Imagery in Dance A Literature Review

Katherine Pavlik, M.Sc., D.S., and Sanna Nordin-Bates, Ph.D., C.Psychol.

Abstract magery has been a topic of re- yet in dance, imagery is commonly Dance imagery is a consciously created search in dance for the past several defined as an intentional mental mental representation of an experience, decades. Scientists and dancers representation of motor skills used either real or imaginary, that may affect Ialike have been interested in how an either without or in combination the dancer and her or his movement. image created in the mind can affect with physical movement.1 The dancer In this study, imagery research in dance the creator. Due to varying method- pictures the movement in her head for was reviewed in order to: 1. describe ologies and the sporadic nature of the sake of practicing it. In this mani- the themes and ideas that the current the literature, however, it remains festation, imagery is only focused on literature has attempted to illuminate difficult to find answers and make movement—usually movement that and 2. discover the extent to which this literature fits the Revised Applied Model comparisons. How, exactly, is imagery the dancer is learning or has already of Deliberate Imagery Use. A systematic in dance to be understood: is it merely performed. This specific type of imag- search was performed, and 43 articles a means of rehearsal or can it enhance ery is known as “mental rehearsal” or from 24 journals were found to fit the performance and creativity? Can it “imagery rehearsal” because it allows inclusion criteria. The articles were re- affect psychological aspects of the the dancer to rehearse the motor skills viewed, analyzed, and categorized. The individual, such as self-confidence? necessary for performance.2 While this findings from the articles were then re- How do dance imagery and dance definition does cover a large portion of ported using the Revised Applied Model imagery research differ from what the imagery used by dancers, it is not as a framework. Detailed descriptions of occurs in sport and other fields? What all-inclusive. It has been reported that Who, What, When and Where, Why, themes and ideas has the current dancers use additional types of imag- How, and Imagery Ability were provided, literature attempted to understand ery, such as metaphorical.3 Because of along with comparisons to the field of sports imagery. Limitations within the and illuminate? A thorough review of this distinction, a broader definition is the literature may provide answers to needed for imagery in dance science. field, such as the use of non-dance-spe- 4 cific and study-specific measurements, these and other questions. Nordin and Cumming adapted this make comparisons and clear conclusions The research that has attempted definition from sport research: “Imag- difficult to formulate. Future research to tackle these questions is somewhat ery is an experience that mimics real can address these problems through the varied, and comes not only from the experience or approximates a desirable creation of dance-specific measurements, field of dance science, but also its sensation. We can be aware of ‘seeing’ higher participant rates, and consistent close relative, sport psychology. The an image, feeling movements as an im- methodologies between studies. definitions used for imagery also vary, age, or experiencing an image of smell, taste or sounds without experiencing the real thing. Sometimes people find that it helps to close their eyes. Katherine Pavlik, M.Sc., D.S., Trinity Laban, London, United Kingdom. Sanna It differs from dreams in that we are Nordin-Bates, Ph.D., C.Psychol., Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences, awake and conscious when we form Stockholm, Sweden. an image.” This definition opens the door to Correspondence: Katherine Pavlik, M.Sc., D.S.,Trinity Laban Conservatoire including imagery of scenarios that of Music and Dance, Laban Building, Creekside, London SE8 3DZ; may not exist in the real world, such [email protected]. as metaphors. Although it differs

Copyright © 2016 J. Michael Ryan Publishing, Inc. http://dx.doi.org/10.12678/1089-313X.20.2.51 51 52 Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 • Journal of Dance Medicine & Science from previous examples, the gist is example, there is evidence to sug- Applied Model of Deliberate Imagery that the dancer is creating the image gest that certain types of imagery are Use33 as an illustrative framework, this consciously and that it is a mental positively linked to self-confidence in review will describe what has been put representation of an experience, either athletic training and competition.30,31 forth by the current literature so that real or imaginary. These commonali- Dance psychology researchers have dance researchers can effectively view ties create a shared theme on which begun to build on this research and the past and shape the future. In doing research in imagery can be based. have found imagery to be associated so, we hope to answer two questions. Imagery is considered to be per- with key psychological factors, such as Firstly, what themes and ideas has vasive and elemental in dance train- self-confidence.13,30 Imagery, it is now dance imagery literature attempted ing, technique, and performance4; thought, may not only help dancers to illuminate to date? Secondly, to consequently, the literature is full of hone their physical craft but also their what extent does this literature fit the references to imagery and its uses.5-7 psychological states. Revised Applied Model of Deliberate These writings cover everything from Sport psychologists have exten- Imagery Use33 or depart from it? beliefs about dance education to sively defined sports imagery and cre- experimental research into the perfor- ated frameworks that can be applied Method mance of dance movement. Presum- to dance. Munroe and colleagues32 A systematic search was performed fol- ably its pervasiveness is due to a belief reviewed the research and then con- lowing the methods used by Goodger that imagery can help students learn ducted interviews in order to accurate- and coworkers,34 Lewis and Johnson,35 movement and improve technique.8-17 ly depict the “4 Ws” of imagery use in and Cooley and associates.36 The A teacher may use a metaphor to help sport: Where, When, Why, and What. search, using the terms “dance” and students dance with a certain quality, Where described the location at which “imagery,” was conducted through the or she may encourage her students to the imaging took place while When internet search engines SPORTDis- imagine performing the movement described the timing.32 Why dealt with cus, SIRC, HighBeam Research, Ath- so as to remember it correctly. Ad- the functions the imagery served for ens, Discovery, and Google Scholar. ditionally, research has shown that the athletes, and What covered the As a point of reference, the search on imagery can enhance the performance types of imagery described. In 2013, SPORTDiscus, conducted on March of dance movements when used while Cumming and Williams,33 building 10, 2015, produced 90 articles. The dancing.10,18-24 It may be that perform- upon previous research in the field,30,32 abstracts of these articles were read ers frequently incorporate imagery produced the Revised Applied Model to ascertain their relevancy to this into their dancing not only because of Deliberate Imagery Use for use in study. Next, the cited reference lists they have been encouraged to do so sport, dance, exercise, and rehabilita- of the found articles were explored. but also because it is seen as a way to tion. This updated model includes The Journal of Dance Medicine and enrich movement. the Munroe categories but adds those Science, Kinesiology and Medicine for Any image can be used to inspire of Who (the individual imaging) and Dance, Journal of Physical Education, artistry, which may be the most How (as in how it is experienced).33 It Recreation, and Dance, and Journal prominent use for imagery in dance. then goes on to explain how personal of Mental Imagery from January 1, Dancers use imagery, most commonly meaning and imagery ability influence 1987, to March 10, 2015, were all metaphorical imagery, to create move- these categories to effectively reach a hand-searched because the focus of ment.2,12,22,25-27 This type is employed desired outcome.33 This model could these journals relates closely to the during improvisation, creation of benefit dance researchers by providing topic of this review. January 1, 1987, choreography, and performance, and a comprehensive overview of impor- was chosen as the starting date because while some may believe that it mostly tant facets of imagery. no published articles on imagery were inspires adults in the professional The study of imagery in dance found prior to that year in any of the world, students of all ages can benefit appears to be at somewhat of a cross- previous searches. from inventive dance imagery.16,17,28,29 roads. Although several studies have Articles were deemed relevant if the Until recently, the study of imagery been performed and much has been topic of study was not only dance but in dance was almost solely focused on written, there is limited cohesion imagery as well; both topics needed how it could be used to teach, learn, on this subject. Often dance studies to be the focus of the research for and perform movement. There is a are conducted without taking into the article to be included. Although firm belief that skill acquisition and account the wealth of information imagery is considered an integral part development is the key role of im- from sport research.3 Similarly, im- of many somatic techniques,37 it is agery in dance.9 In the last 10 years, ages that are used in one intervention not often studied as its own entity in however, researchers have begun to are not used in later studies, and calls somatic research. Consequently, items look at imagery in a new light. The for future research go unheeded. The discussing “somatics” and the mind- sports psychology world has been discipline has reached a point where body connection without specifi- investigating imagery in relation to an overall review of the literature is cally discussing dance imagery were self-esteem and self-confidence. For necessary. By utilizing the Revised excluded. Research that was based Journal of Dance Medicine & Science • Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 53 on observation and experimentation, order to formulate conclusions; it only after the athlete has a developed i.e., empirical work, was included does not indicate that the investiga- mental representation of the task.48,49 while articles that were solely focused tors have applied statistical analyses to As skill in the field grows, the athlete’s on theories or beliefs were not. Only data. Both qualitative and quantitative mental representations become richer, articles published in English and those data-driven studies are categorized as leading to stronger motor imagery. It that the researchers could physically “descriptive.” The main points and is likely that proficient dancers experi- obtain (either online or in hardcopy) findings from each article were dis- ence a similar effect, leading to more were included. Finally, only articles cussed and related to one another, as complex and frequent imagery. from peer reviewed journals were cho- well as to the field as a whole. Finally, When describing dancer imagery, sen for inclusion because this system specific topics for future research were comparisons do not always follow produces a high standard of scientific provided. the lines of experience. On occasion, research.38 the divisions center more on dancer The articles were reviewed, ana- Results and Discussion age. This is the case with debilitative lyzed, and categorized into six general Forty-three articles containing 48 imagery, e.g., imagining oneself falling topics based on the Revised Applied studies were found to satisfy the or being hurt, which older dancers Model of Imagery Use33: Who, When inclusion criteria. The articles were reported experiencing significantly and Where, What, Why, How, and published in 24 journals between less often than younger performers Imagery Ability. Organization of data 1990 and 2014 and included a total in one study.44 This may be related into “W”-style groupings has been of 2,888 participants (Table 1). It to the additional opportunities older used in related fields, such as sports should be noted that participants dancers have garnered by being in the and exercise,32,39 and was, therefore, were only counted once, though they field longer. In the same study, no sig- felt to be a comparable and useful may have been included in more than nificant difference was found between means of classification. The Revised one study. the amount of debilitative imagery Applied Model33 was chosen as a reported by academic, vocational, structure for the results as it offers Who or professional dancers.44 This same additional categories, giving a fuller Much of the research on imagery in study further suggested that debilita- picture of dance imagery. Who is the dance has focused on who exactly tive imagery appears to be something individual performing the imaging. uses imagery. The conclusions are that is experienced by many dancers, When and Where refers to the location varied, but a central theme does especially those with perfectionistic of the imaging as well as the timing emerge: dancers of all ages and levels tendencies,50 and may as such warrant (e.g., in the studio, before class, during use imagery.4,8,13,40-45 From young further research. performance on stage). What describes children to university students, from How, then, do dancers compare the type or content of the imagery professionals to retired recreational to athletes when it comes to imagery used while Why relates to the func- enthusiasts, these groups all use use? Although little research has been tion the imagery serves for the imager. imagery as a tool to enhance their done in this area, some comparisons How details how the image is expe- dancing in some way. As the skill can be made. One study indicates that rienced, such as its speed, duration, level of the dancer grows, so too does dancers seem to use imagery more sensory modalities involved, and vi- her relationship with imagery. More than athletes, including more images sual perspectives. It also includes how experienced dancers reported imaging of roles and movements, technique, imagery is created in dance. Imagery more frequently than their lower level and goals.13 These differences in im- Ability is the proficiency with which counterparts.4,13,40-43,46,47 It may be agery quantity mirror the differences an individual can create, control, and that the longer a dancer dances, the reported between dance teachers and maintain images. more she uses imagery; alternatively, coaches; dance teachers describe us- The data were further sorted into imaging may be related to dancing ing more kinesthetic imagery than three research types: analytical, de- intensity (investment). The intricacy coaches during training.14 In fact, the scriptive, and experimental. This type of the imagery employed also seems imagery used by teachers and coaches of classification was used by Nemecek to increase as dancers gain proficiency seems to differ not just in the amount and Chatfield38 in their summary of in their art. Higher level dancers de- used but also its purpose. While both teaching and technique research in scribed more complex images, involv- groups employ imagery to enhance dance. It allows the reader to note ing layers of senses, which were then performance, dance teachers include the methodologies used within each used with more deliberation.41-43 These imagery focused on augmenting their study, thus clarifying the reasons for dancers appear to use their images students’ technique and creativity.14,27 research and highlighting how conclu- purposefully to support their dance Thus, dance teachers appear to use sions were reached. Note that the term performance in ways that novice imagery more extensively than athletic “analytical” here refers to research that dancers perhaps have not yet learned. coaches. collects quantitative and qualitative In sport, it has been postulated that Both dance teachers and students data along with expert opinions in successful use of motor imagery comes report that teachers use imagery 54 Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 • Journal of Dance Medicine & Science

Table 1 Articles Reviewed Type of Who, What, Why, Study Study Dance Style Demographic Data Where, How, & Ability Afremow, Overby, & Analytical - - What & How Vadocz (1997)1 Hanrahan & Vergeer Descriptive Modern 7 females, 4 males What, Why, When, & (2000)2 How Nordin & Cumming Descriptive Ballet, contemporary, and kathak 9 females, 5 males Who, What, Why, (2005)3 When, How, & Ability Nordin & Cumming Descriptive 25 dance styles, mostly modern, ballet, and 410 females, 91 Who, What, & Why (2006)4 jazz males Nordin & Cumming Descriptive 16 dance styles, mostly modern, ballet, and 249 females, Who, What, & Why (2006)4 ballroom 65 males, 3 unspecified Nordin & Cumming Descriptive 15 dance styles, mostly modern and ballet 218 females, Who, What, & Why (2006)4 27 males, 5 unspecified Bolles & Chatfield Descriptive Ballet and modern 31 females, 3 Who, Why, How, & (2009)8 males Ability Fish, Hall, & Cumming Descriptive Ballet 18 females, 24 What & Why (2004)9 males Hanrahan, Tétreau, & Experimental Modern, ballet, and other 60 females, 5 When & Why Sarrazin (1995)10 males Nordin & Cumming Descriptive Ballet, street dance, contemporary, disco, 265 females, 3 Who, What, & Why (2008)13 tap, Brazilian, jazz, ballroom, Irish, etc. males Overby, Hall, & Haslam Descriptive Dance, figure skating, and soccer 35 females, 14 Who & How (1998)14 males Sawada, Mori, & Ishii Experimental Unspecified 30 females, 30 Why (2002)16 males Sacha & Russ (2006)17 Experimental Ballet 32 females Why Couillandre, Lewton- Experimental Ballet 7 females Why & When Brain, & Portero (2008)18 Gamboian, Chatfield, & Experimental Jazz and ballet 6 females Why & When Woollacott (2000)19 Gamboian, et al. Experimental Jazz, ballet, and modern 3 females Why & When (1999)20 Girón, McIsaac, & Experimental Ballet 3 females Why & When Nilsen (2012)21 Hanrahan & Salmela Experimental Not specified 15 dancers (gender Why & When (1990)22 not specified) Heiland, Rovetti, & Experimental Not specified 18 females Why & How Dunn (2012)23 Krasnow (1997)24 Analytical - - Why & When Hanrahan, (1995)25 Analytical - - How Overby (1990)26 Descriptive Dance and physical education 44 dance teachers Who (gender not specified) Continued on next page during class as a teaching tool.3,26,41 times teachers use it to describe the the frequency and complexity of the Imagery may be used to emphasize execution of a step. As the experience imagery offered to their students as the quality of, or bring attention to, level of the class rises, so too does they become more skilled.42,43 Imagery a specific movement while at other the imagery level. Teachers increase becomes an integral part of the stu- Journal of Dance Medicine & Science • Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 55

Table 1 Continued Type of Who, What, Why, Study Study Dance Style Demographic Data Where, How, & Ability Overby (1990)26 Descriptive Not specified 1 dance teacher Who (gender not specified) Vaccaro (1997)27 Experimental Ballet 1 male Who, Why, & How & Analytical Hanrahan (1994)28 Descriptive Modern 60 females, 5 Why, When, & How males Bradley & Partington Descriptive Highland dance 60 females Who (1997)40 Nordin & Cumming Descriptive Ballet, contemporary, and kathak 9 females, 5 males Who & How (2006)41 Nordin & Cumming Descriptive Modern, ballet, ballroom, kathak, 218 females, Who & How (2006)42 flamenco, tap, jazz, salsa, bharatnatyam, 27 males, 5 ceroc, street, Irish dance, & bollywood unspecified Nordin & Cumming Descriptive Ballet, contemporary, Indian, ballroom, 218 women, 27 Who & When (2007)43 flamenco, tap, jazz, and other men, 5 unspecified Nordin-Bates, et al. Descriptive Contemporary, jazz, ballet, hip hop, Indian, 178 females, 38 Who & When (2011)44 Latin/ballroom, tap, & disco males Overby (1990)45 Descriptive Modern & ballet 40 females Who & Ability Karageorghis, Smith, & Experimental Break dance 20 males Who, What, & How Priest (2012)46 Monsma & Overby Descriptive Ballet 131 females Who, What, & Why (2004)47 Nordin-Bates, et al. Descriptive Ballet & contemporary 166 females, Who & Why (2011)50 59 males, 25 unspecified Vergeer & Hanrahan Descriptive Modern 4 males, 7 females What, Why, & How (1998)51 May, et al. (2011)54 Descriptive Contemporary 4 males, 4 females Why, When, & How Same authors as above54 Descriptive Contemporary 1 female Why, When, & How Minton (1996)56 Descriptive Jazz and modern 7 teachers (gender Why not specified) Golomer, et al. (2008)58 Descriptive Ballet 7 females Why & Ability Krasnow, et al. (1997)59 Descriptive - 19 dancers (gender When & not specified) Experimental Heiland & Rovetti Experimental Ballet 11 females, 2 Why & When (2013)60 males Overby & Dunn Descriptive - - Why, When, & How (2011)61 Goldschmidt (2002)62 Analytical - - When, Why, & How Batson (1994)69 Analytical - - When Olshansky, et al. (2014)71 Experimental Breakdance 1 male How Thwaites, McKelvie, & Descriptive Dance, volleyball, and swimming 114 females, 13 Ability Stout (2007)77 males Di Corrado, Guarnera, Descriptive Ballet 90 females Ability & Quartiroli (2014)78 dent’s training as she becomes more Thus, in addition to receiving imagery What capable. In recent research, higher during class, these students were urged In order to fully discuss what danc- level students felt that teachers had by teachers to create and incorporate ers image, it behooves the research encouraged them to use imagery.8,42,43 imagery into their practice. community to utilize a categorization 56 Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 • Journal of Dance Medicine & Science scheme that fully encompasses the the other types more. Regardless, as dancers and teachers at all levels.58 many types of imagery found within mastery imagery has been associated The images and tenets from these dance. The most complete system to with higher self-confidence and lower two somatic techniques, as well as date was created for the Dance Imag- anxiety,4,9,13,47 it would be valuable to others, have served as the basis for ery Questionnaire (DIQ).4 Similar to examine the potential effects of help- recent imagery interventions. Such categorizations used in sport and ex- ing dancers use more mastery imagery. research has shown that, in specific ercise, it details four types of imagery situations and for specific steps, im- used in dance. Each type of imagery Why agery does have a measurable effect can serve several different functions Imagery serves various functions for on dance movement.10,18-23,59,60 These for a performer. Technique imagery, dancers, with an image often acting findings underscore the efficacy of sometimes referred to as direct im- in more than one capacity at a time. utilizing imagery as a means to enrich agery, describes mental rehearsal of For example, a single technique image, performance. Unfortunately, several movements or sequences.1-4,9,13,46,47,51 say dancers completing a section of a of these intervention studies suffered This type of imagery occurs when piece, can allow an artist to picture from internal limitations, such as a dancer imagines specific dance spatial relationships while simulta- low dancer participation, un-tested movements or phrases of movement. neously stimulating creativity and evaluation measures, and a lack of Mastery imagery is related to plan- helping to plan the next steps. Chore- manipulation checks. Therefore, these ning, controlling anxiety, and staying ographers describe using various types findings should be read with caution. focused.2-4,9,13,46,47 Dancers may, for of imagery to inspire movement ideas Further discussion of the issues facing instance, image themselves remaining as well as to problem-solve within a this aspect of the field are discussed in confident and focused during an audi- piece.2,3,54 In their 2012 study, May the Limitations section of this paper. tion. These images are often associated and colleagues54 described the imag- Interestingly, several intervention with arousal and motivation. Goal ing methods used during the creative studies have suggested that dancers imagery covers images of working process by choreographer Wayne Mc- do not always realize when an image is toward and reaching dance-related Gregor and his company. The dancers effective. Heiland and associates23 gave goals.3,4,9,13,47 For example, a goal im- reported that their chosen images participants visual, kinesthetic, and age could consist of walking off stage drove their movement choices and auditory images based on the Franklin to roaring applause after a flawless that those images were drawn from Method for use during a plié ara- performance or images of achieving abstract ideas, the space around them, besque. They found that while using one’s goal of increased external hip and their own bodies.54 The images a metaphorical image, 100% of the rotation. Finally, role and movement these dancers used helped them cre- dancers who had not improved their quality imagery not only includes ate and enhance movement, choose performance believed they had, and images of roles and characters, but where in the space to move, and sort 60% of the dancers who had improved also most metaphorical, or indirect, the sequence of the dance. believed they had not. Gamboian and imagery.1-4,13,51 Images of how a char- For practitioners, imagery is often coworkers,19 Hanrahan and Salmela,22 acter within a ballet might feel or of used to shape movement. Similarly, and Hanrahan and colleagues10 all a dancer’s arms turning into wings dancers consistently report using reported similar findings when using would both fall into this category. imagery for the specific purpose of imagery based on ideokinetic princi- Researchers have found that danc- enhancing their movement,2,3,24,51 ples. These studies highlight not only ers use technique imagery the most, such as using images of strong emo- the importance of obtaining feedback while mastery imagery is utilized the tions to lend a dramatic element to from participants on their experiences least.4,13 Interestingly, this is contrary a performance or detailed anatomi- but also the need for outside feedback to findings in sport. Athletes report cal images to increase jump height regarding performance improvement using mastery-type imagery most fre- or improve posture. In fact, several while using imagery. quently out of the five types of imag- somatic techniques have been devel- In the classroom, students report ery described in sport literature.52,53 As oped and employed in dance practice that teachers use images to clarify in dance, this type of imagery consists for precisely this purpose. Created movement or express thoughts and of imaging oneself as focused and con- by Dr. Lulu Sweigard, ideokinesiol- feelings that should accompany move- fident, which could be quite useful in ogy is based on the idea that imagery ment.3,8 Often it is metaphorical (role competitive situations, a common oc- can improve skeletal alignment and and movement) imagery that is used currence in sport. However, the dance posture through the re-patterning of and studied as a means to effect move- world is full of similar situations, such neuromuscular pathways in the ab- ment. However, it may not be the only as auditions, so the sparseness of this sence of overt movement.6,12,27,28,55,56 type of imagery that can serve this imagery type in the dance community The Franklin Method is a somatic- function. Mental rehearsal-style (tech- is of concern. It could be that dancers based system that focuses on imagery nique) imagery can also help dancers do not necessarily use mastery imagery use to improve body function57; these understand and reinforce movement less than athletes but rather image images are recommended for use by in their memory and body.2,3,8,16,17,61,62 Journal of Dance Medicine & Science • Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 57

By reviewing a phrase or move as an self-confidence.50 It seems that such to use it while moving. Hanrahan,28 image in the mind, the dancer is ef- images affect how positively dancers Hanrahan and associates10 and May fectively seeing or feeling it, giving feel about themselves—or vice versa. and colleagues54 all found that the herself more time to analyze and Finally, higher frequencies of tech- dancers they surveyed did not like learn it. Sports psychology research nique and role and movement quality being still while imaging movement, consistently reports that imagery imagery have both been associated citing that it seemed counterintuitive training interventions have had posi- with more facilitative interpretations and detracted from the effects of the tive effects on athletic movement.63-65 of anxiety.4,9 Thus, dancers who im- previous warm-up. For dancers, imag- Unfortunately, research regarding this aged dance steps or metaphors were ing while dancing seems to be a part process, such as an experimental study more often able to perceive their of their performance process. into potential effects of a mental train- anxious feelings as helpful to their Finally, it should be noted that ing intervention, is lacking in dance. performance. In sum, it appears that dancers have described utilizing im- More generally, it is interesting to note imagery can have both beneficial and agery when they are tired or injured that, to date, sport imagery interven- detrimental effects on dancer psycho- in an effort to conserve their resourc- tions have all been focused on mental logical wellbeing based on its type and es.3,44,61 In one study, it was reported rehearsal-style imagery while all dance function. While researchers are just that dancers who used imagery more imagery interventions have focused on beginning to explore these complex while healthy also utilized imagery metaphorical imagery. relationships, future studies into the more frequently while injured.44 At In addition to movement enhance- diverse functions of dance imagery these times, imagery may take the ment, imagery serves many other will no doubt prove beneficial to the place of practice while the dancer rests functions between the classroom and dance community. and recuperates. the stage. For instance, dancers report using imagery to inspire strong emo- When and Where How tions, lower arousal, and mentally pre- Imagery seems to surround all aspects Sensory Modalities pare to walk onstage.2,3,9,51 Images of of training and performance, with Dancers report employing their vi- this nature serve to prime the dancer dancers using imagery before, dur- sual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, for optimal performance, in very ing, and after class, rehearsal, and tactile, and kinesthetic senses when much the same way as has been found performance.2,3,43 Imagery comes imaging.1-3,51 In other words, dancers in sports.52,53,66 Moreover, imagery is into play while an individual is learn- can see and hear an image, but they used to regulate mood and motivation ing movement, practicing it, and may also feel, and even taste or smell levels, often easing anxiety or helping then as she presents that movement parts of an image. However, the im- a dancer stay positive during difficult to an audience. As one of the most ages described by dancers appear to situations,2,3,9,51 such as auditions, a frequent instances, dancers often contain mostly visual and kinesthetic demanding performance, or even a image before initiating movement, components, with the other senses time of injury. either in a relaxation pose or quiet utilized to a lesser degree.2,3,51 The vi- As noted above, dance researchers stance.3,18-20,28,61,62,69 At these times, the sual mode is divided into internal and have begun to explore the relation- dancer images with the mind, rather external perspectives. When dancers ships between imagery, anxiety, and than attempting to incorporate the image from an internal perspective, self-confidence.9,47,50 In addition to idea into movement. Additionally, they see the image as if through their using imagery to manage anxiety, performers frequently use imagery own eyes.1,2,61,62 This type of imag- dancers use it to enhance their self- while dancing.2,3,10,18,21,22,24,28,43,59,61 The ery is most similar to the dancer’s confidence.3 A dancer can create and dancer might employ any one of the experience of performance. On the use an image specifically designed to four types of imagery described above other hand, the external perspective help her feel more self-assured, and as she performs, separately or together, is used when dancers imagine them- higher instances of mastery imagery the mind imaging in concert with the selves performing the movement as have been linked to higher levels of moving body. In fact, it is this timing if they were an audience member or dancer self-confidence.4,9,13,47 Similar of imagery that seems to set dance watching on television.1,2,51,61,62 These results have been reported in sport, apart from other physical activities: perspectives serve different func- with research linking mastery-type at least if the sport psychology litera- tions for a dancer.3,51 For example, imagery to increased self-confidence ture is to be believed, athletes mostly Vergeer and Hanrahan51 explored the in athletes.31,67,68 However, there use imagery while in a static position pre-performance routines of modern is limited research on this topic in or doing only minimal gestures. In dancers in order to better understand dance, and further investigation is contrast, dancers use imagery both how dancers prepare for performance. warranted. It is also noteworthy that in static and dynamic states.51 When The study’s participants reported us- in one study dancers reporting more it comes to imagery that has been ing both the internal and external debilitative imagery also reported specifically created to affect move- perspectives in tandem in order to greater intensities of anxiety and lower ment, it seems that dancers prefer compare their experience of the move- 58 Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 • Journal of Dance Medicine & Science ment to what an onlooker might see.51 explicitly for that audience. tions from some dance69 and older Interestingly, recent work in sport has To ensure that guidelines are ef- sport72,74 research, where performers indicated that the perspective chosen fective, it is imperative that they are are encouraged to image while physi- may in fact be task-specific, with the derived from research not only in cally relaxing. Though most of the internal perspective better support- dance but also sport and related ar- principles set out by dance researchers ing complex motor imagery (mental eas. Utilizing research in psychology, for imagery creation focus on role and rehearsal) in elite athletes.48,49 This line neuroscience, and sport, Holmes and movement over technique imagery, of research could offer the dance world Collins71 developed a checklist for mo- the scripts created could greatly ben- insight into which perspective would tor imagery creation called PETTLEP. efit by including the PETTLEP model best bring about the desired outcome. The acronym stands for Physical, En- and the 5 Ws. This more thorough vironment, Task, Timing, Learning, approach would not only lead to ad- Imagery Creation Emotion, and Perspective and was vances in imagery creation in the lab In the professional world, dancers developed to help both psychologists but in the classroom as well. create images to be used for chore- and athletes create imagery that more Dance imagery research also ad- ography and performance. For some, closely resembles the real activity.71 vocates the allotment of designated imagery is triggered by an external The researchers postulated that the time within the class for imagery stimulus or a memory,3 such as a pic- closer to reality the motor imagery is, instruction.1 By doing so, teachers ture, experience, or a song. Olshansky the more beneficial it will be for the can focus on imagery and indicate to and coworkers70 used brain imaging mind and body.71 The efficacy of the their students that it is an important while an experienced break-dancer PETTLEP technique has been tested part of dance. Unfortunately, most listened to various musical pieces to in multiple studies, showing that the dance classes are only 1 to 1.5 hours determine how the music would affect incorporation of these factors leads long, with minimal time to spare for his movement imagery. The results to positive physical outcomes.72-74 In anything other than physical dance suggested that the dancer’s familiarity addition to this checklist, sport psy- training. Consequently, if these guide- with the music influenced his imagery, chologists recommend that the 5 Ws lines were to be followed, designated leading to more intricate and elabo- (Who, What, When and Where, and imagery time would probably be less rate images.70 In other instances, the Why) be fully explored and under- than 5 minutes. It is of note that in movement itself can be the instigator stood when creating imagery scripts.75 sport and rehabilitation, the recom- of an image.2 During an improvisa- The dance guidelines mentioned mended length of imagery training tion, the dancer may stumble upon above already incorporate some of is longer than this. Cooley and col- an image that provides impetus onto these ideas. For example, Hanrahan25 leagues36 conducted a systematic re- a new path of movement exploration. emphasizes that scripts be tailored to view of imagery interventions in sport, Some choreographers supply imagery the target audience (Who), inspire the and imagery duration was compared instructions to their dancers during desired emotions (Emotion), clearly across the analyzed studies. Interven- the artistic process. For instance, the target the desired movement (Task), tions averaged 6.5 weeks long, with dancers studied by May and colleagues have a clear goal (Why), as well as a mean total imaging time of 2.45 were given specific instructions re- provide detailed content (What). hours.36 Additionally, a positive cor- quiring complex mental imagery; However, Hanrahan’s25 guidelines relation between total imagery use the choreographer then observed the could be made richer by incorporat- and intervention success was found, movement inspired by this imagery, ing more factors from PETTLEP and such that the more time an athlete selecting phrases for future use.54 the 5 Ws. For example, the Physical spends imaging, the more positive The creation of images for edu- element from PETTLEP describes, the outcome.36 Thus, even though cational purposes is a popular topic among other things, allowing small finding the time may be difficult, it within the field of dance education. movements that mimic the task while seems worthwhile for dance teachers Researchers recommend that teachers imaging. Research has shown that to insert imagery sessions into their pre-plan their images, implementing adding these small movements to classes and encourage dancers to im- them in an organized fashion through- imagery in sport can increase physical age outside of class to increase the total out the class, and then teaching the performance by not only integrating time spent imaging. imagery to their students in the same temporal features into the imagery, Several other suggestions have systematic way.1,25,27 Some guidelines but also enhancing its vividness.64 To been put forth with the aim of im- highlight the need to infuse images dancers, this type of dynamic imag- proving dance imagery. In one recent with personal meaning for the im- ing is known as “marking,” and it study, Karageorghis and associates46 ager25; if the imager’s feelings are not is a common practice.3 However, it used voice enhancement technology taken into account, the intended out- has not yet been recommended for during an intervention. Participants come may be sabotaged.33 Instructors imagery enhancement, nor has it been were asked to wear headphones that are advised to walk into the education incorporated into interventions. It is not only amplified the experimenter’s setting prepared with images created also in stark contrast to recommenda- voice during the imagery script Journal of Dance Medicine & Science • Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 59 but also greatly decreased ambient imagery ability.4 However, Golomer Movement Imagery Questionnaire-3 noise. The findings indicated that and colleagues58 found that half of the (MIQ-3),79 represent improvements this type of enhancement led to dancers participating in their study to the way imagery ability can be increased frequency of imaging by had higher kinesthetic imagery ability captured. While these tools can offer the participants.46 It was, therefore, while the other half had a mixed (vi- insight into some characteristics of recommended that voice enhance- sual and kinesthetic) ability. Another dance imagery, they do not capture ment technology be used by teachers study found that dancers have a higher all of its aspects, such as role and to elicit increased imaging in their kinesthetic imagery ability than ath- movement images; dance specific students.46 While increasing imagery letes,76 although these findings were tools should be developed to fully frequency is a worthy pursuit, it may not duplicated in a later study which understand this dance imagery ability. not be monetarily feasible to equip found the two groups to have compa- Further discussion of this topic can be students and teachers with this type rable kinesthetic and visual imagery found in the Limitations section. of technology. The use of pictures to abilities.77 Bolles and Chatfield8 found Imagery ability may not be a static inspire or explain images has also been that the majority of dancers labeled quality. Studies have shown that it recommended in dance education.27,28 as “high imagers” (those with high can be increased through a myriad of Heiland and coworkers23 used three scores on a measure of imagery ability) interventions.80-82 Research findings means to deliver the images in their had a learning style with a preference have indicated that dancers believe study: visual (pictures), tactile (touch), for “feeling,” i.e., learning through a the ability to use imagery can be and auditory (words); all three modes concrete experience.8 The researchers improved3,41,42; moreover, imagery produced significantly improved inferred that imagery may be a way complexity, structure, and control- results in the movement trials. Thus, of generating a concrete experience lability have been reported to increase depending on the desired outcomes for the dancer when one is not readily as dancers progress.41,42 However, the and the dancers’ needs, additional available in reality.8 Taken together, “how” behind these changes has yet tools may be worth the investment, the mixed findings yielded to date to be fully understood by the dance though further research is needed to make it difficult to draw conclusions community. explore the efficacy of such initiatives as regards dancers’ imagery abilities, for dance education. and more research is needed. How- Limitations within the Field Despite recommendations for ever, perhaps more important than A number of practices influence the structured, deliberate imagery, educa- which modes prevail in the field are field of dance imagery and should, tors and students frequently describe questions relating to the functional therefore, be explained. First, personal a different reality in the classroom, significance imagery ability has for experience is often the basis for later with both imagery preparation and dancers. For instance, do those with investigations and recommendations. education being unstructured and low imagery ability also struggle to A key example is the work of Dr. Lulu unplanned.8,14,41,42 Teachers seem to learn and rehearse steps and phrases? Sweigard. Sweigard spent many years prefer to create images spontane- Can dancers with better imagery creating and refining ideokinesiology, ously, perhaps to adapt them better ability benefit more from an imagery using herself as her main research tool. to the current needs of their students. intervention focused on enhancing The resulting images have been used Meanwhile, dancers may learn imag- self-confidence? in experimental and analytical stud- ing techniques from their teachers but Taking a slightly different ap- ies, such as those of Hanrahan and through observation of the teacher’s proach, Overby45 examined the cog- Salmela22 and Batson.69 Although Dr. imagery use rather than from a for- nitive imagery, movement imagery, Sweigard conducted research studies mal lesson.8 The discrepancy between spatial imagery, and body image of involving some underlying principles research recommendations and the novice and experienced dancers. It of ideokinesiology, not all of the reality of imagery use in dance educa- was found that experienced dancers principles or images themselves have tion indicates that more must be done differed significantly from novice been scientifically examined. Images to support effective imagery work in dancers in their cognitive, spatial, taken from the Franklin Method and real-world contexts. and body imagery.45 It appears that used in imagery interventions fall veteran dancers have higher imagery into this same category. There is little Imagery Ability abilities in comparison to beginners, cohesion between the images used Imagery ability is typically examined presumably due to their years of study. in these interventions, and though with regard to the ease with which There was, however, no significant dif- movement changes may have been performers can image visually (e.g., in ference found between the two groups recorded, it is impossible to know the mind’s eye “see” movement) and in movement imagery, which may be what aspects of the images caused kinesthetically (e.g., “feel” a move- due to the questionnaire used. Recent the results, severely limiting the ap- ment in their muscles as they image developments in sport science, such plications to dance performance. It it). One study suggested that dancers as the Sport Imagery Ability Ques- should be noted, too, that many dance have greater visual than kinesthetic tionnaire (SIAQ)78 and the updated studies have followed the ideokinetic 60 Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 • Journal of Dance Medicine & Science principle of integrating imagery with use of study-specific questionnaires tions,3,4,13,41-43,50 this concern is com- relaxation. This is not only in conflict and evaluation measures. Again, of the mon in the field; for whatever reason, with feedback from dancers10,28,54 but 43 studies reviewed, 8 devised their it seems challenging to find large also recent research in sport, includ- own questionnaires to assess anything numbers of dancers willing to partake ing the PETTLEP model, suggesting from dancers’ opinions on images to in studies. Many researchers look that relaxation as part of imagery use dancers’ imaging histories. Although to small university departments or may be contraindicated.64,66 Personal the methodologies and research schools with low enrollment, making it experience is, and should be, a key referenced when constructing these difficult to generalize findings to larger driver of research; moreover, the work questionnaire were mostly sound, and populations.8,10,19,20,22,23,27,28,56,59,60 It of imagery practitioners should by no valuable data were gained, the inter- also poses a problem for establishing means be disregarded. Nonetheless, it nal consistency and reliability of the control groups; when few dancers are is important to distinguish between questionnaires remain unknown since involved, setting aside a group that recommendations derived from per- comparative studies are unavailable. receives no intervention becomes dif- sonal experience and research. As a result, the reader should absorb ficult. However, without a sufficient Second, there is a distinct lack of these findings with caution. Similarly, control group, documenting changes tools for gathering information in of the studies reviewed that examined that result from an intervention is this field. Many questionnaires have the effects of imagery on movement, challenging. been borrowed from sport research nine developed evaluation measures but must be adapted to be relevant to assess changes in movement am- Future Directions in Research to dance. Of the 43 studies reviewed, plitude or quality. While the measures Before a discussion on the future 22 used questionnaires, 15 of which are similar, the fact that each is slightly of dance imagery research can take were developed for sport or general different makes comparisons difficult. place, a point must be made concern- psychology. The modifications nec- The use of personal journals in ing the relationship between dance essary to adapt these questionnaires Gamboian and colleagues’ study20 and sport science. To date, much re- to dance may have impacted their raises another point of discussion, search in dance imagery has occurred reliability and validity. For instance, namely that imaging appears to be without thorough consideration of the Sport Imagery Questionnaire a very individual experience. It has corresponding sport research. As (SIQ)52 assesses the extent to which been found that dancers adjust im- mentioned previously, the PETT- athletes utilize imagery in their prac- ages to their needs and feelings, alter- LEP model is of particular note.71 Its tice. In dance research, the wording ing the original versions given either recommendations represent the most is changed, altering the reliability of by teachers or researchers.28 In fact, reliable in the published literature to the SIQ. In the Fish and coworkers9 tailoring an image to the individual date and should, therefore, be used study, three items had to be dropped is recommended both in sport and in conjunction with dance guidelines during statistical analysis, possibly dance.25,57,71,75 Accordingly, the way to inform both how to image and due to the altered language. Because in which a dancer images, her imagery image creation for research. Through of this, the findings from this study ability and her feelings toward the im- the PETTLEP model, dance science regarding dancers’ imagery use should ages will all affect the outcome. As is could not only be linked to sport, be interpreted with caution. Monsma recommended in sport, manipulation but it could also draw from updated and Overby47 and Nordin and Cum- checks should be incorporated into information in neuroscience and ming13 encountered similar issues with study methodologies to account for psychology, two disciplines that are the SIQ. The problems created by these variations.66 Unfortunately, few not often referenced. This relation- deploying the SIQ to assess imagery of the imagery intervention studies re- ship should extend both ways: dance use in dance may have been alleviated viewed included any data of this type, science has investigated phenomena by the introduction of the DIQ.4 and if it was logged, it was done so that may be of interest to sport, such As a dance-based questionnaire, the after a significant amount of time had as metaphorical imagery and imagery DIQ measures similar constructs to elapsed. If no data are recorded cover- during overt movement. This review is the SIQ but also includes examples ing the participant’s personal views on only scratching the surface in terms of of metaphorical imagery. The DIQ imagery, her imagery ability, the im- options in an exchange that could be is a relatively new dance research tool ages, and how those images were used, rewarding for both dance and sport. and has not been used in many stud- then it will be difficult to interpret Future explorations into dance ies. Consequently, its validity is still subsequent findings. It is important, imagery will need dance-specific being established, and future studies too, that these data be gathered as close information gathering tools, as bor- are necessary to understand fully its to the imaging event as possible so as rowing and accommodating sport potential value in generating useful to limit memory decay. measurements has proven problematic findings. Finally, another issue facing dance in some studies. Therefore, it would Another effect of the lack of dance- imagery research is low rates of dancer be useful if researchers developed and based research tools is the creation and participation. With some excep- evaluated measurement tools covering Journal of Dance Medicine & Science • Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 61 imagery ability, including not only egy by finding that dancers believe 4. Nordin SM, Cumming J. Measur- visual and movement imagery ability it to be useful.10,19,20,22,28 If dance sci- ing the content of dancers’ images: but also imagery controllability and ence could better explain the “How” development of the Dance Imagery metaphorical imagery ability. Some and the “Why” of this mechanism, Questionnaire (DIQ). J Dance Med questionnaires developed for sport, teachers and dancers would be better Sci. 2006;10(3/4):85-98. 79 78 5. Fortin S. When dance science and such as the MIQ-3 and the SIAQ, able to apply imagery to achieving somatics enter the dance tech- could be used as templates to develop their goals, whether they be stronger nique class. Kinesiol Med Dance. dance-specific tools. However, psy- technique, increased self-confidence, 1993;15(2):88-107. chometric testing and large partici- or more powerful performance. 6. Minton S. Enhancement of align- pant samples will be needed to ensure Future research should approach ment through imagery. J Phys Educ that these new questionnaires are reli- this from a systematic standpoint: Rec Dance. 1990;61(2):28-9. able. Once developed, dance-specific imagery intervention studies should 7. Solomon R. Training dancers: measurements, such as the DIQ,4 be created based on previous studies, anatomy as a master image. J Phys can be used not only in descriptive such as Hanrahan and colleagues10 Educ Rec Dance. 1987;58(5):51-6. studies but also as a means to describe or Heiland and associates,23 but with 8. Bolles G, Chatfield SJ. The intersec- participants and explain outcomes in a strong foundation in imagery cre- tion of imagery ability, imagery use, and learning style. J Dance Educ. experimental research. One area that ation recommendations from both 1,25,27 71,75 2009;9(10):6-16. may prove useful to dancers is men- dance and sport. Additional 9. Fish L, Hall C, Cumming J. Investi- tal rehearsal. The intervention could data concerning imagery ability and gating the use of imagery by elite bal- consist of systematic, daily imagery of dancer alteration of images should be let dancers. Avante. 2004;10(3):26- what one has done in class in order to gathered in these studies so that we 39. look at how that relates to the goal of may gain a better understanding of 10. Hanrahan C, Tétreau B, Sarrazin C. improving performance. Alongside whether all dancers can benefit from Use of imagery while performing manipulation checks, the DIQ could an intervention, or variables such as dance movement. Int J Sport Psy- be incorporated to show whether the imagery ability moderate their ef- chol. 1995;26:413-30. participating dancers employed im- fectiveness. Perhaps an intervention 11. Kuen LL. The value of imagery agery throughout the study and if so could take place over a period of in creative dance. Teach Learn. 1993;13(2):28-34. how often and of what types. In this time, e.g., a school term, following 12. Minton S. Exploring the mind/body way the researchers will understand two classes, one with and the other connection with imagery. Kinesiol more about the dancers’ imaging without systematic imagery practice. Med Dance. 1991;14(1):29-32. habits and be better able to interpret Measurements of their skill improve- 13. Nordin SM, Cumming J. Exploring findings. ment could then be compared. Would common ground: comparing the im- The work of Fish and associates,9 the imaging dancers improve their agery of dancers and aesthetic sport Monsma and Overby,47 and Nordin- dance technique faster? Would they performers. J Appl Sport Psychol. Bates and coworkers50 has raised feel more confident? The future study 2008;20(4):375-91. some interesting points regarding of dance imagery must be solidly 14. Overby LY, Hall C, Haslam I. A the link between self-confidence and based in the wide-ranging existing comparison of imagery used by dance imagery. Findings indicate a positive literature so that the field may move teachers, figure skating coaches, and soccer coaches. Imagin Cogn Person. link between mastery imagery and forward most efficiently and thereby 9,47 1998;17(4):323-37. dancer self-confidence. Future produce applicable knowledge for the 15. Smith KL. Dance and imagery: research should follow this thread, dance community. The link between movement and designing interventions aimed at imagination. J Phys Educ Rec Dance. increasing self-confidence, as dancers References 1990;61(2):17. often report problems with this par- 1. Afremow J, Overby L, Vadocz E. 16. Sawada M, Mori S, Ishii M. Effect ticular psychological construct.9,47,50 Using mental imagery to enhance of metaphorical verbal instruction In a similar vein, dance scientists may sport and dance skills of children. on modeling of sequential dance wish to follow the lead of sport and Journal of the International Coun- skills by young children. Percept Mot investigate cognitive-behavioral strate- cil for Health, Physical Education, Skills. 2002 Dec;95(3 Pt 2):1097- gies involving imagery as a means to Recreation, Sport and Dance. 1997 105. 83 Summer;33:44-8. 17. Sacha TJ, Russ SW. Effects of pre- manage performance anxiety. 2. Hanrahan C, Vergeer I. Multiple tend imagery on learning dance in Finally, and perhaps this is the big- uses of mental imagery by profes- preschool children. Early Child Educ gest challenge, a branch of research sional modern dancers. Imagin Cogn J. 2006;33(5):341-5. should focus on imagery use during Person. 2000;20(3):231-55. 18. Couillandre A, Lewton-Brain P, movement. Dance experts have long 3. Nordin SM, Cumming J. Profes- Portero P. Exploring the effects of taught imaging during movement as sional dancers describe their imagery: kinesiological awareness and mental a means to enhance performance.22 where, when, what, why, and how. imagery on movement intention Researchers have validated this strat- Sport Psychol. 2005;19:395-416. in the performance of demi-plié. J 62 Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 • Journal of Dance Medicine & Science

Dance Med Sci. 2008;12(3):91-8. 32. Munroe KJ, Giacobbi PR, Hall C, and experienced dancers’ imagery 19. Gamboian N, Chatfield SJ, Woolla- Weinberg R. The four Ws of imagery ability. Journal of Mental Imagery. cott MH. Further effects of somatic use: where, when, why, and what. 1990;14 (3/4):173-84. training on pelvic tilt and lumbar lor- Sport Psychol. 2000;14:119-37. 46. Karageorghis CI, Smith DL, Priest dosis alignment during quiet stance 33. Cumming J, Williams SE. Intro- D. Effects of voice enhancement and dynamic dance movement. J ducing the revised applied model technology and relaxing music on Dance Med Sci. 2000;4(3):90-8. of deliberate imagery use for sport, the frequency of imagery among 20. Gamboian N, Chatfield SJ, Wool- dance, exercise, and rehabilitation. break dancers. J Dance Med Sci. lacott MH, et al. Effect of dance Mov Sport Sci. 2013;82:69-81. 2012;16(1):8-16. technique training and somatic train- 34. Goodger K, Gorely T, Lavallee D, 47. Monsma EV, Overby LY. The rela- ing on pelvic tilt and lumbar lordosis Harwood C. Burnout in sport: a tionship between imagery and com- alignment during quiet stance and systematic review. Sport Psychol. petitive anxiety in ballet auditions. J dynamic dance movement. J Dance 2007;21:127-51. Dance Med Sci. 2004;8(1):11-18. Med Sci. 1999;3(1):5-14. 35. Lewis M, Johnson MI. The clinical 48. Olsson CJ, Jonsson B, Larsson A, 21. Girón EC, McIsaac T, Nilsen D. effectiveness of therapeutic mas- Nyberg L. Motor representations Effects of kinesthetic versus visual sage for musculoskeletal pain: a and practice affect brain systems imagery practice on two technical systematic review. Physiotherapy. underlying imagery: an fMRI study dance movements: a pilot study. J 2006;92(3):146-58. of internal imagery in novices and ac- Dance Med Sci. 2012;16(1):36-8. 36. Cooley SJ, Williams SE, Burns VE, tive high jumpers. Open Neuroimag 22. Hanrahan C, Salmela JH. Dance Cumming J. Methodological varia- J. 2008;2:5-13. images: do they really work or are we tions in guided imagery interventions 49. Olsson CJ, Nyberg L. Motor im- just imagining things?. J Phys Educ using movement imagery scripts in agery: if you can’t do it, you won’t Rec Dance. 1990;61(2):18-21. sport: a systematic review. Journal think it. Scand J Med Sci Sport. 2010 23. Heiland TL, Rovetti R, Dunn J. of Imagery Research in Sport and Oct;20(5):711-15. Effects of visual, auditory, and kin- Physical Activity. 2013;8(1):1-22. 50. Nordin-Bates SM, Cumming J, esthetic imagery interventions on 37. Eddy M. An overview of the science Aways D, Sharp L. Imagining your- dancers’ plié arabesques. Journal of and somatics of dance. Kinesiol Med self dancing to perfection? Correlates Imagery Research in Sport and Physi- Dance. 1991;14(1):20-8. of perfectionism among ballet and cal Activity. 2012;7(1):1-24. 38. Nemecek SM, Chatfield SJ. Teaching contemporary dancers. J Clin Sport 24. Krasnow D. C-I training: the merger and technique in dance medicine Psychol. 2011;5(1):58-76. of conditioning and imagery as an and science: a descriptive study with 51. Vergeer I, Hanrahan C. What mod- alternative training methodology implications for dance educators. J ern dancers do to prepare: content for dance. Med Probl Perform Art. Dance Educ. 2007;7(4):109-17. and objectives of performance rou- 1997;12(1):3-8. 39. Hausenblas HA, Hall CR, Rodgers tines. Avante. 1998;4(2):49-71. 25. Hanrahan C. Creating dance images: WM, Munroe KJ. Exercise imagery: 52. Hall CR, Mack DE, Paivio A, Haus- basic principles for teachers. J Phys it’s nature and measurement. J Appl enblas HA. Imagery use by athletes: Educ Rec Dance. 1995;66(1):33-9. Sport Psychol. 1999;11:171-80. development of the Sport Imagery 26. Overby LY. The use of imagery by 40. Bradley B, Partington JT. Practice Questionnaire. Int J Sport Psychol. dance teachers: development and makes perfect: commitment and im- 1998;29:73-89. implementation of two research in- agery in dance. J Can Assoc Health 53. Nordin S, Cumming J. Types and struments. J Phys Educ Rec Dance. Phys Educ Rec Dance, 1997;63:18- functions of athletes’ imagery: testing 1990;61(2):24-7. 21. predictions from the applied model 27. Vaccaro KC. Teaching strategies – the 41. Nordin SM, Cumming J. The de- of imagery use by examining effec- application of found images in dance velopment of imagery in dance part tiveness. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. and sport. J Phys Educ Rec Dance. 1: qualitative findings from profes- 2008;6:189-206. 1997;68(1):45-9. sional dancers. J Dance Med Sci. 54. May J, Calvo-Merino B, Delahunta 28. Hanrahan C. In search of a good dance 2006;10(1/2):21-7. S, et al. Points in mental space: an image. Impulse. 1994;2(2):131-44. 42. Nordin SM, Cumming J. The devel- interdisciplinary study of imagery 29. Purcell TM. The use of imag- opment of imagery in dance part II: in movement creation. Dance Res. ery in children’s dance: making quantitative findings from a mixed 2011;29(2):402-30. it work. J Phys Educ Rec Dance. sample of dancers. J. Dance Med Sci. 55. Fairweather MM, Sidaway B. Ideoki- 1990;61(2):22-3. 2006;10(1/2):28-34. netic imagery as a postural develop- 30. Martin KA, Moritz SE, Hall CR. Im- 43. Nordin SM, Cumming J. Where, ment technique. Res Q Exerc Sport. agery use in sport: a literature review when, and how: a quantitative ac- 1993 Dec;64(4):385-92. and applied model. Sport Psychol. count of dance imagery. Res Q Exerc 56. Minton S. Assessment of the use 1999;13:245-68. Sport. 2007 Sep;78(4):390-5. of imagery in the dance classroom. 31. Hall CR, Munroe-Chandler K, 44. Nordin-Bates SM, Walker IJ, Baker Impulse. 1996 Oct;4(4):276-92. Cumming J, et al. Imagery and J, et al. Injury, imagery, and self- 57. Franklin E. Dance Imagery for Tech- observational learning use and their esteem in dance: healthy minds in nique and Performance. Champaign, relationship to trait sport confidence. injured bodies? J Dance Med Sci. IL: Human Kinetics, 1996. J Sports Sci. 2009 Feb 15;27(4):327- 2011;15(2):76-85. 58. Golomer E, Mertz C, Bouillette A, 37. 45. Overby LY. A comparison of novice Keller J. Effects of mental imagery Journal of Dance Medicine & Science • Volume 20, Number 2, 2016 63

styles on shoulder and hip rotations tive anxiety and imagery use. J Appl athletes. J Sport Psychol Action. during preparation of pirouettes. J Sport Psychol. 1997;9(2):241-53. 2013;4(2):109-21. Mot Behav. 2008 Jul;40(4):281-90. 68. Munroe-Chandler K, Hall C, Fish- 76. Thwaites J, McKelvie SJ, Stout 59. Krasnow DH, Chatfield SJ, Barr burne G. Playing with confidence: D. Imagery vividness, spatial abil- S, et al. Imagery and conditioning the relationship between imagery use ity, and verbal memory in dancers practices for dancers. Dance Res J. and self-confidence and self-efficacy compared to other athletes and non- 1997;29(1):43-64. in youth soccer players. J Sports Sci. athletes. Journal of Mental Imagery. 60. Heiland T, Rovetti R. Examining the 2008 Dec;26(14):1539-46. 2007;31(3&4):123-38. effects of Franklin Method anatomi- 69. Batson G. Stretching technique: 77. Di Corrado D, Guarnera M, Quar- cal and metaphorical mental images a somatic model. Part II: training tiroli A. Vividness and transforma- on college dancers’ jumping height. purposivity through Sweigard ideoki- tion of mental images in karate and Res Dance Educ. 2013;14(2):141- nesis. Impulse. 1994 Jan;2(1):39-58. ballet. Percept Mot Skills. 2014 61. 70. Olshansky MP, Bar RJ, Fogarty M, Dec;119(3):764-73. 61. Overby LY, Dunn J. The history and DeSouza JFX. Supplementary motor 78. Williams SE, Cumming J. Measur- research of dance imagery: implica- area and primary auditory cortex ing athlete imagery ability: the sport tions for teachers. IADMS Bulletin activation in an expert break-dancer imagery ability questionnaire. J Sport for Teachers. 2011;(2):9-11. during kinesthetic motor imag- Exerc Psychol. 2011 Jun;33(3):416- 62. Goldschmidt H. Dancing with ery of dance to music. Neurocase. 40. your head on: mental imagery tech- 2015;21(5):607-17. 79. Williams SE, Cumming J, Ntou- niques for dancers. J Dance Educ. 71. Holmes PS, Collins DJ. The PET- manis N, et al. Further validation 2002;2(1):15-22. TLEP approach to motor imagery: and development of the movement 63. Olsson CJ, Jonsson B, Nyberg L. a functional equivalence model for imagery questionnaire. J Sport Exerc Internal imagery training in active sport psychologists. J Appl Sport Psychol. 2012 Oct;34(5):621-46. high jumpers. Scand J Psychol. 2008 Psychol. 2001;13(1):60-83. 80. Williams SE, Cumming J, Edwards Apr;49(2):133-40. 72. Wright CJ, Smith D. The effect of a MG. The functional equivalence 64. Guillot A, Moschberger K, Collet C. short-term PETTLEP imagery inter- between movement imagery, ob- Coupling movement with imagery as vention on a cognitive task. Journal servation, and execution influences a new perspective for motor imagery of Imagery Research in Sport and imagery ability. Res Q Exerc Sport. practice. Behav Brain Funct. 2013 Physical Activity. 2007;2(1):1-14. 2011 Sep;82(3):555-64. Feb 20;9:8. 73. Wright CJ, Smith D. The effect of 81. Cumming JL, Ste-Marie DM. The 65. Weinberg RS. Does imagery work? PETTLEP imagery on strength per- cognitive and motivational effects of Effects on performance and mental formance. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. imagery training: a matter of perspec- skills. Journal of Imagery Research 2009;7(1):18-31. tive. Sport Psychol. 2001;15:276-87. in Sport and Physical Activity. 74. Smith D, Wright CJ, Cantwell C. 82. Williams SE, Cooley SJ, Cumming 2008;3:1-21. Beating the bunker: The effect of J. Layered stimulus response training 66. Murphy S, Nordin S, Cumming J. PETTLEP imagery on golf bunker improves motor imagery ability and Imagery in sport, exercise, and dance. shot performance. Res Q Exerc movement execution. J Sport Exerc In: Horn T (ed): Advances in Sport Sport. 2008 Sep;79(3):385-91. Psychol. 2013 Feb;35(1):60-71. Psychology (3rd ed). Champaign, IL: 75. Williams SE, Cooley SJ, Newell E, 83. Cox RH. Sport Psychology: Concepts Human Kinetics, 2008, pp. 297-324. et al. Seeing the difference: devel- and Applications (6th ed). New York: 67. Vadocz EA, Hall CR, Moritz SE. oping effective imagery scripts for McGraw-Hill, 2007. The relationship between competi-