€lenrge (2000) Aninal Rights, Human Rights - Ecologlt, Eco- and Idaology in thc CanadianArctic.Toronto: University of Co Press.

'Pan-lnuit' Written Heritage: lnstitutions, Goals, Projects, Perspectives

Daniel Chartier

Since time immemorial, cultures and societies have established pro- cesses to preserve their political, cultural and social memory.In'ma- terial' societies, this lead to the creation of institutions that became depositories of written heritage.The accumulation and preservation of written documents soon formed a vast and valuable source of in- formation to understand the past and the present; in some cases, it also became the symbol of national pride and the mirror of a culture's grandeur and influence (Campbell2013).In nomadic societies, the process of memory safeguarding was mainly achieved through oral traditions, stories and tales; in some cases, small sculptures, jewelry and ceremonial clothing have been used to help preserve this mem- ory. The shift from oral to written heritage, which began in the 19û century for most nomadic societies, left a part of this heritage lost (Arsenault et al.2010), although ethnographers published part of it in written form and also collected different objects that were origi- nally part of complex oral practices. This is why, today, ethnographic museums partly substitute the 'national libraries'of native cultures by keeping trace of their cultural heritage. Since the lact part of the 20,r' develop their own 'national'institutions? What are the historical, ad- century, in a postcolonial context, most native cultures now try to set ministrative, and cultural links between the different Inuit territories? their own institutions, often based on adaptation of existing models What is the role of institutions in the preservation, promotion and (smith 7999 and 2008), in order ro save what can still be saved from dissemination of heritage and culture - and how may this role be memories and practices, considering oral that tradition is now almost adapted to the specifics of an Inuit case? Which profit can be drawn everywhere mar$nalized. by Nunavik from the experience and the development of Greenlandic cultural institutions? Is there a gap between heritage as defined by In the circumpolar world,Inuit societies face a similar situation and governments and the interests and needs of citizens? These are the share responsibility for the establishment, preservation and dissemi- very complex questions that animate the on-going reflection on In- nation of Arctic heritage with the institutions of others, most often uit heritage in Nunavik and of which the present contribution seeks related to the'southern governments'bywhich they are partly admin- to analyse some aspects. isteredl. In some places, such as Greenland, established institutions enable the development of this heritage with a vision beyond their To better understand the situation in Nunavik, it is beneficial to turn single geographic area, while in others, such as Nunavik, cultural roles to Greenland, which is the pride of other Inuit societies, a country are scattered among several partners, which leaves many aspects of that built, over the past two centuries, a great number of cultural in- cultural protection and dissemination unaccounted for. This geograph- stitutions for the preservation, knowledge and study of its heritage ical and administrative segmentation of Inuit institutions leads to dif- and that established different initiatives to support cultural creativity. ficuity in establishing a 'pan-Inuit'vision for projects dealing with written heritage. As part of an on-going research project2, our Montréal-based group of researchers have conducted 21 interviews with people who run the The objective of the present contribution is to reflect on the concept Greenlandic institutions related to culture, education and the study of heritage in the Inuit context, through focusing on the ongoing prà- of this country, and with key cultural actors, asking them to explain ject to establish the first library/cultural centre in Nunavik, erébec. the history and the mandate of the institutions they lead, and insist- It is suggested that the imagining of a library in an Inuit communiry ing - in the perspective of better understanding the pan-Inuit para- in the 2Lst century can also be a starting point for a broader analysis digm - that they consider what connections they maintain (or would of issues of heritage at both circumpolar and regional levels. like to develop) with other Inuit societies. The results of these inter- views3 provide insight into the development, challenges and benefits Several questions can be raised from the case of Nunavik,which ex- of the unique and complete Greenlandic cultural government inter- ceed this specific territory and even Inuit context.What are the bound- vention system, as well as the criticisms and challenges encountered aries of the heritage of a particular territory? Does the concept of in the development of greater links between Inuit societies, while 'pan-Inuit culture'have resonance for Inuit cultural actors, for exam- ple in Greenland where the concept arose? Is a pan-Inuit notion a competitor to the emergence of different local societies that seek to The project, ofwhich I am the director, is called "Urgence : imaginer une bibliothèque/centre culrurel pour le Nunavili'and is funded by the Fonds de recherche du Qrébec sur 1a société et ia culture (2012-201.6). As part ofthe research project, these interviews were conducted in Nuuk by Stéphanie Vallières 1 This' obviously, raises the question of Who outns nathte culture?, as Michael E Brown puts it in his (whom I thank warmly) on my behalf during February 2013. Each interview has been typewritten book (Brown 2003). and a. published æ rcportby Imaginaire I Nord 1n Montréal.

42 43 keeping an eye on possible solutions and advice for the establishment si Qrmaq recalls in his autobiography, it was only in the 1970s that of future cultural institutions in Nunavik. all communities in Northern Qrébec began to come together and develop their political and cultural identity as a whole, to be called Nunavik (Qrttruq 2070, 103- 105).

Negotiating Heritage The second paradigm,'regional', combines the heritages of a larger whole, which for one specific region may contain multiple and even Heritage is defined in terms of history and identiry and in theway a competing identities.This area defines a heritage that has certain re- community identifies itself This identification can be multiple and gional boundaries, institutions and values. For example, Greenland's parallel for a group or an individual.Thus, defining heritage must take heritage is in interaction with a region that includes neighbouring into account a form of negotiation about its different roles in cultur- societies (Iceland and the Faroe Islands), all of which form a whole allife. Also, heritage is partly defined in terms of policies (laws, insti- justified by geography and a common colonial socio-economic histo- tutions, programs, grants) that may favour some links at the expense ry. Similarly, the historical and political context of Greenland explains of others. bilateral ties with Denmark and multilateral agreements with other Nordic countries.In the case of Nunavik, the regional entity may re- When looking at circumpolar heritages, and especially Inuit ones, we fer to Qlebec, to Canada, or to all North American Indigenous cul- can consider at least four paradigms that each affect the definition of tures, three axes that compete in terms of identity and policies. De- culture and heritage: these are labelled'local','regional','pan-Inuit' pending on the case, the heritage of Nunavik will, for example, exist and'circumpolar'. Each of them implies its own certain scope for the within Qrébec's trilingual environment (Inuktitut, English and definition of cultural heritage. French), or within Canada in the context of wider multiculturalism, or within Aboriginal cultures in a postcolonial context. The 'local'paradigm refers to a specific territory. In the case of Inuit heritage, it refers to the heritage of Nunavik as a geographical unit, The other two paradigms are more projects than reality, as illustrated of Nunatsiavut, of Greenland etc. Each territory defines its own her- in the interviews quoted below; but they deserve attention because itage in terms of its identity and its people.In the case of Greenland, they allow for the consideration of new perspectives, beyond the na- the 'local'heritage is increasingly understood as a 'national'heritage, tional aspects. The 'pan-Inuit'paradigm implies a relation to all Inu- a territorial concept that aims to be inclusive for all its membersa.This it societies, from Russia over Alaska and Canada to Greenland, im- ideological choice necessarily has an impact when it comes to defin- agining a whole that unites them in spite of their differences and their ing a culture, a common history, the mandate of institutions, etc. In respective contributions. The idea behind a pan-Inuit perspective is the case of Nunavikr'local'heritage is more diffuse, since the very no- a cultural reunification on the basis of what we may call'Inuitness', tion of 'Nunavili as a region is newer than 'Greenland'and less inte- rather than local or regional definitions.The pan-Inuit paradigm pre- grated into the mandates of institutions. As trapper andpoliticianTâamu- supposes a shift of influence from the coloniai powers of the South (Denmark,Canada, Qrébec, USA, Russia) in favour of horizontal relationships based on a common origin. The idea is powerful but it 4 This'Greenlandic'inclusivedefinitionofidentityischallengedbyan'Inuit'ethnicdefinitionofiden- faces many obstacles.To accept a pan-Inuit paradigm would mean for tity, supported by native claims. The debate in Greenland is not exclusive to this region, as illustrated by the debates in Nunavik. Greenland to look away from Denmark, the Nordic countries and .. +4 rËg Europe in fnvor of more auatained relstionahipa Nunavik' with Nunatsiavut, Alaska. ,na u*y-rr;';r*'ffio1 regional, pan-inuit of a Greenrandic or circumpolarP Esch ehoice haa deep politieel and narion. goeial ;'d" d Jï;'io impactc6, " iil u rv" g., îï c' Iirï'ï'Ë:: î:ï' " "î',iï ",, *

EleonaraJakobsen, responsibre for cultural deveropment of Nuuk, expresses heithoughr, in the town orrîinuit perspective: The Nunavik cultural context

I havent been to Canad.ayet, but I met As early as the 1930s, a traveller to Nunavik recorded that mogt Inuit people from a lot of Canada. I thnk,fr"y fr"* ;h.:;*. could read and write, despite the lack of a formal educationel iyrtorn, feeiing that I have, that I,m verygrateful written Inuktitut was then mainly used for religious ceremoniir, Thç ing them ôr meet- because we came n""irrr. ,"_J'ffir. concepr of 'wrinen text'was introduced in Nunavik by EdmundJrmer and we recognize Peck (Evan a lot of things in each other. s r984,56-6s) in |STZ ,yet(?) it was not until a few die rdgr it,s ama:' And ago,at the end of the 20th century that we saw the first signs ofwrlncn *. n I nuit literature. The "u.".lï'.ï,i;,;"":;i:i] î i: n:;^r,,:#; establishment of a Western educatio*yrtorn ( I 9gi feeling. i...1 t,m ploud saw the first ofiL"_ and I tlrtnt tlr"y mission school; 1949 the first federal school; 1963 thc are proud of us. So, in this r school Board ofNew Qrebec) has increased the knowledge ofwrldng other strensrh. rtt iL. but primarily for the benefit of a foreign ;';r:I;.[iiTf,Xï"1_- *v language: English-. It wer onÇ stronger identity (Jakobsen o 2013,5). after 7978 that Inuktitut was offered in schools (vi.t -w.rtgate 2002i,

Finaliy' a more recent paradigm is the tircumporar,one, During this transition period, writen text had a symbolic place,linlced to all societies, cultures which refers and hIritag., .rourrd an exrernal power (often religious) in a worrd that was previouoly a conference ,ir. x"rrrrÉ"," .rn2072, fo in Berlin leaned based of archives on oraliry. However, the appropriation of writing bf the Inuit contexrs' some intetectuars, ""irr.î"rion in an Arctic Jike g;rg;lr* Louis-Edmond gradually led to the appearance of the first rexts, scattàreâ in newu- lin' praised the cuiturar Hame_ ait rriry Jirrri ur"u papers and periodicals and in the form of books. ing the pole. These precious car- it to a polar 'Mediterra "rourrd ly texts nr^i,*rr"r. atrr"rent cultures mark the beginning of Inuit literary selÊrepresentation and,' text' iocation and common ,n;:."ff#_ issues that define, thus, a new way to preserve Inuit heritage. The first periodical thet, boundaries of r""ri i' pur,, at their local uJ *r,;;;ffi"ritage "a in 1959, opened its pages- to these production (Hamelin 2014). " s, Inuklitut Magazinai,, signalled the beginning of an Inuit written literature in Nunavik.The It goes without saving that agiven culture first literary works written by Inuit incruding The Harpoon berween does not have to choose - of tha these fo,r, p"iudigmrlEr.f, Hunter from 1969,which just ..rtrur. is actually influenced has been republished and whictrwae all these pr*prrtir.i and by the àch ,.gt"" *"r..s irs own first Inuit novel in canada - ate ablend of forms that draw on constraints, benefits .hoi.. brr.a on and tensionri.ruiiirrg fr"* ,fr. both Inuit oral heritage and western written literary tradition. own heritage: shourd it be definJ-;r;.r. ".g"î"à" "rrr, The retention rate of Inuit language is among the rocar (or nationar) than highest among In-

5 see https://www.slawistik-hu-berlin.delarcticarchives/program_pd{ accessed 6 The complex co-existence ofthese 2 November 2012. heritages/identities is not a simple choice ofeither/or, but a mat- ter ofinterplay and degrees ofco-existence. 46 47 digenous peoples of the Americas: g0% of Inuit in Nunavut and 90% The need for a 21st century llbrary/cultural in Nunavik speak Inuktitut (McDermo tt2'rl,zzs).Ti*t being said, and partly because of the centre in Nunavik difficulty of linguisti. .;;h;.s berween Inuit, most Inuit writers in canada .h"";Ë;;il;;i. language The urgent need to think of an original public library/culturrl ccntre writing. A number of texts, .Îf.'it;rarl though, î. *rirr.., and pub_ a project lnl- lished in Inuktitut tailored to Nunavik became apParent during cooperative and, to a resser extent, in Érench (the ratter Nunavik). onry in tiated in 2009, during International PolarYear, by Marianne Stenbrlt and the author of this text,with the Inuit communirywith e focur on and advancement of Nunavik's written heritage,Thh Nunavik Inuit curture the preservation tod.ayseems in danger of extinction: according to project resulted in the digitization of a great number of Inuit perlodl' Markoosie, author of Harpoon of the Hunter,*much of our orar his- ."1. to the conclusion - by researchers, the national inetitutionl end tory has been lost or.ir._,r_oi""g* told by -37).Theubr"rr..,il..;;;; p"orr.r, ,,r.h the communities - that the lack of public access to culturc in thg rc- knowledge of our past" (Markoo"ri. zOtt, of a pub- gion was unacceptable. lisher or literary magazinein Nunavik and Nunavut and the fact that there is still no geographic centre for Inuit cultural lit"rury .orr- in communltlo rnd secration, There are manybookdepots in schools Nunavik makes the deveropment and maintaining "r,d ofriterary exchange a first municipal library project has been carried out in Inukjurkn but difficult. The absenc. of uny pubric ïibnryin Nunavik is also fert to those depots and that project cannot adequately fulfïl the role of an" b e problemati c. According_ to p o etry and spoken --orJ uriirt Taqrarik Partridge, suring universal access to knowledge, providing for the advEncemgnt this lack of u libt^ty has made her ,,I life more difficurt: of Inuit culture, conserving oral and documentary heritagc, and fortç' would have liked aribrary,because there was almost no books around (between me' ring intercultural exchange Inuit populations, but drs be' Books would have given me a better grasp of the language that I populations) for Nunavik as a whole. would eventuallyrvriteid,(partridge 20I-3,4i. o tween Inuit and Qrébécois Nunavik, which covers 660,000 square kilometres, is inhabited prl' The challenges and failings of the education system exacerbate this marily by Inuit recognized as a people by the National Assembly of ftagility' Even today, otrly - minority of Inuit co-fr.r" basic villages have schooling, " *"ir Qrébec - who live in 14 coastal villages. All of these r while a tiny fraction of them succeed in ottaining a grad- population of less than 1,000, except Kuujjuaq, Puvirnituq and Inuk- uate degree (Wck-Wes tgate 2002).The signifi.r"i a..r*dîr labour rkill.d juak Kuujjuaq has a population of close to 3,000 and is home to molt allows Inuit graduates_to easiry obtain a professionar job, reav- of the governing institutions, while Puvirnituq and Inukjuak are con- ing few highly educated peopre to deverop'u pr.ifor*r"î.irrrrr"r population of Nunavik,which is slight- Titer ary,exchange'. sidered cultural centres.The Tâqtuiik Éartridge arso mentions ""a the effect of what ly more than 11,000, is growing fast and is the youngest in Qrébec: she calls an 'intergenerationar traÀa'caused by the forced displace_ halfofthe residents are under 25 years ofage and three-quarters arÊ ment ofpeople to the hospitars and schools oftÉ" south,.*hich made under 35. This population explosion is accompanied by economic them lose part of their ranguage and curture. Fo, rrer father and by significant was growth, supported by the Makivik Corporation, taken away fromhis famiÇwhen he """-pre, was three; ,ro .r.*, was giv- cultural activity. However, the development of infrastructufes has not en to his mother until he was back from the horpitur at the age is creating serious eleven' of kept pace with the demographic growth and that He was then "an Engrish-speaking person c and he did not know social and educational problems. how to hunt" (Partridge ZOLS, S-Z).

48 49 Ties between Nunavik and southern errébec cre lrmrtecr because of Nunavik and by the people of Nunevik). Some of thie inventory the absence of ground_transportation iinks,,t"pr"iriÉirive cosr of ia actuelly located at different librariea, ccntree end lnatitutlonl, transportation and.the rack of high-speed InternËt. Historically, ties . What is the scopc of this heritage, what additional reaeereh ro' have been marked by a division b-emËen the cooperative movement mains to be done to complete the inventory how can recent uprh (closer to Francophones and the erébec gorr"rrr-"rrrj pofitical be added to it, where are those documents? institutions (closer to Angrophon.s "na and the federar canadian gov- . Which oral documents have been preserved? Where are they rnd ernment). The Inuit learn Inuktitut in their first y.r^ oi r.hoo-lirrg in what condition are they? then required to continue their :id :l education in French or Eng- . What are the documentary holdings on Nunavik? Where ere they? lish. If they want ro go to conege they usuarly have to reave Nunavik How extensive are they? We know that Avataq Cultural lnrtinrtc for a school in Montréar, to be i*g'triin eitrrer French or in Engrish. has developed impressive conservation programs and thet MEH' vik Corporation has substantial documentary heritage that ït mrhrcr In this context, it is important to reserve time to consider carefulry to preserve. What relations should be established between thorc what kind of cultural institution could mitigate tlr" iu.t or cultural institutions? and social relations between the Inuit Ih" rest of ".rd erébec, and . What might the audio-visual and electronic inventory on Nunr' how it could be tailored to the geography,language J.ur"r .orr- could it be established? text. vik be? How It is also important to rtuày experiences"rà ri-ir", in erébec and . Such a cultural institution is also based on the self-perccption thrt in the Inuit region incruding dreenrand. - Finaily, i, i"i-iirrant not a territory has of itself and therefore is necessarily linked with thc to.be limited by prior experience, but to r"arn from pu.a*i..rses and question of identity. Should it be mainly Inuit-based,local or'n1' failures so as to imagineidears for 2Lst century preservation, conser- tional'? vation, dissemination and access to knowredgl .ult.rr.. This re- flection gives rise to numerous ""a questions: The following section considers how Nunavik compares with Green' land in deûning its identity. ' to design, conceptuarly . Io* and physicaily, such an institution; How to take the trilingual contexi into accountl . How to take demographic growth in Nunavik irrto a.co.rnt; . How - to take into account tÀe oral culture .or.rporr"rrif Competition between networks and a'civic' ' which ties to establish with other Inuit regions (in erébec, definition of identity Canada,Greenland, Russia and Alaska) and oth?r puràof qrô.., ' yht+ role digitization shourd be given u, u -"u* of accessing During the Spring of 2077,a referendum on self-government in Nuna' knowledge (in a region that does ,iot hurr" high_speed lrrt"r.r"t vik ended unsuccessfully: the majority of the population of this Inu- access); it territory, governed on an ethnic basis under the James Bay and ' How to promote ties among the Inuit, French and English com- Northern Agreement, refused the creation of regional dem' munities. Qrebec ocratic organizations, which would have paved the way for the auton' ' If this institution is to fulfil the role of a nation al libraryfor the omy ofNunavik.T Among the arguments of the oPPonents to this re- Nunavik region it must prepare an inventory of written ,'ora), att- dio-visual, electronic and docum entaryheritage about 1proa,r..a T Inthereferendum,2342votedno(67026), 1400votedyes(33o/o).(LeDevoir2077).

50 51 =r Iil form was the fear that the transition fr6m an ethnic representation (t laneen 2}lg,9), the North Amerieen Inuit terrltoriee tend to neln' stru*ure (based upon the Makivik corporation, in whùh a[ mem- tein an ethnic conception of identity becauec mtny of them facc lerge' bers are Inuit) to a civic representation structure (where all residents eeile immigration, which could drown their identiry Thio would not of Nunavikwould have asay) could mean a dilution oflnuit influence be the case of Greenland, which remains predominantly Inuit wlth the territory and a possible future 93 minority status for the Inuit. only about 1070 of its population being European. Thus, citizens of Nunavik chose to maintain an ethnic structure, even if it meant giving up some form of autonomy. They chose to remain At any rate, the debate on identity - civic or Inuit - has an impact on 'Inuit' rather than becoming,citizens of Nunavik., the conception of relations with foreign countries and on the dccirion to strengthen - or not - the links befween the different Inuit soclc' In Greenland, a similar tension exists between the discourse of an,In- ties. uit'identity and a conception of identity imported from Europe, called 'national', which deûnes 'Greenlandic natiànal identity,as the sum of Other conflicts are also apparent in relations between Grecnland rnd ali its citizens, regardress of their ranguage and origin.'i'hi, r"r.r, .orr- the rest of the world: firstly, the former colonial relationshipe are not is in competition with the lption pan-Inuit paradigm, which assumes fully erased and Greenland still prioritizes, even in its cultural rclr' a link on the basis of a common origi., and curturelof .o.rrr., ari new tions, links with Denmark. Aqqaluk Lynge, former president of ths national Greenlandic institutions have mandates in accordance with Inuit Circumpolar Council, admits that "through Denmark we hrvE this national identity. For example, the objective of th" ôr"enland cooperation with the Nordic countries" (Lynge 2013,3). More recçnt' National Museum is not to repreJent the Inuit culture as a whole:,,It,s ly, n"* regional projects have also emerged, not in cooperation With all about Greenland", says Diiector Danier rhorleifsen. This provides other Inuit societies but with the immediate neighbours: Iceland and a semantic division between 'Inuit'(referring ,Green- to the past) and the Faroe Islands. This is the case in tourism (with the VestnofdËn land'(referring to the present). The -a'dÀ of the museum is then Tiavel Mart) and in heritage with the creation of a common platform "to tell the Greenlandic peopre, also the foreign"rr, of Gre"nrand In- berween the three governments for the digitization of periodicale, A uit history and also Greenlandic contemporaiy history', (Thorleifsen pan-Inuit paradigm therefôre faces competition with other nctworl$ 201.3,2).we can find this same vision oria."tity mirrà Greenland and affiliations, which Greenland, by history, by political choice or by tourism policy, which is based on the idea of a "curturaily shared prat- geography, can promote at the expense of its pan-Inuit relations. form called'The Pioneering Nation."'This idea is i"rpir.a by the North American conceptionof murticurturalism. A..oàirrg ro An- ders stenbakken, director of the visit Greenland agency:,,wi can say we are all pioneers here, from the very first Inuià *Éo .u-. ,o Greenland as a cultural leader empry country, "r, say 1000 years ago, to the Vikings who came around year 1000 from lceland, to the wharers, to the p.àpr. who are attract- Changing Greenlandic governments have been aware of the leading ed to Greenland today,to the tourists *ho #urrt to go to .orrrr,ry role the nation can play in the circumpolar world, despite the differ- like Greenland" (Stenbakken 2013, g). " ences between the various Inuit societies. As ElisaJeremiassen, Chief Librarian of Nunatta Atuagaateqarfia, the national and public library According-to ethnographer Kraus Georg Hansen, who defines him- of Greenland, notes, not only is her country characterîzedby the num' self as a "Greenlander by nationaliry bui of course not by institutions, but also by the level of its publicatione: "thrri.ity,' ber of its cultural "I have been in Alaska, canada, and in siberia.I have been in Labra- the Atuagagdlir,rfdl newspapcr from 1861. Although controlled by the dor. After I have been [there],I can see [that] in Greenland, we have eolonialË*.n it provided a platform for the exerciae of ltrong pub' many books and newspapers in our ranguage;'(Jeremiassen 2013,2). lic opinion; according to Aqqaluk Lynge: "Once the free writlng rtert- ed, fou couldn't ..n*r. nothing. So, it came as a very powerful tool" For Henriette Rasmussen, former Minister of culture and now di- (Lynge 2013,2). rector of the ,,I national radio KNR, the effort is shared by all: think it is indeed expressed from ail my peopre, that they firri it very im- The relative availability of books and publications in Greenlandie portant and their duty to keep their culture and develop it,'(Rasmus- and Danish, a high literacy rate and the exercise of freedom of opln' sen 2013, 6). This effort is certainly focused on Greenland, but it was ion gave the impetus to the creation of institutions and cultUml also here, in the 1980s, that a pan-Inuit idea of cult,rr" that practices inspired by their European and North American CouhtÊf' would eventualiy extend to other "-"rg.d Inuit territories. parts. Among these,we can include the National Museum of GrCen- iand, found.d itt f ggt but with origins dating back to 7966, e Nr' The rest of the Inuit world and part of the aboriginal world have their tional library as well as a public one, a universitf (founded in 1984) eyes turned to Greenland, which is seen as a model in the early de- with its professional schools, and an association of authore with mofe velopment of cultural and heritage institutions and practic...The gap than 60 members.In recent years, vre note the opening in 1997 of between the recent developmeni of Greenland aniother Inuit terri- the cultural centre Katuag which, with its 4,000 square metrosr h tories is significant. A review of what has been done in this country the focal point of artistic creation in Greenland and key to Êcccti' can help determine priorities in the cultural development of other ing foreign culture. One must also mention the establishment of r areas, including our case: Nunavik. National Theatre in2}7l,based on a private comPany that has ex' isted since tgS4,itself stemming from a theatre school for Grçcn- If the Groenlandica narional collection officially began only in the landers in Denmark founded in 7975.In terms of publishingr el' r970s,a long history of publishing heritage ."r, b. trr"..d back to the though there is unfortunately no longer a public publisher, the LSth century when the first Greenlandic-Latin dictionary was pub- private publishing house Milik pursues the goal to "give a voice to lished. First translations of the Bible in Greeniand ,.rd th. prrbiicu- writers of Greenland" (Therkildsen 2013, 1).A media grouP em' tion of a Greenlandic version for children clearly demonstrate that ploys a team of 30 people, including 12 journalists and four tran!- the -literacy of the population in Greenland not only outpaced other i"tors, to publish two weekly newspapefs ,one (Atuagagdliutit) found' Inuit communities but also most western societies. Ake;y in 1g03, ed in 1861 and the other (sermitsiaq) in 1958, in addition to local the Danes founded the first public lending ribrary,the Norih Green- newspapefs and a women's magazine. Of course, we must take intO landic Reading Sociery. u..o.rrri also the important role of public television and radio sta' tions broadcasting in Nuuk and throughout the country' According to Klaus Georg Hansen, it must be recognized that this is due to the insistence of Piotestant missionaries that converts master reading: "They had this rule: you have to be able to read the word of God yoursel{, otherwise, we cant baptise you.That was kind of lucky, 8 According to rector Tine Pars, the university, which initially had 1 1 students in the social ecicncÇ1, depending on schools ofjournalism, education and nursing wttt how you interpret it; (Hansen 2013, 2). This lever of now has more than 500 students. Professional fust institute. The university employs approxim ately 720 people, including 80 teachcrr, literacy enabled the development of the press, with the publication added to the of (Pars 2013:2)

54 55 several of these institutionar practices are cxemprary tural heritage in terms of cul- dissemination ,nd pr.r.rurrion.Thr..L.ong northern vibe, juet like the northern lighto [for the celling ead the be mentioned: many can the mandatory a.i"r1 of outeide wall] but it's also just like the icebcrg and et the rerae tlme, r5-y.ar-on rï.r.tr., by pub- lic organisations at t_t_r jurt like a (Lyberth the Nationalir.hives; the it's piano" 20t3,2). Today, pcrformlng rt ic distribution program for systemat_ of Greenrandic Katuag centre is seen by artists across the country as a form p,rbil.rtio's through the pubric ofrceog- to regional institutions; ribrary nition. The building ,.*ote access to has played a role in the democratization, conæ- "nd documentàtion and, ar_ by the Nationar ii;;*yto cration and institutionalization of culture. Funded (in 2008) by pub. users of a' communities in Ëmxrd lic funds of 9 million DKK, the centre also generates its own ineomc and seeks additional funding for its activities, which allowe it to hrræ The success of the Kaltagcultural an annual budget of about 28 million DKK. During c.entrels exceptional .Juaakar,y- its fïr3t ya.rJ berth, who participared Katuag i' th. fb;;"g of this received 100,000 visitors (in a town of about 18,000 pcople), itial opposition centre, recars the in_ to the project: According to Lyberth, its managers wanted to open the centre to to- ciety, to meet the needs of all audiences (young people, familiel, tho There was a lot of discussio elderly), presenting all kinds (amateur and professional) formr of ut, tion in G,..nru.,J *ilii and creating partnerships with other cultural institutions - all ofwhleh to ;HiJ*ffr.ît; use for the cultural cenrre. M""y;;; made it a success: "we made this house to be a cultural centrÊ for rll, this building because ,,We ffi., the whole communiry so I think this is the reason for the they said: would rath_ succem sf er have some house, i., ire.nland,,, this house, akeady from the beginning" (Lyberth 2OlS,2), maybe _";;;;;;r, an efficient social and health ."r","i..rjrf, centres, and others wanted to have ,_;;ù pool, a r*t-ar"* centre, ,o tt *.;r;*," ferent "r. ïi kinds ofwishes, instead *frrr"î:i*_. The reality of heritage in Greenland But the politicians- kept their "f " decision to build a cultural centre, Despite the existence and LIrint it was the right of cultural institutions and support progremt sion deci_ because after Katuaq wat that propose their own definitions of culture and heritage, thara are s aw wh at FË ;; ïti:i.i:T:r. ;î1,|.ïfj: also defined by readers and citizens. Between ideal and ieality, there did we do before Katuag*", built?,,Th;r;*;r;; is sometimes a gap that allows us to re-think the basis of cultural in- cultural stitutions. centre at all in'Greenland brfrr" K;;r;;- 1'herepeoplecou]!.meetrog.rt.-.-for--;;;;':;:i:; theatre, for aft exhibitions, In Greenland, despite a clear desire to develop a contempo Fo, _oui.s, for a lot ruty,fu- things, for "'of ture-oriented cultural activities (Lyberth ZOIS,ii" culture, evidence shows a sustained interest in the paet, At the universiry Library in Nuuk, as ar the National Archives of The architecture building Greenland, the most frequent individual requests are for genealogy "1,1" was enrrusted to the Danish firm schmidt' Hammer &Lassen and family history. similarly, the works of contemporary i"qpt*a by the representarion artists often culture and Greenrandic ""-; ir of refer to narur.. ryu.r,i uerieves the myths of the past. According to Daniel Thorleifsen, the building that lhe form of the has contribured to i* ,u...r* lïn National Museum of Greenland, "some of the painters learn modern this buirding,you have this [techniques], but in some way, they are always... you can always see 56 lnepiration from old myths and tales and you can see that they are territories where Inuit live and mitigate colonial or post-colonial links inepired by the past" (Thorleifsen 2013,3). Publishers and booksell- with the southern po\Mers that have administered them through cen- Ê16 draw a similar conclusion: it is not contemPorary fiction that in- turies, defending the premise that all Inuit, no matter where they live, terests the reading public the most, but biographies and stories about form a people. local history. Henriette Rasmussen remembers that this tension was felt at the Atuakkiorfik publishing house: "We would like fiction much This pan-Inuit vision originated in Greenland and was carried by in- more than biography, but [...] people find their history very impor- tellectuals, including the poet and politician Aqqaluk Lynge.The first tant, the memories of the traditional knowledge, traditions, their own meetings that lead to the creation of the Inuit Circumpolar Confer- histories" (Rasmussen 2013, 3). ence in 1977 gave zn organized form to pan-Inuit claims, at least in official and political spheres. Lynge, in his presentation of ICC pub- Claus Jordening from the Atuagkat bookshop feels a shift towards lished in 1993, suggests that the reunion of all Inuit should be seen world culture despite the actions taken to favour Greenlandic culture. as a recovery of history: "Inuit Circumpolar Conference", he wrote, He says: "We're getting everything new; everything. ['..] That's our "is part of the natural history of the Inuit people and of the land we mission. But then agun,to survive,I have to sell what people would (as Inuit) have occupied for centuries" (Lynge 1,993,8). For him, In- like" (Jordening 2013,4).The proportion of Greenlandic books seems uit all around the world form one people, despite any political divi- to decrease to the benefit of Greenlandic-Danish bilingual books or sions: "My people live across the vast Arctic region that crosses the even Danish-only books. ClausJordening testifies as follows: "When political boundaries of Canada, Russia, Alaska and Greenland.Inuit I bought the bookshop, I would say in 2005, it was a ratio of one to are one people: we speak the same language, eat the samewha)e muk- six or seven: one Greenlandic book for six or seven Danish books I tag and subsist on the same Arctic Ocean" (Lynge 2074,76). sold. Today, it's one to 10 or one to 12.1. ..] Many young people don't buy anybooks!"(Jordening2073,1). At the Public Library, ElisaJer- In addition to politics and diplomacy, which are important for this emiassen feels the same trend: "So what do teenagers read? Danish organiiation, it is the perspectives of sociery culture and heritage that bool

Other reasons can explain the weakness of the links: transportation In contrast, artists from the National Theatre of Greenland would and language.As Anders Stenbakken from Visit Greenland mentions, like to develop relationships with other Inuit societies but they face "accessibility is of course a huge issue for Greenland" (Stenbakken a different kind of obstacle: the lack of support programs. Existing 2073,3). Most of the routes in Alaska, Nunavut, Nunavik, Nunatsi- programs all encourage them to work instead with the Nordic coun- avut and Greenland follow a North-Southe axis in relation to the tries, Denmark primarily. According to Svenn Syrin: "That has been states with which they have links.It is much easier to go from Qte- our aim, for many years, to get contact westwards, because to Europe bec to Kuujjuaq, than from Kuujjuaq to Nain; it is easier to fly from and Scandinavia, it's no problem and it's full of money, but we \Mant Alaska to continental United States than from Alaska to Nunavut. to get westwards, because that is where the Inuits are.They dont live The problem is not mainly that the distances great, it is the lack in Scandinavia". Makka Kleist supports Syrint analysis: "It is so frus- ^!e (or excessive price) of east-west air links (which is the direction of the trating because all the money lies in, if we want to have a collabora- geographical distribution of the Inuit world). Thus, air routes more tion with Scandinavians or Europeans.We can get a lot of money, but often follow ex-colonial links rather than east-west links between In- not to the other Inuit" (Kleist and Syrin 2013,6). uit communities.

Another difficulty is related to the absence of a common writing sys- Pan-inu it projects and initiatives tem, which may result in minimal understanding of dialects used in When Greenland turns to the rest of the Inuit worid, it is in most different territories. Of course, this is a delicate issue, since Nunavik cases for official relations or for the development ofyet-to-come pro- and part of Nunavut want to keep the syllabic system' which is not jects. DanielThorleifsen remembers having Inuit visitors from abroad: only a part of their historybut also of their identity. Language, as well "It is more official guests and not the common people, but more of- as transpoït, make pan-Inuit cooperation difficult. ficials, politicians, which have been visiting government" (Thorleifsen 2073,2). Interest yet exists. According to the director of the journal- In some fields, there is a lack of interest in working for the establish- ism program at the University of Greenland, Naja Paulsen, despite ing of a pan-Inuit context. From a tourism point ofview, for example, the costs, students should be able to interact with other Inuit cultures. a pan-Inuit unity does not make sense. Anders Stenbakken explains Until now; she said, "it has been one way: it's been Denmark and that the tourists who go to Iqaluit do not necessarilywant to replicate Gleenland for many years, now \ /e have to open our eyes to the others. Make connections" (Paulsen 2073,2). For now, Poul Krarup, editor of the Sermitsiaq and AG newspapers, admits that only very 9 Despite a recent seasonal flight from Nuuk to lqaluit, joindy operated by First Air (Nunarut) and news are about societies, he dreams Air Greenland, and seen as a 'pan-Inuit'initiative. This route has been discontinued since then. limited published other Inuit yet

60 61 of a circumpolar newsroom where each region would provide infor- dates the creation of links with other Inuit societies, several other mation to others.10 p an-I nuit proj ects exist, through internatio nal or ganizatio ns, but also through some media, including radio and the Internet. Aqqaluk Lyn- On a small scale, initiatives exist. People at the Greenlandic radio ge says that the ICC defends two main projects in the cultural ûeld. lcnow that they sometimes have listeners from Labrador; the opening The first one is linguistic and aims at "dialogue on the writing sys- of an east-west air route between Nuuk and Iqaluit enabled, for afew tems fthat] will help us to see ifwe can do something together"(Lyr- pay the rates.The Na- ge 2013,6).The second is to establish a network of radio and tele- )tears, faster links for those who could affordto tional Library of Greenland, even if it is not its mandate, sometimes vision to share content between all Inuit societies. Such long-term buys books from other Inuit territories. According to Charlotte An- projects will require a circumpolar political will. dcrsen, "it's not our mission, but we do buy books about the Arctic arca, so we do have books from Russia and of course Canada. t...] V\ê Lis Stender from Nuuk and Taqralik Partridge from Kuujjuaq both buy a little, once in a while" (Andersen 2073,4-5). participated as artists in events that brought together Inuit across the Arctic. They consider that they greatly benefited from these, and they The small scale of these initiatives shows well enough that the pan-In- felt a new sense of solidarity across political boundaries.Taqralik Par- uit vision, even if it would open a new perspective in the circumpolar tridge said that her meeting with Greenlandic artists allowed her to world, faces many obstacles. Artists Lis Stender and Peter Jensen, rcahze that they share almost the same experiences and are all part of from Inuk Media and Inuk Design, pretry much summed up this is- the same community (Partridge 2013,12). However, these cultural 6ue when describing the relationship - predominantly symbolic - that events a;te rare and expensive to organize. they have with other Inuit: Radio and the internet offer more flexible exchange opportunities. Jensen: You asked about how we feel about other Henriette Rasmussen remembers that KNR Radio had contacts with Inuits. Mostly, we dont think daily about the other commuirities in Nunavut and Nunavik through interviews on the ra- Inuits, but we know they are there. [...] W. heard dio. She even hosted what are probably the first pan-Inuit radio broad- about them, but when we see another Inuit, despite casts in the late 7970s, called From our Relatiztes. Today, a program they talk - they hzve a different ianguage - we can called Broadcast in Other Languages occasionally airs content from see somethitg... other Inuit territories (Rasmussen 2073,4-5). Rasmussen says she Stender: Similar... would like to multiply these initiatives, and if possible on a perma- Jensen: ...Similar between us, because there is nent basis, with other radio stations in the Inuit world. Also, the ar- something with their eyes, most of them, the eyes. rival of the Internet enables content sharing - for archives and news Stender: I think it's the look, the soul (Stender and - in an easier way than before. Internet also helps to develop new vir- Jensen 20t3,8-9). tual communities among Inuit living in different territories: again, Tâqralik Partridge mentioned websites that bring together Inuit from EWn lf inetitutions do not always include as a priority in their man- everlrwhere - especially in Alaska, in her case, for linguistic reasons - who can exchange cultural experiences (Partridge 2073,77).

10 Elnce tho lntervlew, euch a circumpolar newsroom,TbeArcticJournal,wts established by AG: htç:// atrtleJotrrnel,com/,

62 63 Conclusion References

Greenland, by its history, the quality of its institutions and its support Andersen, C. (2013) Interviewwith Charlotte Andersen, Director of to cultural activities has been, and continues to be, a model of heri- the NationalLîbrary of Greenland, Groenlandica, on February tage and cultural development for other Inuit societies, despite the 22'h,2073 in Nuuk. Montréal: Imaginaire I Nord. difficulty to fully develop the complex array of different visions on Arsenault,D. et al. (2010) Finding the Spirit of the Place in World Heri- Greenland and the Inuit people (as indigenous, national, regional, tage Sites: Aboriginal Approaches in Perspectiza. Qrébec: Presses mono- bi- and multi-lingual entity).The pan-Inuitvision of cultur- de I'Université Laval. al identity also faces challenges that Ne not all compatible with the Brown, M.F. (2003) Who Owns Native Culture? Cambridge (MA): development of a national, inclusive identity. Harvard University Press. Campbell, J.W.P. (2073) B ib lioth èque s: une his toire mondiale. Paris: Establishing a first library/cultural centre in Nunavik may seem like Citadelle et Mazenod. a complex endeavour. How do you conceive of such an institution in Evans, K. (1984)'EdmundJames Peck. His Contribution to Eskimo a trilingual region, with a fast-growing population, which is under- Literacy and Publishing',Journal of the Canadian Church Histor- going radical cultural change and quickly losing oral cultural refer- ical Society 26:2, 5 6-68. (2074) ences - in an era of digitized knowledge (when the region does not Flamelin, L.-E. La nordicité du Québec. Qrébec: Presses de have high-speed Internet)? Greenland faces the very same barriers, l'Université du Qrébec. and this is why it constitutes a relevant comparative, inspirational case. Hansen, K.G. (2013) Interview with Klaus Georg Hansen, Head of the Social Science Department at the University of Greenland, Such an institution is an urgent need for Nunavik, and models in on February 22"d,20t3 in Nuuk. Montréal: Imaginaire I Nord. Greenland offer hope that it can be achieved, possibly with a pan- Jakobsen, E. (2013) Interviewwith EleonoraJakobsen, consultant on Inuit mandate that could reach over borders to build cultural links cultural affi{irs at the municipality of Sermersooq, on February between all Inuit societies. 26'h,20L3 in Nuuk. Montréal: Imaginaire I Nord. Jeremiassen, E. (2013) Interviewwith ElisaJeremiassen, Head of the Public and NationalLibnry of Greenland, Nunatta Atuagaate- qarfia,on February 25'h,2013 in Nuuk.Montréal: Imaginaire I Nord. Jordening, C. (2013) Interview with Claus Jordening, owner of Atu- agkat Bookstore, on February 2 7,2013 in Nuuk. Montréal: Im- aginaire I Nord. Kleist, M. and Syrin, S. (2013) Interview with Makka Kleist, actor and the first Director of the NationaiTheater School of Green- land, and Svenn Syrin, first Artistic Director of the National Theater of Greenland, on February 27'h,2013 in Nuuk. Mon- tréal: Imaginaire I Nord.

64 65 F P. (2013) Interviewwith Poul Krarup, Director and Editor in Qrmaq,T. (20t0) le veux, gue les Inuit soient libres de nou,ueau.Autobio- IGarup, r:., chief of Sermitsiaq and AG newspaPers, on February 25'h,201'3 graphie (1914-1993). Qrébec: Presses de l'Université du Qrébec. in Nuuk. Montréal: Imaginaire I Nord. Skydsbjerg, H. (2013) Interviewwith Henrik Skydsbjerg, Director of Lo Dcvoir (2011) 'Référendum au Nunavik. "Non" âu gouvefnement TupilakTravel, on February 25'h,2073 in Nuuk. Montréal: Imagi- régional', April 28'h, 2077. naire I Nord.

and S mith, Linda (79 e c o o Lyberth,J. QO73) Interview with Juaaka Lyberth, singer, writer Tuhiwa i 99) D I on izing M e t h do I ogies : Re s e arc h an d musician and Director of the Katuaq Cultural Centre at its open- Indigenous Peoples. London: Zed Books. ing in L997,on February 27'n,2073 in Nuuk. Montréal: I-"St- Smith, Linda Tirhiwai et al. (2008) Handbook of Critical and Indige- nous Metltodologies. Los naire I Nord. Angeles: Sage. Lynge, A. (1993) Inuit issittormiut kattffiata ogaluttuassartaa. Histoire Stenbakken, A. (2013) Interview with Anders Stenbakken, Director de la corlference circumPolaire inuit. The Story of the Inuit Circum- of Visit Greenland, on February 22'n,201,3 in Nuuk. Montréal:

p o I ar C o nfer e n c e. Nuuk: Atuakkiorfi k. Imaginaire I Nord. Lynge, A. (20t3) Interview with Aqqaluk Lynge, poet, politician, for- Stender L. and Jensen, P. (2013) Interview with Lis Stender and Pe- mer President of the Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC)' on Feb- terJensen, artists and designers; owners of Inuk Media and Inuk tuary 26'h,20t3 in Nuuk. Montréal: Imaginaire I Nord. Design, on February 20^,20t3 in Nuuk. Montréal: Imaginaire Lynge A. (20t4) 1n Inuit Voice.Montréal: Northern Voices. I Nord. Markoosie (2011) Le harpon du chasseur.Qrébec: Les Presses de l'Uni- Therkildsen, L. (2013) Interviewwith LeneTherkildsen, founder and versité du Qrébec. Director of Milik Publishing, on February 27,',2013 in Nuuk. McDermott, N. (2011)'Canadian Literature in Inuktitut', Kafen Lang- Montréal: Imaginaire I Nord. gârd and KristenThisted (eds.) , From OralTradition to Rap. Lit- Thorleifsen, D. (2013) Interview with Daniel Thorleifsen, Director iratures of the Polar North.Nuuk llisimatusarfik/Forlaget Atua- of the Greenland National Museum and Archives, previously gl

Vick-Westgate, (2002) o Montréal: Imaginaire I Nord. A. Nun a v i k: In ui t - C n tr o I I e d E d uc a ti o n in Ar c - Partridge, T (2013) Interview with Taqralik Partridge' Poet, on June tic Quebec. Cùgary: University of Calgary Press. 27'h,20!3 in Montréal. Montréal: Imaginaire I Nord. Paulsen, N. (2013) Interview with Naja Paulsen, Head of the Depart- ment ofJournalism of llisimatusarfilç the University of Green-

land, on February lg.h,2Ol3 in Nuuk. Montréal: Imaginaire I Nord. Rasmussen, H. (2013) Interviewwith Henriette Rasmussen, Head of the radio department at KNR, the national public broadcasting company of Greenland, on February 25'h,20I3 in Nuuk' Mon- tréal: Imaginaire I Nord.

66 67

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