IADMS Bulletin for Dancers and Teachers Volume 5, Number 1, 2014

The IADMS Bulletin for Dancers and Teachers Volume 5, Number 1, 2014

Editors-in-Chief Gayanne Grossman, P.T., Ed.M., and Matthew Wyon, Ph.D.

Introduction Encouraging Dancers to Train for Upper Body Fitness From the Editors Jatin P. Ambegaonkar, Ph.D., A.T.C., O.T., Gayanne Grossman, P.T., Ed.M., and Matthew C.S.C.S. Wyon, Ph.D. Letter from the IADMS Education Committee Departments Chair Abstracts from the Current Literature Margaret Wilson, Ph.D. Marliese Kimmerle, Ph.D. Articles Fitter Dancers Dance Better: The Effects of Supplementary Fitness Training in Contemporary Dance Manuela Angioi, Ph.D. Pilates Technique for Improving Dancers’ Performance Tania Amorim, M.Sc., Matthew Wyon, Ph.D. The IADMS Bulletin for Dancers and Teachers

Volume 5, Number 1, 2014

Editors-in-Chief Gayanne Grossman, P.T., Ed.M. and Matthew Wyon, Ph.D.

Introduction 3 From the Editors Gayanne Grossman, P.T., Ed.M., and Matthew Wyon, Ph.D. 4 Letter from the IADMS Education Committee Chair Margaret Wilson, Ph.D. Articles 7 Fitter Dancers Dance Better: The Effects of Supplementary Fitness Training in Contemporary Dance Manuela Angioi, Ph.D. 9 Pilates Technique for Improving Dancers’ Performance Tania Amorim, M.Sc., Matthew Wyon, Ph.D. 11 Encouraging Dancers to Train for Upper Body Fitness Jatin P. Ambegaonkar, Ph.D., A.T.C., O.T., C.S.C.S. Departments 13 Abstracts from the Current Literature — edited by Marliese Kimmerle, Ph.D.

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Letter from the Editors preciation to Balanced Body and AFX for their generous support of the IADMS Bulletin for Dancers and Teachers. Dear Dancers and Teachers, We are very pleased to offer articles in this issue on the relationship between fitness and improved dancing: “Pilates We are pleased that so many of you find the information technique for improving dance performance,” and “Encour- in the Bulletin useful. Our team is constantly updating the aging Dancers to train for upper body fitness.” The abstract journal to continue sharing advances in dance science in portion offers research that examines the initial learning the hope you can glean useful performance enhancement processes of new skills, an exploration of training stressors information for your studio and stage work. Along those in dance and how to assess them, and studies demonstrat- lines you may have noticed that we have expanded our title ing the benefits of dance activities for adolescents as well to the IADMS Bulletin for Dancers and Teachers because as older adults. our intent is that these articles are useful for everyone. We hope you will share this publication with other This issue is dedicated to Marliese Kimmerle, Ph.D., dancers and dance organizations. The ulletinB will remain who is stepping down as Co-Editor. Her tireless work and free as an IADMS gift and public service to the dance com- expert knowledge have been instrumental in the prepara- munity. If you have suggestions for additional topics or a tion of the Bulletin. We are thankful she will continue to question to be answered in the Bulletin from an IADMS serve as editor for the section Abstracts from the Current expert please contact us at [email protected]. Literature. Our 2014 IADMS Annual Meeting will be on October I wish to offer my personal welcome andcongratulations 16th-18th and A Day for Teachers on October 19th in Basel to Matt Wyon, Ph.D. who has joined the Bulletin team as Switzerland. Please join us. Co-Editor and on his election as IADMS Vice President/ President-Elect. Editors: The editors, Education Committee, and the IADMS Gayanne Grossman, P.T., Ed.M. and Matt Wyon, Ph.D. Board of Directors wish to extend a warm word of ap-

Education Committee Report list from the Studio Teacher’s Network. Our goal with the Dance Education Network is to increase outreach to The IADMS Education Committee is comprised of indi- teachers working in the field. If you know of anyone who viduals who research, mentor, study and teach dance all would like to receive the bulletin, please have them contact around the world at all levels. This committee is one of the education committee at [email protected]. the most active in the IADMS organization. As chair of Two new papers are on the IADMS Resource Paper tab this ambitious committee, I have the honor of relating the of the IADMS website: Mirrors in the classroom, Help good work it has undertaken. Our efforts are primarily or Hindrance, written by Sally Radell and Perfectionism, designed to enhance teaching with an understanding and written by Sanna Nordin-Bates. Please visit the IADMS incorporation of dance science at all levels. We accomplish website to find out more about the resource papers and this in many ways , from “A Day for Teachers” during the other exciting initiatives from the Education Committee. IADMS Annual Meeting, to resource papers, IADMS post- Finally, if you have any questions about the IADMS Edu- ers, and The IADMS Bulletin for Dancers and Teachers. All cation Committee or would like to find out more about of these resources can be accessed on the IADMS website, working with us, please contact us at education@iadms. http://www.iadms.org. org. We have also replaced the Studio Teachers Network with the Dance Education Network (DEN), currently chaired Margaret Wilson, Ph.D. by Maggie Lorraine. One of the reasons you may be receiv- Education Committee Chair ing this bulletin is because we have you on a distribution

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Fitter Dancers Dance Better The Effects of Supplementary Fitness Training in Contemporary Dance

Manuela Angioi, M.Sc., Ph.D., Centre for Sports and Exercise Medicine, Queen Mary University of London, UK

ithin the world of dance medicine and science In the intervention group (12 dancers), each dancer there is ever-increasing research interest in the undertook the combined circuit-vibration training in ad- benefits of increased physical fitness levels in dition to usual dance training for six weeks; the control Wrelation to both performance and injury status. Studies group simply carried on with their usual dance training. have observed associations between specific physical fitness The training was organized twice a week and each train- components, such as muscular power and endurance, and ing session lasted approximately one hour, comprising qualitative aspects of dance performance, such as control of circuit training (CT), 10 minutes rest, and whole-body movement, spatial skills, accuracy of movement, technique, vibration training (WBV). The CT training consisted of and dynamics.1 Nevertheless, these observed associations do lower and upper body exercises, organized in 10 stations. not imply causality, meaning that only carefully designed The 10 exercises included: jumps with feet in parallel intervention studies will ensure that the observed effect (i.e., position (using a jumping rope), press-ups, bicep curls, dancing better) is a consequence of the increased levels of triceps extension (with free weights of 0.5 kg each), single muscular fitness. The question is: When do we use muscular leg squat, squats-jumps, relevés in first position, grand-plié power and endurance in contemporary dance? Wyon and in second position, chest press exercises (with free weights colleagues reported that simple examples of upper body of 0.5 kg each), and plank. Dancers had to exercise for 30 muscular endurance are in evidence during partner work, seconds in each station, with 10 seconds of transition time when repeatedly lifting and supporting other dancers and/ between one station and the other, making the total time or in transitional movements from floor to stand and vice for each circuit of six minutes, 50 seconds (including the versa.2 Lower body muscular power, on the other hand, is rest between each station). Dancers had to complete four necessary to develop elevation during the take-off phase of circuits. The WBV training protocol used six dance-specific any type of jump. static positions on a vibration platform (frequency set at 35 In this study, we developed a combined circuit and vibra- Hz and amplitude at 2.5 mm) including: 1) plié with feet tion training designed to specifically stress the lower body’s in first position; 2) plank (elbow flexed on the floor and ability to produce power, and the upper body’s muscular feet on platform); 3) lunge (right and left leg on platform?); endurance as well as the general stamina (aerobic fitness). 4) press up, 90° bend at the elbows; 5) feet in relevé with The overall aim was to ascertain if increased physical fitness knees slightly bent; and 6) hamstring position, bent over levels were reflected in the aesthetic competence level of 24 at waist, with knees slightly bent and hamstrings tensed. female contemporary dancers (professionals and students). The training consisted of three sets lasting 40 seconds, with All 24 dancers were tested for initial levels of lower body two minutes rest between each set. muscular power, upper body muscular endurance, and While results of the initial tests revealed that all 24 danc- aerobic capacity via some commonly used tests including ers had similar levels of muscular power, endurance, aerobic standing vertical jump, numbers of press-ups performed capacity as well as all scoring similarly in the “aesthetic in one minute, and a dance-specific aerobic fitness test. competence” test, we observed some differences following All dancers also undertook an “aesthetic competence” test, the six weeks of supplementary fitness training. Specifically, which was developed to objectively score seven aspects only the dancers who undertook the supplementary train- of contemporary performance on a scale of 1-10. These ing showed increased levels of muscular power, endurance included control of movement, spatial skills, accuracy of and aerobic capacity as well as higher score results for the movement; technique, dynamics, timing, and rhythmical performance aesthetic test. The observed increased aerobic accuracy, performance qualities, and overall performance.1 levels were attributed to the circuit training, while the in-

Copyright © 2014 International Association for Dance Medicine & Science • www.iadms.org 7 The IADMS Bulletin for Dancers and Teachers • Volume 5, Number 1, 2014 8 creases in muscular power and endurance were considered ments of dance. The selection of exercises can be tailored to to be a result of the combined CT and WBV training. The the choreographic demands, if these are known in advance. latter in particular has been proven to elicit both concentric The use of WBV training in particular has been shown to and eccentric contractions,3 hence, the enhancement of provide adaptation of the muscular system with minimal muscular power. The fact that dancers who did not under- time cost, which is a vital advantage when the daily work take the fitness training did not improve in the measured time is controlled by unions and the majority of time is fitness components, suggests that dance training is not suf- focused on artistic training. In conclusion, a six-week ficient enough to overload the energy and musculoskeletal supplemental CT and WBV training had a significantly systems and thus to produce physiological adaptations that beneficial effect on both physical fitness indices and aes- will enhance each individual fitness component.4 The other thetic competency for skilled contemporary dancers. important aspect of the present study is the link between physical fitness and the artistic elements of dance perfor- Acknowledgment mance. Not surprisingly, the results of aesthetic competence This article has been adapted from Angioi M, Metsios G, revealed that dancers who improved their fitness levels Twitchett EA, Koutedakis Y, Wyon M. Effects of supple- scored significantly higher, hence “danced better,” than mental training on fitness and aesthetic competence param- before undertaking the training. As previously suggested eters in contemporary dance: a randomized controlled trial. this is because dancers use their bodies as instruments of Med Probl Perform Art. 2012 Mar;27(1):3-8. expression and most common technical skills/movements (jumps, transitory movements, etc.) used in contemporary References dance require enhanced fitness levels as well as artistry.1 1. Angioi M, Metsios GS, Twitchett E, Koutedakis Y, Wyon What are the implications of such findings for dance M. Association between selected physical fitness parameters teachers? First, the present study contributes to the open and aesthetic competence in contemporary dancers. J Dance debate of whether dancers would benefit from enhanced Med Sci. 2009;13(4):115-23. physical fitness levels equal to other anaerobic athletes. 2. Wyon M, Twitchett E, Angioi M, Clarke F, Metsios G, Koutedakis Y. Time motion and video analysis of classical Second, by incorporating supplementary training, dance ballet and contemporary dance performance. Int J Sports teachers can help bridge the observed fitness gap between Med. 2011;32(11):851-5. performance preparation (class and rehearsals) and perfor- 3. Ramaiguere P, Vedel J, Pagni S. Effects of tonic vibration mance periods. Nevertheless, the incorporation of supple- reflex on motor unit recruitment in human wrist extensor mental training into the dancers’ schedules must take into muscles. Brain Res Bull. 1993;602:32-40. account their present work load, which can already involve 4. Angioi M, Metsios GS, Koutedakis Y, Wyon MA. Fitness in six to eight hours a day of exercise at varying intensities. contemporary dance: a systematic review. Int J Sports Med. Training sessions need to be scheduled at the end of the day 2009 Jul;30(7):475-84. to prevent fatigue from interfering with the high skill ele- Pilates Technique for Improving Dancers’ Performance

Tania Amorim, M.Sc., and Matthew Wyon, Ph.D., Research Centre for Sport, Exercise and Performance, University of Wolverhampton, Walsall, UK; National Institute for Dance Medicine and Science, UK

hen the principal dancer, Odile, performs 32 and showed no changes in muscle strength or flexibility. The fouettés in Swan Lake, it is easy to admire the Pilates sessions, by continuously engaging the abdominal, accuracy, reliability and harmony of the whole hip flexors and gluteus muscles, caused muscular adapta- Wmovement. However, dancers are only able to perform this tion, which contributed to a stronger core, leading to an technical skill with the required artistic and aesthetic qual- increased ability to hold the position for a longer period of ity if they are sufficiently strong and flexible. This means time (nine seconds longer, on average). According to Gross- that great performances pre-suppose a fully developed man and colleagues,3 the ability to sustain positions is crucial body where technique, aesthetics, and physical condition- to making movements more controlled, elevations higher, ing work together for performance.1 Therefore, to achieve and pirouettes more defined. excellence dancers must learn how to be artists and athletes. The Pilates groupsaw increases in developpé height be- The development of physical conditioning, however, can- tween 4-10°. Although Deighan4 suggests that flexibility is not compromise the dominant artistic aspects. It is exactly a key element of successful dance performance, we believe this issue that challenges dance teachers, choreographers and that the observed gains in the range of movement were due researchers and raises questions concerning what kind of con- to muscular strength increases rather than flexibility. In fact, ditioning workout can be included in the training process. according to Welsh,5 dancers often show good levels of passive What is the best way to improve muscular strength? How flexibility, but do not exhibit sufficient muscular strength can enhanced balance and flexibility be optimally developed? to perform an active movement throughout the maximum In this article, the focus is on whether Pilates can be used as range of motion. Thus, the improvements in flexibility may a tool to improve dancers’ performance. be due to a further strengthening of the abdominal muscles Fifteen dance students were tested initially for muscular caused by Pilates sessions. strength. The research team evaluated how long dancers could It is possible to conclude that Pilates training may be a sustain a leg raised while performing a developpé at barre and useful tool for dance teachers to improve muscular strength active flexibility (developpé height) (front, side and back, for and flexibility of their students. Teachers should be aware of both legs). Developpé height was measured using a camera the importance of conditioning outside the dance classes, system.2 not only to improve performance but also to protect dancers After the first test, the dance students were assigned into from injuries, and we recommend Pilates because it develops experimental groups (EG) and control groups (CG). The EG capacities crucial for performance without neglecting the performed mat-based Pilates exercises for 11 weeks (2 sessions artistic component. In fact, Pilates has principles very close to a week). The training protocol began with dancers slowly dance technique and uses movements very similar to certain performing three sets of eight repetitions of each exercise, dance technical skills. By emphasizing breathing, alignment, increasing one repetition each week until 12 repetitions were position and abdominal work, Pilates can support the dance reached. After participants could achieve 12 repetitions, a class in the development of optimum dance technique. In more advanced form of the exercise was introduced. After 11 this instance, we suggest that Pilates workout approaches weeks, both groups were again tested for muscular strength the needs of dance technique, making it possible to develop and active flexibility (examples of the exercises used are dancers’ physical capacities in a specific way. presented below). All dancers who participated in the Pilates sessions in- Acknowledgment creased their levels of muscular strength and flexibility. The This article was adapted from Amorim T, Sousa F, Santos dancers in the control group took their usual dance classes J. Influence of Pilates training on muscle strength and

Copyright © 2014 International Association for Dance Medicine & Science • www.iadms.org 9 The IADMS Bulletin for Dancers and Teachers • Volume 5, Number 1, 2014 10 flexibility in dancers. Motriz: Revista de Educação Física. tion of Sport and Exercise Science Testing Guidelines. 2011;17(4):660-6. London and New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group 2007:249-62. References 3. Grossman G, Krasnow D, Welsh T. Effective use of turnout: 1. Koutedakis Y, Jamurtas A. The dancer as a perform- biomechanical, neuromuscular, and behavioral consider- ing athlete: physiological considerations. Sports Med. ations. Journal of Dance Educ. 2005;5(1):15-27. 2004;34(10):651-61. 4. Deighan M. Flexibility in dance. J Dance Med Sci. 2. Wyon MA. Testing the Aesthetic Athlete. In: Winter E, 2005;9(1):13-7. Jones A, Davison R, Bromley P, Mercer T, eds. Sport and 5. Welsh T. Conditioning for Dancers. Florida: University Press Exercise Physiology Testing Guidelines: British Associa- of Florida 2009. Encouraging Dancers to Train for Upper Body Fitness

Jatin P. Ambegaonkar, Ph.D., A.T.C., O.T., C.S.C.S., Sports Medicine Assessment, Research, & Testing (SMART) Laboratory, George Mason University, Virginia, USA

ancing is a physically demanding activity with a gested that our dance participants possessed “good” upper high risk of injury.1 Several dance genres have high body muscular endurance, scoring above the 90th percentile. upper body demands.1-3 Dancing often includes However as compared to athletes who use their upper ex- falls,D handstands, partner lifts, and extreme angular move- tremity during participation in their activity, dancers had ments in which the upper body, head, and neck are often less upper body endurance. Both lacrosse players (47)6 and out of line with the lower body1-3 (Fig. 1). Accordingly, female cheerleaders performed more push-ups (24) than 3% to 14 % of all dancers’ injuries are to the upper body.3 the dancers in our study.5 Muscular power, strength, and endurance have an influ- What does this mean for dance educators? We believe ence on the risk of injury.4 Muscle function can be thought that these findings support previous observations that of as a continuum from power to strength to endurance. In dance alone does not provide enough stimulus to induce this continuum, power refers to a greater force production physical fitness gains in dancers. Specifically, dancers often over a shorter time period, endurance refers to a lesser force view their bodies as instruments of expression.4 Addition- production over a longer period of time and strength refers ally, some dancers also view physical fitness as simply to a moderate force production over an intermediate period the ‘absence of injury’, and any fitness improvements are of time. Increasing evidence in dance medicine and science considered ‘by-products’ of dance skill acquisition.7 Some points to the fact that muscle strength influences injury risk, dancers and educators also have an unfounded fear that and that dancers with lower muscle torque require more exercise program participation will make dancers ‘muscle time off due to injury.5 bound’ and negatively affect aesthetics, despite evidence to The push-up test is an accepted measure of upper body the contrary.8 fitness. In a recent study examining associations among Participation in strength and conditioning programs physical fitness measures (including aerobic capacity, core outside of dance is not common among dancers.8 We saw and upper and lower body power and endurance, and joint this in our dancers too. Specifically, for 15 out of our 17 mobility and muscular flexibility) and aesthetic compe- dancers, dancing was their primary physical activity (i.e., tence (as measured by the Aesthetic Competence Scale), the activity that they mostly performed when physically the researchers noted that push-up performance was one active). Only two dancers engaged in activity other than of the best indicators of a dancer’s aesthetic competence.2 dancing. Furthermore, this other activity was running, So, we compared upper body endurance between 17 female which has lower body demands but does not improve upper university-level dancers and 15 active non-dancers, using body fitness. While dancers frequently participate in exer- the modified push-up test for females. cise programs like Pilates, these often do not adhere to the Participants performed the modified push-up test for overload principles emphasized in strength and condition- females as per the American College of Sports Medicine’s ing programs.9 So, participation in exercise programs such Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription (Fig. 2). The as these may not specifically improve upper body fitness, maximum number of push-ups performed consecutively a factor that some researchers suggest may help enhance without rest while maintaining form was counted as the dance performance. score. We found that both groups had similar upper body The benefits of strength and conditioning programs in endurance (dancers = 22 vs. non-dancers = 20 push-ups). combination with skill acquisition training are commonly We also compared our findings with university-level fe- acknowledged in athletics. Such training may improve up- males, and female athletes participating in sports with high per body muscular fitness and possibly reduce upper-body upper body muscular demands.6 The first comparison sug- injury risk. Combined with our findings, the evidence2,5

Figure 1 An example of upper body demand in dance. suggests that several fitness components (e.g., strength, power, balance, agility) may improve performance aesthetics and decrease the risk of injury among dancers. Overall, our work suggests that dance alone may not produce upper body muscle endurance gains. So educators may want to encourage their dancers to perform upper body fitness and cross training outside of their dance practices and performances. Acknowledgment This article is adapted from Ambegaonkar JP, Caswell SV, B Winchester JB, Caswell AM, Andre M. Upper-body muscular endurance in female university-level modern dancers: an exploratory study. J Dance Med Sci. 2012;16(2):3-7. Figure 2 Positioning for the modified push-up test for females. A, Up position and B, Down position. References 1. Sides S, Ambegaonkar J, Caswell S. High incidence of shoul- 6. Enemark-Miller E, Seegmiller J, Rana S. Physiological der injuries in collegiate modern dance students. Athletic profile of women’s lacrosse players. J Strength Cond Res. Therapy Today. 2009;14(4):43-6. 2009;23(1):39-43. 2. Angioi M, Metsios GS, Twitchett E, Koutedakis Y, Wyon 7. Wyon M, Redding E. The physiological monitoring of M. Association between selected physical fitness parameters cardiorespiratory adaptations during rehearsal and per- and aesthetic competence in contemporary dancers. J Dance formance of contemporary dance. J Strength Cond Res. Med Sci. 2009;13(4):115-23. 2005;19(3):611-4. 3. Weigert B, Erickson M. Incidence of injuries in female 8. Brown A, Wells T, Schade M, Smith D, Fehling P. The ef- university-level modern dancers and the effectiveness of a fects of plyometric training versus traditional weight training screening program in altering injury patterns. Med Probl on strength, power and aesthetic jumping ability in female Perform Artists. 2007;22(2):52-7. collegiate dancers. . J Dance Med Sci. 2007;11:38-44. 4. Angioi M, Metsios G, Koutedakis Y, Twitchett E, Wyon 9. Wyon M, Deighan M, Nevill A, Doherty M, Morrison S, Al- M. Physical fitness and severity of injuries in contemporary len N, et al. The cardiorespiratory, anthropometric and per- dance. Med Probl Perform Artists. 2009;24(1):26-9. formance characteristics of an international/national touring 5. Koutedakis Y, Khalouha M, Pacy P, Murphy M, Dunbar ballet company. J Strength Cond Res. 2007;21(2):389-93. G. Thigh peak torques and lower-body injuries in dancers. J Dance Med Sci. 1997;1(1):12-5. Abstracts from the Current Literature

Marliese Kimmerle, Ph.D.

O’Neill JR, Pate RR, Hooker SP. The contribution of Based on the literature, the authors expected that focusing on dance to daily physical activity among adolescent girls. the head movement would be the most critical component, as it Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. 2011;8:87. provides stabilization and balance to the vestibular system. The results showed no difference in learning between groups focused This study examined the contributions of dance classes to total on different parts or compared to the control group. All groups moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) of adolescent showed improvement in their movement patterns, decreased their girls. The current physical activity guidelines for youth recom- errors and maintained their performance in the retention phase. mend at least 60 minutes of MVPA daily as a health objective. It appears that the generalized verbal instructions and videos Physical education classes, organized sports and after-school provided were sufficient to assist beginners in coordinating the programs may contribute to that objective. A particular challenge components of the skill, and that establishing this relationship is maintaining female physical activity during adolescence. Since may be more critical in the initial stages of learning than focus- dance is a highly prevalent physical activity among adolescent ing on the individual components. The authors acknowledge girls, the authors wanted to examine objectively what contribu- that teaching the pirouette to absolute beginners is questionable tion dance classes might make to MVPA. One hundred and pedagogic practice. The rationale was that in a motor learning forty-nine girls (11-18 yrs) taking classes in 11 dance studios study, one wants to examine the learning of a novel skill where participated in the study. Their physical activity was measured subjects have no prior instruction or expertise. The implications via an accelerometer worn during all waking hours over an eight- of this study are that in teaching beginners or young dancers new day period. Self-report from the participants indicated days and complex skills, general instructions that promote comprehension times they participated in the dance program. On dance program of the overall movement coordination pattern are more effective days, girls averaged 28.7 minutes of MVPA versus 16.4 on non- than focusing on specific body parts. program days. Their structured dance classes contributed 29% to their overall weekly MVPA. This study demonstrates that Grove JR, Main LC, Sharp L. Stressors, recovery dance classes can make an important contribution to increasing processes and manifestations of training distress in MVPA and reducing sedentary behavior. However, the overall daily average of 25 minutes found in this study is similar to several dance. J Dance Med Sci. 2013;17(2):70-8. other studies of adolescent girls, and indicates that adolescent This paper review provides a comprehensive look at training females are falling well short of the recommended 60 minutes distress in dance, with a well- developed model that provides an of daily MVPA. overview of training stressors, symptoms of distress and recovery processes. Training distress is the result of the physical and mental Denardi RA, Corrêa UC. Effects of instructional focus challenges of dance training that may affect the dancer’s readiness on learning a classical ballet movement—the pirouette. to perform, and can include issues such as overtraining, staleness J Dance Med Sci. 2013;17(1):18-23. and burnout. These topics have been well examined in sports and in this article are applied specifically to the dance environment This study explored the initial learning by novices of a complex of professional and studio dancers. The authors describe many ballet skill based on an instructional focus on its component parts. training stressors, such as the physical workload of training, Seventy-two college students with no experience in classical bal- additional fitness work and performance and the challenges of let were taught a pirouette en dehors from fifth position with 160 adapting to new works and new dance styles, Psychosocial stress- learning trials and 20 retention trials a week later. Of interest in ors include environmental conditions, daily hassles, role stressors this study is how a complex skill is learned and whether focusing and major life events, perfectionism, a competitive environment, the instruction on a specific body part (head, arms, trunk, knees performance expectations, frequent traveling and weak support or feet) is effective versus generalized instruction. All participants networks. Important components of the model are passive and were given verbal instructions and shown a video of the general active recovery processes to counteract the negative impact of characteristics of the skill. The experimental groups were then these stressors. Some of these include physical and mental rest, told to concentrate their performance on a specific body part. Copyright © 2014 International Association for Dance Medicine & Science • www.iadms.org 13 The IADMS Bulletin for Dancers and Teachers • Volume 5, Number 1, 2014 14 nutrition, massage, imagery and a variety of self-monitoring and studies, but very few have examined dance activities. These few self reflection procedures. An important contribution of this dance studies have not distinguished between the physical fitness article is the identification of the symptoms of training distress aspects of dance training and the motor skill learning compo- when the recovery processes do not balance out the stressors. nents. In this study the dance activity was contemporary dance, These symptoms can include perceived stress, mood disturbances focusing on improvisation, which was compared to two control and fatigue, somatic symptoms, sleep difficulties, and motiva- activities—a fall prevention training or Tai Chi Chuan. Three tional changes. The authors suggest that regular monitoring of components of attentional control (setting attention, suppressing these symptoms is important and they review a number of as- attention and switching attention) were examined pre and post sessment instruments that can be used to detect distress. Regular training via paper and pencil tests. Sixteen females (65-83 yrs) assessment could provide valuable information for adjustment made up the experimental group and participated in dance classes of workloads and the training environments among vocational one hour a week for six months. Although there was no difference and professional dancers in order to optimize performance, and in setting and suppressing attention in any of the three groups, safeguard the dancer’s physical and mental health. switching attention and showing cognitive flexibility improved in the contemporary dance group. The authors’ explanation Coubard OA, Duretz S, Lefebvre V, Lapalus P, Ferrufino of the results suggest that the nature of improvisational dance L. Practice of contemporary dance improves cognitive facilitates movement exploration and demands high attentional flexibility in aging. Front Aging Neurosci. 2011;3:13. control, in contrast to memorization of sequences and repetition Many researchers have studied the decline in cognitive functions of stereotypical motor activities in the control activities. While a that accompanies aging, including perception, memory, goal variety of dance activities have shown the benefits on fitness and planning, and purposive action. In this paper, the specific focus general cognitive functioning in an aging population, this study in on attentional control, that is, the ability to maintain goal- demonstrates that creative, problem-solving dance programs, directedness over time in the face of distractions and being able through constant movement adaptations, may have specific to coordinate concurrent activities. Cardiovascular and strength benefits on cognitive flexibility with a potential helpful impact training programs have been shown to benefit cognitive function- on daily life functioning. ing generally, and attentional control specifically, in a number of