your area, do structural triage if time permits.
A. Initial Action Priorities
1. Public and firefighter safety:
• Identify your escape routes and safety zones
Make them known to firefighters and the public. Initiate structural triage assessments.
• Request assistance from law enforcement agencies and consider the need to evacuate citizens and provide traffic control.
• Post lookouts or send out observers to provide updated information on the proximity of the fire front if not obvious.
2. Command, control, and accountability
• Maintain contact with all units on scene and your local dispatch office, establish separate command and tactical radio frequencies if needed to organize communications.
• Provide an initial size up with all required elements. This is critical for ensuring that dispatch offices understand the fire situation, provide incoming units with information on routes of travel, initial assignments and ordering additional resources.
• Establish a staging area for incoming units that is large, easy to access and located in an area that will not be compromised by the spreading fire. Designate a staging area manager to coordinate incoming resources and provide information on resource availability.
5A.4 • Do not locate the incident command post at the staging area to minimize distractions to the incident management team.
B. Homeowner Contacts
Some residents are ready to flee at the first sight of smoke. Others will want stay with their homes. You will need to provide advice and direction.
1. Shelter in place
a. Residents that remain can be helpful. They may know the locations of other structures, water sources, access routes, hazards, etc. They can help prepare their home before the fire hits.
b. Homeowners who remain should be advised on basic safety considerations. Be alert to equipment. Do not go out into unburned fuel. Know the escape routes and safe zones. If trapped by the fire, remain in the structure until it is safe to exit.
c. The checklist “Caught in a Wildfire” is a handout that may be given to homeowners. The checklist includes actions to be done inside and outside the house, proper clothing to wear, and other guidelines for family safety.
d. Shelter in place may put citizens at risk and may interfere with operations. Consider the additional stress remaining homeowners put on firefighters to stay longer than safety permits.
2. Evacuation
Usually the responsibility of law enforcement agencies. States may have different laws.
5A.5 Example: Wyoming State Statute 35-9-116 states in part; “In the event of a hazard of immediate life threatening severity, the state fire marshal or the chief of a fire department or district may order evacuation of a building or area and may implement emergency measures to protect life and property and to remove the hazard.”
a. Evacuation may be required to clear the area for firefighting operations and to minimize risk to citizens. We can ask people to evacuate, but only law enforcement officers have the authority to make them leave.
b. Advise evacuees to take a minimum of belongings with them. Suggest they close-up, but not lock their residences. Direct them to the appropriate route, to watch for incoming equipment, and to any location where they are to gather.
C. Routing Traffic and Establishing Access
1. Request assistance from local law enforcement for traffic control. If law enforcement is not on scene, delegate traffic control to someone. Use flares, emergency lights and other visible safety warning devices at all times. Coordinate traffic control with law enforcement when they arrive on scene.
2. You may encounter narrow access roads already filled with, and even blocked by local traffic.
3. Develop a traffic plan and communicate the information to all units and dispatch. Identify routes into and out of the area with signs or flagging.
4. Clear existing traffic to make way for fire equipment. Alternatively, direct civilian traffic to the roadside until fire equipment has passed, and tell them when they can move out.
5A.6 5. Leave a clear path for other incoming units. Note weight limits or bottlenecks that may limit some equipment.
IV. STRUCTURE AND SITE PREPARATION
If there is any time available before the fire reaches a structure, much can be done to improve the chances of saving the structure.
Site preparation depends upon the time and assistance you have prior to the fire’s approach.
Initial attack on interface fires offers little time for preparation. Often all that can be done is to get an engine to the structure and position hose lays.
Site preparation should be based on the fuels, expected fire behavior and the information you gather conducting structural triage.
Use engine crews, hand crews, heavy equipment and other resources available.
A. The Structure
Look at the structure as fuel. Wood roofs and siding are more vulnerable to ignition than non-combustible types. Virtually any opening into the structure is an entry point for firebrands. Pay particular attention to the likely ignition points.
1. Shake roofs
2. Cedar lap siding
3. Open vents
4. Open, broken, and screenless windows
5. Open doorways or breezeways
6. Open crawl spaces
5A.7 7. On and under decks
8. Other flammable materials
B. On Site Resources
Look for things that you can use to help prepare the structure and fight the fire. With a little resourcefulness, lots of things around a home can be put to good use. Such things include:
1. Materials for covering openings (plywood, boards, sheet metal, etc.)
2. Hammers, saws, nails, wire, etc. (for securing coverings)
3. Ladders (put on safe side of house)
4. Rakes, brooms, blowers, etc., for removing leaves, needles, or grass
5. Chain saws, trimming saws, axes, shovels
C. Locate Water Sources
Locate water sources that could be used; even small ones.
1. Hydrant types: wet barrel, dry barrel, private industrial or agricultural hydrants which require activation before use.
2. Pools
3. Cisterns and tanks
3. Irrigation systems
4. Garden hose outlets (good for filling engine tank)
5A.8 D. Adjacent Resources
1. Contact fire units adjacent to your area of protection.
2. Determine mutual protection boundaries. Adjust assignments if necessary to even the workload.
3. Write down radio call ID’s and frequencies.
4. Learn the routes to use in moving to assist each other.
E. Clearance Around Structures
1. Research indicates:
a. Large flames and crown fires generally don’t ignite homes.
b. Intense fires burning farther than 100 feet from a structure don’t transfer enough radiant heat to ignite the structure.
c. More often small ignitions and spotting start structures on fire.
(1) Firebrands landing on combustible material of or near the home start ignitions.
(2) Continuous surface fuels allow surface fires to spread to and ignite the structure.
2. Home ignition zone
The home ignition zone determines the vulnerability of a home and surrounding area to wildfire.
The home ignition zone includes the home and extends a distance of 100 - 200 feet around the outside perimeter of the home.
5A.9 F. Removing and Trimming Fuels
State laws vary on who may or may not have the authority to remove fuels around private structures. Get permission from the landowner or appropriate local authority.
Suppression resources have to communicate, coordinate, and cooperate with the local jurisdictional entities in the interface.
1. Combustible material and vegetation should be cleared completely around the structure. Use discretion and consider the homeowner’s efforts and expense in landscaping. Landscape trees and shrubbery adjacent to the structure can often be adequately wet down with foam to protect the home.
2. Leave isolated or widely scattered plants, and most ornamental shrubs and trees. Trimming lower branches and eliminating ladder fuels will effectively isolate the aerial fuel from the fire.
3. Pile cleared vegetation where it will not burn, or will not cause a problem if it does. Simply felling trees or lopping off branches and leaving them lay may create a more hazardous fuel bed than you had before.
G. Fireline Construction
Fireline is a strip of mineral soil cleared of vegetation intended to stop the spread of the fire.
1. Construct fireline in fuels and terrain where you can control the main fire or your firing operation. Light fuels, grass, scattered shrubs and forest litter are the best location for fireline construction because of minimizing the amount of work required and decreasing the exposure of firefighters holding the line. Try to use openings in tight forest canopies.
5A.10 2. Fireline should be located as close as possible to the structure. If flammable vegetation that could carry fire to the structure remains inside the control line, firebrands could still ignite a fire that reaches the structure.
3. Take advantage of existing breaks in the fuel.
a. Roads and driveways.
b. Lawns and landscaped areas.
c. Grazed and trampled grass.
d. Power line rights-of-way.
e. Trails or paths.
H. Intermediate Fuels
Intermediate fuels are any combustibles located near the structure. They can sometimes convey fire directly to the structure, produce firebrands, or radiant heat that will threaten the structure.
Common examples of intermediate fuels:
1. Woodpiles (lumber, posts or firewood)
2. Wood fences
3. Decks and awnings
4. Yard furniture
5. Wood swing sets and play houses
5A.11 I. Yard Accumulation
As well as the obvious combustibles that can directly threaten the structure, there are common things scattered round the yard that create control problems or have a value worth protecting.
Yard accumulation can interfere with the placement and movement of hose lines. It can also greatly complicate and delay firing operations.
1. Immobile vehicles
2. Boats and small trailers
3. Power tools
4. Stored material (pipes, poles, etc.)
J. Flammable and Explosive Hazards
Many things can burn violently or explode. They deserve special attention as soon as possible.
Examples include:
1. Elevated gasoline or diesel tanks
Clear fuel around such hazards to a distance adequate to protect them from excessive radiant heat. The required clearance will depend upon fire intensity and your ability to cool or shield them.
2. LP gas tanks
3. Vehicle components (batteries, shocks, tanks, mounted tires, drivelines, etc.)
4. Pressure vessels and aerosol cans (even if the contents are not flammable)
5A.12 5. Outbuilding storing fertilizers, pool chemicals, motor vehicle fluids (diesel fuel, brake fluid, oil, etc.)
6. Other hazardous materials
V. STRUCTURE PREPARATIONS
A. Exterior Preparation
1. The roof is the most readily and frequently ignited part of a structure exposed to wildland fire.
2. Clear needles and leaves off of the roof and out of the rain gutters if it can be done safely.
3. Ladders can be used to access roof areas that can not be wet down with hose from the ground level.
• Avoid contacting electrical lines with water or when moving a ladder.
• Wet roofs and high winds create the potential for falling off the roof.
• Avoid climbing on roofs if possible.
4. Cover openings and potential openings.
• Any entry of fire or firebrands into the structure greatly increases control problems and the likelihood the structure will be damaged or destroyed.
• Concentrate your efforts to openings on the side of the structure that is exposed to the fire.
• Leave window screens attached and close any exterior window coverings.
5A.13 B. Interior Preparation
1. Close windows.
2. Close non-flammable window coverings such as blinds, shades and drapes.
3. Close interior doors to limit fire spread should the interior become involved.
4. Turn off fans and swamp coolers that may allow embers into the structure.
5. Turn off gas (LPG or natural) at the source.
6. Leave electricity on to run pumps, provide lighting, etc.
7. Leave on a porch light and a central interior light to provide visibility in dark, smoky conditions. Patrolling engines will more easily notice the house and firefighters entering it will have some light.
8. Make sure essential doors can be opened. Close but don’t lock all doors.
9. Leave a note for the homeowner describing in what condition you have left the structure (utilities, pets, etc.).
C. Private Vehicles
Vehicles that will remain on-site can be taken care of to minimize damage to them and to the degree to which they will be in the way.
1. Park them in a sheltered location, away from heat and firebrands.
2. Make sure they will not interfere with the movement of fire equipment.
5A.14 3. Do not park them over flammable vegetation. If flammables are in the area spray a foam blanket around and underneath the vehicles.
4. Park the vehicle headed out, if possible, with the keys in the ignition.
5. Close the doors and windows, but do not lock.
D. Pets and Livestock
Most often, animals that are free to move around will manage to avoid being burned. However, if they are fenced or chained they may need to be freed. Troublesome or frightened pets might need to be placed in the garage, residence, or other enclosure. If a large problem with pets or livestock is encountered, call for assistance from the local animal control agency.
VI. PRE-TREATMENT OF STRUCTURES
A. Sprinkler Systems
Sprinklers may be used to wet down the structure and/or the vegetation around a structure.
B. Class A Foam
1. Proven technique in protecting structures.
2. Can be quickly applied to the structure using engines or portable tanks.
3. Easy to use by batch mixing in tank without foam proportioners.
4. Minimizes removal of ornamental landscaping and fireline construction. Can be used to wet down landscape vegetation around structure.
5A.15 5. Maximizes firefighter safety. Crews move to safety zones until fire front passes, then return to conduct any needed mop-up.
C. Fire Gel
Fire Gel is produced by commercial vendors under various trade names.
Fire Gel is a gel concentrate that when added to water, transforms water into a fire preventing and heat absorbing gel. It will adhere to any kind of surface, even vertical window panes.
Fire Gel is applied by special nozzles and systems.
D. Structure Wrap
Structure wrap is available from commercial vendors under various trade names. It comes in rolls (approximately 3 feet wide by 300 feet long) and is made from similar material as the fire shelter. It can be reused if care is taken when removing it from the original application.
New materials and chemicals are currently being developed that have proven effectiveness in protecting structures from fires while minimizing the exposure of firefighters. Stay current with rapidly developing technology.
5A.16 CAUGHT IN A WILDFIRE
If your home is threatened by a wildfire, you may be contacted by a fire or law enforcement official and advised to evacuate. However, if you are not contacted in time, or if you decide to stay with your home, we offer the following suggestions:
• If you are able, evacuate your pets and all family members who are not essential to protecting the home, but do not jeopardize your life.
• Be properly dressed to survive the fire. Cotton and wool fabrics are preferable to synthetics. Wear long pants and boots, and carry with you for protection a long sleeved shirt or jacket, gloves, a dry handkerchief to shield your face, and goggles. Wear a hard hat.
OUTSIDE YOUR HOUSE
• Remove combustible items from around the house. This includes lawn and poolside furniture, umbrellas, and tarp coverings. If they catch fire, the added heat could ignite your home.
• If possible, close outside attic, eve, and basement vents. This will eliminate the possibility of sparks blowing into hidden areas within the house. Close window shutters.
• Locate garden hoses so they will reach any place on the house. Use the spray-gun type nozzle, adjusted to spray. Turn the hose faucet on so that it is ready to go when it is needed.
• Place large plastic trash cans or buckets around the perimeter of the house and fill them with water. Soak burlap sacks, small rugs, and large rags. They can be helpful in beating out burning embers or small fires.
5A-01-S215-SR 5A.17 Page 1 of 3 • Place a ladder against the roof of the house opposite the side of the approaching fire. If you have a combustible roof, set a lawn sprinkler on it. This will be more effective than a hose. However, do not turn water on ahead of time, as wood shingles will dry quickly and you will have wasted water.
• If you have a portable gasoline-powered pump to take water from a swimming pool or tank, make sure it is operating and is in place.
INSIDE YOUR HOUSE
• Close all windows and doors to prevent sparks from blowing inside, but do not lock them. If firefighters arrive to help save your home, they may need instant access.
• Close all doors inside the house to block the circulation of air and movement of fire from room to room.
• Open the damper on your fireplace to help stabilize outside/inside pressure, but close the fireplace screen so sparks will not ignite the room.
• Turn on a light in each room of the house, on the porch, in the garden and in the yard. This will make the house more visible in heavy smoke at night.
• Fill bathtubs, sinks and other water containers with water. Toilet tanks and water heaters are important water reservoirs.
• Shut off gas at the meter.
• If you have time, take down flammable drapes and curtains. If you don’t have time to take them down, leave them open. Close all Venetian blinds or fire resistant window coverings to reduce the amount of heat radiating into your home.
• Move overstuffed furniture away from windows and sliding glass doors and into the center of the room.
5A-01-S215-SR 5A.18 Page 2 of 3 • Park your car in the garage, heading out; close car windows; leave keys in the ignition.
• Close garage door but leave it unlocked. Disconnect the automatic garage door opener.
• Place valuable documents and mementos inside the car in the garage for quick departure, if necessary. Any pets still with you should also be put in the car.
WHEN THE FIRE IS AT YOUR HOUSE
• Enter your home with your family, closing but not locking the doors. Keep the entire family together and remain calm. Stay inside the house as the fire passes. It takes time for a fire to burn from the outside into the interior of the house. Leave the house if it becomes apparent that the fire is burning inside the house. Consider using the house to block you from outside radiant heat.
AFTER THE FIRE PASSES
• Check the roof immediately. Extinguish any sparks or embers using a garden hose, barrels of water and small rugs. Then, check inside the attic for hidden sparks. Still keep the windows and doors closed in the house. Continue checking for at least six to ten hours after the fire is thought to be out.
5A-01-S215-SR 5A.19 Page 3 of 3 5A.20 5A-02-S215-IR 5A.21 5A.22 Fire Operations In The Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 5 - Structure Protection Tactics
Lesson B - Engine Operations, Water Use and Class A Foam
OBJECTIVES:
1. Describe four considerations in engine access and positioning in structure defense.
2. List the three tactics employed in confronting a fire at a structure.
3. List the three types of foam and describe ways they can be used on interface fires.
4. Describe two reasons for maintaining mobility in structure defense.
5B.1 I. INTRODUCTION
Engine crews and apparatus are the primary resource used in structural protection. This unit will discuss proven techniques in successful interface engine tactics which maximize efficiency, mobility and firefighter safety.
II. ENGINE ACCESS AND POSITIONING
Often, structures threatened by wildland fire may be at the end of long, narrow driveways, off dirt roads and flanked by flammable vegetation.
A. Negotiating The Access
1. On the way, pay attention to landmarks and hazards. Note potential safety zones. Flag escape routes and safety zones. Remember that you may have to leave in a hurry and under very smoky conditions.
2. Scout access roads before committing large apparatus. Scouting may be done by smaller engines, strike team leaders, or on foot if necessary.
3. Back the engine into position from the last known turn around.
B. Positioning The Engine
The engine should be positioned to make it safe and convenient to work from.
1. Do not block travel routes for other equipment or evacuating vehicles. Park off the road.
2. Do not park over flammable vegetation. Scrape or burn away the fuel from your parking area if needed.
3. Park on the side of the structure that will minimize exposure of the engine to heat and blowing firebrands.
5B.2 4. Be near enough, but not right next to, the structure to limit the length of hose lines. Avoid structure collapse zone (1½ times the height of the structure).
5. Avoid parking next to or under such hazards as:
a. Power lines
b. Flammable trees or snags
c. LP gas tanks; pressure valves
d. Buildings that might burn
6. Leave the doors, windows, and compartments closed and the keys in the ignition. You don’t want to find your vehicle on fire.
7. A lookout, usually the pump operator, should always remain with the engine.
III. WORKING HOSE LINES
A. 1½" hose lines are recommended for use in structural protection.
B. 1½" Single Jacket Forestry Hose provide the mobility needed to protect all sides of the structure.
C. In fine fuels with low intensity fires, 3/4" or 1" hose lines can provide a mobile and reliable choice. One disadvantage of hardline is it cannot be rapidly cut off and abandoned if escape becomes necessary.
D. Deploy two lines, one around each side of the structure or around a pair of adjacent structures. They must be long enough to meet behind the structures.
However, keep in mind the pump and water capacity of your engine. Type 6 and 7 engines may not have the pump capacity or water supply for extensive hose lengths.
5B.3 A 100 foot by 1½ inch single jacket hose line may be preconnected and secured to the rear of an engine by means of webbing or a strap; in order to rapidly deploy and reload structure protection lines. Access and safety are enhanced if personnel are not required to climb on top of an engine. (See student reference “Structure Protection Hoseline Evolution” 5B-01-S215-SR.)
E. Ensure lines have a shut-off valve at the engine. This will allow the lines to be rapidly disconnected should escape become necessary.
F. Deploy the lines around behind the engine, not in front to prevent the hoses from wrapping around a wheel in a rapid egress situation.
G. Supplementary lines can be used for back up, interior attack or spot fires on the back side of the structure. Any line positioned for immediate use should be charged and checked.
H. Engine protection line. Partially charge and coil a 50 ft. section of 1½ inch hose near the vicinity of the engine control panel where it can be easily reached and re-charged in the event the fire overruns your engine’s position. Make sure it will not fall off if the engine is moving.
I. Working lines can and should be left in place until the structure is out of danger. If an engine has to leave to refill, protect adjacent structures or retreat to a safety zone, working lines left in place can immediately be put back in service when an engine returns to the scene.
J. Working lines should be left so that they are easily noticed and within reach of the outlets on an incoming engine. Possibly mark them with flagging. Do not leave the couplings where they might be run over. You can drape the ends of the lines over a fence, mailbox, etc.
K. Working lines can be laid before an engine actually takes up a position. For example, hand crews could set up hose lays prior to the arrival of the fire front, saving critical time for the engine units when they arrive.
If possible, cover the hose lines with dirt for protection from heat.
5B.4 IV. NOZZLES
A combination nozzle is the most versatile. It provides for conservation of limited water supplies when using the spray tip for wetting down exposures, or the knock down power and reach of a straight stream.
A. Straight stream tips on working lines or roof lines can provide a better water stream in high wind conditions.
B. Air aspirating foam nozzles or combination foam nozzles, when used with properly mixed foam, provide good pretreatment for structure protection.
V. CONFRONTING THE FIRE AT THE STRUCTURE
A. Introduction
Strategies and tactics for protecting a structure when the fire front arrives depend upon the type of fuels surrounding the structure and the equipment available.
• Structures surrounded by fine fuels can effectively be protected by stopping the fire spread with water or firelines.
• Using water to prevent fire spread in running crown fires with brush or timber fuel types is ineffective in relation to fire intensity and exposes firefighters to undue risk.
• Water is most effectively used in heavy fuel types with foam application prior to the fire’s arrival, or putting out spot fires on the structure after the fire front passes.
5B.5 B. Spotting Zone
Most interface fires will put you in the spotting zone.
Airborne firebrands are the biggest problem because they can ignite spot fires and the threat may exist for several hours. Firebrands may ignite new fires as far as a mile or more ahead of the main fire.
The main fire may move through later (putting you in a different situation), or it may never get there.
Remain mobile enough to quickly reach any point within your area of responsibility. It may not be necessary to deploy lines except to actually put out a fire.
Constantly check for new ignitions on receptive fuel beds including roofs and woodpiles.
Patrol as necessary, post lookouts with communication, and make sure there are no gaps in surveillance between adjacent areas.
If a spot fire occurs, attack it quickly. Make sure it is completely out, or has a control line capable of preventing its spread. Remain alert for other spot fires.
C. Structure Protection Tactics
1. Full containment around the structure
Full containment: stopping fire before it reaches the structure.
Light fuels and low intensity fire provide opportunities to prevent the fire from reaching the structure.
• Extinguish with water.
• Construct handline or use natural fuel breaks.
5B.6 If you cannot wait for the main fire, or if the fire will be too intense for direct control, you can fire out from a control line. Firing operations and techniques will be discussed later.
2. Partial containment around the structure
If there is not enough time or the fire intensity will not allow you to establish complete containment, you can still attempt to reduce the fire’s intensity as it moves towards the structure if you have adequate water supply. If not save the water for the structure.
Use your working lines to knock down the segment of the fire front that is moving directly toward the structure.
After the main fire passes, check the structure for possible ignitions, such as on the roof, under eaves, rain gutters, and wood decking.
3. No containment possible
The wildland fire will burn over and past the structure unchecked. Suppression efforts are focused on the structure.
Ensure adequate safety zones are accessible, available and known to all personnel.
If you have an adequate water supply, direct all hose lines onto the structure and allow the wildland fire to burn past. If the fire intensity threatens your safety, then retreat to a safety zone and re-enter the area when the fire has passed. Or, coat structure in Class A foam and leave until the fire front has passed.
D. Fighting Roof Fires
Combustible roofs are frequently ignited by wildland fires. Firebrands rain down, and radiant heat or flame contact can add to the problem.
5B.7 When the fire on the roof is small, It can be extinguished from the outside. Make sure they are out; remove the involved shingles to make certain.
AGENCY POLICY CONCERNING FIGHTING EXTERIOR ROOF FIRES MUST BE FOLLOWED.
When fire has spread across the roof, the structure is seriously threatened, especially in high winds. It must then be assumed that the fire has spread into and through the roof.
ONLY AGENCY PERSONNEL TRAINED AND EQUIPPED FOR STRUCTURE FIREFIGHTING ARE PERMITTED TO MAKE AN INTERIOR ATTACK!
Knowing if a roof is too far gone is a judgement call, and will depend on your resources, other priorities, etc. Generally, roofs that are more than 1/4 involved are too far gone and firefighting resources can be better used to save other structures.
VI. WATER AND FOAM USE
Wise water use is critical to the success of structure defense efforts! Water is usually in short supply in these situations.
Rural water systems are commonly of low capacity or nonexistent. Even good supplies were not designed to handle dozens of structure fires simultaneously, not to mention the wildland fire. All too often power failures shut down system pumps anyway.
A. Water Supply
Conserve water by using only enough to accomplish the task at hand.
Save a 100-gallon reserve in your engine. That water is for your engine and crew if you are threatened or need to escape.
5B.8 Take advantage of any opportunity to add water to your tank, if it does not take you out of position at a bad time and does not require an undue amount of time. For example, run a garden hose in your tank while you are parked, or stop at a hydrant along your way.
Know the characteristics of the water supply you are relying on, whether it be hydrant, residential supply system, water tenders, engines drafting from open sources, etc. Following are points to consider:
1. System capacity: How much total water is available? When can it be expected to run out?
2. Flow rate: How many gallons per minute can you count on? Will that be continuously available, as from pipes or supply engines, or will it be intermittent, as from water tenders?
3. Pressure: What will be the pressure at the source you use? Is it adequate to run hose lines directly?
4. Reliability: Is the system dependent upon pumps or is it gravity flow? Can water use elsewhere drop your pressure?
B. Water Application
Effective application is the key to conserving available water.
As the wildland fire approaches, heat begins to build up, and firebrands may accompany it. When the fire involves the wildland fuels around the structure, the heat impinging on you and the structure is at its maximum. After the wildland fuels burn out, the heat wave will subside. Heavy fuel present may continue to generate heat.
The timing of water application with respect to the passage of the heat wave is important. While you must make your own decision on how to apply water, based on your situation and your experience, the following may be helpful.
5B.9 If you can simply extinguish the fire, go ahead and do it. If you cannot put the fire out quickly and directly, then consider how to make the best use of your water.
1. Wetting down with water (foam will be discussed later)
Wetting down is the application of water to fuel and structures before the fire arrives. It is generally done to the roof.
Wetting down is usually a waste of time and water. In the face of winds, low humidity, and fire, the wetted surfaces will soon dry out and be susceptible to ignition.
Water is more effective if saved to put out ignitions actually occurring on the structure.
2. Reducing the heat buildup
Water can be used to reduce or limit the potential buildup of heat. It can also be effective in increasing the fine fuel moistures in grass or pine needles.
Knock down the fire in surface fuels where it could spread upward into aerial fuels (such as tree crowns). Under severe burning conditions, fire can still move through the crowns from heat built up elsewhere.
Prevent it from getting into heavy, troublesome fuels such as woodpiles or brush patches.
Don’t waste water on crown fires, heavy fuels or fully involved structures. The heat output in these situations far outweighs the ability of water to cool it down. Water applied directly to very hot (as evidenced by scorching paint and smoke) structure surfaces can help prevent ignition. Water applied directly is more effective than a “water curtain.”
Try not to get water on a hot window; glass will break.
5B.10 3. The duration of the heat wave
The duration of the intense heat produced by burning wildland fuels depends upon the fuels involved and on the overall burning conditions.
In light fuels such as grass, the flame front will pass a given point in a minute or so. It will generally move past the structure in no more than a few minutes.
In brush, such as chaparral, burnout times are longer and spread rates are often lower than for grass under similar conditions. The fire may take 10-15 minutes to move past the structure.
Crown fires in timber can generate intense heat that may last a considerable time at any given location. Maintain escape route and safety zone!
4. Peak heat wave tactics
During the peak of the heat and smoke, it is very tempting to spray water at the wall of flame, but it will have no effect and will waste water.
To escape the intense radiant heat, seek refuge in the shade of something that blocks it. Duck around a wall, stay below the roof peak on the sheltered side, or take shelter in the structure.
Wait until you have an opportunity to do some good with your water. Then step out and put it where it counts. Use the water when and where you have the advantage, not on fire that is burning at its highest intensity.
5B.11 VII. USE OF FOAM ON INTERFACE FIRES
A. Class A Foam
Class A foam is an aggregation of small bubbles created by mechanically injecting air into a foam solution (a mixture of water and foam concentrate) by:
• Air aspirating nozzle systems that can produce wet and fluid foams.
• Compressed air foam systems that can produce wet, fluid, and dry foams.
B. Properties of Foam
1. Foam increases the working volume of available water through the expansion of air bubbles.
2. Foam breaks down the surface tension of water for greater penetration of fuel surfaces (makes water wetter ).
3. Dense foam can be used to insulate fuels from exposure to flame or smother flames by limiting air supply.
C. Types of Foam
Types of foam have different capabilities in fire suppression.
1. Wet foam
Flows readily, penetrates rapidly, but drains (dissipates) quickly.
Works well for mopup, wetting down fine fuels to create wet lines to burn out from.
Apply the foam line immediately ahead of the ignitors with the foam line width being three times the flame length.
5B.12 2. Fluid foam
Flows readily and drains slower than wet foam.
Works well for wet lines in fine fuels.
Drains slower than wet foam and provides an insulating barrier.
Aerial fuels can also be coated with foam in order to keep a surface fire on the surface.
Excellent for pretreating structure exposures due to the ability of foam to break down the surface tension of water for greater penetration of moisture in exposed areas. Fluid foam can last up to 30 minutes.
3. Dry foam
Coats and adheres well; wets and drains at a slow rate.
Can be used to smother flames in burning material provided quick, deep penetration is not needed.
Excellent for insulating and capping in moisture on structures or anything it is sprayed one.
Dry foam can last up to one hour if conditions are right.
D. Structure Treatment
Foam will cling to walls and the roof, to provide the insulating barrier needed to protect from heat and flying embers. Apply wet foam first for moisture penetration and fluid foam second to cover and help insulate the structure. A final covering of the structure with dry foam will help insulate it even longer.
5B.13 Foam should be applied to the structure by lofting the foam from a distance. Start on the roof allowing layers to build up and completely cover all combustible surfaces. Roofs, eves, outside walls and any combustibles on the ground adjacent to the structure can be covered.
When time permits, several coatings on the structure with foam will allow the moisture within the foam to penetrate porous materials. The action of the surfactant in foam lets water that would normally run off penetrate and stay with the fuel.
Foaming structures before the fire front hits is especially beneficial where crews will not be able to remain on site to provide protection.
When applying foam to a structure in the path of an approaching wildfire, timing is critical. Foam applied too early to the structure may not have the durability to provide optimum protection; begin the foaming operation too late, and firefighters may not get all structures coated, or worse, may not be able to escape an area before the flame front hits.
Begin treating the structure 10 to 15 minutes before the expected front begins.
Class A foam can also be used to coat fuel tanks and LPG containers. Foam clinging to the sides of these tanks will cool them and protect them from direct flame contact. However, Class A foam is not intended to be used on flammable liquid fires. When any flammable liquids or other hazardous materials are involved with fire, vacate the area, report it, and allow firefighters trained in hazardous materials to handle the situation.
VIII. “STAY MOBILE!”
A. Mobility Is Critical
When numerous structures are threatened and limited suppression resources are available. “Hit and run” tactics have proven to be effective in some very demanding structure defense situations.
5B.14 B. Try Not To Become Tied Down
Don’t become tied down to lengthy supply and attack lines in case you are needed at another structure or moving is necessary if your safety is threatened. If possible, limit the hose lines to 200' or less.
C. Hydrants
Resist attaching supply lines to hydrants. Emergency units may be blocked by the supply lines and your escape may be compromised. Hit and run tactics do not require heavy streams and supply lines are rarely warranted.
D. If You Must Leave In A Hurry
Abandon the hose and take only the fittings. Most engines carry enough hose to deploy working lines several times.
IX. RETREATING AND RETURNING
A. At times, retreat is necessary due to the intensity of the fire.
When the heat becomes, or will become, so bad that your safety is compromised, it is time to pull out using identified escape routes and safety zones.
Use appropriate colored flagging to mark escape routes and safety zones.
B. Ensure all personnel are accounted for and maintain communication during retreat.
Remain calm, don’t let yourself become excited and careless. Use caution and watch for hazards along the escape route.
5B.15 C. If escape routes are cut off, take shelter in the structure, until it is safe to move out.
The structure will not immediately burn down and will offer the best protection against heat and smoke.
When the worst of the fire has passed, you may be able to return and do some good on the structure. However, there may be new hazards created by the fire, including:
1. Downed power lines.
2. Burning snags, which can fall or drop large pieces without warning.
3. Debris on the road, including rocks and logs.
4. Rolling material that comes off slopes, having been made unstable by the recent burn.
5. Hot spots next to the road; smoky conditions.
6. Weakened bridges or cattle guards.
7. Be aware of fire situation on mid-slope roads.
X. EXTINGUISHMENT AND FOLLOW-UP
A. If time permits, mop up all residual burning materials in the vicinity of the structure to prevent spotting from an ignition source that went unnoticed.
B. Remain at the structure until the homeowner returns or ensure that the structure is checked by patrol units at regular intervals if you must leave for other assignments.
C. In heavier fuels, structure protection may need to be provided continuously to a single threatened house for an extended period of time.
5B.16 STRUCTURE PROTECTION HOSELINE EVOLUTION
In the Past
Municipal fire departments have become more involved with structure protection in wildland/urban interface fires.
Typically, a municipal department will pull a preconnected line, roll out a trunk line, or use donut rolls to protect a structure. These methods involved a small amount of time to put in service, but require a lengthy pick up time. The introduction of lightweight single jacketed forestry hose has helped, but a quick and efficient way to break down, roll up, reposition, and set up at new structure was still needed.
A New Solution
Many methods are being used to reload forestry hose. Putting the hose on top of the hose cover or wrapping it around the hose reel guides in a figure eight are two common practices. These methods are fairly quick, but entanglement and the risk of injury are present. Removing the hose from these positions present complications as well. During a training session on these hose evolutions, firefighters developed a new method. The method shown here has proven to be faster, safer, and more organized than other methods developed to date.
Considered herein are the tactical requirements that necessitate quick pick-up, loading and relocation to another assignment with rapid deployment capability, in most fast moving wildfires. This new method allows the hose to be placed on the ground, charged and advanced, advanced dry, or payed off the shoulder. With practice, deployment and pick-up times are in the one minute time frame.
Other Considerations
Always be alert for situations that shout “Watch Out!” Know what is happening in your area as well as the fire in general. Don’t commit your resources on a loser. Fight fire aggressively and provide for safety first.
5B-01-S215-SR 5B.17 Page 1 of 5 1 Position apparatus with an escape route Two firefighters deploy 1 /2 inch forestry hose available. If the drive is not open on both ends, around both sides of the structure. Streams then back up to the structure for quick egress. should be able to cross at rear of structure. Use Always use a back-up person. your department’s S.O.P.
On engineer’s signal to shut down, both firefighters will bleed lines. Shoulder load hose with nozzle next to chest.
Meanwhile, engineer disconnects lines from discharge outlets to facilitate draining the hose.
5B-01-S215-SR 5B.18 Page 2 of 5 After the hose has been fully shoulder loaded, Sling the firefighter must secure the bundle with a strap. Hose strap sling, or single length with loops. See additional drawings this page.
Single strap with loops Single strap tied together
5B-01-S215-SR 5B.19 Page 3 of 5 Hang bundled hose from roller guides or other After the hose has been secured, the engineer stable projection on apparatus. re-couples it to the gated wye at the pump panel.
Unit is now available for assignment. Follow remaining steps for proper deployment procedure.
On arrival at the next structure, the firefighter The hose is simply let out as the firefighter reloads the hose on his/her shoulder, nozzle in advances and the line is charged when extended. front next to body.
5B-01-S215-SR 5B.20 Page 4 of 5 An alternate method is to place the hose bundle Another method involves placing the bundle near on the ground at the unit and advance a working the apparatus and advancing a dry line from that line toward the fire. point.
Make sure you are positioned so that the two streams can cross at the rear of the structure to ensure effective protection.
5B-01-S215-SR 5B.21 Page 5 of 5 5B.22 Use of Foam in Structure Defense
In all structure defense situations the firefighter should have the capability to produce a foam solution in the hose lines that will be set up or are being used to pre-treat structures, wildland fuels and other improvements. Any nozzle used by firefighters (conventional or foam) can be used to discharge foam solution.
As talked about earlier the same strategies and tactics used in set up for defensive stands and attacks with plain water should be used with foam solution and foam nozzles.
A. Aspirated Foam Systems (Low, Medium, and High Expansion Nozzles)
Can usually produce two types of foams with different capabilities in fire suppression efforts.
1. Types of foam
• Fluid foams
Excellent for pre-treating structure exposures due to the ability of foam to break down the surface tension of water for greater penetration of moisture in exposed areas.
• Wet foams
Works well for mopup, wetting down fine fuels to create wetlines for direct attack or burning out lines.
2. Durability of foam application depends on wind, temperature and moisture content and foam concentration.
• Fluid foams that have been applied in a concentrated area can last up to 30 minutes.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.23 Page 1 of 12 • Consider using different types of foam in structure protection. Apply Wet foams first for moisture penetration and then apply a Fluid foam to cap in the moisture.
• Remember: water supply and experience with the system will have a great impact on the durability of the foam and procedures used.
3. Foam nozzles and the foam they produce
a. Low expansion nozzles
• Most versatile nozzle for various flow rates.
• Discharge distance is long 15 to 30 feet.
• Can be used in all attack situations.
• Wet and Fluid foams can be produced.
b. Medium expansion nozzles
• Generally requires a high flow rate 50 gpm or above for the nozzle to work.
• Can be used in most attack situations but works best in indirect attack and mop up situations.
• A Fluid foam is produced.
• Produces large amounts of foam (bubbles) in a short time.
• Discharge distance is fairly short 3 to 8 feet.
• Wind can cause foam produced, to blow away.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.24 Page 2 of 12 c. High expansion nozzles
• Generally requires high flow rates 50 gpm to 70 gpm for the nozzle to work.
• Nozzles tend to be large and bulky.
• Two to three people usually needed to carry nozzle.
• Nozzle is usually fixed mounted.
• Works best in indirect attack and mop up situations.
• A Fluid foam is produced.
• Produces great amounts of foam (bubbles) in a short time.
• Discharge distance is fairly short 2 to 4 feet.
• Wind can cause foam produced, to blow away.
4. Attack methods
a. Structure protection
• Foam will cling to walls and roof, to provide the insulating barrier needed to protect from heat and flying embers. Foaming structures before the fire front hits is especially beneficial to structures where crews will not be able to remain on site to provide protection. Use both wet and fluid foams in combination.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.25 Page 3 of 12 • When applying foam to a structure in the path of an approaching wildfire, timing is critical. Foam applied too early to the structure may not have the durability to provide optimum protection; begin the foaming operation too late, and firefighters may not get all structures coated, or worse, may not be able to escape an area before the flame front hits.
• Begin treating the structure 10 to 15 minutes before the expected front is to arrive. When time permits, several coatings on the structure with wet foam will allow the moisture within the foam to penetrate porous materials. The action of the surfactant in foam lets water that would normally run off penetrate and stay on the fuel.
• Foam should be applied to the structure by lofting the foam from a distance (low expansion nozzle works best), allowing layers to build up and completely cover all combustible surfaces. Roofs, eves, outside walls and any combustibles on the ground adjacent to the structure should also be covered. b. Exposure protection
• Foam’s ability to adhere to vertical, sloped, upside- down, and slippery surfaces is the key to exposure protection. Without this characteristic, no barrier could be produced and wetting may not be complete. Water on the other hand is effective on exposures only as long as it continues to flow over the exposure. Foam allows the firefighter the opportunity to cover an exposure and leave to work on another exposure; water does not. Apply foam to outside walls, eaves, roofs, columns, or other threatened surfaces.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.26 Page 4 of 12 c. Mop up
• Using foam helps prevent fires from becoming deep-seated in the ground. Blanketing a fire with foam is effective at securing the perimeter of a large fire and totally securing small fires. Medium nozzles are very good tools for this kind of operation. Before leaving the area, check for steam rising from the foam. Steam plumes indicate pockets of heat which need more attention.
• Wet foam put on charred material early in mop-up does the work usually done with a fog nozzle tip and a tool. It quickly penetrates the fuel and the ground where it lays, and as a blanket separates oxygen from any remaining smoldering fuel. This works extremely well on pitchy and punky material, duff and litter.
• For deep-seated fires in stumps, landings, and log decks, install a mop-up wand on a forester nozzle. This device works well with foam solution. d. Direct attack
• Apply foam to the base of the linear flame front. On wide hotspots secure the edge and work toward the center. While attacking the edge, direct some of the foam stream onto immediately adjacent unburned fuels.
• For pump and roll (running) attack from engines, apply as you would a water stream, long enough to ensure extinguishment. This will not take as long as with plain water. As soon as steam is visible, move on. Leave a foam blanket over the hot fuels to smother and continue to wet the fuel.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.27 Page 5 of 12 • Foam’s ability to wet and cool fuels long after the firefighter has left the area is a key to effective foam use. Greater efficiency results as the firefighter moves on to a new area because he/she knows the foam will continue to work where it has been applied. e. Indirect attack/barrier
• Apply foam as a wet line adjacent to a backfire or burn out. Apply immediately ahead of the firing team. The foam line should be at least two and a half times as wide as the anticipated flame lengths. Coat all sides of the fuel whenever possible. Apply foam at close range as water would be applied for penetration into the ground and surface fuels. Then apply foam to the aerial fuels around the indirect line. This can be done by lofting a “fluid foam” onto the brush and tree canopies to fire proof them.
• Foam’s abilities to penetrate dead and live fuels quickly, to form an insulating blanket, and to cling to vertical surfaces makes it very useful for fuel protection, whether for stands of timber, brush, wildlife trees, snags, fuel jackpots, endangered plants, or log decks. Barrier protection is achieved with less water, less application time, and with less people than conventional methods.
• The objective of making a barrier is to turn dry fuel into wet, unburnable fuel. To accomplish this, the rate and time of foam application for making a barrier depends on air temperature, relative humidity, fuel loading and moisture content. Sometimes, due to adverse conditions, reapplication of foam is needed if the foam blanket breaks down.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.28 Page 6 of 12 Foam is a short-term treatment. It is not a retardant. Generally, if you can see bubbles, the fuels below it will remain wet.
• The characteristics of foam important to barrier protection are its wetting ability and its durability. The foam must gradually break down to wet the fuels and remain stable to maintain a protective barrier.
B. Compressed Air Foam Systems (CAFS)
Can usually produce three types of foams with different capabilities in fire suppression efforts. Very versatile in making any type and wetness of foam.
1. Types of foam
• Dry foams
Excellent for insulating an exposure or anything that the foam is sprayed on. Excellent product for capping in moisture on pre-treated surfaces. Foam can last up to 1 hour if conditions are right.
• Fluid foams
Excellent for pre-treating structure exposures due to the ability of foam to break down the surface tension of water for greater penetration of moisture in exposed areas.
• Wet foams
Works well for mopup, wetting down fine fuels to create wetlines for direct attack or burning out blacklines.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.29 Page 7 of 12 2. Durability of foam application depends on wind, temperature and moisture content and foam concentration.
• Dry foams that have been applied in a concentrated area can last up to an hour and a half.
• CAFS foam is very durable.
• Remember: water supply and experience with the system will have a great impact on the durability and types of foam made.
3. Foam nozzles and the foam they produce
CAFS produced foam bubbles are smaller and more consistent (stronger bubble structure) than those produced by aspirating nozzles. CAFS systems work best with out any nozzle. Smooth bore ball valves work the best.
• Depending on size of the smooth bore ball valve, discharge distance is from two feet to well over 50 feet.
• Can be used in all attack situations.
• All foam types can be produced.
• Flow rates (gpm) are variable depending on ball valve opening, air flow and water flow.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.30 Page 8 of 12 4. Attack methods
a. Structure protection
• Foam will cling to walls and roof, to provide the insulating barrier needed to protect from heat and flying embers. Foaming structures before the fire front hits is especially beneficial to structures where crews will not be able to remain on site to provide protection. Use both dry and fuild foams in combination.
• When applying foam to a structure in the path of an approaching wildfire, timing is not as critical as with an air aspirated system because the foam produced lasts longer and is more durable. Always keep in mind the safety of the firefighters doing the work.
• Begin treating the structure 10 to 15 minutes before the expected front begins. When time permits, several coatings on the structure with fluid foam will allow the moisture within the foam to penetrate porous materials then cap it with a dry foam.
• Foam should be applied to the structure by lofting the foam from a distance, allowing layers to build up and completely cover all combustible surfaces. Roofs, eves, outside walls and any combustibles on the ground adjacent to the structure need to be covered.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.31 Page 9 of 12 b. Exposure protection
• Using a dry foam to coat an exposure allows the firefighter to move around faster than with an air aspirated foam system. If the firefighter sees foam on the exposure he/she can be assured that the foam is insulating and wetting the exposure. c. Mop up
• Using a wet foam helps prevent fires from becoming deep-seated in the ground. Blanketing a fire with a fluid or wet foam and then capping it with a dry foam is effective at securing the perimeter of a large fire and totally securing small fires. Before leaving the area, check for steam rising from the foam. Steam plumes indicate pockets of heat which need more attention.
• Wet foam put on charred material early in mop-up does the work usually done with a fog nozzle tip and a tool. It quickly penetrates the fuel and the ground where it lays, and as a blanket separates oxygen from any remaining smoldering fuel. This works extremely well on pitchy and punky material, duff and litter.
• For deep-seated fires in stumps, landings, and log decks, install a mop-up wand on a forester nozzle. This device works well with CAFS foam.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.32 Page 10 of 12 d. Direct attack
• Apply a dripping foam to the base of the linear flame front. On wide hotspots secure the edge and work toward the center. While attacking the edge, direct some of the foam stream onto immediately adjacent unburned fuels.
• For pump and roll (running) attack from engines, apply as you would a water stream, long enough to ensure extinguishment. This will not take as long as with plain water. Leave a foam blanket over the hot fuels to smother and continue to wet the fuel.
• Foam’s ability to wet and cool fuels long after the firefighter has left the area is a key to effective foam use. Greater efficiency results as the firefighter moves on to a new area because he/she knows the foam will continue to work where it has been applied. e. Indirect attack/barrier
• Apply a fluid foam as a wet line adjacent to a backfire or burn out. Apply immediately ahead of the firing team. The foam line should be at least two and a half times as wide as the anticipated flame lengths. Coat all sides of the fuel whenever possible. Apply foam at close range as water would be applied for penetration into the ground and surface fuels. Then apply a dry foam to the aerial fuels around the indirect line. This can be done by lofting a “dry foam” onto the brush and tree canopies to fire proof them.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.33 Page 11 of 12 • Foam’s abilities to penetrate dead and live fuels quickly, to form an insulating blanket, and to cling to vertical surfaces makes it very useful for fuel protection, whether for stands of timber, brush, wildlife trees, snags, fuel jackpots, endangered plants, or log decks. Barrier protection is achieved with less water, less application time, and with less people than conventional methods.
• The objective of making a barrier is to turn dry fuel into wet, unburnable fuel. To accomplish this, the rate and time of foam application for making a barrier depends on air temperature, relative humidity, fuel loading and moisture content. Sometimes do to adverse conditions reapplication of foam is needed if the foam blanket breaks down. Foam is a short-term treatment. It is not a retardant. Generally, if you can see bubbles, the fuels below it will remain wet.
• The characteristics of foam important to barrier protection are its wetting ability and its durability. The foam must gradually break down to wet the fuels and remain stable to maintain a protective barrier.
5B-02-S215-SR 5B.34 Page 12 of 12 Fire Operations In The Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 5 - Structure Protection Tactics
Lesson C - Support Resources: Handcrews, Aircraft, and Heavy Equipment
OBJECTIVES:
1. List four ways handcrews can be used in structure defense.
2. List three safety considerations when aircraft are used in structure defense.
3. Describe hazards commonly encountered by heavy equipment operations.
5C.1 I. HAND CREWS
Hand crews can be an effective suppression resource in an interface fire situation.
• Construct handline: direct control, protect structures and burn out.
• Site and structure preparation: remove fuels, trim shrubs and trees, move flammable materials.
• Set up hose lays: for use by engines or drafting from portable tanks or pools.
• Support engine crews: setting up and utilizing working lines, site preparation.
• Conduct burnout operations: many hand crews have extensive experience in firing operations.
• Mopup and patrol: hand crews can complete mopup operations while engines move on to other assignments.
A. Hand Crew Types and Capabilities
Hand crews are organized by ICS type which relates to the level of experience and capabilities of the crew.
All ICS hand crew types will have from 18 to 20 members, including a crew boss.
B. ICS Hand Crew Types
• Type I Crews - Full time organized crews, experienced leadership, highly trained.
• Type II Crews - Contract crews or Emergency Hire (EFF). Type II crews can be variable in experience and capabilities (transportation, sawyers and chainsaws).
5C.2 • Inmate Crews - considerations around structures; usually need to be kept together in close proximity for observation by Law Enforcement.
C. ICS Hand Crew Strike Team
ICS defines a hand crew strike team as 36 members including the crew bosses. They may have more than 36, but not less. Generally a hand crew strike team is two crews.
D. Use of Hand Crews
1. Order hand crews by ICS type based upon the complexity of your fire. If extensive burnout operations and saw work are anticipated, order Type I Hotshot crews.
2. Type II crews are excellent for site preparation, supporting engine crews and mopup work. These crews often take longer to get on scene due to emergency hire status.
3. Check with the crew boss regarding the crew’s experience and capabilities. Most crew bosses are experienced firefighters; involve them in your planning process for maximum effectiveness.
4. Ensure that all crews have adequate transportation and communication in case rapid escape becomes necessary. Make sure crews are informed of escape routes and safety zones.
5C.3 II. AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS
Air tankers, helicopters, and small fixed-wing aircraft can be very valuable in interface fires. Aircraft use must be closely coordinated with ground units in order to be effective and safe in all aspects of utilization.
A. Air Tankers
Some considerations for air tanker use are type, size, capabilities, availability, turnaround time, Modular Airborne Firefighting System (MAFFS - Military), Single Engine Air Tankers (SEATs).
ICS classifies air tankers into four types based on how many gallons of retardant they carry.
Air tankers can drop water, foam, or retardant.
• Use retardant to pre-treat fuels between fire and structures.
• Can be used to slow down fire advance for attack by ground forces.
• Drops should be coordinated with air tactical group supervisor (ATGS) or air tanker coordinator (lead plane pilot).
• Communication with aircraft is critical for safety.
• Use extreme caution when dropping near crews, engines and structures.
B. Helicopters
Some considerations for helicopter use are type, size, capabilities, limitations, availability, and turnaround time.
ICS classifies helicopters into three types based on payload, passengers, or retardant/water capability.
5C.4 Type I Helicopters (heavy lift)
• Capable of dropping up to 2,000 gallons per drop. Minimum of 15 passengers and 5,000 lbs. payload. Most effective in stopping fire spread. Use caution around crews, engines, structures and power lines. Examples: Chinook Sky Crane, Bell 214, Black Hawk.
Type II Helicopters (medium lift)
• Minimum capability of 300 gallons, 2,500 lbs. payload, and nine passengers. Can be used for precision hot spotting and dropping around structures. Examples: Bell 204, 205, and 212.
Type III
• Minimum water capability of 100 gallons, 1,200 lbs. payload, and four passengers. Excellent for precision water, foam or retardant drops. Most effective for reconnaissance. Examples: Bell 206 and Hughes 500.
C. Fixed Wing Aircraft
Useful in reconnaissance, operations support and air operations coordination (air tactical group supervisor).
D. Aircraft Coordination
Coordination of air and ground operations is essential. Ensure pilots have communication with ground units for maximum safety.
Only one person should be communicating with aircraft to direct water drops. IAIC, Division Supervisor or ground units designated by these individuals should coordinate with aircraft for location of water drops.
Use identifying landmarks that are distinct to both pilots and ground forces in describing location of air drops.
5C.5 Order aircraft as soon as possible through your local dispatch center. If you feel aircraft are necessary and can provide assistance in structure protection, don’t be afraid to make the request.
E. Retardant and Aerial Foam
The standard retardant is “long term” retardant. It knocks down fire well and has a lingering fire retardant effect. The long term retardant can help reduce fire intensities in fuels coated with it for several hours.
“Short term” retardant or foam has a good knock down capability, but it lacks the lasting fire retardant properties of long term retardant. It will not be effective for much more time than it takes for the major part of the water to evaporate out of it.
It is not recommended to call for a retardant drop directly onto a structure as severe structure damage may result. It is preferred to lay a line coating the fuels between the fire and the structure.
None of the retardants or water, applied from the air, can be counted on for total extinguishment. THEIR EFFECTIVENESS DEPENDS UPON PROMPT FOLLOW-UP BY GROUND FORCES.
F. Hazards and Limiting Conditions of Aircraft Use
1. Hazards
Aircraft that are operating near the ground create hazards to personnel in the vicinity.
Both fixed wing and rotary wing aircraft generate vortices that can reach the ground. They often take the form of a strong, turbulent wind; the fire may flare up or cross a control line.
The retardant drop can injure personnel and damage equipment. Crews should stay out of the drop area and protect themselves if being hit is not avoidable.
5C.6 2. Limiting conditions
Power lines, wires, cables, guy lines, towers, and poles are a deadly threat to aircraft. They are often abundant in the vicinity of structures. Always alert aircraft to such hazards; they are difficult to see from the air. Ground personnel should avoid power lines during air drops.
• Wind can be quite turbulent just above trees and topographic obstacles and may limit or preclude aircraft use. Wind exceeding 20 miles per hour is enough to cause problems.
• Smoke, fog, and inversions can reduce visibility to the point that aircraft cannot operate.
III. HEAVY EQUIPMENT OPERATIONS
Heavy equipment can be very effective in interface operations by doing work considered impossible to accomplish any other way. It does have limitations, however, that we will cover in this unit.
Heavy equipment can best be used before a fire reaches the interface. If time allows, mineral soil firelines can be constructed in advance of the fire front. These lines may stop or slow the fire.
These lines may be used with backfires to widen firelines and also during burnout operations, to secure a fire. Water and/or retardant used with heavy equipment during fireline construction can be very effective to stop or slow a fire’s advance.
Other uses of heavy equipment are to build access routes, emergency safety areas, etc.
5C.7 A. Types of Equipment
1. Dozers (Bulldozers)
ICS classifies dozers into three types based on horsepower (hp).
• Type 1 (Heavy), minimum of 170 hp • Type 2 (Medium), minimum of 93 hp • Type 3 (Light), minimum of 65 hp
These large, full tracked vehicles with a front mounted blade are very effective to construct wide firelines, move heavy fuels, construct roads, build safety zones, clear helicopter landing areas, etc.
2. Tractor plow (crawler tractor with plow)
ICS classifies tractor/plows into six types based on horsepower.
Used primarily in the southeast by wildland fire protection agencies and is the primary fire fighting tool. The tractor/plow is very mobile, powerful, and reasonably fast in constructing firelines (4 ft. wide) adjacent to improvements in advance of the approaching fire. Can be used in conjunction with a burnout operation for effectiveness in heavy fuels.
3. Farm tractors with off-set disk
Common all over the United States. Excellent for prairie fires in the Great Plains from Texas to the Dakotas. Can be used close to improvements resulting in less environmental damage. However, they are only effective in light fuels.
5C.8 4. Road graders
Limited by adverse terrain conditions. Very effective in light fuels in desert and range. Can be used for indirect attack around improvements.
5. Logging equipment can be very effective in site preparation.
B. Hazards
As with any large, powerful machinery, heavy equipment is hazardous when operated, particularly in the urban interface.
What are some of the hazards commonly encountered?
C. Safety
Keep all personnel out of the vicinity of heavy equipment while working.
Ensure that the equipment operator has all required personal protective equipment and communication with equipment supervisor (Dozer Boss). Provide information on identified hazards prior to beginning work.
5C.9 5C.10 Fire Operations In The Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 5 - Structure Protection Tactics
Lesson D - Firing Operations
OBJECTIVES:
1. List three situations in which burning out may be necessary in structure defense.
2. Describe who makes the decision to conduct a firing operation.
3. List three types of control lines used in firing operations.
5D.1 I. FIRING OPERATIONS
Firing operations involve the use of fire to conduct burn outs and backfires. It is important to understand the difference between the two.
A. Burning Out
Burning out is used with direct attack. In direct attack a fireline is built close to the edge of a fire. Burning out is setting fire inside the fireline to consume fuel between the fireline and the fire.
It is generally accepted than line personnel from crew boss on up have authority to burn out.
B. Backfiring
Backfiring is an indirect method of attack. It is the act of setting fire inside the fireline to:
• Consume the fuel in the path of a fire.
• Change direction or force of the fire’s convection column.
• Slow or change the fire’s rate of spread.
The decision for backfiring is usually made by the operations section chief based on recommendations from other line personnel.
C. When to Burn out or Backfire
• You cannot wait for the main fire to reach your established control line.
• The control line will not hold the main fire if it moves against it at full force.
• The intensity of the main fire at the control be great enough to threaten the structure.
5D.2 D. CAUTION:
USE OF FIRE IS DANGEROUS! COMMUNICATION AND COORDINATION MUST BE MAINTAINED AT ALL TIMES.
Make sure you know your agency policy concerning burning out and backfiring.
II. TIMING AND COORDINATION
• Firing should not be done if the fire will create problems for adjoining forces or would result in a threat to other structures in the area.
• Firing should not be initiated until the control line to hold it is in place.
• Make sure that firing is necessary, do not make the decision to fire without consultation with command and other forces in your area.
• Coordinate your firing operation with those around you and with those planning the overall attack. Let them know of your plan; advise when you begin firing.
• Sometimes it is necessary to wait for favorable conditions, such as appropriate wind or humidity.
• Firing to strengthen the control lines should be done as soon as the above concerns are met. Make sure you have adequate forces available to patrol the firing operation.
5D.3 III. CONTROL LINES
A. Mineral Soil
Constructed with hand crews or mechanical equipment. Make sure the control line is wide enough to hold the fire.
B. Natural or Human Made Features
Rock outcrops, dirt roads, asphalt or agricultural fields.
C. Wet Lines (water/foam/retardant)
• A wet line is a wetted strip using water, foam, or retardant to act as a control line.
• Where fuels are light, such as grass or litter, use a wet line to control the firing operation. Wet lines are quick and easy to create.
• If the fuel is low and easily penetrated, it works well to wet the strip and then to fire it. The fire goes out as it burns to the wet line.
• If the fuel is high or matted down, the wet line will not penetrate deeply enough. The fire will creep back under the line after the firing operation has moved on. In such cases, light the fire first, then use the water stream to control the inner edge of the fire, making sure it is extinguished.
• When firing from a wet line, it often pays to take advantage of areas of lower fuel. Examples include grass that has been grazed down, and tire tracks from vehicles where the grass has been crushed.
5D.4 IV. FIRING AND HOLDING
Personnel assigned to firing and holding operations must be certified and under the supervision of a qualified firing boss.
A. Basic Firing Operations
• In any firing operation, the overall progress along the line should be against the wind and/or slope that is pushing the fire along the line. In other words, take the firing operation into the wind or down the slope. If wind and slope oppose each other, key on the one that is the strongest.
• If the weather conditions are in your favor, the fire will move quickly away from the control line and should cause no real problems. Just light the edge of the fuel along the control line.
• Fuels outside and adjacent to the control line can be wet down ahead of the firing operation to prevent spotting. Foam works very well for this application.
• Space personnel and equipment out along the line. Do not advance the firing operation until the fire along the line is no longer a threat at that location. The firing operation should not move ahead any faster than the holding operation can keep up with.
5D.5 B. Firing Techniques
There are many firing techniques, but two that work well on interface fires are:
1. Strip firing
It involves setting fire to one or more strips of fuel and allowing the strips to burn together. Lighting numerous strips allows faster area ignition. By varying the width of the strips and their location in relation to the slope and/or wind direction a means of regulating the fire’s intensity can be provided.
2. Ring firing
This technique is generally used as an indirect attack and backfire operation. It involves circling the perimeter of an area with a control line and then firing the entire perimeter. Ring firing is often used to burn out around structures. However, firing personnel may not have a strong anchor point to commence firing. Escape routes and safety zones must be established.
C. Holding
• Engines, hose lines, or hand crews should be deployed along the line behind the firing operation.
• The holding operation must be capable of dealing with hot spots or escaped fire across the control line.
• Do not impair the intentional fire. Knock down hot spots and flare-ups that threaten to escape, either by flame or firebrands.
• If an escape occurs, put all the necessary resources to work to contain it. Advise the crews doing the lighting of the escape so that they can slow down or stop until the escape is controlled.
5D.6 Fire Operations In the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 6 - Action Plan Assessment and Update
OBJECTIVES:
1. List the items that need to be considered in assessing the effectiveness of an incident action plan.
2. Given an incident action plan and scenario, demonstrate how to properly update the plan when the scenario changes.
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Now that you have initiated action on the fire, you need to assess the effectiveness of your actions and update your incident action plan accordingly.
I. ASSESSING INCIDENT ACTION PLAN EFFECTIVENESS
A. Determine the success of your operations by comparing the actual results of resources performance measured against the initial objectives and standards.
Note: These procedures can and should be used continually during initial attack as a means to update your incident action plan to the changing fire environment.
B. Determine if your initial strategy is valid and your tactics are effective.
C. Determine if your specific time frames are being met.
D. Determine the adequacy of current resources.
E. Determine current fire behavior.
6.2 F. The preferred way to determine and validate the above factors is through personal observation. Depending on the complexity of the situation, this may not always be possible, therefore, it is critical that you have open communications with your subordinates and other agency personnel. Establish a system that ensures continual feedback from your resources.
G. As part of your assessment, do not overlook adequacy of your support, such as logistics, food water, supplies, etc. Also do not overlook any rehabilitation needs that may have surfaced.
H. Finally, your assessment should be candid and objective and focus on processes that gain desired results.
6.3 II. UPDATING THE INCIDENT ACTION PLAN
Now that you have made your assessment, your next course of action is to update your action plan.
A. Base your plan on personal observation and/or resources feedback.
B. Obtain a current weather forecast.
C. Ensure your plan reflects and takes into account predicted fire behavior.
D. Adjust your incident priorities and objectives accordingly.
E. Adjust your strategic goals and tactical objectives (specific work assignments).
F. Document your successes as well as your failures.
G. Ensure any update is documented. Accomplish this through the use of the ICS-201 Incident Briefing, ICS-202 Incident Objectives, ICS-214 Unit Log on smaller incidents when changes are significant.
H. Update your map to reflect changes.
6.4 I. Ensure that subordinates, superiors, and other agency cooperating personnel, are informed of changes.
J. Brief your communications center of any changes and current situation.
K. Release or order resources as appropriate.
III. SAFETY
A. Be alert to the possibility that after your initial action the smoke may attract unwanted spectators; e.g., the curious public. This could pose numerous safety problems including traffic congestion.
B. Property owners may be panicked and stressed and may try to move back into the fire area before it is safe.
C. After an initial action, your crews may be physically and mentally spent. Ensure that you recognize this before it becomes a safety concern.
D. No assessment or update of a plan is worthwhile unless the safety of the public and your firefighters is the number one consideration.
6.5 IV. GROUP EXERCISES
A. Exercise 1 - Flame Incident (10 minutes).
SCENARIO
You’ve made initial attack on a wildland fire with two engines. The preferred course of action is to flank the fire and pinch off the head. Three more engines are en route and will arrive in about ½ hour. You plan to use them for mop-up. Just as you are about to hook the fire, the wind comes up and the fire makes a major run at nine structures ½ mile away.
Review the ICS-201 Incident Briefing.
Question
• Is the initial incident action plan still valid?
• If not, what changes would you make and what other things would you consider?
6.6 Flame 7 Jul XX 1400
6.7 EXERCISE 1 Using 2 wildland engines to flank fire, 3 wildland engines ordered to assist in mop-up.
6.8 6.9 Exercise 1 Type 3 engines E-3 √ " E-4 √ " E-5 1430 " E-6 1430 " E-7 1430
6.10 B. Exercise 2 - Bald Hill Road Incident (10 minutes).
SCENARIO
You’ve made initial attack on a wildland fire with a tractor/plow unit. The preferred course of action is to attack the head of the fire. Three type 3 engines are on scene and are preparing to defend structures south of the fire. A second tractor/plow unit and a 4th engine has been ordered for back-up.
Refer to the ICS Forms 201 and 202 showing your hand drawn map, incident objectives and resource assignments.
You have now been in the Fish Creek drainage for two hours. You have made significant progress and all structures are secured. In a matter on minutes, wind causes the fire to make a major run across the drainage and blows by your position. Your initial assessment indicates that all structures to the south remain secure. You hear from your lookout that structures to the north on Bald Hills are threatened and need assistance. Some may already be involved.
QUESTION
Are your instructions in the incident action plan still valid? What further assessments do you make at your location and what is your next course of action?
6.11 Bald Hill Road 7 Jul XX 1400
6.12 EXERCISE 2 Using Tractor 1 to attack head of fire; engines 1,2 & 3 are providing structure protection south of Fish Creek
6.13 6.14 Exercise 2 1 Tractor/plow Tractor 1 √ 4 Type 3 Engines E-1 √ E-2 √ E-3 √ E-7 1430 1 Tractor/plow Tractor 2 20 Min
6.15 Bald Hill Road 7 Jul XX 1400
1. Provide for safety of firefighters and public. 2. Protect structures in Fish Creek drainage. 3. Keep fire east of Bull Ridge. 4. Keep fire west of Highway 6.
6.16 C. Exercise 3 - Click Street Incident (10 minutes).
SCENARIO
You are the initial attack incident commander on a fire that has broken out in a subdivision. You have determined that 12 out of 18 structures are defendable. You have 10 Type 3 engines at your disposal. You decide that time does not permit you to go out and attack the fire. You commit all 10 engines to the defensive mode. Engines are in place with hose lines laid when the wind stops. The fire dies down and is just barely creeping.
Review the ICS-201 Incident Briefing.
QUESTION
What is your thought process as you assess the situation? Explain the steps you would take in logical order in updating your incident action plan.
6.17 Click Street 29 Jul XX 1400
6.18 Exercise 3 Engines are set up in defensive mode, all 10 engines are Type 3 4x4 wildland trained. Engine placement and assignment is keyed to map
6.19 6.20 Engine E-1 √ Structure Protection " E-2 √ " " " E-3 √ " " " E-4 √ " " " E-5 √ " " " E-6 √ " " " E-7 √ " " " E-8 √ " " " E-9 √ " " " E-10 √ " "
6.21 6.22 Fire Operations In The Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 7 - Follow-up and Public Relations
OBJECTIVES:
1. List four steps that should be completed before leaving an area involved in an interface fire.
2. List four factors to be considered in dealing with the public on interface fires.
3. List three factors to be considered in dealing with the media on interface fires.
4. Describe the responsibilities relating to demobilization of an interface incident.
7.1 I. FOLLOW-UP AFTER THE FIRE PASSES
Once the fire front or major heat wave has passed your position, your job is not yet completed. Nothing would be more frustrating than defending a structure from the heat, smoke and flames of the fire front, or leaving to assist another company or crew and returning only to find the first structure totally consumed from a hidden spark. Don’t let your desire to move with the fire front overpower your obligation to finish the job at hand. Your initial concern should be the structures you were assigned to protect.
A. Check the structure for fire at likely ignition points.
1. You must check for sparks or embers at:
a. Roofs
b. Siding
c. Vents
d. Under eaves and in rain gutters
e. Under decks and porches
f. Wood piles
2. Check for heat or flame extension into the interior.
a. Attics
b. Curtains or window
c. Furniture
d. Carpets
e. Wall
f. Cupboards
g. Ducts
7.2 B. Perform only enough mopup or overhaul to ensure structure safety before moving to other structures.
1. Complete extinguishment of any fire in or on the structure.
2. Provide a positive barrier between a surface fire and the structure.
3. If the owners are present, instruct them as to what they can do to continue protection and mopup (remember the risks involved).
4. Leave all homeowner’s ladders and garden hoses in place and ready to use.
When a site becomes secure and equipment becomes available, contact command for your next assignment. If possible, always try to leave one engine to patrol the burned area and assist with mopup and security.
C. Things to do before leaving the area.
1. Provide for patrol by engine(s) or crew(s).
2. Leave a note on the door or entry telling occupants:
a. What you did with utilities
b. What happened to pets, if any
c. Who entered the home and why
d. Date and time
e. Signature and title
f. Your business card
3. Leave a few lights on so patrol crews can locate the structure.
7.3 4. Secure the structure.
Be sure to brief the patrol crew(s) that their primary mission is to provide structure protection.
D. Patrol duties include:
1. Preventing further losses.
a. Primary responsibility is to structures
b. Minimize damage to improvements and environment.
c. Assist and instruct homeowners as to effective mopup procedures.
2. Maintaining a high visibility to the homeowner.
This is critical before, during and after the fire.
a. Those homeowners who stayed, or are returning, want to see a fire engine.
b. Practice positive public relations in an attempt to leave the public with positive feelings.
3. Start documenting damage.
a. Document noticeable damage.
b. Keep a good record of damage caused by fire suppression action.
c. Count the number of damaged structures.
(1) Homes
(2) Outbuildings
(3) Improvements
7.4 (4) Crops
(5) Vehicles/Equipment
d. Order a fire investigator or claims specialist as needed.
II. PUBLIC RELATIONS
Seldom will the need for effective public relations be greater than during and after an interface fire.
However, it is critical that public relations programs need to be operational before the fire! Making the public aware of the problems that exist before there is a fire can help develop the cooperation needed when a fire occurs. It is also prudent to identify those media contacts who will be there to cover these events. Identify these contacts before fire season and invite them to planning or pre-incident surveys or even have them take basic fire training.
Homeowners threatened by wildfire will be experiencing a great variety of emotions, fear, apprehension, anger, etc. Many of these emotions may be directed toward the firefighters.
As an incident commander or company officer, you will be required to control your emotions while trying to maintain control of the incident at hand. Expect panicked homeowners and remember your mission.
A. Be prepared for a multitude of questions from someone who has no idea of what is going on.
1. Where is the fire; where is it going?
2. Are you evacuating?
3. Has anyone been hurt; have homes burned?
4. Why didn’t you put this fire out when it started?
5. What started it?
6. Why aren’t you in there protecting homes?
7.5 B. Request an incident information officer or a member of the incident information officer’s staff as soon as possible.
1. Follow the guidelines of the incident information officer for the release of information.
2. If in doubt find out or say something positive such as “we are doing the very best job we can.”
3. Those in leader positions must be prepared to “run interference” between the public and their crews.
C. Dealing With The Media
Nothing brings out the news media faster than a disaster. Expect large numbers of media representatives wandering around the fire ground.
1. Always be courteous and act professional, but don’t let them interfere with your job.
2. Refer their questions to an incident information officer or command.
3. Never provide undocumented information, or the names of injured or killed.
4. Remember that radio communications may be monitored by the media and the public.
D. Dealing With The Public
Public opinion of firefighters will remain long after the interface fire is out. Maintain a professional attitude but be sensitive to the needs of the affected public. Be careful of what you say and how your crew acts at all times.
1. Always try to minimize damage caused by control methods.
2. Document any damage caused directly by suppression actions.
7.6 3. When time permits, talk to the homeowners and explain what actions were taken and why.
4. Remember that people often have a greater emotional attachment to pets than other personal property.
5. If your agency policy authorizes entering structures:
• Be cautious if you do enter the structure.
• Ensure the protection of valuables and heirlooms.
• Place smaller items into closets and close doors.
• Ensure the safety of photos and pictures, video equipment, computers and other high value items.
6. Cardinal Rule - Always treat the property of others better than how you would want your own property treated.
III. POST INCIDENT MANAGEMENT
A. Demobilization
During the excitement of an uncontrolled incident, our thoughts are usually directed toward the escalation of suppression activities. As the incident begins to wind down, or other incidents become more critical our thoughts should begin to consider the orderly demobilization.
This can be accomplished by:
1. Providing input through channels as to required resources.
2. Remaining cost effective in estimates of required resources.
3. Relaying information to relief forces.
4. Leaving a high visibility engine to provide community assurance and good public relations during patrol.
7.7 5. Remaining crews should be fresh enough to assist in clean up and also briefed in public relations skills.
6. Keeping accurate, up to date, and easy to read records.
B. Demobilization Plan
1. Ensure safe and cost effective release of resources.
2. Reduce disorder on the scene.
3. Ensure sufficient personnel are left at the scene.
4. Take into account time on the incident and needed fire protection in mutual aid communities.
Tired crews experience a higher number of accidents than fresh crews. Safety should always be the overriding factor in making any decision.
5. Make sure equipment and supplies are refurbished enough to be reassigned to another incident.
6. Make sure folks making the plan have as much information about what you have and can do if reassigned. Include cellular phone numbers and frequencies to be contacted if situation changes.
C. Safety During Demobilization
1. Personnel may become lax or careless as the incident winds down.
2. Enforce all safety SOPs.
3. Allow “NO” horseplay, but let the crews unwind.
7.8 D. After Action Review
The after action review is a reconstruction of an incident to assess the chain of events, the methods used, and the actual results of your operations. Address and analyze both the positive and the negative results of your actions.
After action reviews should be done at all levels of the incident organization.
1. What was planned?
2. What actually happened?
3. Why did it happen?
4. What can we do next time?
IV. SUMMARY
Coordination starts with the establishment of command. You need to have a thorough understanding of the chain of command. As each incident needs to have a leader to take command, each company or crew needs someone to command them. Leadership must be exerted to provide safe operations and successful completion of strategy and tactics.
When establishing an incident command where multi-jurisdiction has brought both wildland and structural firefighting forces together, establish a unified command where both organizations are represented at the command level.
Don’t be afraid to build it too big.
7.9 7.10 MEDIA RELATIONS 101
1. Honesty, honesty, honesty.
2. You’re always on the record.
3. If you’re not the best source, know who is...“serve the news consumer.”
4. Know what areas are sensitive for your organization. Know when it’s OK to pass the buck.
5. Equal treatment for all reporters.
6. Don’t assume any knowledge on the reporter’s part.
7. Stick to confirmed, verifiable facts. (Sgt. Friday, “Just the facts, ma’am, just the facts.”)
8. Deal only with your area of expertise and involvement.
9. If unable to comment on something, explain why.
10. It’s OK to say “I don’t know.” (But make referrals or get the answer before the deadline!)
11. Avoid using trade jargon...speak English.
12. Make your point as succinctly as possible and repeat it as many different ways as is needed. Consider what medium you’re working with and their capability to digest your story.
13. Never argue with anyone who buys ink by the barrel or videotape by the case.
14. Put yourself in the reporter’s place. Think like a journalist.
15. Ignore news gathering paraphernalia...focus on the reporter.
16. Never look down and never look up on camera.
7.11 07-01-S215-SR 7.12 Fire Operations In the Wildland/Urban Interface, S-215
Unit 8 - Firefighter Safety in the Interface
OBJECTIVES:
1. Describe three safety hazards commonly encountered on interface fires.
2. Describe in order of priority three actions that can be taken if a defensive position is threatened by the fire and becomes unsafe.
3. List three indications of potential hazardous material combustion.
8.1 I. INTRODUCTION
Interface wildfires have destroyed thousands of homes, killed and injured scores of people, including firefighters.
Most wildland fires require some level of structure protection as more structures are built within and adjacent to flammable vegetation types.
Fire exclusion policies of the last century have created extreme fuel loading in the wildland interface.
Interface fires create unique safety hazards within the fire environment that are not commonly encountered by wildland or structural firefighters.
• Greater risks are taken to protect homes:
Firefighters often ignore safety procedures that would not be violated in normal wildland or structural fire operations.
• Extreme weather and fire behavior can rapidly cut off escape routes to safety zones.
• Mass ignition of structures creates extreme radiant heat that has killed firefighters and civilians after escape routes are cut off by the encroaching wildland fire.
• Hazardous chemicals, power lines, livestock, and widespread panic require firefighters to be extremely vigilant for their safety.
• Situational awareness and continual size-up of potential hazards to personal safety is required.
A. Preparation for Interface Fires: Before you go
1. Make sure everyone has all their personal protective equipment. Wear it on your way to the fire. Engines have been trapped requiring escape by foot.
8.2 2. Access to fire shelters in the cab is critical. Every firefighter should keep a shelter in the cab (a good recommendation is to have two extra shelters). Don’t leave them in the storage cabinets in the back. Your engine could become trapped leaving you without your fire shelter.
3. Shelters have been successfully deployed in the cab of an engine. Open the shelter and hold it against windows and the windshield and/or cover up the floor if possible.
4. Gloves are critical for shelter deployment! Keep your gloves with you at all times.
B. Driver Safety Awareness: Making sure you get to the fire!
1. Driving accidents are a leading cause of injuries and fatalities to firefighters.
2. Interface fires increase the risk of vehicle accidents. Public panic, congested roads, vehicles and animals in the road, and poor visibility can be expected.
3. Drive with extra caution! Don’t let the excitement and pressure of the situation affect your judgement.
4. Speed is a leading cause of accidents involving emergency vehicles. Remember, if you don’t make it to the fire you wont be able to do the job you have been trained for.
C. Interface Driving Watch Outs!
1. If you can’t see what is ahead STOP! Interface fires often occur during extreme wind events. Dense ground level smoke and wind blown dust will reduce visibility on the road to zero at times.
2. Anticipate hazards in the road, downed power lines, trees, vehicles, frightened citizens, pets or livestock.
8.3 3. Send someone ahead on foot to scout road conditions, before committing your vehicle to a situation that will be dangerous or difficult to escape from. Make sure the scout has communications, full PPE and carries flashlights or flares for visibility.
4. Use headlights and emergency flashers when moving or stationary. Don’t shut off your engine while your emergency lights, engine work lights and radio are still on.
5. If you leave the vehicle, make sure you leave the keys in it, in case of emergency.
6. Caution! Do not bunch up your engines. Maintain enough space between equipment to allow for backing up and turnarounds. The danger here is that engines at the front of the group have no escape route if the fire makes a run at the road ahead.
7. Be aware of fire potential when driving on winding mountain roads. In turns are often located chutes and draws where increased fire intensity may be encountered. Out turns are usually across ridge lines and are a safer place to be positioned.
8. Bridges and substandard roads are often encountered in interface fires. If the bridge is not posted with load limits use extreme caution. Make sure that you know the Gross Vehicle Weight of your apparatus fully loaded with personnel, equipment and water.
9. Obtain good road maps. If possible, have someone with you who is familiar with the area. Verify all information and instructions before committing to an operational decision.
8.4 D. Size-up for Safety
• Conduct a size-up for safety in your structural triage decision making process.
• Ensure that escape routes and safety zones are considered in all aspects of your tactical decision making process.
1. “Watch-Out” situations for interface safety:
• Poor access and narrow one-way roads
• Bridge load limits
• Wooden construction and wood shake roofs
• Inadequate water supply
• Natural fuels 30 ft. or closer to structures
• Structures in chimneys, box canyons, narrow canyons, or on steep slopes (30% or greater)
• Extreme fire behavior
• Strong winds
• Evacuation of public (panic)
2. Identify and communicate escape routes and safety zones.
When establishing escape routes and safety zones, the following parameters should be considered:
a. Distance to safety zone: if possible, arrange your safety zone with your defensive working position.
8.5 b. Avoid using safety zones more than two minutes’ driving time from your position.
c. If safety zones are not available, use Class A Foam to pre-treat the structure and retreat to an established safety zone. Return when it is safe and extinguish any fire on or near the structure.
d. Avoid escape routes on steep, narrow or substandard roads.
e. Heavy fuels along escape routes can become traps.
f. Identify and communicate the location of escape routes and safety zones to all personnel. Get positive feedback so you are sure they understand the location of the escape routes and safety zones.
3. Identify unique hazards. Brief crews on procedures for working near power lines, propane tanks, fuel or chemical storage facilities.
a. Power lines, transformers, electrical service boxes
• Never apply water directly to power lines, poles or electrical service boxes.
Use a nozzle with fog spray capability and not less than 100 psi nozzle pressure.
• Use caution when crossing barbed wire or opening barbed wire and metal gates.
The possibility of live power lines on the metal wire creates an electrical shock hazard.
8.6 b. Power line safety rules
• Downed conductor on vehicle: stay in vehicle until power company arrives. If vehicle is on fire or fire is near, jump clear, but don’t hang on. Keep feet together and bunny hop away.
• Smoke, water, and retardant are all good conductors and can cause powerline to ground arcing.
• Don’t operate heavy equipment under powerlines.
• Don’t use rights-of-way as a jump zone, cargo drop spot, staging area, or Safety Zone.
• Don’t drive with long antennas under powerlines.
• Don’t fuel vehicles under powerlines.
• Don’t stand near powerlines during retardant or bucket drops.
• Don’t park under powerlines.
• Don’t apply straight stream to powerlines.
E. Hazardous Materials Awareness and Safety
Interface considerations:
• Farms and ranches in rural settings often have their own fuel and chemical storage facilities.
• Burning structures in the interface can contain hazardous materials that emit toxic gases or can potentially explode.
8.7 • Remain a safe distance from structures that are fully involved, and out of the path of smoke emissions that could contain toxic gases.
Remember, exposure to hazardous materials may not immediately affect you, but exposure can potentially have long term effects on your health.
1. Sources of potential hazardous material
a. Residential structures
• Chemicals
• Paint
• Cleaning materials
• Pesticides and herbicides
• Plastics and other synthetic materials
• Ammunition and gun powder
b. Farms and ranches
• Large quantities of pesticides and herbicides in storage tanks or tanker trucks.
• Flammable storage tanks of gas, diesel and liquid petroleum gas.
• Explosives
• Ammonia nitrate fertilizers are commonly used in farm operations. Thermal decomposition produces fumes which can explode.
8.8 2. Smoke color indicators of hazardous material combustion
a. Watch for smoke that’s unusual in density or volume.
Extra heavy smoke from a small area means something other than vegetation is burning.
b. Look for smoke that’s unusual in color.
• Black smoke often indicates a burning hydrocarbon such as fuel oil, burning tires or creosote treated rail ties or telephone poles.
• Colored smoke (red, green yellow) are indicators of toxic materials such as acids, corrosives or poisons.
• Invisible vapors can extend well beyond the limit of visible smoke and can be inhaled or absorbed through the skin.
• Watch for environmental warning signs.
Firefighters or the public exhibiting symptoms beyond just coughing such as convulsions, disorientation and dizziness. Dead birds, pets, or livestock can indicate the presence of toxic gas fumes in the vicinity.
3. If you suspect a hazardous material incident in your area:
• Evacuate all personnel from the area and deny access to others.
• Report the location and other pertinent information to your supervisor.
• Request “Haz-Mat” specialists and equipment.
8.9 • Don’t evacuate downwind or downhill if possible.
• A general guideline is that if you can’t cover the incident scene with your outstretched thumbnail, you’re too close.
F. Defensive Tactics for Interface Safety
1. Engine positioning and operation
• Back into working position headed toward your escape route, leave engine running with emergency lights on.
• Upon reaching position immediately check operation of pump motors.
• Don’t block escape routes for other equipment.
• Don’t park next to heavy fuel loads, woodpiles or brush.
• Look for green lawns, paved or gravel surfaces to position your engine.
• Never pass up opportunities to fill your tank. Use supplemental fill lines from available water sources when in defensive position.
• Keep hose bed covered and compartments and windows closed.
• Water and Engine Protection Hose - Maintain at least 100 gallons of water in your tank with at least one length of charged 1½ inch line for protection of your engine and crew.
8.10 2. Burnover: Shelter from the firestorm
• Interface fires often occur during extreme wind events.
• Wind driven fires can rapidly generate intense heat, dense smoke and cut off escape routes.
If the fire becomes too intense and escape to safety zones is not possible, consider the following alternatives.
a. Take refuge in the structure.
It will provide excellent protection from the radiant heat. Use any means necessary to get in the house if your life is in danger. Once the fire front passes you can go back outside and potentially put out any fires that have ignited on the structure.
When using structure as a refuge, your engine must be secured, throttle adjusted to 1,100 to 1,200 rpm and a 1½ inch charged hoseline taken inside, in the event fire gains the interior.
A spotlight on the engine should be directed vertically upwards in the event additional resources are requested. This maneuver has proven effective in rapidly locating personnel requiring help. Your supervisor should be notified when refuge is taken in structure, engine, safety zone, or shelter.
b. Take refuge in your engine.
There is no NWCG guidelines on taking refuge in an engine. Follow your agency policy. If no agency policy exists it’s up to individual judgement.
8.11 Some considerations are:
• If it is in a good location stay there! Burn out around the engine if time allows. A spotlight on the engine should be directed vertically upwards. Keep the cab closed and deploy fire shelters inside. Place spare SCBA cylinder(s) on the floor of the cab with the valve cracked open. Notify your supervisor that you are taking refuge in the engine.
• If not in a good location keep moving and seek a place where the fire is less intense.
• If the engine is catching fire and you must evacuate the cab, do it with your fire shelter in gloved hands.
c. Maintain control of your people at all times.
Keep calm, display a positive attitude and maintain communications.
3. Aftermath
a. Extreme danger is still present after the main fire has passed.
b. Conduct a post-fire sizeup to identify potential hazards.
c. Post Fire Hazards
• Burned trees and snags that could fall without warning.
• Downed power lines and power poles that have been burned.
8.12 • Limit exposure to toxic smoldering materials, tires, creosote treated wood, plastics and other chemicals present in the post-fire environment.
• Limiting mopup to natural fuels to reduce exposure of firefighters to hazardous smoke and fumes.
II. CONCLUSION
• Nearly all wildland fires involve some aspects of interface hazards and safety concerns.
• The potential for firefighters to be injured or killed increases exponentially as multiple hazards exist simultaneously in the interface fire environment.
• Firefighter safety must always be the primary objective of any interface firefighting operation.
• Firefighters must be vigilant and aware of hazard factors and potential to themselves and others at all times.
• Never let down your guard, no structure is worth serious injury or a life.
Homes will rebuild, like a forest after the fire.
8.13 8.14 APPENDIX A
GLOSSARY
A - 1 A - 2 GLOSSARY
ACCESS The ability to gain entrance into an area with firefighting equipment.
ACTION PLAN Any tactical plan developed by any element of the ICS in support of the incident action plan.
AERIAL FUELS The standing and supported forest combustibles not in direct contact with the ground and consisting mainly of foliage, twigs, branches, stems, bark, and vines.
BACKDRAFT An explosion resulting from the introduction of oxygen into a compartment that is pressurized with heated, flammable gases deficient in oxygen.
BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion) Which occurs when a container of liquefied gas is heated to the point that the container fails and breaks into two or more pieces due to over pressurization.
BURNING OUT Setting fire inside a control line to consume fuel between the fire and the control line.
CLEAR TEXT The use of plain English in radio communications transmissions. No Ten Codes or agency specific codes are used when using Clear Text.
A - 3 CONTAINED Fire spread stopped under prevailing conditions.
CONTROL To complete control line around a fire, any spot fires therefrom and any interior islands to be saved; burn out any unburned area adjacent to the fire side of the control lines; and cool down all hot spots that are immediate threats to the control line, until the line can reasonably be expected to hold under foreseeable conditions.
CONTROL LINE A comprehensive term for all the constructed or natural fire barriers and treated fire edges used to control a fire.
DEFENSIBLE SPACE A fuel break adjacent to improvements in which you can safely defend improvements (see fuel break).
DES Disaster and Emergency Services
DOZER Any track-laying (not wheeled) tractor=cat=bulldozer
EGRESS Going out; ability to exit; a place of exit
EMS Emergency Medical Services
ENGINE Any ground vehicle providing specific levels of pumping, water, hose capacity, and personnel.
EVAPORATIVE COOLER A type of air cooler usually located on the roof of a structure which utilizes water evaporation in the cooling process.
A - 4 FIREBRANDS Any burning materials such as leaves, wood, glowing charcoal, or carried through the air and capable of igniting spot fires.
FIRE FRONT See Fire Head
FIREGROUND The area directly around and including the property involved in fire.
FIRE HEAD That portion of a fire showing the greatest rate of spread; i.e., generally to leeward or upslope.
FIRELINE A loose term for any cleared strip used in control of a fire; or a cleared, permanent firebreak; or that portion of a control line from which flammable materials have been removed; or a line cleared around an active fire, generally following its edge to prevent further spread.
FIRE OUT See Burning Out
FIRE PLOW A heavy duty share or disc plow designed to be pulled by either horses or tractors to construct firebreaks and firelines.
FIRE RETARDANT Any substance except plain water that by chemical or physical action reduces the flammability of fuels or slows the rate of combustion.
FLASHOVER The sudden ignition of all fuels in a compartment after being preheated to the ignition point.
A - 5 FOAM A surfactant, chemically and/or mechanically produced, that blankets and adheres to the fuel when aerated, reducing combustion.
FUEL BREAK Generally, wide strips of land on which the native vegetation has been permanently modified so that fires burning into them can be more readily controlled. Some fuel breaks contain narrow firebreaks which may be roads or narrow hand-constructed lines. During fires, these firebreaks can quickly be widened either with hand tools or by firing out.
HELITORCH An aerial ignition device slung beneath a helicopter to dispense ignited lumps of gelled gasoline.
HAZARDOUS MATERIALS Any element, compound, or combination thereof, which is flammable, corrosive, etc. and which may have detrimental effects on operating and emergency personnel, the public, and/or the environment.
IMPROVEMENTS Any man made addition other than structures to the natural environment; e.g., corral, fence, utility poles.
INCIDENT STABILIZATION The activities required to stop the forward progress of the incident and to bring the incident under control.
A - 6 INTERFACE That line, area, or zone where structures and other human development meets or intermingles with undeveloped wildland or vegetative fuels.
INTERMEDIATE FUELS Those fuels either attached to or immediately adjacent to a structure that are neither part of the structure or part of the wildland.
LADDER FUELS Fuels which provide vertical continuity between strata. Fire is able to carry from surface fuels into the crowns of trees or shrubs with relative ease and assure initiation and continuation of crowning.
LATCH KEY KIDS A regularly unsupervised child whose parents are away from home.
LETHAL AREAS An area where it is not safe to locate firefighters or civilians.
LIFE SAFETY The activities required to protect occupants and emergency response personnel, remove those who are threatened and to treat the injured.
NON-FIRE RESOURCES Equipment and personnel potentially useful but not directly used in fire suppression.
OCCUPANCY TYPE Is the purpose for which a building or part thereof is used or intended to be used.
OUTBUILDINGS Any building separate from a residence.
A - 7 OVERHAUL Those operations that consist of searching for and extinguishing hidden or remaining fire; placing the building and its contents in a safe condition; and determining the cause of the fire.
OVERSTORY Crown canopy foliage (see aerial fuels).
PRE-LAID Placed before anticipated use.
PROPERTY CONSERVATION The activities required to stop or reduce additional loss to property and/or the community.
RETARDANT See Fire Retardant
SIZE UP The evaluation of a fire to determine a course of action for suppression.
SALVAGE Those methods and procedures that further reduce fire, water, and smoke damage during and after a fire.
SCBA Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (a.k.a. Air Packs)
SPOTTING ZONE Area susceptible to firebrands.
STRATEGY An overall plan of action for fighting a fire which gives regard to the most cost- efficient use of personnel and equipment in consideration of values threatened, fire behavior, legal constraints, and objectives established for resource management. Leaves decisions on the tactical use of personnel and equipment to line commanders in the suppression function.
A - 8 STRUCTURE COLLAPSE ZONE An area around a structure where structure collapse may cause injury or death to firefighters. Generally 1½ times the height of the building.
STRUCTURE DEFENSE The act of protecting or defending structures/improvements from wildland fire.
STRUCTURE TRIAGE The sorting and prioritizing of structures requiring protection from wildfire based upon an educated assessment designed to maximize the number saved.
TRACTOR-PLOW Any track vehicle with a plow for exposing mineral soil including its method of transportation and personnel for its operation.
TURNOUT GEAR A collective term for personal protective clothing worn by structure firefighters (a.k.a. Bunkers).
VENTILATION The process of removing smoke and other products of combustion from a compartment.
WET LINE A fire edge being contained by water and/ or retardants but not by fireline.
YARD ACCUMULATION Items found around a residence (yard junk).
A - 9 A - 10