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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Z « b Rood Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 7S-3073 GLOVER, Erananuel Ablade, 1934- RATIONALE FOR RADICAL INNOVATION IN TOE GHANAIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTBi IN GENERAL AND ART EDUCATION IN PARTICULAR.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1974 Fine Arts

Xerox University MicrofilmsAnn , Arbor, Michigan 46106

© Copyright by

Emmanuel Ablade Glover

1974

THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED. RATIONALE FOR RADICAL INNOVATION IN THE

GHANAIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN GENERAL

AND ART EDUCATION IN PARTICULAR

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By Emmanuel Ablade Glover, N.D.D., A.T.D., M.Ed.

*****

The Ohio S ta te U niversity

19 74

Reading Committee: Approved By

Dr. Ojo Arewa Dr. R. Norris Dr. Paul R. Klohr Dr. Arthur Efland Adviser Division of Art Education ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I express my thanks to my Academic Adviser, Professor Arthur

Efland, first and foremost, for his understanding of my peculiar situation and problems. His tactful criticism and sympathetic encouragement were my consolation through those difficult times when

I was being asked to return home, even though I was in the middle of the course. For these, and all his other endearing qualities 1 find myself most indebted; I wish to put on record that appreciation here.

I also thank Professor Kenneth Marantz, for giving me the opportunity at all to enter the programme; and my reading committee,

Dr. Ojo Arewa, Dr. Paul R. Klohr, and Dr. R. Norris, for their cooperation and understanding. I also thank Miss Ruth Erlandson of The Ohio State University Library for her enthusiasm to guide me through the many bibliographical listings.

Above a ll, I owe everything to my mother, Omanyeyoo, who built the foundations for this, and the tasks ahead; to her this dissertation is most affectionately dedicated.

i i VITA

August 1, 1934 Bom, Lebedi-Accra, Ghana

1962 N.D.D., Central School of Art and Design, London, England

1963-1964 Art Instructor, Winneba Training College, Winneba, Ghana

1965 A.T.D., University of Newcastle-On-Tyne, England

1971 M.Ed., Kent State University, Kent, Ohio

1965 to Present Lecturer, University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

PUBLICATIONS

Adinhra Symbolism, Chart—1968, Stool Symbolism, Chart—1969, Linguist Staff Symbolism, Chart—1969. Published by the Glo Art G allery , Accra, Ghana.

FIELD OF STUDY

Major Field: Art Education

H i \

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... 11

VITA ...... i l l

LIST OF TABLES AND DIAGRAMS...... vi

INTRODUCTION...... 1

C hapter

I . BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY...... 5

Identification of the Problem Meaning and Depth of this Cultural Decline Inculcating the Culture Through Art

I I . HISTORICAL BACKGROUND...... 22

An H is to ric a l Review o f Ghana Education—Traditional Development of Modern Education Education Administration International Schools The College of Art—University of Science and Technology

I I I . IDENTIFYING CHRISTIANITY WITH THE PROBLEM...... 69

The C h ristia n Role The Elite (Christian) Character Review of Current Newspaper Concerns

IV. DEDUCTIVE INFERENCES ...... 89

V. REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 99

iv Page

APPENDIX

A. Teaching Service Decree—N.R.C.D. 247 ...... 114

B. New Proposals for Education...... 124

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 129

v LIST OF TABLES

Page

Student Distribution By Courses—College of Art ...... 65

Literacy By Language (In Uhich Literate) Urban/Rural Adult Only ...... 66

Literacy By Language (In Which Literate) Sex and Major T rib e ...... 67

C h r i s t i a n s ...... 68

LIST OF DIAGRAMS

Ethnic Distribution ...... 25

Ghana Regional A dm inistrative Units ...... 59

v i INTRODUCTION

Ghana* as a nation has all the problems of development. When this former British colony gained her Independence In 1957 the world acclaimed her as one of the most promising nations in Black Africa.

But the road had not been rosy, if anything it has been particularly rough all the way.

The political party that led the nation into independence adopted an adulterated version of the Biblical philosophy as the war cry: "Seek ye first the political kingdom, and all things shall be added unto you." Political independence has been a reality for seven­ teen years but genuine independence which was hoped for, involving both economic and cultural factors has been extremely illusive. The search for self-realization as a people has been intensified in recent times and many level headed Ghanaians are beginning to ask if independence in the full sense of the term is a realizable aim. To consider whether independence was worth the price or not is slipping back into slave mentality. The question is irrelevant, dependent or independent; because there is no turning back. There is evidence to support the fact that since the arrival of colonlalization we have not found our

*Ghana was formerly Gold Coast, a West A frican B ritish colony since 1847. After independence on March 6, 1957, she adopted the name Ghana, which was an ancient West African kingdom.

1 feet as a people.^ Our present woes therefore can be Identified with colonialism or the period that embraces it. This study will endeavour to examine this period making comparison with the era before it so as to deduce its impact on traditional life patterns to help in the search for the basis of Ghana's trouble.

The tendency in recent times Is to heap the blame of our woes on the "colonialists," "im perialists," and "neo-colonialists" without first stopping to examine rationally the causes of our predicament.

What needs to be done perhaps is to examine sanely and rationally the position today so as to be able to pin-point with some accuracy the causes of the downward trend in national affairs. Such a diagnosis may contribute to the finding of the necessary remedies. This study will attempt to formulate some rationale for such considerations.

The task is not in fact as wide and unwieldly as it may sound.

Indeed recent high level public pronouncements trace the entire affair to the doors of our educational system. This cannot be said to be un­ reasonable. Dr. E. Evans-Anfom, Chairman of the National Council for

Higher Education and Research, in an article entitled "Change Colonial

Education," appealed to the country's educational authorities to change the "white-collar" pattern of education inherited from the British into a viable vocational, technical, and professional training system.3

He pointed out that the main draw-back of the colonial curriculum was

^People: It needs to be emphasized though that Ghana was not one nation before the arrival of the European, nonetheless, it is a fact that in their splinter ethnic groupings there was the sense of belonging and cultural enrichment.

^Dr. Evans-Anfom, "Change Colonial Education," Daily Graphic, February 11, 1974, p. 1. 3

chat it focused on a small narrow sector, the purely "verbal" sector

of reading, writing, and arithmetic. He regretted that the colonial

curriculum was not broadly based and ignored those subjects designed

to sharpen the manual skills. The result of the ignorance of these

subjects, he noted, was that those who could not make the academic

grades became drop-outs and not possessing any technical or vocational

training which could offer them any lucrative employment. Anfom looked

at the problem from the economic point of view.

The General Secretary of the Conference of African Churches,

Canon Burger Carr, was reported recently as saying that "too many of our young people are being dumped by the roadside and subjected to a

future with no hope because of the educational patterns that exist in all our countries." He continued: "We have a direct responsibility because the churches for the past ISO or 200 years have been the fore­ runners in Instituting and consolidating these patterns of education

that produce so tremendous waste of human talents and r e s o u r c e s .

It is interesting to note that while Dr. Anfom blames

"colonialism" as a dominant factor in the educational set-up and therefore the basic cause of Ghana's troubles, the Reverend Carr blames the "church" as the agent working against national development within the school system. Ironically we tend to blame today those agents that were the pioneers in Ghanaian contemporary education. The accusations seem to indicate a lack of gratitude—"despising the bridge that crossed us over."

^"Churches Blamed for Bad Education," The Ghanaian Times. February 13, 197A, p. 2. 4

To accuse an old friend and a benefactor, one must have good

and genuine reasons, or at least It must be done with justification.

This effort will attempt to bring out these reasons or justirications

as a basis for the radical reconstruction of the educational system in

general and art education in particular.

Why "Art Education in Particular?" Again, it must be necessary

to turn to the two agents mentioned as some of the factors of our edu­

cational problems—"Colonialism" and the "Church." There is evidence

that both these institutions were, and perhaps still are, antagonistic

to African c u ltu re . The church was in te n t upon building a kingdom of

God, which certainly was not African in spirit, but European in nature.

But it must be understood it is a human falling to allow nationalism

to come through the Christian message. It is also a fact—that African art was one aspect of African life through which both religion and cul­

ture flow. It becomes apparent therefore, that while this "pagan" aspect of the African life is not existent in the school system there can be no Afrlcanness in that system. Maybe the two gentlemen were

right after all, although they were looking at the problem mainly from

the economic point of view.

This dissertation will attempt to hold that Ghana's woes may not all be economic, but rather cultural—embracing value norms and therefore commitments to beliefs. To bring about that culturally based development which again w ill help generate economic development it will be necessary to bring a culture agent, such as African art, into the school system. This will be the focal point of this effort. CHAPTER I

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Identification of the Problem

Independent African nations today seem to have many of the same

problems. One of the most burning of these problems, which may be the

underlying factor behind many of Africa's woes, is the question of the

educated African relating to his background; and therefore being able

to solve Africa's problems from an African perspective. Ghana is no

exception in this regard. An African University don quoted by

Welboum^- says in e ffe c t:

"I am an African. The political hopes, the political faith, of African nationalism are mine. I feel with a large part of me that Christianity is the spirit­ ual edge of colonialism. Yet I have been brought up to be a Christian. In a sense, all my adolescent experience and my adult Interests have made me into a black European. The scholarly values by which I live are international. They are found far more in the west which I reject with the political part of me, than in the Africa which I love as my motherland. I think there is such a thing as the African personality; but I still have to find it. I don't know who I am."

Most educated Ghanaians, if not all, find themselves in this dilemma, although not all would be as honest and as frank as the

Ugandan gentleman quoted above. There is evidence for.the assertion th a t the educated Ghanaian e x h ib its some amount of d isin te re ste d n e ss,

*F. B. Welbourn, Religion and Politics in Uganda--1952-1962 (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1965), p. 48.

5 6 if not outright rejection, of his background and therefore is divorced somewhat from the Indigenous Ghanaian mainstream of behaviour, and puts forth an image that is neither Ghanaian nor European. The question therefore arises is to how a man can live a creative and meaningful life without a background to relate to.

Our national life-style is not much different from that of the individual members of our society. But this must be understood since the national life is run by the elite who have lost their heritage.

For example, the Ghanaian natural response to music is either to tap or sway to the rhythm of the music. You would expect that a national anthem for such a people would be one that can excite their cultural responses and not one that inhibits such responses. The Ghanaian national anthem is a case in point; when it is played the very music requires that one stands at attention, and the law enforces this re­ quirement for both military and civilian alike. But the national anthem was not composed by the "C olonialists'* but by a professional

Ghanaian musician. Why he ignored the Ghanaian's innate responses and why the piece was chosen among many others is a monumental evidence of the elite's inability to interpret his nature.

In this regard there is a need to help Ghanaians to be fully aware of their African character and to portray to the youth, an image of Ghanaian ancestry so as to raise cultural enthusiasm capable of leading to identification with the culture.

Recent discussions in the dally newspapers seem to throw the problem into the laps of the Arts Council. One such contribution suggests that "The main task of the Arts Council should be to root 2 the Ghanaian in the socio-cultural realities of our country." She went on to elaborate that In order for the Ghanaian to acquire a true

Ghanaian personality and assume their share of the responsibility of maintaining a culture, the programmes of the Arcs Council should be elaborate to contain our national realities, namely the language, traditions, and the values that constitute the specific culture of

Ghana. She fu rth e r lamented th at "Psychologically, people In Ghana need cultural satisfaction. We are continuously yielding to Western culture because there is not much force behind our national cultural d riv e ."

Much as I share the concern expressed here, that is "the responsibilities for maintaining a culture," I do not subscribe to the idea that the task is a problem for the Arts Council or that that organization can adequately handle it. I am of the opinion that there is more to "maintaining a culture" than just organizing some exhibi­ tions or drumming and dancing bouts. The solution may be re-education and re-orientation which are wider and more complex than anything the

Arts Council can handle. In any case there does not seem to be any sense in allowing one organ of society creating a problem while another organ goes about solving it. What needs to be done is to trace the anomaly to its root cause and solve it there.

Before doing any diagnosis, it may be necessary to explore further this alienation of the Ghanaian elite from the cultural heritage. Indeed I am of the opinion that the problem is more serious than just alienation and lack of appreciation of one's own heritage.

^Esther Annan, "Arts Council and C ulture," The Ghanaian Times, January 31, 1974, p. 4. 8

Alienation may mean lack of understanding of the dynamics of the

culture and therefore a resulting Inability to see problems in their

true perspective. I shall seek to submit that at least some, if not most, of our national problems seem to hinge on this one main problem: be it economic, social or political.

It is difficult to imagine how a man can solve his problems if he is incapable of relating with his environment. In the first place he would not be in a position to appreciate the problem, much more solving it. In a sense such an individual simply cannot live creatively and life w ill therefore have no meaning. Welbourn high­ lighted this "creative" side of the issue when he emphasized that:

"If a man can say, 'I am the awareness of the classless society which is being boro* or 'I am African*...if he can say any of these with the same conviction as the early Christians martyred for their faith, then this knowledge of his identity provides more than sufficient security to live creatively—and if need be to die for its s a k e . " 3

To live creatively therefore requires the knowledge of self identity. This and more than anything else is what the Ghanaian elite needs—SELF IDENTITY—that is identifying with and appreciating one's cultural beginning.

It seems to me that this is the main task of education. Tradi­ tionally, education is given by parents, today we have created institu­ tions which specialize in making (or claim to be making) boys and girls grow up to live creative and meaningful lives. In this regard, I support the Report of the Fourth Annual Conference Report on Inter­ national Understanding. That report stated categorically clear that

3f. B. Welbourn, Religion and Politics in Uganda—1952-1962 (Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1965), p. 46. 9

"Education is a part of the total life of a country; it is affected by

the traditions and the history of the people...and to study education

divorced from these realities Is to study education in a v a c u u m . "4 i f we look at education as part of the total cultural fabric and not as a

separate factor, I think that the problems of the educational system

in Ghana and the type of education to be provided will be much better

understood.

"Education is Intimately bound to the culture of the community it serves, and for this reason what educa­ tio n means d iffe rs from one community to another. What all education has in coomon after allowance is made for these cultural differences is teaching and learning."^

It is evident therefore that education is more vital than just sharpening the mind; education has an o b lig a tio n to the community i t serves. Out of the school gates must pour out into the community the best specimen of the culture, that is the educational task, and that can only be realized when the community is evident within the school walls, when the culture is part and parcel of the school curriculum.

Every culture provides what Dr. Fields has aptly called "dogma of human personality."6 The talk of African (Ghanaian) personality will be a mere slogan if the accepted contemporary educational process does not incorporate the necessary recipe for producing that "dogma" of our personality.

^Educational Needs of Sub-Sahara Africa and Latin America: Fourth Annual Conference Report on International Understanding (Lincoln, Nebraska, 1961), p. 18. ^Theodore W. Schultz, The Economic Value of Education (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963), p. 3.

^Dr. Margaret Fields, Religion and Medicine of the Ga People (London: Faber and Faber, 1960), p. 93. 10

From the standpoint of the society as a whole, and perhaps of groups within that society, the primary function of education is there­ fore the maintenance of culture.

"Man's capacity to learn, to organize learning in symbolic forms to communicate this learning as knowl­ edge to other members of the species, and to act on the basis of learning or knowledge is the source of all cultural phenomena. Any culture therefore, and the civilization based upon that culture must depend upon the ability of the civilization to articulate and trans­ mit its learning as semi-autonomous cognitive system. These represent the accumulated knowledge in every field of inquiry and comprise the subject matter in a ll educa­ tio n .

This is the extent of the school's responsibility in transmitting the cultural heritage.

Culture may embrace more than we usually care to examine. It frequently embraces the values, beliefs and norms which have been handed down from generation to generation albeit with constant modifi­ cations throughout the history of the group. Education therefore should transmit this common cultural fund to the next generation thereby helping to bring "hordes of young b arb arian s to ad u lt ways"® th a t are relevant to the past.

The accumulation and transmission of the culture has been a distinguishing characteristic of human nature. The earliest "educa­ tional systems" may be no more than a mother Instructing a daughter or a father and his son working together. If that role of passing on the culture has now been passed on to the specialist (a new class of

^David A. Goslin, The School in Contemporary Society (Chicago: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1965), p. 2.

8Ib id . . p. 2. 11

"cultural-agents"), which we call education then that institution should be in a position to come up to expectation, or the culture falls. It will be erroneous therefore to blame an institution like the Arts Council; that will be acting like the proverbial ostrich.

We know that from times immemorial, education has always been the agency of transmitting the culture, be it a mother instructing a daughter or a professor professing before would-be Intellectuals.

In panic we are likely to blame others for our problems; like the "colonialists," the "neo-colonialists" or whatever name we may give them. A most recent pronouncement shifts the blame on the "American

Field Programme"® which seeks to exchange young American secondary students with Ghanaian ones for the experience of widening the stu­ dents' horizon. The pronouncement which appeared in the "Dally

Graphic" sought to say that these young Ghanaians who go to stay with

American families for a year return, as he calls them "Young American

Pioneers." The Inference here is that these young people return with foreign ideas for propagation in Ghana.

It certainly sounds ridiculous to infer that a man brought up in the right direction, within a year in America, will shed all that and return to Ghana a full-fledged American ready to propagate the

"American gospel." One is tempted to ask why other nationals, particu­ larly from Eastern countries who come to stay for the same period or more do not behave like the Ghanaian. Or even take the Chinese-

Amerlcans, or the American-Jews, or any of those nationals who have lived for generations in American communities with their culture barely

®Togbi Segbor, "They are S ecurity R isk," Daily Graphic, December 5, 1973, .p. 7. 12 punctured. No, such sporadic and panicky efforts will not do. What

Is needed Is sober reflection and patient research into all declining areas of our culture, particularly upon our systems of cultural trans­ mission. When the ideals of our culture are made real in our educa­ tional system, they will be a reality once more in our national life.

The Meaning and Depth of this Cultural Decline

Why the alarm? What does Ghana lose as a people when the cul­ ture is lost? Why all the fuss in the Daily Papers about cultural revival? In other words what is the significance of a cultural de­ clin e? These, and many more questions may be asked and attem pts may be made at answering them as it is now happening in national daily journals. Dut that becomes only an academic exercise, and only those who find pleasure in intellectual semantics will find any reward in that kind of exercise; after all only a little more than twenty-five per cent of our people read and write*® and therefore academic exer­ cises do not interest the large majority of the population. What deserves to be investigated is the significance of a cultural decline as related to Ghana and her development.

Historical annal are full of the consequences of a cultural decline which should go a long way to giving Ghana a glimpse of what she should expect should this apathy to culture now prevailing (par­ ticularly among the elite) persist.

I may have no empirical justification for pronouncing this but it does seem obvious that cultural decline has almost always been

^Central Bureau of Statistics, 1967-68 Statistical Year Book, pp. 66-67. 13 accompanied or associated with a moral decline, which has almost always ended in national disintegration, and even sometimes the fall of empires. Deep down In history Is the example of Sodom and

Gomorrha,H the Biblical story of the twin towns that witnessed the highest moral decline. The word "Sodomy" we are told is associated with this epoch. Another example nearer our time Is "The Fall of the

Roman Empire." Like Sodom and Gomorrha, history paints a picture of moral degradation just before the fall of that empire. But these are all European examples; and may~bfe far fetched. There is an African example however.

The Story of Dahomey,^ an African kingdom that flourished "on the east side of, and nearly adjacent to, the river Volta, and extend­ ing northwards to the ridge of mountains that separate this kingdom from those of Guber and Gago."^3 This was towards the end of the fif­ teenth century. This is the kingdom associated with Amazons, the women warriors of the King of Dahomey.

We are told In short that towards the end of the fifteenth century this Amazon aspect of the kingdom degenerated into something else—wives for the King, and since most of the women are soldiers

(Amazons) men could get no wives. This state of affair of course

^B ible, Genesis 18-19.

*^W. J. Argyle, The Fon of Dahomey (Oxford: Claredon Press, 1966); M. J. Herskovits, Dahomey—An Ancient West African Kingdom, Vols. I-II (New York: J. J. Augustin, 1938); John Duncan, Travels in West Africa. 1845-1846. Vols. I-II (London: Richard Benty, 1847).

^Archibald Dalzel, The History of Dahomey: An Inland Kingdom of Africa (London: Frank Cass, 1967). 14

further deteriorated Into a moral degradation analogous to the Sodom

and Gomorrha episode. Expeditions to King Celele described cultural

decline at the time and a final dismantling of the kingdom by neigh­

bouring kingdoms.

There is also the examples of culturally uprooted peoples

scattered in different countries all over the world. Empirical

research has been attempted which support the thesis that people are

likely to reject their own heritage in such situations. Such a re­

search concerning Black Americans did suggest that Negro America up to

1957 had a tendency to reject its own heritage.^ This tendency was

manifested in drawings, used as tools for testing. There is also evi­

dence reviewed in the study which suggested that the American Black up

to 1957 preferred light skin, straight hair, and Caucasian features,

further proof for rejection of one's own (culture) heritage. When the

study was repeated ten years l a t e r (1967) the re s u lts showed th a t

eighteen per cent of the drawings clearly represented Negroes, infer­

ring that within that period of ten years between the first and the

second tests, there was a gain of eighteen per cent in Black American awareness and appreciation of their heritage. A study of American

history of the period shows that there was Black awakening in America

during that time. The "Afro" craze in Ghana today, not only in dress

styles but in actual behaviour is typical of the above; the wigs, the mini-skirts, and the light skin craze are real signs of the times.

A study of Ghanaian times today reveals disturbing symptoms

that are reminiscent of degenerated, and for that matter, a declining

^Wayne Dennis, "R acial Change in Negro Drawings," Journal of Psychology, 69 (1968), 129-130. 15

c u ltu re . A rtic le s ix ty -fiv e of th e Convention P eo p le's Party Programme

talks of bribery, corruption and nepotism as "basically alien to the

general Ghanaian nature, and can be attributed in part to the hangover of colonialist practices and to the serious social effects of the

imposition of a money economy upon our traditional social customs."***

These are not all, they were only those that made running of a good government impracticable, hence the governments' concern. Tanya Baker was more blunt about the trend in society. She wrote:

"Another new significant group which has emerged in most of the large towns is the prostitutes. The situ­ ation varies a lot, but in general these women provide one of the best examples of an almost complete rupture of family ties."16

This cultural lapse, call it rupture of family ties, social dislocation or what you might, seem to be behind most of Ghana's ills.

It is no surprise therefore that between June and October, 1973, the national dailies came out with opinions and suggestions as to what might be done to curb the trend. Somehow some few are awakening to the fact that Ghana is losing something vital as a nation, but what th a t is nobody seems to understand.

The inference here is that there seems to be a direct connec­ tion between the decline of our culture as a people and the rise or ascendancy of both moral and spiritual degradation as a nation. If anything a t a l l , the two seem to be happening a t the same tim e; a phenomenon which should give rise to suspicions and a food fo r thought to social scientists and perhaps moral advocates.

^C onvention P eo p le's Party Programme, Appendix B, pp. 402-3.

16Tanya Baker and Mary Bird, "Urbanization and the Position of Women," Sociological Review, VII, No. 1 (1959), p. 107. 16

It Is a known fact that the morale of the nation is at its lowest ebb, that social vices have risen higher than it has ever been

In our history. It Is also an open secret that there seems to be a breakdown In spiritual awareness and family unity, everybody is out to

dupe everybody. Like desperate animals, we are out to trap and eat one another, a tendency that is clearly alien to our way of life as a

people.

I am neither a moralist nor an alarmist. I am only inclined to rationalize the Ghanaian situation, that when so many things happen at the same time, there must be suspicions and concern. The sum of the matter is that at the present time Ghana seems to have no great directive aim. There may be economic growth, but that certainly grows from specific pressures exerted here and there not because of any

inspiring social policy. Education may expand, but that is by piece­ meal additions, not by the movement of a vital force within. The schools, like the nation, are in need of a central purpose which will create a new enthusiasm and devotion and which will unify and guide national development.

It is becoming apparent, that national development will forever remain illusive until and unless cultural Ideals and norms are part and parcel of the educational process. Shropshire made a similar point when he noted:

"that the method of the destruction of the religion and culture of primitive races...is both scandalous and futile. For such a method destroys all the value that give meaning and zest to their lives, rendering them impotent and ill- equipped to face the future, cutting them loose from all 17

their moorings on a vast and uncharted sea where they dri£t first to despair and finally to destruction."1'

But it is a till more scandalous and perhaps suicidal when a people manage their own affairs without the culture and religion that is traditional and therefore has meaning and relevance to the course of events. That is precisely the course Ghana is presently following.

It is fatally easy, with honest Intentions but clumsy fingers, to tear down the elaborate network of cultural beliefs and indigenous habits. But we roust also realize that, like a vitamin deficiency in the human system, the consequences will soon be manifest in other areas of national life. This, 1 submit, is what Ghana is presently witnessing. There is something vitally lacking in our national life.

There is the urgent need therefore to retrace our steps and bring back this life giving force into the national bloodstream through the educa­ tional process. There is presently a cultural gap between the home and the school. It is a fair observation that the average home docs noth­ ing to supplement and much to neutralize the educational effort, and the vice versa. In a way therefore the two vital educational institu­ tions in our society, the home and the school, are working against one another. No doubt we are witnessing cultural apathy, decline in national affairs, and a general low ebb of morale.

Inculcating the Culture Through Art

African art is an Indissoluble Ingredient of African culture.

This is evident in the many forms of art objects that surround not

^Denys W, T. Shropshire, The Church and Primitive Peoples (London: Macmillan, 1938), p. 425. 18 only solemn ceremonies and rituals but also day to day activities of life. For Africans to appreciate and relate to their culture, African art must be an indispensable element of the school curriculum. Ghana­ ian art in the school therefore may mean Ghanaian cultural presence within the educational walls.

In this regard art education has a unique role to play within the Ghanaian educational system—that of helping to bring about cul­ tural awareness, that is creating the cultural rock upon which the foundations of education can be built. Without Buch foundations, we chum out individuals that are neither Ghanaians nor Europeans; these are usually described as "carbon copies of Europeans."

What I am advocating here is that the process of relating cul­ ture to the educational process can best be done through the Art

Education programme within the school. It is difficult to identify any other area of the school curriculum inculcating Ghanaian culture better than Art Education, particularly if we accept the premise that culture is indissolubly linked with the traditional art of the people.

Where is the rationale for such assumptions. Ghana is today in what might best be described as a "cultural crisis." This crisis seems to manifest itself in numerous aspects of our social life. One such area is economic. The temptation therefore is to try to solve the problem, or face the crisis with an economic perspective.

Ghana is failing economically and politically; but this is happening not because we have not men who are well versed in these areas of human endeavour but rather because these men are solving these problems without the understanding and insight of the underlying 19

current. Even today writers on the problem even still think that we

can use art education to solve the economic problem. « • Dr. Asihene expressed this idea when he wrote in his doctoral

dissertation that:

"In an economy where the p rin c ip le mode of production is handicraft, it is Important to consider the economic effects brought about by changes in aesthetic values and to provide for these within an overall plan for art education."18

Such a stand reveals a grave misinterpretation of what art can do for a people that have just emerged out of colonialism. It comes down to changing the former C.P.P. slogan to "Seek Ye First the Economic King­ dom and all things shall be added unto you" (Instead of their original

"seek ye first the political kingdom"). These advocates fail to re­ alize that whatever kingdom we seek without cultural foundations we are likely to fail.

Art Education should therefore help bring about cultural aware­ ness (not economic salvation in itself) which will be the mirror upon which the Ghanaian may see a good reflection of his environment. It is only when the elite begin to relate to the culture, and therefore become part of it, and not to see their role as agents of "Aban"^ that they will be nationally imbued with loyalist inclinations towards the motherland. Then and only then will the economic problems and many of our other woes begin to be solved.

1®E. v. Asihene, "Art Education Development and Curriculum Planning fo r N ational Development in Ghana" (Ph.D. d is s e rta tio n , The Ohio State University, 1973), p. 3.

19"Aban" is the term given to anything belonging to the Government as if that government is some alien full that must be cheated. 20

The lack of Interest in African art and culture therefore is

In Itself not the problem. These are mere manifestations of greater and a far more serious societal problem: that of not being grounded

In a culture, and therefore having no moral commitments. Art Education has a stake in this, Indeed it is one programme in the curriculum that

I reckon can deal adequately with the position. What Is needed Is not some foreign moral code that has no relevance to the culture, but a traditional norm.

What 1 am advocating is that Art Education has more than the traditional role to play in the Ghanaian educational system. The pro­ gram e should have a moral obligation, the mandate to inculcate tradi­ tional norms and cultural awareness, out of which w ill grow true nationalism and commitment to the national cause. Surely there can be no loftier role than such a challenge. African art objects are

"the products of African consciousness and cosmogony."20 Art Education should take on the challenge of rediscovering that consciousness which may generate creative life patterns among the products of the school,

I have made two assertions so far. One, that the educated

Ghanaian, consciously or unconsciously is alienated from his cultural heritage. And two, that that problem may originate in the classroom, which in effect implies that the school is doing a disservice to the very society that is financing it. I have gone'even further. I have hinted that the problem is sponsored by the Christian in the educa­ tional system. These are grave allegations. To support them it will

20gasil Davidson, Old Africa Rediscovered (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1970), p. 130. 21 be necessary to trace historically the Chanalan Educational System In general and In particular the role of the Christian church (which I have Identified as an element whose presence is not condusive to Ghana­ ian cultural upllftment—and for that matter political and social ful­ fillment In the system.

The following chapters will therefore attempt to illustrate through historical perspectives that by the nature of the school system, which is a consequence of its historical foundations, Ghanaian cultural aspirations cannot adequately be fulfilled; and whatever cultural-transmlssion that takes place today would be most negligible. CHAPTER I I

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Introduction

To appreciate the underlying roots of the problem it is neces­ sary to examine the foundation upon which the educational system was structured.

Some understanding of one, how the nation itself evolved and two, how the educational system emerged will enable one to appreciate the factors mitigating against the system.

This chapter will therefore endeavor to shed some light upon the background to the problem* It must be understood at the butset that this is not a historical documentation of Ghana's past; but rather a review of the essential elements from that past that are relevant to the problem 1 have stated in the previous chapter.

The effort therefore is one of highlighting the landmarks in our history that would bring about this Insight.

An H isto ric a l Review of Ghana

Today's Ghana, and the ancient Ghana empire are not geograph­ ic a lly Id e n tic a l; in fact th e name Ghana was adopted in 1957 a fte r the

British colony, the Gold Coast, gained independence from colonial rule.

22 23

It is also necessary to note that the name "Ghana is the title of the King of this people and the name of their country is Aoukar. "*•

This civilization, "Ghana" or (Awkar^) "Aoukar" was the first among emergent states of the Western Sudan that rose to prominence. The territory lay to the north and northwest of the Upper Nigher, advan­ tageously on the gold routes to the north.

There are conflicting schools of thought as to the exact dates of the rise and fall of this great empire, but the view held by scholars is that the empire had its beginnings about the fifth or sixth century and that by the thirteenth century the state and cities of Ghana were in a state of decay.

Davidson states that by 1213, Allakoi Keita had already founded the Mandlngo state that would be known in history as the Mali or Mclle empire, and twenty-five years later his successor, Sundlata, conquered the Sosso rulers who had established themselves in Ghana not long before. "Sundlata took the capital of Ghana from the Sosso in 1240, destroyed it, and established his own capital (or the first of his capitals) in the south, perhaps at Niami or Jerlba on the Upper Niger."

What is historically known therefore is that by 1240 Ghana or what had remained of that empire has finally become a matter of history

^Basil Davidson, Old Africa Rediscovered (London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1970), p. 85. 2 Roland Oliver and Caroline Oliver, Africa in the Days of Exploration (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Frentice-Hall, Inc., 1965), p. 8 gives "Aoukar" as "Awkar" and the King as Tankamanin.

3Basil Davidson, Op. C it., p. 85. 24

If not legend. It has been suggested, maybe erroneously, that the ethnic groups that form the present Ghana might have immigrated from

that ancient kingdom.

Dickson^ presents another account. He sides with Rattray^ to refute the views advocated of immigration of alien or culturally dif­ ferent peoples from the ancient Ghana kingdom or elsewhere into an almost empty country in the thirteenth century. Goody joins this school of thought when he wrote that:

"One cannot accept stories of migration from quite a different area as applying to the entire popula­ tion when the linguistic continuity has to be accounted for...the linguistic situation indicates that there must have been an existing Akan-speaklng population from whom the Immigrate acquired the language."6

Dickson's summary is that there occurred immigrations of small groups of people, sometimes speaking similar languages to those of the local inhabitants; and there also occurred social upheavals and revolu­ tions resulting from the adoption of new ideas from politically higher but smaller groups of alien people, and it is in this perspective that the peopling of the country (presently colled Ghana) around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries should be viewed (map on page 25).

For my purpose, whether the people came as a group (with their own culture) to occupy this present Ghana, or as splinter groups to

^Kwamlna B. Dickson, A H isto ric a l Geography of Ghana (London: Cambridge University Press, 1969), p. 14.

5r. S. Rattray, The Tribes of the Ashanti Hinterland (Oxford University Press, 1932).

®J. Goody, The Ethnography of the Northern T e rrito rie s of the Gold Coast. West of the White Volta (London: Colonial Office, 1954), p. 6. 25

t>ft6A T I

ISSAIA

C H A tQ S I

VACAU

r^BOVrtl

J p A IP A fO ■— T lA H 1 » 0 * 0 P I ^V*kOtOll [^ N tO N fA AMATO IOGIA

^ A V A T i U l ""“f HTASQ>0 "" "TtfcAMU ■■> A h U M B Q fO u X „ A 1 W A M V

!»!«•« WAfiW

ETHNIC DISTRIBUTION (p. 24)

(From Atlas of Population Characteristics, Accra, 1964) 26 join with already existing groups is beside the point. What is rele­ vant is that before the arrival of the European there existed a culture worth preserving—whatever acculturation might have taken place before

the white man therefore is irrelevant in this regard.

What is known for sure, is that Europeans in search of gold and spices arrived at Elmina^ in 1471 and the present structure or distri­ bution of ethnic groupings had since been more or lesB the same. The map on the preceding page, showing ethnic distribution gives a good picture of the situation, although independent Ghana today includes the

former British protectorate of Togoland.®

Adventurers of the Western World had had some contact with the

Guinea coast, but it was not until 1471 when the Portuguese made the

first contact with the land. These were in the service of Fernao

Gomez. Their landing place they called "Mina" (the mine). The site still exists today as Elmina.

The King of Portugal at the time, King John II in 1482 sent

Diego d'Azanbuja together with Bartholomew Diaz and Christopher

Columbus, to Elmina to build a fort to protect their trade and men

^Elmina is the Fanti town "Edina." The first Portugese in their excitement about the amount of gold they saw called it "The Mine." g Before independence, there was a plebicite in British Togo- land to decide whether they would go with French Togoland or the then Gold Coast. They opted for the latter. It is worth noting that in recent times a faction within that territory is agitating for separa­ tio n from Ghana to jo in Togoland—Daily Graphic, Saturday, March 2, 1974, p. 1. Ghanaian Times, same date and page. Of course both governments, Ghana and Togoland have condemned the o rg an izers, S. G. Antor and Kofi Dumogah, as "political malcontents." 27 from both natives and pirates. This was the first attempt by any

European power to settle.^

Sao Jorge da Hina (St. George of the Mine) was completed in the same year; Azanbuja himself stayed behind with a garrison of sixty men and sent the fleet with the rest of the men back to Portugal, well furnished with gold and slaves. Elmina Castle, as it is known today stands at the mouth of the river Benya.

At first there was no need to protect "Sao Jorge" but by early sixteenth century the French, to be followed by the English, were ven­ turing around the area. William Hawkins in 1530 returned with a big surprise for Elizabethan England—gold and pepper. Dutch, Swedes,

Danes, and Prussians joined the scramble, so that in a short while forts had mushroomed all along the Guinea Coast marking trading points.

Rivalry and keen competition set in, resulting in the Dutch dislodging

Che Portuguese from Sao Jorge in 1642, thus ending Portuguese rule on the Gold Coast after their flag has flown for 160 years.

What followed is a sordid trade in "human raw material." "The

Hawkins Slave Venture of the Sixteenth Century had only been a start.

It was not until the middle of the Seventeenth Century that the English began the systematic business of transporting annually thousands of

Guinea Negroes to the New W orld,increasing the tempo of rivalry and ■ ■ ®F. H. Bourret, The Cold Coast (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1949), chap. ii,

10"Benya River," the Black Star Lines Ship was named after this r i v e r .

M. Bourret, The Gold Coast (1919-1946) (Stanford: Stan­ ford University Press, 1949), p. 16. 28 clashes among contestants, including even Ghanaian ethnic groups. The

Gold Coast got her name a t a time when gold was by fa r th e major tra d ­ ing item; by the eighteenth century it would have been more appropri­ ately christened the "Slave Coast."

The competition brought in its wake wars and attacks resulting in many forts3-3 changing hands. "Forts were built, abandoned, sold, attacked, captured or exchanged.... One incident, the capture of

C hrlstiansborg by the Akwamu from th e Danes in 1693, though not ty p ic a l of the fortunes of the European forts, is worth relating."13

The slave trade continued but was beginning to arouse c riti­ cism in Europe, the doctrine of human equality was being propagated at the time. In England, the Quakers, the Methodists and Evangelicals opposed slavery vehemently on humanitarian and religious grounds. This change of attitude helped change the course of events on the Gold

Coast. By the time of the French Revolution only three powers were left holding posts on the Gold Coast—the British, Dutch and Danes, the others having left altogether or had shifted for a quieter or more lucrative (gold) neighbourhood.

By 1850 the Danes had sold th e ir fo rts to the B ritis h ; they were followed in 1872 by the Dutch. These transactions, which angered the Ashanti, left the British the sole monarchs of the coast. This led

12 The Forts stood on lands rented by the Europeans, usually with a written agreement made with the chief. The rent for Elmina Castle was two ounces of gold a month, increased to four ounces by the end of the Seventeenth Century. James Fort, Accra, paid two ounces and Cape Coast and Anomabu paid four. An ounce of gold then was worth A. W. E. F. Ward. 13W. E. F. Ward, A H istory of the Gold Coast (London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1952), pp. 85 and 87. 29

to the sixth of the many wars that the British had to fight with the

Ashanti in 1873. The Ashanti were subdued, the Asantehene (King of

Ashanti) was forced to dismantle his confederacy; reduced to paramount

chief of his own people alone and was required to pay indemnity to the

English. This came to be called in Ghana history as the "Treaty of

Fom ena."^

The British Government decided, at the end of the "Sagrenti

War" in 1874, to annex the coastal peoples as the Gold Coast Colony.

A governor was appointed by the crown, and legislative and executive

councils were set up to aid him in his rule.

Some peace prevailed in the colony while Ashanti remained a hotbed due to tribal warfare. The then Asantehene, Prempeh I requested

British help to restore order but he was turned down. In the 1890s the French in Ivory Coast and the Germans in Togoland were seeking treaties of friendship with the various groups on the Western, Eastern, and Northern boundaries of Ashanti. The English saw the danger of cutting off the colony from all sides. With this international rivalry in view the English demanded that Prempeh I accept British protection and fulfill the terms of the Treaty of Fomena. Prempeh's refusal was an act which invited troops into Kumasi. The Asantehene then submitted to the British soldiers; he was Instead arrested and deported with his

14The Treaty of Fomena ended the many wars the Ashanti had to fight with the British and/or the Coastal tribes. This last war is known in history as the "Sagrenti War" ("Sagrenti" being the native corruption of Sir Garnet [Wosley] who was said to have plundered the Asantehene's palace with his troops.) Significantly enough, the Ashanti celebrated or better still mourned their dead, in a centenary celebration in 15-19th February, 1974, Daily Graphic and Ghanian Times Issues of Tuesday, February 5, 1974. mother and several members of the royal family to the Seychelles.

A small garrison was stationed in Kumasi which did not bother the

A shanti. They s t i l l had the golden s to o l,1® hence the nation was intact. There was some peace comparatively after this. In September,

1901, a Royal Order in Council annexed Ashanti, determining its bound­ aries and the Northern Territories was declared a protectorate. Trea­ ties with France in 1889, 1893, and 1898 had already defined the frontiers between the Ivory Coast and the Gold Coast. The Heligoland

Treaty o f 1890 and 1899 has shown a demarcation lin e between the

English Gold Coast and the German Togoland. The twentieth century therefore saw the Gold Coast as one chunk of European carved land with a conglomeration of numerous ethnic groups—some of these were even cut into two since the boundaries were drawn without regard to ethnicity.

Thus, the people and the land is to go down in history as the Gold

Coast, and later Ghana.

Things were more stable, and the future brighter in the eco­ nomic sphere than the social and political areas. After the gold stampede, and the slave trade an unusual upsurge in prosperity followed during the first and second decades of the twentieth century due to the introduction of the cocoa industry.

An Akwapim labourer returning from work in a plantation in

Fernando Po smuggled in some few pods in 1879. These grew successfully

^Klng Prempeh I returned from the Seychelles, an island of the east coast of Africa in 1924 to his native Kumasi.

l^The Golden Stool is believed by the Ashanti to have been conjured from heaven by their chief priest Okomfo Anokye. The stool is believed to contain the soul (sunsum) of the nation hence its capture would have meant the destruction of the nation. 31 and the first consignment of 121 pounds cocoa beans was exported to

Europe. The list below tells the cocoa story:^

Years Five Year Average by

1891 - 1895 5 tons

1896 - 1900 230 tons

1901 - 1905 3,172 tons

1906 - 1910 14,784 tons

1911 - 1915 51,819 tons

1916 - 1920 106,072 tons

1921 - 1925 186,329 tons

1926 - 1930 218,895 tons

Today cocoa remains the number one crop followed by the legendary gold and then timber.

Missionary work in the guise of social work had started at this time. The earliest missionaries were Portuguese priests. These were followed almost Immediately by representatives of the churches of the various European nations, but no attempt at organized evangelistic work was made until the nineteenth century.

Actual missionary activity started when the Swiss Missionaries of the Basel Society came in 1827; these were followed by Wesleyan

Mission in 1835, and the North German Missionary Society in 1847,

followed by the Catholics in 1880. These came with the "desire to

l^ Gold Coast Handbook (London, 1937), p. 38.

l ^ G h a n a , Central Bureau of Statistics, Economic Survey 1968 (Accra: National Liberation Council, 1969). spread the blessings of Christianity among the pagan tribes."*® The

little education that existed was largely in the hands of these missionary societies, although early in the twentieth century the government started to give financial aid to mission schools and estab­

lishing "Government Schools.By 1919 th ere were nineteen government schools, 204 mission schools assisted by government aid, and about 250 unaided schools,technical, agricultural and teacher training had also begun. Both the Accra Technical School and the Accra Training

College were opened in 1909, in addition to missionary ones in

Akropong, by the Basel Mission, and Kumasi by the Wesleyans. To all

intents and purposes by the 1920s the stage was set for colonial rule in the Gold Coast. B ritis h Colonial ru le re a lly began a t the end of the World

War I , when S ir Gordon Guggisberg was appointed governor of the Gold

Coast; arriving in Accra in October, 1919. Governor Guggisberg arrived with enthusiasm and immediately set about to draw a "Ten Year Develop­ ment Plan" for the 1919-1929 decade. His objective was "the general progress of the peoples of the Gold Coast towards a higher state of civilization and the keystone of the progress is education.

Guggisberg needed £24,000,000 as expenditure for his plan which he

19 F. M. Bourret, Ghana, the Hoad to Independence (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960). 20Few schools owned and run e n tire ly by government were established in the big cities like Accra. These had not the religious trimmings of the mission schools,

21Report on the Education Department, 1919, pp. 6 and 18.

22"Govemor's address to the Legislative Council," March 1, 1923, Gold Coast G azette, March 17, 1923, p. 349. 33

hoped would come from the existing surplus of 1,250,000 from loans

and from the revenue which would result from such progress.23

The Governor's achievement was In the area of transportation to

open up the country. In all about 233 miles of railroad were built

between 1919 and 1927 at a cost of £s,948,000.24 A network of roads were constructed into the hinterland to bring cocoa, timber to

Takoradl, also a new harbour, for export. The foundations for all this

prosperity was of course the cocoa boom.

Another early act of Guggisberg on arrival was to set up a committee to study the educational setup. After the Committee's Report

(very much identical to the Phelps-Stokes Commission Report) he collab- orated with the heads of missions and the Education Department to draw a definite plan for the training of teachers. To Implement this plan, he introduced a new education ordinance in 1925 to the Legislative

Council, which was put into effect soon after. A shining example of the governor's efforts is the Achimota College; the foundation stone was laid in 1924; dedicated by the Prince of Wales the following year and formally opened on January 28, 1927, by Governor Guggisberg.25

The staff were both European and African, among them was Dr. James

Kwegylr Aggrey, a native of Anomabu who was also the Vice-Principal.

Besides Achimota other trade schools were opened throughout the colony

23Frederick Gordon Guggisberg, The Cold Coast; A Review o f the Events of 1920-1926 and the Prospects of 1927-1928.

^Legislative Council, Debates, "Governor's Address," 1930, pp. 139-140.

25Report on the Achimota College, 1926-27, G. C. Annual Report, p. 39. 34 thus the foundations were laid for higher and technical education in

Ghana.

While the social and economic areas were well established, the political front was still taking shape. There were movements, nation­ alistic in character, appealing for increased African participation in the colonial administration, protests against legislation considered to be not in the traditional interest, and demands for increased self- government .

One of the early groups was the Fanti Confederacy, a union of chiefs and educated Ghanaians, formed in 1871. They were influenced by the House of Commons resolution of 1865, which had suggested that the

English encourage eventual African rule. This group died owing to the overall British take-over three years after its Inception. But the spirit never died. Thirty years later it resurrected as the Aborigines'

Rights Protection Society to oppose the Public Lands Bill which resulted In the Africans retaining possession of their land. The group continued to harass the government on all matters considered inimical to African development, hence the foundations were laid for eventual self-rule.

In 1924 a new ordinance, the Municipal Corporation Bill was introduced. This ordinance was to bring African participation into government.' This provided for a majority of elected councillors, gave them power to levy new rates and draw up estimates. This met with an outburst principally in Accra where the poorer classes felt suspicious about new rates and thought this would undermine African 35

in s titu tio n s .2^ The ordinance was withdrawn but eventually reappeared

in 1927 as the Town Council Ordinance providing for five official and

five unofficial members, including one European appointed by the gov­

ernor and four elected Africans. This was acceptable to the people

and proved to be the first step of Ghanaian participation in the

Colonial government.

The rapid economic growth with its resultant educational

increase and w ealth, somehow, tended to lessen the resp ect for tr ib a l

authority.2^ A new constitution with a spirit to bring the educated

and the chiefs to participate together in government was introduced.

This met with an uproar. The lntelligentia suspected the Chiefs were

going to be tools in the hands of the colonial government thereby

delaying eventual self-rule. One newspaper was quoted as saying:

"This issue is one of life and death with us, for if you perpetuate

the possibility of the return of dummies to the legislature, our national independence is gone forever."2® Dr. Aggrey wrote a friend

in America on the same subject: "Part of the people of the Eastern

Province, especially the educated are against it... The Paramount

2<>It must be noted that one of the expressed alms of British rule is to govern through Indigenous Institutions. Governor Slater for example told the legislative council that.. ."government's declared policy is so to guide the development of native Institutions in this country th at they w ill become more and more of an In te g ra l p art o f the machinery of government." Legislative Council, Debates, 1930, pp. 84-85.

2^This disrespect for tribal authority must be noted as the advent for the alienation from tribal or cultural norms.

28Quoted by B ourret, "The Native Problem in A frica" from the Gold Coast Leader, May 2, 1926. 36 chiefs of Che Eastern Province are.. .including Nana2^ ofori Atta and

Konor Mate Kole are heartily for it... The political atmosphere is charged."30 In spite of the opposition this was pushed through and implemented; a milestone has been made. For the first time chiefs, in their capacities as spokesmen for their subjects became participants in colonial administration. This is significant, in the overall sense that traditional rulers and colonial rulers became bedfellows; the ruled thus was exposed in a web of conflicting political upheaval.

While great advances were made in the social and economic areas the political front was a stalemate. This created many African polit­ ical groups opposing directly or indirectly colonial rule. The Pro­ vincial Councils created in the 1927 constitution, also grew critical.

In 1932, all three councils met at Saltpond^ where they criticized the

Native Administration Revenue Bill. In 1936, a joint Provincial Coun­ cil was formed at Dodowa, but this gained statutory recognition only in 1946.^ Refer to the "Burns constitution."

By the thirties groups have emerged, often with conflicting interests. There were notable ones like the Aborigines Rights Protec­ tion Society, the Asante Kotoko Society, and others. Dr. J» B. Danquah

2^Nana (Akan), N il (Ga) and Konor (Krobo) are t i t l e s given to c h ie fs.

30gdwin W. Smith, Aggrey of Africa, Student Christian Movement (London, 1929), pp. 259-60.

31-Saltpond is a small coastal Franti town in the Western region.

32J. H. S. Frimpong, "The Joint Provincial Council and the Politics of the Gold Coast (1946-1948)" (unpublished M.A. thesis, University of Ghana, 1966), pp. 36-37. 37 tried in 1934 to unite all the African political factions to a common front. This they achieved to fight the Sedition Bill (the Criminal

Code Amendment Ordinance) by sending a delegation to the Colonial

Secretary in London. Though this did not yield any direct results, it certainly gave a start to African unity and action against colonial ru le .

By the mid 1940s a multitude of economic and social problems had h it the country, and the acquisition from outside of new ideas made both rural and urban population feel keenly the Injustices of colonialism .^ These events34 contributed to the acceleration of p o l it i c a l a g ita tio n . Things came to a head when a l l th e groups came under one umbrella of the United Gold Coast Convention with Dr. J. B.

Danquah as its president, and Kwame Nkrumah as the general Secretary in 1947 to fight colonialism. By February 28, 1948, things have taken a new turn. The ex- servicemen marched to the X*borg Castle, O s u . 3 5 They were met by police officers and some were shot. Three died on the spot. It was in relation to this that the U.G.C.C. sent a telegram to the Secretary of

State for Colonies on the 29th of February. This read in part:

MUnless the colonial government is changed and a new government of the people and their chiefs installed at the center immediately, the conduct of masses now

33This was the Uorld War II period. The returning ex- servicemen were the most aggrieved, since they had no compensations.

34The failure of the 1934 delegations of the nationalists, the economic and social grievances and the ideas of Freedom and self- government. 35x-borg Castle, at Osu, is the official seat of the Colonial government and the Residence of the Governor. 38

completely out of control with strikes threatened in Policy quarters, and rank and file police indifferent to orders of officers, will continue and result in worse violent and irresponsible acts by uncontrolled people. Working Committee United Gold Coast Convention declare they are prepared and ready to take up interim govern­ ment... We speak in name of inherent residual sovereignty In chiefs and people in free partnership with British Commonwealth for our country to be saved from inept gov­ ernment Indifferent to sufferings of the governed. The souls of Gold Coast people slaughtered in cold blood upon Castle Road crying out loud for vindication in cause of freedom and liberty. Firing by Police and military going on this morning. Let King and Parliament act without delay in this direst hour of Gold Coast people and their chiefs. God save the King and Floreat United Gold Coast."3°

The colonial government's reply was a removal order against

Kwame Nkrumah, Dr. Danquah, and four o th er lea d ers of th e U.G.C.C., whom it was assumed were responsible not only for inciting but for actual planning of the disturbances. These were later released and a commission set to inquire into the affair by Mr. Aiken Watson, Q.C.

Dr. Danquah and Nkrumah were defended by an English lawyer, Mr. Dingle

Foot. When the Watson Report came out later in the year, it criticized the c o lo n ial government's A frican izatio n p o lic y , and recommended greater African participation in the government.

Upon this report, a constitutional committee was set up under the chairmanship of Sir Henley Coussey. The report of the Coussey committee proposed a democratic form of government with universal adult suffrage for Ghana.^ This was accepted by the Legislative

36Colonial Office, Report of the Conralssion of Enquiry Into Disturbances in the Gold Coast (Watson Report). Honso, London, p. 95.

3?lhe Coussey C o n stitu tio n al Committee recommended an executive council of three ex—officio and eight representative Ministers and a nationally elected assembly. 39

Council and In 1951 the Gold Coast was the scene of the first general election contested mainly by the U.G.C.C. headed by Dr. Danquah and the

Convention Peoples Party that had been split earlier from the U.G.C.C. headed by Nkrtmiah; other l i t t l e groups took p a r t . ^ The C .P.P. won thirty-four out! of the thirty-eight constituencies. By this time

Nkrumah was in ja il, and consequently released. Nkrumah was asked to form a government and became lea d er o f Government B usiness.

In 1954 a major advance was made. The Governor ceased to preside at Cabinet meetings, the three British officials left the cabi- i net, the assembly was enlarged to 104 members, all elected through the ballot box. On the 6th of March, 1957, the anniversary of the Bond of 1844, the Gold Coast became the independent s ta te of Ghana with a national motto of "Freedom and Justice."

Nkrumah's fifteen years rule was quite hectic. It will only suffice here to mention that gradual stifling of the opposition cli­ maxed in the detention^ of Dr. Danquah, Joe Appiah, and forty-eight others of the Opposition. In this way all opposition was destroyed.

Several attempts were made on Nkrumah's life after this and finally

1966, while Nkrumah was on h is way to Hanoi, a coup on February 24 f

3&The Parties who contested the election were: The C.P.P. led by Nkrumah; the U.G.C.C. led by Danquah; the N ational Democratic Party led by Dr. Naka-Bruce, the Asante Kotoko and the Northern Peoples Party led by Dombo. 3^The prevention Detention Act which was introduced into parlia­ ment by Dr. Nkpumah was to arrest and detain undesirable characters, was used to a rp e st and detain n o t only members of the opposition but later Nkrumah's own party colleagues who proved difficult, men like Ako Adjei, Tawiah Adamafio, etc. AO d-etat toppled his government.40 The new army regime came to be known as the National Liberation Council headed by a retired Army General,

Major-General Joseph Ankrah, and later was headed by Licutenant-Colonel A. A. Afrifa.41

A second army revolt took place in the morning of April 17,

1967; this was an attempt to overthrow the Government of the National

Liberation Council, but failed. The leaders of this abortive coup were executed by firing squad. The country was gradually steered into a second civilian government on October 1, 1969. The Progress Party headed by Dr. K. A. Busla won the general election then only to be toppled by another military take-over after only two years of civilian r u l e . ^ As I write today, the government is an army junta headed by

Colonel I. K. Acheampong.43 Their slogan has been "Operation Feed

Yourself;" this they have been pursuing.

This historical review reveals some clear-cut facts that may be relevant and therefore must be noted for the purpose of this study.

First, that Ghana as it is today was not one ethnic group when

4^Leaders of the 1966 Coup were Colonel E. K. Kotoka, Mr. J. W. K. Harlley (Inspector General of Police), Brigadier Albert Ocran, and Colonel A. A. Afrifa.

4*It is worth noting that by April, 1967, military leaders were in control of ten of thirty-eight African states: Algeria, Ghana, Nigeria, Zaire, Upper Volta, Dahomey, Togo, Central African Republic, Burnndl, and Sierra Leone.

^^The Busia Regime published ju s t before th e ir overthrow a document depicting their achievements within the first two years: Second Milestone, Public Relations Department, Accra, 1971.

4^0n January 13, 1972, Colonel I. K. Acheampong in a military coup took over the reigns of government in Ghana. There has been two military cum civilian unsuccessful attempts so far to overthrow his regime. AX

Europeans a rriv e d in 1471. They were peoples a l l over Vest: A frica but: the colonialists made demarcations without reference to indigenous ethnic groups. Second, that the colonial government Introduced a brand of education that eventually weakened the individual's ties with traditional authority, this independence generated disrespect for that authority and consequently disregard for the culture. In effect the advantage of colonial rule was an articulate lntelligentia which speeded the pace towards self-rule, but that lntelligentia lost contact with its cultural roots.

Education—Traditional

Education in general is the process through which society re­ creates itself (in this context "education" transcends the narrow and often implied connotation of contemporary education). There has been a naive belief that there was no education before the arrival of the

European (this belief may still persist in some quarters), but such a notion only reveals the Ignorance that exists concerning the culture.

It must be realized "that education is itself part of the social organization of any society, whether or not that society has anything which might be recognized as a school."44

Among ethnic groupings in Ghana it is mainly the function of the parents, uncles, aunts, grandparents, and even age-groups to instruct the young ones in the science of agriculture and domestic arts. In essence a young boy may accompany his father to the farm

John Wilson, Education and Changing West African Culture, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College (New York: Columbia University, 1963), p. 17. 42 carrying the implements of his trade. In time he would grab a hoe and learn from his father how to clear the land and sow the seeds.

Traditional education did not end with the acquisition of the habit and skills of merely the labour required to do these things.

Heather signs, crop pests, destructive and dangerous animals, were taught or identified usually in the form of proverbs, rhymes, and riddles. Fisher-folk did likewise, if not perhaps more formalized.

In such groups survival in an ocean infested with man-eating creatures was essential. The young ones were therefore taught to swim and to look after themselves in these dangerous waters. They also got in­ struction in the art of launching the canoe, sailing, making and mend­ ing nets; all formally organized in a form of apprenticeship system.

The boy has to be conversant with the weather, lores, and taboos re­ garding his profession-most of this enshrined in fables and folklores but not entirely without empirical foundations.

It is apparent that these indigenous educational systems emphasize the environment plus its economic potentials and the acquisi­ tion of the skills necessary for exploiting these potentials. This is why the boy from the coast learns to fish and the girl learns to roast, smoke, and dry the catch while the boy from the "bush" concerns himself with the skills of farming and the girl how to harvest and preserve the harvest to last the "family" until the next harvest. These may all be economic, but there is also the social aspect of indigenous education. A3

Indigenous ethnic^ education was usually more organized In Its social aspect. Puberty rites In most cases involved a specific period of tuition and rituals often administered by the most prominent in the society. In boys' initiation and circumcision men were entirely in control, while girls' puberty ceremonies were dominated by the old ladles of the dan. Typical examples may Illustrate this point.

Among the Ga^& for example, when girls are between the ages of fifteen to twenty, they are confined for four weeks. Within this period an old lady of the "family"^? is selected to be with them day and night. They are fed the best selected dishes and are taught the secrets of married life and child rearing. When the end of the period comes they are dressed in Che best of ornaments the family can afford

(sometimes these ornaments were borrowed for the occasion) and arc

"outdoored." The outdooring ceremony includes parading them through the whole town, an indication (very suggestive) that the girls are of

4^1 wish to confine myself to the word "Ethnic" rather than tribe since the latter has connotation of "preliterate peoples" (whatever that really means) and the former a "gcneous population." Refer—W ebster's New World D ictionary of the American Language. David B. Guralnlk (Editor in Chief). The World Publishing Company, New York, 1970.

^®The Ga are p a rt of the Ga-Adangbe ethnic group belonging to the Kwa language classification. Joseph H. Greenberg, Languages of A frica (Bloomington, 1963), p. 6. D ietrich Westerman and M. A. Bryan, "Handbook of African Languages," P art I I , Languages o f West A frica (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), p. 76. They are most fisherfolk, supposed to have Immigrated from Benin in Negeria around the early 13th century, and together with the Eve and the Font! occupy Ghana's coastal line. ^Family: my use of the term should embrace more than the European family of father, mother, and the children; this includes cousins, uncles, nieces, and a whole conglomeration of chain relatives. 44 age and can marry. This is called "Dipo" among Che Krobos and "OCofo" among Che people of Osu in Che Ga-Adangbe areas.

Boys go Chrough a similar process of lniciacion. Theirs have two pares. The firsC is when a boy is about four co ten years of age.

His first taste and show of bravery is when he is circumcised. Before the ceremony he is taught that a "man" does not cry with pain. On this occasion many boys are brought together and the "doctor" with a sharp knife docs the operation in the full view of all the clan. The child who does not reveal his pain at all is considered the bravest; this becomes a sign of respect way into adulthood. In any case all are given one cooked egg to eat after the operation and chicken and sheep or goats are slaughtered for feasting. About the age between twenty- five and thirty these boys are given guns by their parents at a cere­ mony and the father then selects a girl as wife for him. All these are buried in rich ritual and ceremony.

In most ethnic groupings in Ghana, there are areas of speciali­ sation in the educational system which are taken as serious if not more than European schooling. In areas like carving, weaving, or drumming, there are even sometimes secret societies and ceremonies to guard jealously the knowledge required for such enterprises. For this reason most of this specializations run in specific families or villages.^8 a youth, very early in life is apprenticed to a master

Kente weaver as a learner. In fact it is usually almost impossible

48in Ashanti, for example, Kente Weaving is a specialty of the people from "Bonwire" and the chief weaver for the Asantehene (King of Ashanti) comes from that village; likewise pots are made in "Fankrono," stools are carved in "Ehwia," Adinkra is printed in Ntonso, etc. 45 for someone who is not traditionally from the weaving family to become an apprentice in that area, the whole set-up is a closed group.

Such apprenticeship takes a life time, embracing not only the weaving process Itself but the folklores—stories of origins of the craft, the wise sayings, spells, and Incantations, connect with it.

All this will have to be committed to memory since writing was un­ known. To excel therefore the young apprentice must undergo the discipline necessary for perfection until he becomes someday a master in his own right.

It is essential to note that lndlgeneous education does not end with the attainment of adulthood. Throughout adulthood, through recurring festivals and ceremonies one gradually is systematically led

Into the secret intricacies of drumming, dancing, singing, story tell­ ing, and a whole lot of adult secrets, which in the final analysis "are perpetual and repeated reminders of the facts of history and accumu­ lated experience of the group essential to its continued existence and well-being. The above training described may be rigorous but essential for the continued existence, and sometimes improvement of the culture, and above all "largely concerned with maintaining respect for ancestors and old age""*® including tradition and culture.

John Wilson, Education and Changing West African Culture (New York: Columbia University, Teachers College, Bureau of Publications, 1963), p. 20.

50Ibid.. p. 20 46

« It Is essential to bear this background of indigenous education

in mind in considering contemporary (European and Christian in tradi­

tion and content) education and its effects upon the general Ghanaian

culture. Within this contact of cultures was embraced the Christian

educational process for the purposes of "converting heathens." In this

light, and this light alone, must the whole educational system of

Ghana be studied if an insight into its operation can be gained.

Development of Modem Education

Formal education came to Ghana (then the Gold Coast) not q u ite

so formally; it came as a means to an end. Education, as distinct from

the traditional system described earlier was introduced into Ghana by

the European trading concerns within the many forts and castles that

they built along the coast.

The first attempt at schooling African children on the coast was made by the Portuguese. In 1 5 2 9 , forty-seven years after they had

arrived on the coast, the Portuguese King, John III, thought of con­ verting the people of their domain to Catholicism.51 To achieve this

end a Portuguese teacher was sent down to the coast to teach the boys of the village of Edina (Elmlna) reading and writing. This first

attempt failed and was revived in 1 5 7 2 when four Catholic Augustlnian

missionaries arrived at E l m i n a ; 5 2 these were murdered a few years later when they attempted to open posts at Efutu and Komenda. The Portuguese

vicar continued the castle school until 1 6 3 7 when the c a s tle was seized

SlRalph M. Wiltgen, Gold Coast Mission History, 1471-1880, pp. 14-17.

52ibid., pp. 42-47. 47 by Che Protestant Dutch. The French (Missionaries) did attempt to continue the c a th o lic conversion a t Axim between 1638 and 1641 but these, like the first attempt, also failed.

The Dutch, after they had established their base at Blmina, opened a school for mulatto children.5** A product from this Dutch attempt was mentioned by McWilliam as Jacobus Capitein who entered

Leyden University in 1737 and graduated as the first Protestant

African Priest, and consequently was appointed chaplain at the Dutch

Company at Edina. He had little cooperation from the Europeans, "and his own people virtually ostracized him."55 He failed miserably.

Another, Anthony William Amo, from Axim, finished with a doctorate at the University of Wittenberg in 1734. He returned home after thirty years in Europe to live a retired life until his death. The entire

Dutch attempt, though may be described as a failure, yet proved to be the pioneering effort in formal education.

By the mid seventeenth century the Danes were well established at the Christiansborg Castles. Like the Dutch, they opened a school for mulatto children. A Christian Prottcn is mentioned as a product of the Danes' school.

Castle schools for mulatto children had come into vogue, and the English would not wish to be unfashionable. Their headquarters at

5^Ibid., pp. 42-47.

5^Mulatto children were the offsprings of European (traders) fathers and native women, and were considered a privileged class.

55h . 0. A. McWilliam, The Development of Education in Ghana, Longmans, 1967, p. 9. Cape Coast was s h e lte rin g a school run by Reverend Thomas Thompson who was sent in 1751 by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel

In England. Reverend Thompson stayed u n t i l 1756. Three boys from h is school went to England; two died, the third was Philip Quaye, who was ordinated in 1765, the first African to become a minister of the Church of England; and was thereupon appointed "Missionary, Catechist and

Schoolmaster to the Negro on the GoldCoast.Quaye later joined the Torridzonian Society^ who appointed him as schoolmaster for some twelve mulatto children; this was in 1787. The children in this school had uniforms (It is significant to note that most Ghanaian schools today wear uniforms) and It will not be far fetched to suggest that uniform In our schools today originated from this era. By 1792 the Torridzonian School had died out because of lack of official support. Philip Quaye died in 1816.

The first "Colonial School" which later came to be termed

"Government Schools" until 1956, when the government ceased to run elementary schools, was a revival of Philip Quaye1s school in Cape

Coast after his death. The colonial school, whose enrollment was around two hundred, produced the first generation of English Educated

Africans, prominent amongst these was George Blankson from Anomabu who became the first true African member of the Legislative Council in

56lbld. , p. 11.

S^The Torridzonian Society was a group of officers in the employ of the Company of Merchants with a motto: "Friendship ardent as the Clime" and who wanted to educate their mulatto children. 49

1861; from this group also emerged the leaders of the Fanti Confedera­ tion formed in 1867.®®

Another noteworthy landmark was the education of the Ashanti

Princes. There is a controversy concerning the facts of this venture.

Both schools of thought agree that Governor Maclean, in 1831 per­ suaded the Asantehene and some Fanti chiefs to make a treaty of peace—one condition in the treaty being that the Asantehene should send to Maclean two boys of royal lineage as security that he would keep the peace. The Asantehene complied sending Nkwantablsa, his son and Owusu Ansa (son of Osei Bonsu, the previous Asantehene). How both

McWilliam and Graham maintain that Maclean sent the boys to England so that they would support British interest when they became chiefs; and that they returned In 1841, and settled in Cape Coast when they re­ ceived a pension from the British Government. Kwamina Poh disagrees with this version. He argues that the boys were not sent immediately because the Asantehene would not allow Maclean to do so. But they did CQ go later, and spent only four years in England. Whatever the number of years these boys spent is irrelevant; the relevant point is that the

®®J. M. Akita, "Biographical Sketch of George Blankson of Anamubu" in the Transactions of the Gold Coast and Togoland Historical Society. Vol. I, Part V, Achimota, 1955. The Fanti Confederacy was a group of African scholars and chiefs who started the idea of inde­ pendent ru le fo r the Gold C oast. 59McWilliam (The Development of Education in Ghana) quotes C. C. Reindorf (The History of the Gold Coast and Asante) to support his contention, and both are of course supported by C. K. Graham (The History of Education in Ghana—Frank Cass, 1971). Kwamina Poh, a senior lecturer in History at the University of Science and Tech­ nology, is presently writing a revision to McWilliam's book, with this point as a focus. 50

colonial administration conspired to indoctrinate would-be Asantehenes

through their educational system to safeguard their interests. It is

strange however that the English allowed themselves to be fooled by the

Ashanti. It is known that it is the nephew and not the son of an

Asantehene who succeeds him; it is therefore ridiculous that the

English should take away Nkwantabisa and Owusu Ansa for their indoc­

trination; the English were beaten at their own game.

It is important to note that up to this time what education

existed was entirely the merchants' efforts, and though missionaries

took part, they did so under the supervision and control of the gov­ ernors.

The early nineteenth century saw the advent of the Missionaries in the Gold Coast's educational scene. One of the early missionaries was the Reverend Thomas Birch Freeman^O who arrived a t Cape Coast in

January, 1838. Although he lost his wife after only six weeks on arrival, he stayed for fifty-one years working in West Africa.

Freeman started by consolidating the work done by Methodist missionaries before him, opening up schools all along the Fanti coast— these were a t Cape Coast, Dixcove, Anamabu, and also in Accra. By

1880, the Wesleyan Mission had more schools than any other body— eighty-three—with an enrollment of over three thousand children.

Reverend Thomas Birch Freeman was himself a mulatto, the son of a Negro father and an English mother according to McWilliam. The idea perhaps was to bring somebody w ith an A frican blood since up to this time while missionaries have been known to have died almost immediately on arrival at the coast.

^^The Report of the Educationists' Committee, Part II, 1920. 51

One of these children, admitted in 1883 at the Wesleyan school at Cape

Coast was to become the famous Dr. Janes Etnman Kwegylr Aggrey.62

The Basel Missionary Society had arrived a few years before the

Wesleyans and had suffered great losses from the onset. The first four missionaries who landed at Christlansborg (Osu) in 1828 died within three years; a second batch of three volunteers arrived in March, 1832, only one, Andreas Riis, was left alive by July, 1832. Rlis, moved to

Akropong (Akwapim) in 1835 where he opened the first boys school in

1643, and one for girls In 1847. By 1880, the mission had established forty-five schools with well over 1,200 pupils in them.

Five years after the opening of the boys school at Akropong, a seminary for the training of teachers and catechists had been opened at

Akropong. It is significant to note the foresight of the Basel Mis­ sionaries—their training college was to remain the country's only teacher training college until 1909. Because of this foresight, today the mission plays a major role in education and any change or innova­ tion that does not suit their taste is most likely to fail.

A few facts need to be stressed before they get lost in these many pages. It is significant that the Colonial Schools taught in their foreign languages, the one at Cape Coast taught in English—since the aim of the school was to produce merchants and officials to serve the British (or Danish etc.) regime. This English emphasis continued into the mission schools "it appears that the Wesleyans had worked on the Gold Coast for forty-three years before they took any step to give

^ E . W. Smith, Aggrey of A frica, p. 11. Aggrey was a member of the Phelp-Stoke Committee and first Vice-Principal of Achimota School. 52

(them) any literature In their own tongue.We are also told that not only the English language but "everyday life in Cape Coast took on the colour of the Victorian era.. .English clothing and names were postulates of the Christian life. It was undoubtedly an English King­ dom of God that the Cape Coast prophets looked forward to ."^

Reaction to this Englishness of the schools was soon to appear. In 1889, when all attempts by the Wesleyans to open a sec­ ondary school has failed due to lack of staff and money, the local citizens, led by Casely Hayford, put up the necessary funds to open the school. Hayford, at twenty-three, became the first headmaster, though was soon to leave to England to qualify as a barrister.^ A sad part though is that this African attempt to provide education did not succeed in Africanizing the content of the school curriculum. The t reason being that

"they wanted European academic and professional qualifi­ cations for their children, and this Involved—even at its lowest level—satisfying the demands of examining bodies in England who at that time were setting papers solely with English candidates in mind."66

Ghana (then the Gold Coast) started its own Primary School Leaving

Certificate examination in 1903, but whether this would change the trend will be part of the subject for this exercise.

63Ibid., p. 46. The first effort was by the Reverend A. W. Parker, an African clergy who wrote two gospels in Fanti in 1877.

6*Ibid.. p. 43.

65-rhis secondary school, now Mfantsiplm, is managed by the Methodist Church. o. A. McWilliam, Development of Education in Ghana (London: Longmans, 1959). 53

In concluding the missionary effort, it may be worth noting that the Germans (Basel Missionaries) worked using African languages.

But it is also a fact that they were not any more sympathetic to Afri­ can traditions and culture than the Wesleyans. Their goal was the establishment of Christian communities entirely Isolated from "pagan"

Influences. The relevance of this philosophy in education is undoubt­ edly the isolation of the literates from the rest of the community, since the only education available then was in mission schools.

I t may be worth looking at government effo rts at this junc­ ture. For the first time in 1850, a governor was appointed for the

Gold Coast alone (hitherto i t has been for both Sierra Leone and the

Gold Coast). Governor H ill's first legislation was "An ordinance to provide for the better education in the Inhabitants of Her Majesty's forts and settlements on the Gold Coast.n<*7 Introduction to the

Ordinance stressed "the many benefits derived by many Africans from the colonial school at Cape Coast Castle and reinterated that "it is desirable that these benefits should be more widely diffused and that a superior system of education should be adopted so as to meet the wants of an advancing society."

This Ordinance died in its tracks. For one reason the couple appointed to run it Just could not make it In the Gold Coast.

Mrs. Vinall died a few months after their appointment and Mr. Vinall's health was so bad he had to be retired a fte r only a year. Another thing, the annual J-1,000 expected to come from the Poll Tax never materialized. The events that followed—the British proposal to

67C.O. 97/1 (Gold Coast Acts 1852-64) No. 1 of 1852. withdraw from the Gold Coast In 1865 and the costly Ashanti Wars

1873-74 just were not in the interest of educational development. By

1880 everybody had given up the Ordinance, and the only government

school apart from Cape Coast was the Accra Government School. While

this trend was going for government schools the fortunes of the mis­

sionary schools were exactly the opposite.

Reverend M. Sunter, Principal of Fourah Bay College, who was

appointed Inspector of schools did not like the trend, particularly

"the way in which mission teachers were forced to subordinate their

teaching to their work as catechists." He also described African

languages in the schools as "never likely to become of any practical

use in civilization."®® By antagonizing both the "Africanists" and

the colonialists Sunter lost favour and in 1890 a Director of Education

for the Cold Coast alone was appointed by Governor Bradford Griffith.

In 1887, another Education Ordinance was passed; this categor­

ized the educational system: "government" and "assisted" (these were missionary and other) schools. This ordinance stipulated that the

assisted schools were to receive assistance from government on condi­

tion that they should be open to all, regardless of race or religion,

have an average attendance of at least twenty pupils; and should teach

in addition to religion, reading, and writing of the English language,

arithmetic plus needle work in case of girls. Schools that operated

outside this stipulation received no grants and were described as "non­ assisted." New "Educational Rules" were formulated whose reports,

®®Sunter's contribution in West African education is a subject in Colin G. Wise's book: A History of Education in British West A frica. 55

Inspections* registers, and other official aspects of education are

still found In our present system.

Another plan that came to plague the educational system was the

directives that came to be called "Payment by Results." In 1902, a

revision in the education rules decreed that teachers would be paid by

the number of children that passed the annual examinations. Ironically

th is had been abandoned seven years e a rlie r In England . ^ The stress

was therefore laid on reading, writing, and arithmetic. This was of

course a failu re and was abandoned by another Education Rules in 1909.

From 1907 to 1914, the Educational Rules were revised three

times: 1907, 1909, and finally In 1914. For the f ir s t time in 1914

the Pupil Teacher^ scheme was established—this was to feature

prominently in Ghana's Educational system later.

It is recognized that the most spectacular development in edu­

cation was realized during Governor Guggisberg's term of office. He

initially appointed a committee to study the educational problem. This was the Educationists' Committee appointed in 1920. The committee in

its recommendations agreed with the Governor that "the country's chil­

dren should not be de-nationalized" and therefore recommended that

though English be introduced as early as possible as a "subject of

instruction" but that the vernacular should be the "medium of

^The introduction of "Payment of Results" was one typical example of how everything English (no matter how stupid) was trans­ planted in the Gold Coast, not only in education but in all walks of l if e . 7^Pupil Teachers were untrained teachers who were employed to teach because of the shortage of teachers. The scheme reached its peak in 1957 when Nkrumah introduced his Fee Free Compulsory Education. The scheme is being phased out presently. 56 instruction." The committee stressed on the needs of the teaching profession both for more and b e tte r training and for greater improved conditions of service. Their third and perhaps most far-reaching recommendation was for the establishment of a Secondary Boarding School for boys; they suggested Achlmota village specifically.

Meanwhile American m issionaries working in Africa had joined efforts with British missionaries and decided that a thorough investi­ gation must precede their post-war educational plans. With this in mind, a Commission was sent to Africa financed by the Phelps-Stoke

Fund. 71 The Chairman was Dr. Jesse Jones. 72 The commission v isite d

West Africa in 1920 and la te r toured South and East A frica; It was an on the spot investigation of educational problems in Africa.

The report in general criticized the existing system for being

"out of touch with the l if e of the community" and for the curriculum being too bookish. On the whole the recommendations supported

Guggisberg's ideas already mentioned here. Tills reinforcement strengthened Guggisberg's convictions which led to the opening of

Achlmota School (formerly Prince of Wales College) in 1927.

This heralded the beginning of government participation in secondary education. By 1940 education again was at a standstill due to the depression of 1929. Some private individuals however were up to save the system. Mr. K. G. Konuah, for example, founded the Accra

^^-Phelps-Stoke Fund was a million-dollar fund set up under the will of an American lady of that name to be devoted to advancing the education of Negroes among others.

^ D r. Aggrey of Anomabu then studying at Columbia University was a member. His contribution is discussed in detail by E. W. Smith: Aggrey of Africa. The Commission's report was published in 1921 in New York under the title: Education in Africa. 57

Academy and Che chief of Agona Dunkwa established the Dunkwa National

School in 1929.

Elementary education witnessed its best period after the World

War II. After the "Gold Coast Disturbances" and the subsequent gen­ eral election in 1951 when Nkrumah came into power the development of education became a national goal. The Nkrumah government drew up an

"Accelerated Development" Plan by which i t planned to give education to "every child of school going age." In this same plan payment of tuition fees in the primary and middle schools was abolished in 1961.

This was carried further in 1963 when the government took over the supply of free textbooks.

The decade following Independence also ushered In a great

Increase in the number of secondary schools. By the end of 1966-67 academic year there were 103 secondary schools with a total enrollment of 42,276.

The expansion in Primary and Middle schools demanded corre­ sponding expansion in Teacher Training Colleges. By the 1963-64 academic year there were forty-six teacher training colleges in the country. At the end of the 1966-67 academic year these colleges have reached eighty-two including the Advanced Teacher Training College and the Specialists Training College, both at Winneba.

Higher education got similar upsurge. The first university was founded at Legon near Accra in 1948; th is was the University College of the Gold Coast, now University of Ghana. The Kumasi College of

Technology, now the University of Science and Technology, was estab­ lished by government ordinance In 1951. This was to cater for the 58 science and technology as against the Accra one which caters for the

Arts. In October, 1962, the University College of Cape Coast was also established primary to train teachers for secondary schools and train­ ing colleges. These three institutions are today at the top of

Ghana's educational pyramid—"providing the high level manpower needs of the country."

Education Administration

Today the Ministry of Education has the responsibility of organizing and administering the public^ education system. It also acts as the liaison between the government and the various educational units. The Minister of Education (a politician and parliamentarian) heads the ministry; he is assisted by a Ministerial Secretary (also a politician and parliamentarian). The true head of the ministry is the

Principal Secretary who is a civil servant and therefore does not change with the change of government, and is directly responsible to the Minister. The Ministry has two divisions: Pre-University Division, catering for institutions below University level, and Higher Education and Research, responsible for University and related institutions.

The Ministry has five branches: General Branch, Personnel,

Accounts, Inspectorate and Curriculum Development and Research Units.

The actual administration of education throughout the country with reference to financing, supervision, and inspection falls within the Regional Educational Unit. Each region is divided into districts

^There are private schools, called "International School" which are run by individuals but also are inspected by the Ministry of Education. 59

TUMU BlIILSA U.R SOUTH MAMPRUSt

WESTERN GONJA N.R

[ASTERN

GONJA

KRACHI BRONO AIUFO B.R

o r o n g - a h a f o ea s t

NORTH

NORTH AWAHU KUUASI SOUTH, WEST E.R

^yEAsrr^v HO 7 EAST V srrw i w i a w s o

TONGU 'ANLO NORTH W.R AMENT l AO WIN

VN/iM A EVAE.UE lm 4* J A lOMORO - 1 — c. a i i i a GREATER ACCRA REGION

GHANA REGIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS (p. 58) 60 headed by Senior Education Officer, or Education Officer, depending upon the size of district. The Education Officers and Assistant Educa­ tion Officers carry on the impromtu inspection of schools to see that government policy is being carried out.

Inspection of schools has been a thing of Ghana's educational system for decades, but it was in 1961 that the Inspectorate Unit was set up within the Ministry solely for inspection work. The Inspec­ torate is headed by a Deputy Chief Education Officer assisted by subject and area Inspectors. Their scope is, however, limited to the

Inspection of secondary schools and Teacher Training Colleges.

It is worth mentioning that quite a large number of schools are still under the management of religious bodies. These educational units (or bodies) include: the Methodists, the Roman Catholics, the

Presbyterians, the Anglicans, the Salvation Army, and the Ahamadlya.

Government gives these units grants for the maintenance of their schools, plus funds for administrative and clerical sta ff. These edu­ cational units are responsible to the Ministry of Education.^

Local councils are also playing quite a role in the organiza­ tion and administration of schools. They are presently responsible for the erection and maintenance of primary and middle schools; although in the North, Upper and parts of Brong Ahafo regions, where conditions are somewhat different, local authorities receive grants from the Central

Government to finance education in their various spheres.

^There has been a lot of talk since independence about the government taking education out of the hands of these units entirely. Such sentiments have been fermented as a result of national feeling against religious and foreign indoctrination. 61

International Schools

A very Interesting feature that has entered the country's educational system is what is usually referred to as "International

Schools." These schools came into the scene over two decades ago when the diplomatic corps saw the need to open schools for their foreign children because Ghana's schools were using the vernaculars as "a medium of instruction*" or because they did not find Ghana's schools quite suitable for their children.

Because of the finances available for the diplomatic missions these schools were lavishly equipped and had the most "qualified" teachers. Soon some high-ups in the Ghanaian society recognized the advantage and managed to slip in their children. In time it became a thing with the elite—it became fashionable to state among friends that one's children attended International schools.

In the heat of this vogue some businessmen saw the money that could be made out of this class consciousness. Many so-called Inter­ national schools sprang up like mushrooms* charging exorbitant school fees but having practically no Internationals at all on their roll.

The name was enough to bring in the kids.

Unfortunately* the modem spiritual churches* who have no stakes in the country's educational units entered into this new trend* and today these schools are all over the country* either privately owned or church owned, as a money making venture. The M inistry of

Education instituted a regulation that all such schools must be regis­ tered/ Somehow this registration has curbed the trend in a way since 62 they had to undergo inspection before registration and most failed to qualify as a village school.

There are some differentiations both in structure and content between these "international schools" and "national schools" which need to be pointed out. For one thing, the international schools use

English as a medium of instruction as well as a subject of instruction rig h t from the f ir s t day of school. This is of course understandable when one considers the fact that they were established for foreign nationals (but not necessarily all English speaking); but the position becomes ludicrous when one faces the fact that well over 70 per cent of the pupils are Ghanaian (of course this differs from school to school and i t must also be noted that some, i f not most, have 100 per cent Ghanaian pupils). Other subjects like history, geography, health science, and nature study are given that foreign touch, which amazingly enough acts as the bait for attracting students from the affluent e lite .

The structure of the educational ladder also seems somehow shorter; but this cannot be said to be of any real advantage since the results of the West African Examinations Council which acts as the

"educational leveller" for both the national and international schools, reveal that although the pupils from the international schools may be younger and speak more "fluent" English yet they find it difficult to adjust into secondary school life due perhaps to their lmnaturity, very early alienation, and their acquisition of "better-than-thou" elite attitudes at an early age. 63

The point that needs stressing here is that these international

schools are, in fact, further inroads into an already precarious

Ghanaian cultural sta b ility .

The College of Art University of Science and Technology

Before dosing this chapter, it is necessary to write a para­

graph or two about the only institution in the country that is con­

cerned with the training of "artists."

The College of Art which is a Faculty of the University of

Science and Technology had its early beginnings when the Specialist

Course for Art and Crafts T e a c h e r s ^ together with the Training College was brought down from Achlmota to Kumasl to form the nucleus of the

Kumasi College of Technology (now the University of Science and Tech­ nology) .

In 1956 a diploma course was in stitu ted in addition to the

specialists course for teachers, and later when specialists course and

the Training College was forced to move to Uinneba (to start the

Winneba Specialist Training College) the Diploma was allowed to remain.

This eventually was raised to a degree (B.A.) course in Art.

The alms of the In stitu tio n as stated in its f i l e s ^ are:

(1) To provide practical, theoretical and historical education £n Art and Crafts at degree level;

75 Before the College of Art came into existence, all the teacher training colleges, like Achlmota, were conducting art education as part of the course but no specialization.

^ F ile No. CA/38/SF.1. Independent College of A rt. Letter No. 131, January 18, 1968. 64

(2) To meet the growing demand of Industry for a r tis ts / designers and conduct technological research;

(3) To study Art Education in the community and to train educators in Art and Crafts at post-graduate level to serve as advisers and teachers.

Today the College of Art is sending out annually between thirty and forty graduates; these find their way mostly into industry, while quite an appreciable number come back for the post-graduate diploma for teachers and eventually go to teaching.

There is a related course that must be mentioned here. While the College of Art trains "professionals primarily for industry at degree level,"77 the Specialist Teacher Training College at Winneba is exclusively concerned with the training of teachers at diploma level.

It is interesting to note that while the College of Art in Kumnsi had its nucleus from Achlmota, the Winneba Specialist Teacher Training

College had its birth from the College of Art, making Gugglsbcrg

Achlmota the mother of the country's art institutions.

If art education has a significant role to play in the overall educational structure of Ghana, these two institutions, the College of

Art in Kumasi and the Specialists Training College at Winneba stand at the very apex of that structure. The many students that come out every year from these institutions (p. 65) should be the cultural ambassadors within the different educational units. Whether this role has been played effectively or not is a matter of individual judgment, although my personal position is already made apparent throughout this exercise.

^ F ile No. CA/38/SF.1. Independent College of Art. Letter No. 135, July 24, 1969, p. 2. 65

65

STUDENT DISTRIBUTION BY COURSES COLLEGE OF ART7d

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 62 6? 64 6? 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 Post-graduate Diploma i n Art Education 6 6 10 10

B.A. (Art) - - 40 42 50 58 79 94 121 Diploma in Fine Art 26 19

Art Teachers' Diploma 7 6 10 - 3 - ---

Pre-Degree Art - 5 - 34 67 72 82 8651 Special Art Preparat Ion Course 1 - 1 4 4 - 1 1 -

78 University of Science and Technology, Kumasf. Annual Report, 1969-70. P. 95. 66

66

•’.-LITERACY BY LANGUAGE (IN WHICH LITERATE) URBAN/RURAL ADULT ONLY

Total Age Literacy by Language 15 £■ Over Ghana Ian

TRIBE Number 111 iterate 111 language Urban/Rural as sole and English European and and other English or or African Other European African Other

All Tribes U 941,040 60.2 4.5 31.4 0.3 0.3 1.6 1.7

R 2,779.250 82.4 5.2 1 1 . 1 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.7

AKAN U 402,800 51.6 5.7 42.0 - a* 0.6 0 . 1

R 1,199,490 75.8 7.3 16.7 - - 0.1 0.1

GA Adangbe U 132,020 48.5 5.2 44.5 - •* 1.8 -

R 194,380 78.7 4.3 16.6 - - 1.3 0,1

EWE U 130,780 56.0 7.6 33.3 1.7 0.8 0.6

R 324,670 73.7 10.7 14.7 0.6 - 0.1 0.2

■"Central Bureau of S ta tis tic s ,1 967—68 Statistical Year Book. 67

67

LITERACY BY LANGUAGE (IN WHICH LITERATE) SEX ANO MAJOR TRIBE

SEX

All Tribes T 3,720,290 76.8 5.0 16.3 0.2 0.2 0.60.9

M 1,878,210 61*. 1+ 6.7 25.4 0.3 0.4 1.1 1.7

F 1,81*2,080 89.5 3.3 6.9 - - 0.2 0.1

AKAN T 1,602,290 69.7 6.9 23.1 - - 0.2 0.1

M 772,420 51.5 9.7 38.3 - - 0.3 0.2

F 829,870 86.8 1*. 2 8.9 -- 0. 1 -

GA Adangbe T 326,1*00 66.5 4.6 27.9 - - 0.9 0.1

M 160,88051.2 5.3 41.9 - - 1.5 0.1

F 165,520 81.1* 4.0 14.3 -- 0.3 -

EWE T 1*55,1*50 68.6 9.8 20. 1 0.9 ** 0.3 0.3

M 299,610 51.2 14.0 32.1 1.7 0.5 0.5

F 255,81*0 86.1* 5.6 7.7 0.2 - 0.1 - o (/) Others RelIgion ReligionNo ChristIan terian Ian Chr1st sttan Chrt Other Shaff £■ Counc i 1 Counc Ahmadiyya Presby­ can Angli AME-SDA Apostolic African ional t i rad T Tota 1 1 Tota Maiiki Roman Sex Method i st i Method Total Tribe ■ o O' o P ON to oo ■c- o * . . •p- to » ■ 4 4 4 H •C- • * * n o* ro • vn —1 —1 * vn ■o v* VO vo v n VM v m VM * O' O — o m m § •P- to • o to 4 to ro ro 4 to 4 t _ tr 2 00 to * tr • O' • 4 vn VMvn VM 00 • -M VO VO VO VM to *— m — 00 ONO' -C* O'"J00 00 4 4 . o CO 4 ■c- M CO 4 4 4 to to • 4 ■n —* vn . •• vn vn C VO vo -O VM -M VO vn 89 . . , ro -P ON o ___ ON *P 4 to O' to *— ro 4 ro 4 4 4 4 * 4 -i • to 4 *••• 4 4 4 • VM 4 vn « vn vn VM V0 vn VM VO v o VO

... J n _. f tr o —- 4 r — — o j r -M O' to to ■ to • ON 4T to to 4 4 4 4 * 4 to 3 VM -J • VM • vn vn v m VO vn O ' vn - o . •p- - f O' to ro to ro -P O' O' O' o oo o o 4 to to ON O' O —• 4 on ro — •. 4 4 • "n 4 4 4 4 4 VJ1 vn VM - o ’-'•J VO VO VM

> t a •P o oo ro 00 00 — “* > m > m > z •p — o o to 00 o 4 4 4 ♦ • o > CD 00 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 vn VO vo V Ul VM -O vn -O " s t — o 00 00ro 00 •o- o o 00 tr O' mmm o 2 H O' 00 *P O 00 • oo • • 4 4 4 4 • VO VM VM v m vn - 0 vn 4 A 1 O' -tr- _ *n to to — Jr o oo o •*• to ro • 00 •• • 00 • • * • 4 • . • «•• • 4 ro VM VM VM vn vn -j v o i tr — —M -F- — -P O' tr O O 4r • ON 00 o to . ro * • ro • ro ■ » • vn VM VO VM 00 vn ._ — O ' O ' VO —* on 2 — O' •0* 00 -C" to o 00 o 4 ■ P OO• to to • •• • ■ •••• M •• t • •• * VM VO Vn « vn vn - j '■M 89 i 1 ON — — to to — to — — -e- — oP o o o o o to o *n O' ro tr to ro o • • t ro o o o o o ro »* * « * • • • • • VO VO — O *>J — VO vn vn v n vn

-•Central Bureau of Statistics. 1967-68 Statistical Year Book. CHAPTER III

IDENTIFYING CHRISTIANITY WITH THE PROBLEM

The Christian Role and European Culture The Emergent Christian/educated Ghanaian Review of Current Newspaper Concerns

The Christian Role

It will be erroneous in the light of the historical development of education in Ghana as reviewed here to conclude that the Christian missionaries brought nothing but education adulterated with Christi­ anity or the vice versa. If that was the case there would not be much grounds for a radical innovation.

A closer scrutiny of the historical development of the church's role in education, however, reveals a more serious situation than we normally care to admit. There is evidence to support the view that

Christianity as represented by her missionaries worked against African ideals, although admittedly these may be unconscious efforts in most cases. Conscious or unconscious, some damage was done however, a situ­ ation which has surfaced as alienation. If th is can be substantiated i t would be reason enough to c a ll for a c ritic a l appraisal and possibly change.

69 70

This chapter will attempt to bring to the fore facts relating

to the Christian role as perpetrated by the missionaries, and sketch

the Ghanaian character that emerges from that system.

Before I proceed to describe the effects of the Christian role

in education it is perhaps necessary to explain my stand as far as

schooling as an institution (with its own problems and therefore its * influences on a society) is concerned.

While I recognize Illic h 's^ concern over the problems of

schooling, I cannot bring myself to separating the two institutions—

that is schooling on one hand and the church on the other, and cate­ gorize their individual problems upon an alien culture like ours.

My reason for this stand is that the Christian Church in Ghana has become an educational institution, indeed it is recognized by the

Government as an "Educational Unit." For this reason, though the

Church may have its own idiosyncrasies yet these are in a sense mixed up with thoBe of "schooling." The anomalies categorized by llllch as typical problems of contemporary education (schooling) are therefore also problems connected with the Christian Church; but th is is so because the church for all Intents and purposes is educational rather than evangelical.

For this reason, I sh all deal with the problems of the Church from an educational point of view, and will not necessarily separate the two institutions. This does not mean that the absence of the

Church from the educational system will automatically resolve the prob­ lems of schooling in Ghana; what it does mean is that such absence will

1Ivan Illic h , Deschooling Society. 71 expose with greater clarity the problems of schooling which may be tackled from th a t perspective; the position presently Is a muddle of problems—Christianizing and schooling—making It more difficult to Identify the operating variables. The focus of this thesis is that when the "cultural material of Christian teaching" is phased out of the schools, we may see—like Illlch—the problems of schooling in sharper focus, hence my rationale for such exercise.

The Christian role, though embued with some good Intentions, was definitely a strict adherence to the charge of St. Paul. "What has a believer in common with an unbeliever? What agreement has the temple of God with the idol...? Therefore come out from them, and be separate from them, says the Lord."^ What St. Paul meant by those words was not too clear; but what was clear was that those of his successors who came to Africa, and for that m atter to Ghana, to spread the "word" came with a strict literal meaning of his word as their charge; and whatever role they played, whether economic, social, political, was based firmly upon that charge. There is evidence in historical annals to support this.

Fortes and Dleterlen emphasized this when they wrote that "It should be borne in mind that until the nineteen-twenties missionaries were often frankly antagonistic to African culture."3

The missionary's role was therefore a two-fold one: first to dismantle what existed and then to plant Christianity in its stead.

^St. Paul, II Cor. 6:14-17.

3M. Fortes and G. D ieterlen, African Systems of Thought (London: Oxford University Press, 1966). 72

The aim therefore was one of establishing Christian communities iso­

lated from "pagan" influences; this was (and is) to facilitate the

dismentling and therefore Christianizing process.

One factor should be recognized, though, Christianity could not be built on a cultural vacuum; there's got to be a strong cultural rock

if Christianity can be firmly erected. This fact necessitated the propagation of Western culture, a "civilized" culture as against the

"pagan" culture, as that Inevitable foundation for the gospel. The missionaries sadly forgot that "religion is not culture and the adapta­ tion of Christianity should not Involve the adaptation of Western culture."^ In other words newly laid wet cement foundations cannot be anything lik e the natural bed of rock of culture that has been founded through generations.

It is not therefore unreasonable to infer that, undoubtedly it was a European (German, Swiss English, etc.) kingdom of God that these missionaries looked forward to, not a kingdom of God reflecting the

Almighty's diverse handiwork. At least you would think that if it pleased the Lord to create all those diverse cultural and racial varieties, He would certainly be pleased to see that variety represented in His kingdom. Smith supports th is when he wrote that

"our ideal is not a Christian world made of a uniform pattern throughout, but one that preserves within its unity all the diversities that the Almighty has given to the individual peoples. In the essential things let there be agreement but in the forms which embody them l e t there be v a rie ty ."5

^Adrian Hastings, Church and Mission in Modern Africa (New York: Fordhao University Press, 1967). ^Edwin W. Smith, African Ideas of God (ed.) (A Symposium) (London: Edinburgh House Press, 1950). 73

Although the damage has largely been done, It is becoming

increasingly clear, to both African Christians and European mission­ aries, that the method of destruction of the culture of the so-called

"primitive" races is simply scandalous. For such a method destroys a ll

the values that give meaning and zest to the lives of the primitive

Christians.

If Christianity would have that "spiritual insights" that

Bcethan spoke of, i t must not only be Christian in function but African

in form. It is only then that Christianity would be meaningful and

relevant to the primitive environment.

Apart from this unwritten policy of the Christian church, there were also individual idiosyncrasies a t play; these enhanced by the church policy did more damage, perhaps than is usually accepted. These individual idiosyncrasies revealed itself as an open confrontation against the Ghanaian nature. It must be realized in this regard that

"even for the missionaries there is a sense in which the tic s of race and culture are a stronger actual determinant of behaviour than their g membership of a body in which there is neither Greek nor Jew." This and other shades of character did determine the day to day activity and behaviour of the missionary who after all was the master of his destiny among those races he worked.

Ruth Slade reports extreme case of this Individual character that hardly helped the Christian cauBe. She quotes of a Capuclin,

®F. B. Welboum, East African Christian (London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1965), p. 180. 74

Antonio de Gaeta describing Africans as:

"Devils by the deformation of their features, devils by the blackness of their bodies, devils in their souls because their w ills are always fixed on evil, devils in their thinking, by continually having in mind supersti­ tion, witchcraft and sorcery; devils in their speaking, by the great lies they utter; devils in their action, by so many grave sins which they commit; and finally, devils and more than devils, damned and more chan damned, by that bestial pride, that inhuman and barbarous cruelty, which they display all the time and in every action."'

Of course this is an extreme case, and cannot be used as a yardstick to measure the general missionary behaviour; it gives however a

"luminous" example of a subject matter that is normally left in the dark.

In effect, although the role of the church primarily was to

Christianize the very philosophy of the propagation drive, as well as

individual missionary's idiosyncrasies did Influence the objectives.

To study the consequences, resulting from this system, it is necessary

to examine th is background which w ill serve to fa c ilita te a truly critical examination of the Ghanaian Christian, who is also the Ghanaian e lite .

Maybe the time has come for the church to re-examine her role

in the educational field in the light of the fact that there is a

grave danger not only for the Ghanaian, but for the very church as well. The problem confronting the church today is the preservation of

Christian education in the face of developing nationalistic tendencies.

^Ruth Slade, King Leopold's Congo (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 7 as quoted in T. Monnens "Les Grandes heures de l'A frique' Grands Las (Louvain, March, 1936), p. 268. 75

The church makes no secrec of her Inclination to regard the establish­ ment and administration of schools as the measure of success reached

In church endeavours—to the detriment of the primary objectives of

Christianity. In other words, they have allowed educational endeav­ ours to overshadow church a ctiv itie s. But i t needs to be emphasized that there certainly exists a danger in relying too much on the facili­ ties provided in the classroom. For one thing, it can be a "boomerang"

But the real danger lies in the fact that the situation makes the church too vulnerable to state intervention and may even bring her into conflict with the state government. It is in the primary interest of thd church therefore to quit the school system; the facts point to this as an ultimate objective. This in other words calls for a separation of church and state, at least in educational matters.

The Elite (Christian) Character

The Ghanaian e lite , somewhat synonymous with the Chanaian

Christian (although there exists an almost negligible Christian illit­ erate, p. 68), is quite different from the vast illiterate population.

The literate Ghanaian, who is the highly educated Christian has to pay some penalty for the acquisition of his learning, for he has of neces­ sity been divorced, In a great measure, from his own country, custom, and beliefs, the necessary ingredients of culture; a situation

Dr. Rattray described as "the desire to commit a kind of racial suicide." Dr. Rattray did give a vivid sketch of the literate (Christian)

Ghanaian to support his contention. He described him as lacking 76

"that Indefinable something which often ennobles his wholly illite r a te countryman and raises him considerably above the common herd. I do not know exactly how to describe what it is that the one often possess and the other seems to miss. It appears to me like some hand reaching out of the past and linking him with it. It gives the illiterate man confidence in himself at times when a man feels quite alone, which he is apt to do in the presence of strangers of an alien race or when in a foreign land. The 'cultured* man has dropped that friendly contact, and, I believe feels often lost in consequence and is never quite at home anywhere, whether in the society of Europeans or of his own countrymen."®

He went on to stress that if the educated African possesses an

"inferiority complex," a study of his past must surely help to dispel it.

Whatever complex has the educated Ghanaian is not limited to inferiority. My contention is that his problems go deeper and surfaces at different areas of human behaviour; particularly moral behaviour.

A frustrated Ghanaian, in a recent article entitled "Whither Arc We

Drifting" that appeared in the March 28, 1974 issue of the Dally

Graphic complained bitterly and questioned in conclusion that

"if the post office sorter must steal the mall of honest c itize n s to augment his income; if the policeman must add to his regular income by taking 'gifts' from drivers and accused people; if the driver must charge very high fares and take over-loans to make money quickly; if the personnel manager must take bribes before employing work­ ers; if the G.N.T.C. man must divert essential commodities to his private store or to his favorite petty trader at very high prices to enrich himself; if the petty trader must create artificial shortages in order to cheat honest customers with impunity; if the treasurer and clerk of council must make private profits out of local/urban/ municipal/city council contracts; if the public servants must demand 'gifts' or tips before doing their official work for which they are payed and if scholarships must

®R. S. Rattray, Ashanti Law and Constitution (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969), p. v ii. 77

be given to those who can pay for the 'favours'* then, nay I ask, Whither Are We Drifting?"

This sounds dismal indeed, but in actual fact does not catalogue ade­ quately all the societal ills of our time. Nkrumah summarized it all into "Bribery, Corruption and Nepotism."®

This observable inadequacy exhibited by the products of the educational system cannot be said to be entirely Christian, rather the result of emphasis placed on money economy rather than humane values.

I t has been suggested that perhaps the missionary/educationist has con­ verted the mass of the people but not the communal conscience, result­ ing in "a religious infra-consciousness which is no longer fully pagan, but which has not yet been b ap tised ."^

The sad part of our predicament is that the great mass of our elite are basically not honest* This is sad but, unfortunately, also true. A situation which reflects in the pace of change of governments.

The reports of commissions of enquiries that are set after the fall of each government are sordid records of how low the elite has fallen.

Unfortunately though, there has not been a Commission of Enquiry to determine the basis of these "traditionally unknown vices" that are now taking hold of our culture. We turn a blind eye to causes that turn basically honest to goodness Ghanaians into the corrupt o ffic ia ls that man our government.

®Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, Introduction to the Seven Year Development Plan. 1963/64 - 1971, p. 22.

10t . A. Beetham, Christianity and the New Africa (New York: Praeger, 1967), p. 75. 78

Education will naturally fall In Its objective If It docs not

inculcate a respect for the truth, including the fact that Christian­

ity has failed as an educational vehicle in our land. Wherever the old and the new are intermixed as they are in our society it becomes par­ tic u la rly d iffic u lt to distinguish the true from the fa lse . The temp­

tatio n usually is to assume th at the new is necessarily true and the old false. "The development of this ability to distinguish the true

from the false must be a fundamental objective of education";** in th is regard both the old and the new may participate, where there is only one operating, it is very likely that the other will be branded as

false as in our case. Maybe it is about the old is given a chance too!

Review of Current Newspaper Concerns

The views and concerns expressed here are by no means new.

Indeed most of them have been expressed in various ways and platforms from the time of the Fanti Confederacy to this day. Recently our major two newspapers*^ have (about the frequency of an article every other day) published many private peoples ideas concerning some aspect of our cultu re, education, and national development. These range from what we might describe as the "extreme right" to the "extreme left," __ m that is those who preach total abolishing of what they call "our

**J. McLeod Campbell, African History in the Making (London: Edinburg House Press, 1956), p. 46.

12There are two major newspapers in the country, both are government owned; it will be fair to infer that they only reflect or echo government policy; these are The Daily Graphic and The Ghanaian Times. There is also the Ashanti Pioneer which is privately owned. This paper has been shut and open so many times that one cannot keep track of the number of times, but that goes to prove that the govern­ ment owned ones please those in power. 79

obsolete customs" meaning our cultural heritage, to those who think we

are semi-Europeans, and therefore our educational system must be

reviewed. We might class these groups into perhaps the modernists and

traditionalists. A review of a selection of this current literature

here might help to illustrate the public concern over our plight.

I will not attempt to put these brief reviews in any chrono­

logical order; that will defeat my purpose. I shall endeavour to group

theminto their various spheres of concern: cultural, educational, or

development so as to lay emphasis on a concentration of thought. I

shall also review these ideas without comment so as not to prejudice

the matter at hand. I reckon i t is only by creating an unbiased and

open forum for these ideas, and c ritic a lly examining them that we can

hope to arrive at some solution to our national problems.

In the Daily Graphic of Tuesday, October 30, 1973, there appeared an article by Akosua Kuma about obsolete customs.13 Hiss Kuma argued that majority of the population feel it is now time to get rid

of the old customs that are out of vogue since they do not play any v ita l role in the development of the country. She however suggested

that before any attempt is made to abolish these traditional practices

i t is necessary f ir s t to examine them to see what th e ir fundamental

principles are including their usefulness today. She described the

reason in tradition as "the extent to which that piece of tradition

meets the wants of the practitioners."

^Akosua Kuma, "Education is the Answer," Daily Graphic, Tuesday, October 30, 1973, p. 5. 80

By that criterion Miss Kuma thinks it obvious that many of the current customs have become completely disfunctional, in spite of the fact that "some people even hold the belief that wisdom lies concealed in tradition."

The author rules out laws or decrees to ban these traditions as have been advocated in recent times. She sees "education as one of the major solutions to the obsolete custom problem." She cited the changes that took place during Nkrumah's regime: "minis became fashionable and the traditional clothes were redesigned to give more beauty and smart­ ness to the ladles' appearance" all attributed to the government's educational policy.

Miss Kumasl insisted that if compulsory education is instituted again it would go a long way to help solve a lot of the country's prob­ lems; education as she saw it "is the master-key to most of our politi­ cal, social and economic problems." In a call to chiefs to "Assist Government Change Outmoded

Customs,the Head of State and Chairman of the National Redemption

Council, Col. I. K. Acheampong exhorted chiefs in the country to come out with the customs they consider outmoded in order to assist the government to have them removed. The Chairman stated that i t was better to do it that way rather than the government imposing it on them. A third article that made a call to "Scrap These Inimical Customs"^ was made by Mensah-Agoroampa Okasabour. He supported the

^Report: "Assist Government Change Outmoded Customs," Daily Graphic, Saturday, December 22, 1973, p. 19.

^Mensah-Agoroampa Okasabour, "Scrap These Inimical Customs," Daily Graphic, Tuesday, November 26, 1973, p. 5. 81

call by the Head of State to the chiefs that outmoded customs should be

scrapped. He was specific, naming "the taboo placed on week days that

agriculture work should not be done" as one of the Inimical customary

laws. He feels that if some chiefs or Individuals feel that they

should observe some days in the week "in honour of their deities or

gods" the observance of these days should not be imposed upon the

farmers who depend solely upon agriculture for their livelihood. He

pointed out that "the health of a people is their wealth" and customary

laws which tend to rob the people of th e ir health should be done away with.

Another specific area he touched is "tribal marks." The author

contended that Ghana Is one, and all her people arc one and therefore

do not need marks to Identify them. He pointed out that trib a l marks

arc chief agents to tribalism which breaks a country into fragments,

and therefore anything which tends to create the idea of tribalism

should be discouraged. He touched also on nudity in some parts of the

country, which he called disgraceful. Hr. Okasabour thinks that a ll

these and many more should be scrapped because they do not reflect the

spirit and trend of our development. 16 In "Approach to Cultural Reforms in Ghana," Kwei Orraca-Tetteh

sought to take a stand against those who agitate for scrapping

"inimical" customs. He even supported "ritual murders" and others as

healthy elements in our society.

^Kwei Orraca-Tetteh, "Approach to Cultural Reform in Ghana," Daily Graphic, Wednesday, December 5, 1973, p. 5. 82

Mr. Tetteh cited the custom of honouring women whose children

held their own in the midst of raging infant mortality as healthy. He argued that the obvious implication is that women were encouraged to look after their children well, so that in the end they are honoured.

There were also economic reasons why a high premium was placed on many children, the children helped their parents in their economic endeavour which he contends is a healthy sign in children upbringing.

On the death of a chief in certain areas in Ghana selected persons (the chief's favourite wife, for example) are killed. "These fortunate, yes, fortunate people" accompanied the chief to the land of the departed and served him there as befitting his status. Our tradi­ tional religious belief is that Death is a transition, and our venerated dead or ancestors live their own lives as before. The author saw no reason why anybody should deem himself unfortunate to be chosen to serve a revered chief in that other land of saints and ancestors.

He recognized that this may sound repulsive to Christian teach­ ing which came "with foreign education, but pointed out that Jesus even advocated the measure when he said that "Today shalt thou be with me in

Paradise." The author however pleaded that a substitution of fowls and sheep be given in place of human beings as a recognition of the custom.

Mr. Tetteh touched on and advocated Che preservation of lam­ pooning of people, often rulers and people in public life. He thought this a healthy practice which if modernized for our p oliticians may serve a useful purpose. He emphasized that if we are committed to the preservation of our inalienable rights to criticize those we appoint to administer the affairs of the nation, if we mean to protest and 83

guarantee freedom of speech In Ghana, If we want to establish a

democratic society based on our Indigenous culture, then lampooning should be revived.

There are a few who are advocating the marriage of the old and

the new. Among these are the Right Reverend Peter Akwasi Sarpong,

Catholic Bishop of Kumasi.^ He stressed the need for churches in the

country to introduce some of the nation's rich culture into their worship to make it more meaningful.

He pointed out that churches which ignored the people's culture

in its worship and other church a c tiv itie s would be unable to sustain

the interest of the members. He therefore urged Ghanaians to take keen

interest in their traditions and help to protect them.

Another advocate of this line of thought is Mr. Brew Richardson,

Principal of Wcley College, Kumasi. In an a rtic le en titled "Drumming in Churches"*® Mr. Richardson argued that there is nothing wrong with using refined drumming in the churches to enrich services and "demon­ strate the Majesty of God." He did not elaborate on the word

"refined."

He stressed that members of the Christian sect should study all aspects of the cultural heritage of the country and adopt those which were not contrary to Christian teaching. "Culture grows," he said,

"and as Ghanaians grow with i t , i t is incumbent upon them to discard

l^Right Reverend Peter Akwasi Sarpong, "Introduce Culture in Worship," Ghanaian Times, January 8, 1974, p. 12.

*®Brew Richardson, "Drumming Churches," Dally Graphic, Monday, February 11, 1974, No. 7259, p. 1. 84 the outmoded ones and Improve upon the good ones while adopting them to their ways of life."

He saw nothing wrong with, for Instance, a priest who would put down his cassock and go Into the pulpit to preach In a national attire.

He pointed out that the Methodist church has started this trend by the Introduction Into their worship (Ablbinwotn" (African hymns), as an

Introduction of Ghanaian culture Into worship In the churches.

"Culture, Tradition and Development" was a contribution made by

Kwame Vorkeh.His thesis is that there must be cultural continuity if there should be cohesion and unity In any given society, but that Is not the same as saying that we should make ourselves slaves to the tradition of our forefathers. He pointed out that It Is plain super­ stitio n unjustifiable on any rationale or scien tific grounds for example, to kill people when a chief dies so that their souls may accompany that of the dead chief to serve him in the next world. Sci­ en tific knowledge and practice must become part of our culture. He stressed that as a nation we must take our bearing correctly and know exactly what we are doing at any particular time, which means we must appreciate the meaning of culture which he defined as "the state of civilization among a people."

Mr. Vorkeh mentioned the fact that there is beginning to emerge a cultural cleavage in our society along the generation gap which is unhealthy for both young and old. He also reiterated that the culture of any people is dynamic, and cannot be sta tic if the people are to

l^Kwame Vorkeh, "Culture, Tradition and Development," Daily Graphic, October 30, 1973, p. 5. 85 grow. When cultural change ceases to keep pace with the economic and educational advance of a people this provides fe rtile grounds for revolution, civil war, and other social unrest, he says.

He however made It clear that the cultural heritage of a people has tremendous Influence on their current way of living, but with us it is clear that we are now passing through an intense period of transi­ tion, when the demands for greater economic security Is weighing heavily on us. We must therefore guard against anything which may tie us down to any particular way of life which may in fact be irrelevant to our circumstances, and act as a drawback to our development.

Mr. Vorkeh concluded that the time is fast approaching when one could speak of Ghanaian culture, that will be when we attain greater national integration. He emphasized that our culture at present is In a state of transition and no one should attempt to shackle it by tying it to tradition; and stressed that Ghana cannot forever continue to live in the past.

Mr. Obeng-Wlafe poses the question "What Ideology for Ghana" in the Ghanaian Times2** He dwelled on the already existing class distinction among us before independence. There were the "lettered" politicians or the Intellectuals and the unlettered who came to be called the "verandah boys." These became the capitalists and the socialists in our midst. This division, he pointed out, has done more harm than good to our country. It is high time, he says, we realized the need for our building a just and progressive society using the lessons and experiences of our immediate past.

Obeng-Wiafe, "What Ideology for Ghana," Ghanaian Times. Thursday, February 7, 1974, p. 6. 86

Mr. Wiafe suggests that Ghanaians should make conscious effort

"to use purposeful education to indoctrinate the youth" in order that they might develop the needed spirit of patriotism for nation building.

He thinks that adults too must be re-educated to realize the place of patriotism in nation building; this he contends will save the country from the c o n flict between the young and the old. The author suggests also that it is only when an ideology for Ghana derives its strength from our tra d itio n a l "Nnoboa" (helping one another) system that the ordinary people could cooperate with the rich. He stressed that if the leaders use the past as their guide to do the wishes of the people they could help Ghanaians to have a meaningful political ideology for national progress.

Osei Boateng's contribution was titled "What's In a Name? It

Shows State of a Culture. His thesis is that the cultural clement as well as the pride derived from the appreciation of being one's natural self are cherished goals in an era of revolution such as is currently existing in Ghana. The expression "our rich cultural heritage" is in vogue, but whether or not any headway has been made towards that goal is another matter.

He points out that the tragedy of 1482 is not so much the visible aspect of culture relating to our style of dress which has already received wide publicity and criticism as the names we bear; names acquired by inheritance from father to son as a result of inter­ marriage between Europeans and Ghanaians. There are of course others

^Osel Boateng, "What's In a Name? It Shows State of Culture," Daily Graphic, Friday, January 4, 1974, p. 10. 87 who by virtue of their lack of appreciation for cultural values adopt foreign names because of their phonic values; a fact which borders on the unnatural trait which makes black African women turn Pseudo-

Europeans.

Mr. Boeteng also pointed out another aspect, that is some streets in Accra having such "ridiculous London-styled names as

'Switch-Back Road* and First, second, third or seventh Crescent" which could be given more informative names. He thinks that the continued existence of these names of so many years of independence is a pointer to our lack of cultural direction and so long as we continue to pay lip-service without the effort to spell out these cherished cultural ideals and a formula for achieving them so long shall we continue to clamour for anything foreign and suffer the loss of our national pride

In our natural selves.

It is high time we started educating the public on the need to accord our culture the prominence it deserves in our own country. Wc should realize that "our culture is not as 'black1 as it has been painted"; we therefore have a duty to uphold Ghana's true image, not merely by publicizing ourselves with well-thought-out suggestions but by a purposeful return to the cultural status quo ante 1482 however painful it may be, he concluded.

There are many, many more such concerns that are worth the review; the selection here however will suffice to show the public concern over a dwindling cultural heritage.

It is necessary at this stage, before closing the chapter, to clarify a point or two concerning the process of acculturation that 88 has taken place. While it is essential to recognize that there has been a strong Christian and therefore European cultural influence as a premise from which to work out any logical analysis, it is also impcratire to appreciate the fact that whatever acculturation has taken place has been reciprocal. Any analysis without this basis can be misleading.

The Ghanaian by nature is very much receptive to change and new ideas; th is may have been a contributory factor in the accultura­ tion process. There were also factors like strife among ethnic groups and chieftaincy persecutions which drove some Ghanaians to the missionaries. In effect while the alien culture was eager to propa­ gate its ideology and philosophy, the Ghanaian to some degree was also receptive and ready to absorb.

What we are today therefore can be said to be the result of the church's (European) eagerness to give plus the Ghanaian preparedness, if not willingness, to receive. Any analysis of the factors dis­ rupting national cultural upliftment that fails to work with this as a point in view, may be misleading. I shall elaborate further on this issue at a la te r stage; at th is juncture i t needs only to be recognized that I do not plan to condone what v irtu ally amounted to Ghanaian participation in dismantling the traditional culture. CHAPTER IV

DEDUCTIVE INFERENCES1

Summary and Conclusions

Out of the mass of material, particularly from the historical background, so far presented here some basic inferences can be drawn which can help us reach certain conclusions concerning the Channian school system, the Christian role in that system, and how these go to mould the Ghanaian e lite and above a ll the effect of a ll these on national development.

I shall devote this chapter to these inferences and then try to make a summary and draw conclusions out of what can be inferred.

In other words I shall endeavour to use these inferences to support my hypothesis that there exists a rationale for a radical innovation in the general Ghanaian education and particularly in a rt education.

My deductive inferences will be that rationale.

Deductions and Inferences

The most serious obstacle to development is easily corruption and i t has been suggested, i f not proven, that the Ghanaian e lite is

*An inference is the drawing of a conclusion from promises that is a logical leap from the premises to the conclusion. An infer­ ence is deductive if the underlying logic is deduction (that is, the conclusion follows necessarily from one or more given premises).

89 90 absolutely corrupt,^ a situation that has been described as a "colonial hangover." The Commissions of Enquiry that have been set up by each succeeding government have pronounced unequivocally that the predeces­ sor government had been corrupt to the core. Indeed Nkrumah's own government admitted the fact^ but classified it as "the effects of the imposition of money economy on our traditional systems." Ghanaians were therefore not surprised at all when after that government was overthrown they were judged by the court of the land to be absolutely corrupt.

These corrupt elite are the products of the educational system, an institution created to pass on from generation to generation the best in that culture and to maintain or perpetuate it. If bribery and corruption is alien to the culture, how come the cancer has eaten into the very social fabric? ("It was the elite who had come through the

^Republic of Ghana: Report of the Jiagge Commission Appointed under the Commissions of Enquiry Act 1964 (Act 250), Decree No. NLCD 72, Assets of Specified Persons, Vols. I, II, and III. Republic of Ghana: Report of the Sowah CommissionAppointed under the Commissions of Enquiry Act 1965 (Act 250), Decree No. NLCD 72, Assets of Specified Persons, Vols. I, II, and III. Republic of Ghana: Report of the Committee ofEnquiry on the erstwhile Football Pools Authority, August, 1966. I t is not necessary to name a ll the commissions of enquiry that have probed every fallen government in Ghana since independence, it may suffice just to note the fact they all point out, that there had always been bribery and corruption.

^Convention Peoples Party Programme, Appendix B, pp. 402-403, already extensively quoted here, admits the facts of the corrupt Ghanaian e lite . 91 schools set up In Africa by the European who had to take charge of the political destiny of most of the African countries.")^

The answer to such a question lies in the fact that although the schools are being run by Africans today, they are still basically alien and therefore reflect not only alien blessings but alien ills as well. Ghana's d iffic u ltie s therefore arise "partly from the edu­ cational system inherited from the colonial period, and partly from the accent which had been put during the past fifteen years on the quanti­ tative aspect"^ rather than the qualitative aspect of education. It becomes evident therefore that while this present educational system exists and turns out products with alien philosophy into society, there can be no hope for development, whatever development. Any study for development must therefore put a special focus on education, and it is when the institution begins to reflect the Ghanaian philosophy of life that development may be envisaged.

Another point, i f the Ghanaian e lite is corrupt, and corruption is alien to the Indigenous Ghanaian culture, then i t is fair to infer that the Ghanaian elite is alienated. Of course this alienation has been recognized for quite some time now (Ghanaian Newspaper Discussions) but the discussions have centered around dress and such visual aspects of behaviour. It is gratifying though to note that even the elite themselves are aware of this fact since they happen to be the very authors of the newspaper articles concerned. Here again one must turn

^Amadon Mahtar Mibow, Deputy Director General for Education, UNESCO. In answer to questions by Association News, No. 25, May-June, 1974, pp. 17-24. ^Editor, Association News, No. 25, May-June, 1974, p. 18. 92 to the school system, since our alienation is connected with corruption and corruption has been traced to the school, creating what can be described as a vicious circle.

Another serious deductive inference that should not escape scrutiny is the fact that emerges from the historical background of our educational development; that our education is not only alien inspired but Christian Inspired as well and therefore Christian orientated and reflects no coherent national purpose or goal.

The Christian tradition has its norms and values, norms and values which may come into sharp conflict with the Ghanaian national purpose, Including cultural development. One such conflict may be the aims and aspirations of a Republic of Ghana, and the norms and ideals of the "Christian Kingdom" of God on earth. Such considerations put into sharp focus the other conflicting issues that are likely to arise not only within the nation but also in individuals. The national area of the conflict may be resolved by confrontation between the church and the state, and this was the warning A. L. Adu gave; but how can the individual come to terms with his individuality when he is torn between opposing Ideals and norms?

X have already suggested that when we set up institutions that create conflicts we begin to train schizophrenics or at least charac­ ters with such tendencies, and development, individual or national, cannot be built on divided personalities.

Other inferences can be made. The history of the educational system points out clearly that in fact education started with the mulatto children. These were supposed to succeed the eventual return 93 of the European. In a sense therefore education in its early stages was the path to social promotion or rather the path to the "castle."

What is sad about this is the fact that instead of education being used as service to the people, it became a mark in social standing in society that qualifies the educated to live above the general culture.

This is understandable considering the fact that that was the education in the very imperial countries where education was a privilege for the royal classes and therefore denied the lower classes no matter how intelligent. It is even debatable whether this aspect has changed, there are still elements of this class education existing today.

This aspect of education as path to social promotion may amount to nothing if the colour syndrome has not consciously or unconsciously become part of the issue. Europeans (or whites) came with their educa­ tion, they passed this on, not to the general public but to their mulatto offsprings, making education a thing for the whites or near- whites only. It may be the lot of psychology students to find the basis of bleaching the skin that is quite in vogue today in Ghana, but I will have no hesitation to suggest that the unfortunate masses may find i t psychologically rewarded as far as social standing is con­ cerned to look at least (if not be) like the "educated." Although bleaching soaps and creams are banned, they are s t i l l used with such relish that one cannot ignore the issue.

It reduces to the same fact, already stated here that the school system to all intents and purposes is alienated, and therefore its products are alienated as well. To liberate the products, it must 94

first be necessary to liberate the school system, a rationale that

support a radical innovation.

My last inference has already been extensively inferred through

this exercise, that is what art education exists in the schools and

its role.

It is evident that Ghanaian art is religiously inclined (tradi­

tional ethnic religion), and it is also evident that the school system

is Christian orientated. In such circumstances it is fair to infer

that the school harbours no art from the Ghanaian culture. This is a

fair statement of the situation as revealed in the West African Examl- g nations Syllabus. If the premise is accepted that African life (and

Ghanaian life) is inseparable from African religion, and African reli­

gion is an integral part of African art, or in other words African art

is an interpretation of African religion and the religion itself is a complex mixture of norms, ideals, and commitments, i t becomes suicidal I for a people to divorce the cultural transmitting agency from the norms

that sustain the culture. Such education is an education in a vacuum.

And education in a vacuum cannot hope to bring about or even generate

any development, le t alone economic development.

Unfortunate as it is most of the problem of developing nations have been heaped on the "colonialists," a word that has become synony­ mous with exploitation. There is evidence to support the colonialists

claim, however, that they intended to hand over government to the

peoples they ruled at some stage, a policy they called "Indirect Uule."

^The West African Examinations Council Regulations and Syllabuses for the Joint Examinations for the School C ertificate and General C ertificate of Education, 1974, pp. 32-38. 95

The very fact: that the colonialists started by educating the mulattoes and later children from royal families support their claim. Hut that policy created in itself conflicts. While Indirect Rule attempted to use chieftaincy, an indigenous system of authority for purposes of what they thought of as development and change, the "very purpose of chieftaincy and indigenous tribal authority was to preserve the status quo" a further co n flict that confuses the Ghanaian personality. The need in the schools is to resolve these conflicts, and start afresh.

"Conflicts" best describes the Ghanaian personality, conflicts in all spheres of life. Conflicts between the contemporary and the trad itio n al, between Europeanism and Africanism, between loyalties and commitments, conflicts between the rural and the urban, between the e lite and the "hewers of wood and fetchers of water," co n flict is in the very Ghanaian personality. Let us look at a few selected areas of specific conflicts.

Conflict in marriage, the elite who attempt to live a

"civilized" life marry in accordance with the civil law, all the same they keep wives like the illiterate with no "polygymy" committed.

Indeed the very law supports such marriages and offsprings, because that law also supports trad itio n al polygamous marriage.

Furthermore, there are Ghanaian homes, where the children are not allowed to speak their mother tongue although the parents speak theirs, the vogue is on English. Such children speak some "English" but it is the local "English" not the Englishman's English. What conflicts such conditions create in such families has not been 96 determined, but it will not be unfair to state that some sort of conflict will exist.

I can go on to catalogue more of this, but that is not the exercise; these will suffice to support a re-examination at a national level, with national ldeal3 and aspiration as the ultimate goal; out of such study the foundations for true national development w ill be laid .

Summary and Conclusion

What this analysis has attempted is to look beyond the immedi­ ate problems in Ghana and tried to focus on aspects of the past that might have generated those problems in the first place. The logic in this regard is that it is pointless to try to solve the problem without uprooting the root cause of those problems.

The issues I have highlighted are not new, and they all seem to end up as lack of development—economic development. In this light the solutions that had been suggested have been economic solutions. This present examination differs in this light. What I have tried to do is to extend the solution to human development, embracing cultural devel­ opment, that is if economic development w ill be attainable.

The history of Ghana teaches so much that should help look at the matter from the historical perspective. Apart from the national history, there is also the history and development of the Educational system that sheds some light on the problems. These historical reviews point out that Ghana is not treading the paths that the fore­ fathers trod; that caught in the "development race" we are shedding 97 the traditional cloak that seems to drag us behind without really examining the true causes of our downward trend.

The summary of Ghana's problem is this: that the Ghanaian elite is alienated; this has been established more or less as a fact, and Ghanaians are openly discussing the matter in an open forum.

I have tried to say that the source of our difficulties hinges on this alienation which is in turn generated from our school system.

The rationale for this is that "only as an individual is taught in situations that stir feelings and loyalties can moral commitments be used to develop character," and it is only when character is developed that there cnn be true developments. The question is, has that situa­ tion which can s t i r feelings and loyalties been created in the school system?

My contention is that Art Education can be used to create the situations necessary for moral commitments. But true a rt education strong enough to stir feelings and loyalties cannot be admitted into the school system in its present structure.

A conclusion therefore can be inferred as to what should be done to our schools or the Christian element within it. There are two sides of the issue. Me can forget our past and stop creating confusion in the school. That is by implementing an educational system free from

Ghanaian strings and based entirely on a European prototype; or we may attempt to build an educational system wholly African in content. In any of these there surely will be some aspect of the other influencing the situation, but that will only be a normal and natural process of 98 acculturation. What is wrong in the present system is the adulteration of one with the hope of building the other.

The conflict in the Ghanaian personality is therefore between the Christian philosophy in the school and the (African) Ghanaian loyalties and commitment at home. By resolving this conflict we may also in the process resolve the development (economic or whatever) problem. The product of the school, having been Imbued with traditional norms and loyalties w ill then have a new conception of dynamics by which the individual can transcend his ego-centered goals and embrace the collective aims of the entire society, and perhaps of the human race.

Those commitments can best be imbued through art education—that embraces far more than drawing and paintings. CHAPTER V

REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Problems of African development^ have usually been studied from

the economic point of view, probably because development had been

thought of in economic terms and the words development and the economy have been looked at synonymously. Such students have worked from the premise that when there is "money" there will be progress (development),

in other words abundant raw material plus huge mineral deposits should l i f t a country from the ranks of the "Underdeveloped or Developing" to the "Developed" country class. This certainly is a fallacy, particu­ larly when we realize that most (if not all) of the oil-rich African and Middle East nations arc still "developing," if not "underdeveloped" nations.

Unfortunately, politicians have taken to this belief and arc

doing their worst to bring about in their various countries some development—economic development. In Ghana the goal has been quite elusive and both politicians and the masses are beginning to question

*T. R. Batten,' Problems of African Development (Oxford University Press, 1954), Parts I and II.

99 100

the whole essence of self-government. But as I have mentioned e arlier

this Is a slave attitude currently dubbed "colo."^

Ghana's problems are numerous—economic, p o litic a l, social,

spiritual, even cultural; all these became apparent after independence.

Not that before independence the problems were not there, that is far

from the truth. Indeed these problems existed during the colonial era

but were not made evident consciously or unconsciously by the colonial

government.

It is worth noting, and I have done so here, that before

colonization Ghana as we have i t today was made up of fluid conglomera­

tion of peoples and cultures^ very closely related and what differences

existed seem to have been environmental. Greenberg, Westcrroann, and

Sik^ agree on this issue and point out that "the vast territory bounded by the Sahara and the Upper Guinea Coast with its imaginary continua­

tion along 5°N. Int. from the Atlantic to the Nile, apart from a minor stratum of Arab and Berber elements, represent one great family of the

Sudanese Peoples." Within this conglomeration existed shades of

cultures which the colonialists, with mere imaginary demarcations, cut up to create Ghana and the other West African states today. This is

2"Colo" is a word coined from colonial mentality. The youth use the word as an insult to backward thinking and sometimes to old fashioned behaviour, whether in dress, manners, or in attitude.

^Simon and Phoebe Ottenberg, "Africa and its Peoples," Cultures and Societies of Africa (New York: Random House, 1960), pp. 3-84.

^Joseph H. Greenberg, The Languages of Africa (Bloomington, 1963), p. 6; Andre Sik, The History of Black Africa (Budapest, 1966), p. 46; Detrich Westermann and M. A. Bryan, Handbook of African Languages, Part I I, "Languages of West Africa," (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), p. 76. 101

significant because (although there was one cultural root) these shades of peoples had to be welded into one nation, a most formidable

task. The colonialists solved the problem by attempting to plant

their cultures, an easier task; this is the picture in the West

African states today—the French West African states are quite dif­

ferent (apart from their African origin) from the English states like

Ghana.

Ghana's first problem at independence was the question of how

to shed the English cloak and adorn herself with the "African per­ sonality"; a task which has not been possible, not yet. This

"English Cloak" thing has generated quite a b it of discussions in the national journals in recent times—some of which have been reviewed here. This discussions have centered around the question: "Are We

Ghanaians or Semi-Europeans?" The pros have agitated for a complete severing of European attitudes and the cons have taken a stand against what they c all inimical customs s t i l l persisting in our midst. This study sides with the pros.

Why is it necessary to shed the alien cloak? I have adopted

the view that to bring about development, and I mean overall national development, there must first be some understanding and recognition of

the forces and elements at work within the environment—this our ancestors did (they would not have survived otherwise in an environment

that devoured everything). Our alienation and therefore rejection of

those elements which make the values, norms, and loyal commitments is

the basis of our in ab ility to solve our problems in a Ghanaian context.

Since this state of affairs has existed for such a long time, to 102 understand our state of confusion, It is necessary to look back and examine our giant steps Into "civilization" more of a diagnosis of the situation; to arrive at a solution there must be an understanding of

the problem.

Ghana's recent history that has been reviewed here reveals some

grim facts. The facts that emerge show that not only have Ghanaians been Europeanized but they have been Christianized as well. In fact

it is In the process of Christianizing that the Europeanizing has been

possible (but this cannot be said to have been achieved without Ghanaian

contribution). It is surely wrong to impose some outside existing

culture (French, English, German, Portuguese) on new Christians as part of the conversion process; and this does not necessarily mean that

Christianity can simply be grafted onto some existing native culture—

the very idea being a denial both of what Christianity is and what culture is. My stand is that religious revolution must involve social and cultural revolution if i t is to be worthy of the name. Missionary adaptation therefore should mean basically "allowing a new pattern to

evolve both ecclesiastically and culturally. "•* This point must be made clear and stressed. There can be no question of grafting the

Christian spirit on to a culture and expect that, apart from the

excision of a few incompatible institutions the old culture will

survive the operation—Ghanaian culture Christianized is quite unrec­

ognizable. In the same vein, it is only suicidal, attempting to

uproot a culture in order to Christianize—which is what happened in

^Adrian Hastings, Church and Mission in Africa (Bronx, N. Y.: Fordham University Press, 1967), p. 29. 103

Ghana. This Is deduced from the philosophy of the Christian sects or denominations that came to Ghana. "Christ and Culture are paradoxi­ cally opposed"—Luther; "Christ changes culture because He is its

Saviour—Calvin and Wesley. 6 The stand here is that this is wrong.

A very subtle cultural conflict exists in this regard partic­ ularly i f we recognize that within the European culture its e lf there exist dramatic contradictions—the urge for power and the idea of cooperation. It should be obvious that "any society which says to its growing children, on the one hand: 'You w ill be secure, if you arc successful. Get to the top. Dominate before you are dominated. Use people before you get used* and on the other hand 'Be pleasant and polite or people won't like you.' 'Selfishness is wrong. Love your neighbour as yourself' produces confused individuals who will find it hard to become consistently free and responsible and truly demo­ cratic..."^ Such characters Karen Horney called "The Neurotic

O Personality of our time, the children of our culture."

Such contradictions existing with the alien culture itself as against the Ghanaian background puts into clear perspective the present Ghanaian character. It is no surprise at all therefore that within a space of seventeen years three army coups have taken place, not mentioning the numerous attempts at counter-coups. No people can

^G. C. Oosthulzen, Post-Christianity in Africa (London: C. Hurst & Co., 1968), p. 23.

^H. S. Fisher, "Children in the World Today" in Linton, Fisher and Ryan's Culture and Personality (Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education, 1953), pp. 21-23. 104 develop upon such basis. I maintain that there is more to development than ju st se lf-ru le or economic emancipation.

Then there is also the question of education. Ghana's histori­ cal background reveals that the system as i t exists today is not much different from the "colonial schools" of that period. But this is because the educational system was originated by both the Christian missionaries and the colonial administrators. In their efforts to achieve their separate goals (the first to Christianize, and the other to govern) education became a tool, or better s till a means to an end. It becomes questionable as to whether our educational system as we have it today is playing its role as an institution.

Education has been recognized universally "as the preservation and transmission of cultural heritage, an instrument for transforming 9 culture and as the means for individual development. To achieve these aims as our educational goals, there must be first and foremost an understanding of what our environment is, what i t holds, and by what dynamics i t operates. It is with such knowledge that we can hope to achieve development through education.

It is sad to note that the opposite is the case. Our system is based upon the English system of education with English aspirations.

From the day a child enters the school in class one to the day he emerges out of that system as a graduate he is cut entirely from the

Ghanaian society. There are cases where special boarding houses are kept to achieve the maximum in alienation. In history the child

^Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice (Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1962), p. 39. 105 learns about Sir Halter Raleigh, the Battle of Hastings, the rise and fall of the Roman Empire, Christopher Columbus, and a host of other alien personalities and their achievements. In science he learns about plants and animals he may never see in his whole lif e , and of course he learns to read and write good English plus some arithmetic.

It may be false to claim that this is the picture today in the

Ghanaian classroom, but the picture today is not far from yesterday's.

In this regard education is not transmitting the accumulated wisdom of the race, the basic truths and values of the culture.

It can be argued that the family can put in what the educa­ tional system leaves off, this is not the case; for one thing rapidity of change, industrialization and consequently urbanization have all weakened the ability of the family to make any meaningful contribution.

Our development therefore as a people is entirely dependent upon a system that has no "cultural relevancy" and therefore reflecting no coherent national purpose or consensus. He may ask as Taba did:

"Can our civilization achieve a durable peace, fashion a stable economy and bring opportunity, security, and well-being to a ll"^ under such circumstances? The answer w ill be found in our present state of affairs.

Hhy the educational system has no cultural relevancy rests on the facts of the nature of the Ghanaian culture itself* Our culture which in itself is entrenched in our art is by its nature religious. I have already stated that Ghana's educational system is religiously inspired although alien in character. This creates a

10Ib id ., p. 39. 106 confrontation of a destructive nature. The forces that formulated and built the system made sure that this confrontation does not take place in the classroom—and rightly so; that is if further conflicts should be avoided. It is therefore reasonable, at least for the administrators of the school, to bar Ghanaian art entirely from the educational system. Thus education itself became a factor, and a most formidable factor at that, in the eradication and perhaps destruction of the Ghanaian culture, but this is only because the system happens to be Christian inspired.

Culture is a whole complex embracing an extremely wide range of human phenomena: norms, beliefs, and feelings--such as loyalty to certain standards, manners, and morals. Without the culture in the formative years in the school it becomes doubtful whether these norms and loyalties that go to build character are Inculcated. May be yes, but such loyalties and morals w ill surely be alien and therefore w ill have no "relevancy or currency." It becomes apparent therefore that a nation (Ghana) cannot be developed, that is if the basis of national development rest upon the foundations of individual development. "Only as an individual is taught in situations that stir feelings and loyalties con moral commitments be used to develop character.It is upon such individuals with character that Ghana can hope to build a nation with some stability.

It must be mentioned, however, that whether Christianity gives way for cultural material or not, the inevitable is bound to happen sooner or later. This danger has been pointed out quite often to the

^ I b i d . , p. 45. 107

Christian churches; such a warning was given by Mr. A. L. Adu, a

Ghanaian scholar when he said that:

"I think there is a danger in relying too much on the facilities provided in the schools, it makes the churches vulnerable to sta te Intervention and may even bring them into conflict with the state Government."12

Such confrontations must be avoided at all costs. It is up to the leaders of the Christian church to make the move (in fact it is in the long term in te rest of the churches) to gradually phase out church participation in the educational system. It is only upon such radical

Innovation that there can be hope for survival, cultural survival, not only for the state but also for the Christian church.

Whatever blame I have heaped upon the Christian church in previous chapters it is only fair at this stage to clarify, and perhaps emphasize, that Christianization, Europeanization, or whatever accul­ turation that had taken place to overwhelm the traditional Ghanaian culture had not been entirely without Ghanaian ethnic condonation and even participation. In other words whatever predicament we find our­ selves in today cannot entirely be blamed upon those we now call

"colonialists," "imperialists," or "neo-colonialists." If anything,

I am of the opinion that we need rather to be grateful. After all those missionaries gave up their countries and all the comforts of a

"civilized world" to sojourn into an unknown world to propagate what they genuinely believed to be a "Godly" and a "civilized" approach to life (though this may be open to question as I have done).

■‘■‘Quoted1 9 by Dr. Robinson, The Churches, Schools and Religious Liberty (After, January, 1965), pp. 9-10. 108

We may also admit that what the Oiristian missionaries found was a fertile ground for their work. They arrived at a time when ethnic strife was at its highest (the Ga were fighting the Ashanti at the time). This coupled with the slave trade (and therefore slave raids—with special reference to Samori and Babatu) did help the

Christian e ffo rt. Ghanaians who feared being sold into slavery or those that escaped from some kind of tyranny at the hands of chiefs found refuge and salvation in the Christian fold.

The humane contribution of missionary doctors should not be overlooked. Those suffering masses who found treatment in those mis­ sion hospitals embraced the missionary doctors as benefactors and saviours—and rightly so.

Another significant element that may be the greatest contribu­ tory factor in the acculturation process is existing ethnic attitudes and concepts to change. A typical example of this is the notion that everything new or foreign is good. The "Afro-Craze" today can be attributed to this concept. While some cultures seem to be suspicious to new ideologies and therefore resist any inroads, ours tend to embrace. In effect, though we may be shouting and chanting "African

Personality" slogans, yet we still go for the things that give a public image of an elite, like bleaching the skin, straightening the hair, or wearing mini-skirts.

The point I wish to emphasize is that i t w ill be erroneous to blame Christianity entirely for whatever woes we have; and it will be a fu tile exercise to f a ll to examine our nature (and therefore our contribution to what exists today). For one thing, i t is a fact that 109

Christianity went to some other countries that today show a useful, if not advantageous, coexistence of the old and the new; Japan is often cited as a case in point. All in all therefore, our woes are in effect, to a large extent, home based and any diagnosis that does not recognize that fact cannot be helpful in formulating any remedial policies.

It is necessary to point out in conclusion that my effort therefore is no agitation for severance of Christian principles, indeed i t is for the enhancement of those principles in a Ghanaian context that it becomes a necessary operation. We arc in confused times, religious confusion, cultural confusion, political confusion, social confusion, economic confusion. To sort things out it is necessary first to examine our priorities as a people; when those priorities become apparent to the masses, the revolution will be on its way; right now the churches have a chance to make amends through a peaceful and gradual change, art education with a Ghanaian context w ill take over from the ruins and our development w ill s ta rt from there. Paradoxically by seeking the libera­ tion of African culture (art) it may bring about the liberation of the

Christian church as well.

Recommendations

Previous chapters bring some solutions to the fore, or at least tend to be suggestive. It is easy therefore to fall into the temptation of subscribing to what might look to be obvious. In a situation as explosive as this, the obvious may not necessarily be the solution to the problem; indeed it may be the flame that might Ignite an already charged set-up. 110

In this regard any recomnendatlons meant to remedy the situa­ tion must take into consideration factors that are likely to be hin­ drances, if not obstacles, to the Implementation of any new innovative program. One such obstacle in this particular situation is the fact that whatever innovation is recommended w ill eventually be implemented in the classroom floor by teachers who are already part of the system.

In this light the teachers must first be receptive and sympathetic to the program if any hope of success can be entertained. Illich recog­ nized this factor in his call for "Deschooling Society" when he said that "The secularization of the Christian faith depends on the dedica­ tion to it on the part of Christians rooted in the church. In much the same way, the deschooling of education depends on the leadership of those brought up in the schools."13

To talk therefore of phasing out the "cultural material of

Christian teaching" from the school system so as to pave the way for cultural indoctrination must first take into consideration the fact that the teachers who will implement it are Christians; in fact the entire hierarchy of the Ghanaian educational system is Christian orientated; it therefore will be a futile exercise to attempt any anti-

Christianity innovations within the school system without first winning the Christian conscience. This is a formidable if not insurmountable task. What it amounts to is telling the teacher that his Christian ways are bad and must give those up for traditional and cultural par­ ticipation in the school. I cannot honestly see this suggestion being

l^Ivan HHch, Deschooling Society (New York: Harper and Row, 1970), p. 24. I l l received, much more being implemented. But that is because the onus of the matter is on the traditionalists. This was my stand before I started working on this exercise, but further study of the problem points to a more reasonable if not realistic approach.

What has been pointed out by A. L. A du,^ and must be recog­ nized is the fact that it is in fact in the interest of the Christian church to operate outside the school system. The danger for the

Christian church in operating within the school system is that where a foreign enterprise and/or ideology depends upon a sta te financed organization for its existence and propagation, that foreign organiza­ tion runs the risk of castration should it come into any conflict with the state. Another thing, such a foreign enterprise can easily be blackmailed into compromising i ts ideology to suit state norms, bring­ ing about adulteration of the original ideology. What has happened to

Christianity in Ghana cannot be said to be far from adulteration. Per­ haps that is what Bccthan calls "a religious infra-consciousness which is no longer fully pagan, but which has not yet been baptized.

When the question is put into such perspectives a clearer picture unfolds which puts the onus of the matter into the laps of the church, and definitely not on the traditionalist. So that the exercise becomes one of withdrawal rather than ejection, and these are poles apart—one is cooperation which may generate coordination, the other is rejection which may forment resentment. When the church realizes

^A . L. Adu: A Ghanaian scholar f ir s t sounded the warning of state intervention should the church come into conflict with the state. He has been quoted by Welboum (1965) in th is regard.

*-*T. A. Beethan, C hristianity and the New Africa (New York: Praeger, 1967), p. 75. 112

Chat its very existence in the school exposes it to state intervention and therefore can be manipulated or even strangled in the face of state interests it becomes apparent that the church in her own interest, and for the sake of true Christianity, must start some phasing out program to pave the way for cultural participation in the school; that is if the ideal of a "Christian world that preserves within its unity all the diversities that the Maker cared to create" must be realized.

From this point of view, a new re-educational program w ill have to be implemented, particularly educational and para-educational per- sonncl as to what education is for and can do. The "Adult Education" programs within some of the universities may play a useful role by organizing "refresher courses" and summer programs in an effo rt to bring about a deeper awareness of teachers and educational personnel, as well as the hard core Christian militants. The whole exercise, though radical, must be one of understanding, appreciation, and coopera­ tion rather than conflicts and upheavals.

When the church has withdrawn from the educational system, art education w ill have a meaning, the curriculum w ill reflect a greater understanding of the dynamics of Ghanaian lif e , and deeper insights into Africanncss will be apparent. For these and other rewarding heights to be reached in the educational system in general and art education in particular it is a necessary first step to phase out the

16Adult Education: The University of Ghana runs adult educa­ tion classes geared towards educating adults without university entrance requirements. Such a forum can be ideal for the exercise of re-education on what education is and can do for the state and the role a rt can play in such development. 113 present cultural confusion. This of course may not necessarily be the end of Ghana’s problems, but may shed the necessary light that may lead us out of the present gloom. APPENDIX A 115

TEACHING SERVICE DECREE—N.R.C.D. 247

While s t i l l working on th is dissertation, the present govern ment of Ghana published what they called the Teaching Service Decree as an effort to improve the lot of teachers in particular and the

Educational system in general. Because of its significance in our time I produce it here verbatim. What this will mean eventually to the classroom teacher who, in the long analysis is the crust of the service, is yet to be seen.

A DECREE giving legal backing to the establish­ ment of the Ghana Teaching Service was published in Accra yesterday. The decree—N.R.C.D. 247—also makes the Ghana Teaching Service a part of the Public Services.

The following is a text of the decree:

PART I —ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GHANA TEACHING SERVICE

There shall be established the Ghana Teaching Service in this decree referred to as "the Service" which shall form part of the Public Services of Ghana.

PART II—MEMBERSHIP OF THE SERVICE

The following shall be members of the Service:

All teachers and non-teaching supporting personnel in pre-university educational institutions in the public systems;

All professional staff in the Civil Service in the Ministry of Education at the commencement of this decree;

All persons In the administrative, executive, accounting, secretarial and clerical classes in the Ministry of Education at the commencement of this decree;

All managers of schools and their supporting staff at the commencement of this decree; and

All other supporting staff of the Ministry of Education at the commencement of this decree. 116

PART I I I —FUNCTIONS OF THE SERVICE

The Functions of the service are:

To manage, supervise and inspect pre-university educational Institutions;

INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS

To register, supervise and inspect private schools;

To provide teacher education, general education, special education (such as education of the handicapped), technical and business education;

To arrange to register teachers;

To encourage the development and publication of textbooks;

To maintain professional standards and conduct of its members;

To promote the efficiency and the full development of talents among its members;

To draw up educational policies and programmes; and

To carry on such activities as are conducive or incidental to the attainment of its objectives under this decree. PART IV—-THE COUNCIL The governing body of the service shall be a council. The council shall consist of the eleven persons appointed by the National Redemption Council on the recommendation of the Commissioner responsible for Education. They are a chairman, one member of the Public Services Commission, three distinguished educationists one of whom shall be a woman, two eminent citizens, two persons representing religious bodies, the Principal Secretary of the Ministry responsible for Education, and a Director-General. 117

No person shall be qualified to be a member of the council who has been sentenced to death or to a term of imprisonment without option of a fine or has been convicted of an offence involving dishonesty or moral turpitude and has not, in each case, been granted a pardon.

No person shall be qualified to be a member of the council, if having been declared as an insolvent or bankrupt under any law for the time being in force in Ghana or in any other country is an undischarged insolvent or bankrupt.

The members of the council other than the Director-General and the Principal Secretary of the Ministry responsible for Education shall hold office for three years.

Any member of the council other than the Director-General and the Principal Secretary may resign his office by notice in writing addressed to the Commissioner and any member of the council may be removed from office by the National Redemption Council.

Where the office of a member of the council other than the Director-General and the Principal Secretary becomes vacant before the expiration of his term of office or by his death, the Commissioner shall notify the National Redemption Council of the occur­ rence of such event and, the National Redemption Council shall, acting on the advice of the Commissioner and subject to the provisions of this decree, appoint another person in his place and to hold office for the unexpired portion of his term of office.

Subject to the provisions of this decree where it appears to the National Redemption Council on the recommendation of the Commissioner that any member of the council is incapacitated by absence from Ghana or illness or any other sufficient cause from performing the duties of his office the National Redemption Council shall, in consultation with the Commissioner, appoint another person to hold office in his place until such time as the National Redemption Council is satisfied that the incapacity of that person has terminated or until the term of such member expires whichever first occurs.

Every member of the Council shall, on ceasing to be a member, be eligible for re-appointment. 118

REMUNERATION

Any member appointed to the council under sub­ section' (2) of section 4 of this decree as well as any person co-opted to the council under section 7 of this decree may be paid such remuneration (If any) as the council may, with the approval of the National Redemp­ tion Council, determine In relation to him.

Meetings of Council.

(1) The council shall ordinarily meet for the dispatch of business at such times and at such places as the council may determine but shall meet at least once In every month.

(2) A special meeting of the council shall be called upon a written request signed by the chairman or by not less than four members of the council addressed to the Director-General.

(3) At every meeting of the council at which he is present, the chairman shall preside and In his absence a member of the council appointed by the members present from among themselves shall preside.

(4) Questions proposed at a meeting of the council shall be determined by a simple majority of members present and voting and In the event of any equality of votes the person presiding shall have a second or casting vote.

(5) The quorum at any meeting of the council shall be five.

(6) The council may, at any time, co-opt any person or persons to act as an adviser or advisers at any of its meetings, but no person so co-opted shall be entitled to vote at any such meetings on any matter for decision by the council. VALIDITY

(7) The validity of any proceedings of the council shall not be affected by any vacancy among its members or by any defect in the appointment of any of them.

(8) Any member of the council who has any interest in any company or undertaking with which the service proposes to enter into any contract or who has any Interest 119

In any contract which the service proposes to enter into shall disclose in writing to the council the nature of his interest and shall, unless the council otherwise directs, be disqualified from participating in any deliberations of the council on the contract and shall in any case be disqualified from voting in any decision of the council on such contract and any member who infringes the provisions of this sub­ section shall be liable to be removed from the council.

(9) The secretary of the council appointed under section 13 (1) sh all submit to the Commissioner a copy of all minutes recorded as soon after each meeting as possible.

Council to Submit Estimates and Expenditure to the Commissioner.

(1) The council shall submit to the Commissioner as soon as possible a fte r the months of June, September, December, and March in each year a statement showing the revenue and expenditure of the service and the fluctuations in the number of members of the service for the preceding three months and the revenue and expenditure of the service for the corresponding period in the previous year.

(2) The Council shall prepare estimates of receipts and expenditure for each period of twelve months ending on the 30th day of June in each year, and a copy of such estimates shall be submitted to the Commissioner.

(3) The Council shall also submit to the Commissioner such other reports concerning the Service as the Commissioner may by writing request from time to time.

Advisory Bodies (1) The Council shall appoint the following advisory bodies to assist in its functions of recruitment, appointment, postings, transfers, discipline, and generally in carrying out any or all of its functions:

(a) Appointments and Promotions Board; (b) Disciplinary Board; (c) Regional Committee for each region; (d) D istrict Committee for each d is tric t.

(2) The Council shall determine from time to time such membership of the advisory bodies referred to in subsection (1) of this section and such terms of reference 120 as It considers fit but at all tines representatives of religious bodies and representatives of local comnunities shall serve on the Regional and District Advisory Committees.

PART V—MANAGEMENT AND THE STAFF OF THE SERVICE

Council to control management of Service

The Council shall, subject to the provisions of th is Decree, have general control of the management of the Service on matters of policy.

(1) The Service shall have a Director-General.

(2) The Director-General shall be appointed by the National Redemption Council acting in consultation with the Commissioner and subject to the provisions of this Decree shall hold office upon such terms and condi­ tions as may be specified in his instrument of appointment.

(3) Where the office of the Director-General becomes vacant the Council shall notify the Commissioner thereof and the Commissioner shall in turn notify 'thc National Redemption Council of the occurrence of the vacancy.

(4) Where the Director-General is incapacitated from the performance of his functions under this Decree, the Council may subject to subsection (6) of section 5 of this Decree authorise an employee of the Service to perform those functions for the duration of the incapacity. (5) Subject to the provisions of this Decree the Director-General shall be the Chief Executive of the Service, and shall, subject to the general control of the Council on matters of policy, and subject in particular to such rules as the Council may make in that behalf under section 18 of this Decree, be charged with the direction of the day-to-day business of the Service and of its administration and organisation and control of a ll the employees of the Service.

(6) Subject as aforesaid the Director-General may delegate to any employee of the Service anyof his functions under th is Decree and may impose suchconditions with respect to the exercise of such delegated functions as he may think fit. 121

RESPONSIBILITY

Provided that nothing In this subsection shall be construed so as to absolve the Director-General from ultimate responsibility for any act done by any person in pursuance of any such delegation.

(1) The Council may, from time to time, engage such employees as may be necessary for the proper and efficient conduct of the Service.

(2) The Council may also engage the services of such consultants and advisers as the Council may upon the recommendation of the Director-General determine.

(3) The employees, consultants and advisers of the Service shall be engaged on such terms and conditions as the Council may on the recommendation of the Director- General determine.

(4) Public Officers may be transferred or seconded to the Service or may otherwise give assistance thereto.

(1) The Service shall have an officer to be designated as the Secretary to the Council.

(2)‘ The Secretary shall act as Secretary to the Council, arrange the business for and cause to be recorded and kept the minutes of all the meetings of the Council.

(3) The Secretary shall also perform such functions as the Council may be writing direct or as the Director-General may be writing delegate to him and shall be assisted in his functions by such of the staff of the Service as the Council may on the recommendation of the Director-General d irect.

PART VI—MANAGEMENT OF PRE-UNIVERSITY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

(1) The Service shall maintain links between the religious bodies and pre-University educational institutions at the national, regional and district levels. (2) Religious bodies shall have access to pre-University educational institutions to cater for the spiritual needs of the pupils. 122

(3) All schools shall have management committees which shall function In an advisory capacity, and the membership of these committees shall Include representatives from religious bodies.

(4) Local communities shall participate in the running and development of schools in their areas.

PART VII*—FINANCIAL PROVISIONS

Books of accounts

(1) The Service shall keep proper books of account and proper records in relation thereto and the account books and records of the Service shall be in such form as the Auditor-General may approve.

(2) The Service's financial year shall end on the 30th day of June in each year.

PART VIII—MISCELLANEOUS

Annual reports

(1) The Council shall as soon as possible after the 31st of August each year, submit to the Commissioner an annual report dealing generally with the activities and operations of the Service within the twelve months preceding the 31st August.

(2) The Commissioner shall as soon as possible after receiving the annual report of the Service, cause the report to be submitted to the National Redemption Council.

Directives of the Commissioner

The Commissioner may issue directives in writing to the Council on matters of policy and the Council shall be bound to comply with such directives.

Regulations and bye-laws

The Council may make regulations or bye-laws or other instruments as the Council may consider expedient for the purpose of carrying into effect the provisions and principles, of this Decree and for regulating any matter falling within the scope of the functions of the Service or which is required or authorised by this Decree to be provided for by any such Instruments. 123

Exemption from taxes

Subject to section 20 of this Decree, and without prejudice to the general effect of subsection (1) of this section, the Council may make bye-laws or other Instruments for providing for terms and conditions of service and Code of discipline of the members of the Service.

Existing contracts of service to continue

The Service shall be exempted from a ll taxes (excluding duties).

Subject to Sections 2 and 21 ..of this Decree, nothing in this Decree shall be taken to effect any alteration in the terms of a contract of service subsisting immediately before the commencement of this Decree or to authorise the making of any such a lte ra ­ tion without the consent of all parties bound by the contract.

Option not to join

Notwithstanding any provision of this Decree, an officer who prior to the commencement of this Decree was an established officer in the Civil Service in the Ministry of Education may, on the coming into force of this Decree exercise an option not to join the Service, without loss of service, rank and retiring benefits.

This Decree shall be deemed to have come into force on the 1st day of February, 1974.

Made this 27th day of February, 1974. APPENDIX B 125

NEW PROPOSALS FOR EDUCATION

It would be unfair on my part to ignore the efforts of the various governments since independence to bring education into phase with the realities of our country. These efforts are characterized as sporadic innovations here and there, sometimes without any philo­ sophical basis or plan.

At the time of this writing the Government published some further new Innovations, one for the schools and another for teacher training. In short, the following is the gist of the two proposals expected to go into effect from the 1974-75 academic year.*

NEW EDUCATION STRUCTURE

The new structure, which has just been published in Accra, seeks to generate In the Individual an aware­ ness of the ability of man, using the power derived from science and technology, to transform his environment and improve the quality of his life.

It allows for kindergarten education lasting between 18 and 24 months for the age group of four to six years.

A "basic first cycle education," extending over six years primary plus three years junior secondary education, would be made compulsory and fee free for a ll. A "second cycle education," which would follow the junior secondary education, would prepare pupils for senior secondary lower courses leading to the present "0" level, technical and commercial courses.

Pupils from the senior secondary lower courses who wish to continue formal education and possess the

*"New Educational Structure," Ghanaian Times, Tuesday, April 23, No. 5,098. Wednesday, April 24, published the "New Plan To Train Teachers." 126 necessary qualifications can proceed to a senior secondary upper course, leading to the present "A" level, a teacher training course or a polytechnic course.

LANGUAGES

Pupils vho do not proceed to the university from the senior secondary upper course, shall be encouraged to train for middle level profession In institutions available in the system such as poly­ technics, specialist and teacher training colleges.

The study of languages, mathematics, science, agriculture and practical and vocational subjects shall be given the greatest emphasis and pupils shall participate fully In cultural activities, youth programmes and in sports and games.

The medium of instruction for the first three years of the primary course shall be the main Ghanaian language spoken in the area.

The child shall learn his own language, and in addition, one other Ghanaian language. English language shall be learnt from the first year at school, and shall gradually become the medium of expression as from primary class four.

As soon as conditions w ill allow, French at the appropriate level, will be Introduced into the primary course with emphasis on oral and aural activities.

Under the new structure, the least and basic qualification for entry into any teacher training institution shall be the GCE 'O’ level or its equivalent. This basic entry requirement shall apply to technical, commercial, vocational and agricultural teacher colleges as well.

NEW PLAN TO TRAIN TEACHERS

The Government has decided to in stitu te a new training scheme for teachers in the country to cope with the new educational reforms.

O fficial sources which disclosed this in Accra yesterday said under the scheme Post "0" level colleges shall offer a three-year teacher training programme 127 during which at least two school-terms shall be spent by the students as interns in selected schools and under competent supervision.

Post "A" level colleges shall offer a two-year teacher training programme under the same terms and conditions as the Post 'O’ level college programme.

Graduate teachers from the University of Cape Coast would be required to undertake at least three school-term internship in selected schools.

Teachers from the University of Ghana, Legon, and the University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, would undergo at lea st two-term studies and orientation in education and one of internship In selected schools and under competent supervision.

Specialist teacher colleges shall, in the main, provide further specialized training for all category of teachers. The duration of such training shall be up-graded to enable these colleges to perform the functions expected of them.

To enable teachers to cope with the new policy on the teaching and learning of Ghanaian languages, every teacher in training shall learn one other Ghanaian language in addition to his own.

French will be included in the curriculum of all initial teacher training colleges, according to the scheme.

Post "0" level trained teachers shall work mainly a t the primary school level and where appro­ priate, also at the kindergarten school level.

Post "A" level trained teachers shall normally work at the junior secondary school level and where desirable also at the primary school and kindergarten school levels.

Graduate trained teachers, university graduates with teacher training qualifications shall work mainly at the senior secondary school (Lower and Upper) levels. They may also be posted to work in any of the levels below the senior secondary school where th is is appropriate and desirable. 128

For all teachers, there will be periodic courses and seminars organized by the headquarters training department, subject organizers, subject associations, the universities and other interested bodies.

These w ill be organized at the national, regional and d is tric t levels so that each teacher shall have an opportunity to attend at least one such course a year. Courses shall be designed to acquaint the teacher with new trends in education.

There w ill be at least one such centre in every educational district. This, it is hoped, will enable teachers to meet from time to time on educational matters, design and improvise their own materials for their classrooms, and help with' research projects. BIBLIOGRAPHY 130

BIBLIOGRAPHY

African Art

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Beler, U. Contemporary Art in Africa. New York: Frederick Praeger In c., 1968.

Blebuyck, Daniel P. Tradition and Creativity in Tribal Art. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969.

Bohannan, Paul. The A rtist in Tribal Society. London: Royal Anthropological Institute, 1961.

Brnvmann, Rene A. West African Sculptures. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1970.

Cornet, Joseph. Art of Africa: Treasures from the Congo. London: Phaidon Press, 1971.

Dewey, John. Art as Experience. Minton, Bnlch & Company, 1934.

Fraser, Douglass. The Many Faces of Primitive Art: A Critical Anthology. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1966.

Gerbrand, A. Art As An Element of Culture Especially in Negro Africa. Leiden: E. G. Brill, 1957.

Hcrskovits, Melville J. The Background of African A rt. The Cooke- Daniels Lecture Foundation in Conjunction with an Exhibition of African Art Assembled by Denver Art Museum, January and February 1945.

Jopllng, Carol F. Art and Aesthetics In Primitive Societies. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc., 1971.

Kyeremanteng, A. A. Y. Panoply of Ghana. London: Longmans Green & Co., Ltd., 1964.

Langer, S. K. Problems of Art. New York: Charles Scriber's Sons, 1957. Leach, E. R. Aesthetic—The Institution of Primitive Society. London: Oxford University Press, 1954. 131

Levzinger, Elsy. The Arts of Africa (Afrlca--The Art of Negro People). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.

Museum of Primitive Art. Personality and Technique of African Sculpture. New York, 1963.

Nketla, Kwabena J. K. African Music in Ghana. Evanston, 111.: .North-Western University Press, 1963.

Opoku, A. M., and Bell, W illis E. African Dances a Ghanaian P ro file . Legon: University of Ghana, Institute of African Studies, 1965.

Read, Herbert. Education Through A rt. London: Faber and Faber, 1947.

Sanncs, G. W. African Primitives—Function and Form in African Masks and Figures. New York: African Publishing Corporation, 1970.

Segy, Ladlslas. African Sculpture Speaks. New York: H ill and Wang, 1969.

Sleber, Roy. African Textiles and Decorative Arts. New York: The Museum of Modern Art, 1972.

Trowell, Margaret. African Arts and C rafts. London: Longmans, 1937.

______. Art Teaching in African Schools. London: Longmans, 1952.

Classical African Sculpture. London: Faber and Faber, 1964.

W eltfish, Gene. The Origin of A rt. New York: The Bobb-Merril Company, Inc., 1953.

Williams, Geoffrey. African Designs. New York: Dover Publishi.M; Inc., 1971.

Wingert, Paul S. Primitive Art: Its Traditions and Styles. New York: Oxford University Press, 1962.

Education

American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. Fourth Annual Conference Report on International Understanding. Educational Needs of Sub-Sahara Africa and Latin America. University of Nebraska, Lincoln. October 18-20, 1961. Pub. 1962.

Ashby, Eric. African U niversities and Western T raditions. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1964. 132

Barnard Report. Report on the Use of English In the Gold Coast Schools. Accra-Gold Coast: Gold Coast Government Printer, 1956.

Beeby, C. G. The Quality of Education in Developing Countries. Cambridge: Harvard University P ress,-1966.

Blood, Arthur Gordon. The Fortunate Few. London: University Mission of Central Africa, 1954.

Burns, D. G. African Education: An Introductory Survey of Education in Commonwealth Countries. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.

Busla, K. A. Purposeful Education for Africa. The Hague: Mouton, 1964. Campbell, J. McLeod. African History in the Making. London: Edinburgh House Press, 1956.

Colonial and African Education. International Students Conference. Leiden, 1964.

Cowan, L. Gray; O'Connel, James; and Scanlon, David G. Education and Nation Building. New York: Praeger, 1965.

Curie, Adam. Educational Problems of Developing Societies. New York: Praeger, 1973.

Davis, Russel G. Planning Human Resource Development: Models and Schemata. Chicago: Rand McNally Press, 1966.

Eisner, E lliot W. Readings In Art Education. (Massachusetts: Ginn- Blaisdell Publishing Co., 1966.

Final Report. Conference of African States on the Development of Education in Africa. Addis Ababa* 15-25 May, 1961. UNESCO/ECA, 1961. Foster, Philip. Education and Social Change in Ghana. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1965. (Printed in Britain by Latimer Trend & Co., Plymouth.)

Gardner, John. Excellence: Can We Be Equal and Excellent Too? New York: Harper & Row, 1961.

Graham, C. K. The History of Education in Ghana. London: Frank Cass, 1971.

Grcenough, Richard. African Prospects: Progress in Education. Paris: UNESCO, 1966. 133

Harbison, Frederic* and Mayer, Charles A. Manpower and Education; Country Studies in Economic Development. New York: McGraw- H ill, 1964. Hilliard, F. H. A Short History of Education in British West Africa. Edinburgh: Nelson, 1957.

Illic h , Ivan. Deschooling Society. New York: Harper and Row, 1971.

Johnson, II. T. Foundations of Curriculum. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Co., 1968.

Jones, Jesse Thomas. Education in Africa. New York: Phelps-Stokcs Fund, 1921.

Kazamias, Andreas M., and Massailas, Byron G. Tradition and Change in Education: A Comparative Study. New Jersey: Prenticc-Hnll, Inc., 1965.

Kitchen, Helen, ed. The Educated African. New York: Praeger, 1962.

Lewis, L. J. Education and P o litical Independence in Africa. Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson, 1962.

______, ed. Phelps-Stokes Reports on Education in Africa. London: Oxford University Press, 1962.

Lloyd, P. C., ed. The New E lite in Tropical A frica. London: Oxford University Press, 1968.

Mandi, P. The Development of Education in Africa and Its Problems. Budapest: Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Centre for Afro- Asian Research, 1966.

Mason, Reginald J. British Education in Africa. London: Oxford University Press, 1959.

McWilliam, H. 0. A. Development of Education in Ghana. London: Longmans, 1959.

Moumouni, Abdou. Education in Africa. New York: Praeger, 1968. Scalon, D. G., ed. Traditions of African Education. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964.

Schutz, Theodore W. The Economic Value of Education. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.

Shil, Edward G. "The African Intellectuals." Christianity and African Education. Edited by R. P. Beaver. Grand Rapids: Erdmans, 1966. 134

Sloan, Ruth, compiler. The Educated African. Edited by Helen Kitchen. New York: Praeger, 1962.

Spindler, George D., ed. Education and Culture—Anthropological Approaches. "The West African 'Bush' School" by Mark Hanna Watkins. No. 20, pp. 426-443. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1963.

Taba, Hilda. Curriculum Development: Theory & Practice. Harcourt, Brace and World Inc., 1962.

Ward, W. E. F. Educating Young Nations. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1939.

Wilson, John. Education and Changing West African Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 1963.

Religion and the Christian Church

Abrecht, P. The Church and Rapid Social Change. London: Student Christian Movement Press, 1961.

All-Africa Seminar on the Christian Home and Family L ife. Geneva: World Council of Churches, 1963.

Baeta, C. G. Prophetism in Ghana. London: Student Christian Movement Press, 1962.

Barrett, David B. Schism and Renewal in Africa. London: Oxford University Press, 1968.

Beaver, R. P., ed. Christianity and African Education. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1966.

Beetham, T. A. Christianity and the New Africa. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1967.

Blydcn, Edward W. Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1967.

Brandel-Syrier, Mia. Black Woman In Search of God. London: Lutterworth Press, 1962.

Catholic Education in the Service of Africa. Report of the Kinshasa Conference, Catholic International Education Office, Brazzaville, 1966.

Christian Education in Africa. Report of the Salisbury Conference. London: Oxford University Press, 1963. 135

Christian Responsibility In an Independent Nigeria. Christian Council of Nigeria, Lagos, 1962.

Christianity and African Culture. Christian Council of the Gold Coast (Ghana), Accra, 1955.

Clark, Dennis E. The Third World and Mission. Waco, Texas: World Books, 1971.

Debrunner, H. A Church Between Colonial Powers. London: Lutterworth Press, 1965. N apierville, 111.: Allenson, 1965.

Field, Margaret. Religion and Medicine of the Ga People. London: Faber and Faber, 1960.

Fortes, M., and Dieterlen, G. African Systems of Thought. London: Oxford University Press, 1966. (Studies presented and discussed at the 3rd International African Seminar in Salisbury, December, 1960.)

Groves, C. P. The Planting of Christianity in Africa. London: Lutterworth Press, 1948.

Hastings, Adrian. Church and Mission in Modem Africa. Bronx, New York: Fordham University Press, 1967.

Hayward, V. E. W., ed. African Independent Church Movements. London: Edinburgh House Press, 1965. New York: Friendship Press, 1965.

Hughes, W., Reverend. Dark Africa and the Way Out. New York: Negro University Press, originally printed 1892, reprinted 1969.

Idowu, E. B. Towards an Indigenous Church. London: Oxford University Press, 1965.

Ledogar, R., ed. Katigondo: Presenting the Christian Message to A frica. London: Chapman and Hall, 1965.

MacDonald, James, Reverend. Religion and Myth. New York: Negro University Press, 1883, reprinted 1969.

Mbiti, John S. African Religion and Philosophy. New York: Praeger, 1969.

Mboya, Tom. Freedom and A fter. Boston: L ittle , Brown and Co., 1963.

Mullin, J. The Catholic Church in Modem A frica. London: Geoffrey Chapman, 1965. 136

Oosthuizen, G. C. Post-Christianity In Africa—A Theological and Anthropological Study. London: C. Hurst and Company, 1968.

Parrinder, Geoffrey. African Methology. London: Hamlyn, 1969.

______. African Traditional Religion. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1970.

______. West African Religion. London: Epworth Press, 1961.

Payne, D., ed. African Independence and Christian Freedom. London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1965.

Phillips, A., ed. Survey of African Marriages and Family Life. London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1953.

Rattray, R. S. Religion and Art in Ashanti. London: Oxford University Press, 1959.

Shropshire, Denys W. T. The Church and Primitive Society. London: Macmillan, 1938.

Smith, Edwin W., ed. African Ideas of God (A Symposium). London: Edinburgh House Press, 1950.

______, and Parrinder, Geoffrey, eds. African Ideas of God. London: Edinburgh House Press, 1961.

Turner, 1!. W. Profile Through Preaching. London: Edinburgh House Press, 1965.

Wclboum, F. B. East African Christian. London and New York: Oxford University Press, 1965.

______. East African Rebels. London: Movement Press, 1961. New York: Friendship Press, 1961.

______. Religion and P olitics in Uganda 1952-1962. Nairobi: East African Publishing House, 1962.

Weman, H. African Music and the Church in Africa. Stockholm: Swedish Institute of Missionary Research, 1960.

Williamson, S. G. Akan Religion and the Christian Faith. Accra: Ghana Universities Press, 1965.

Miscellaneous

Amamoo, J. G. The New Ghana: The Birth of a Nation. Pan Books Ltd., 1968. 137

Apter, D. E. Ghana In Transition. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1963.

Batten, T. R. Problems of African Development—Parts I and I I . London: Oxford University Press, 1954.

Bohannan, Paul. Africa and Africans. New York: The Natural History Press, 1964.

Bourrot, F. M. Ghana, the Road to Independence. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1960.

______. The Gold Coast (1919-1946). Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1949.

Caldwell, J. C. Population Growth and Family Change in Africa. Camberra: Australian National University Press, 1968.

Danquah, J. B. Self-Help and Expansion. A Review of the Works nnd Aims of the Youth Conference. Achimota-Accrn: Achlmota Press, 1943.

Davidson, Basil. Old Africa Rediscovered. London: Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1970.

Dewey, John. The School and Society. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1965.

Dickson, Kwamina B. A H istorical Geography of Ghana. London: Cambridge University Press, Bentley House, 1969.

Haines, C. Grove. Africa Today. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press, 1955.

Kaye, B. Bringing Up Children in Ghana. London: Allen and Unwin, 1967. Kllneberg, Otto, and Zavallon, Marisa. Nationalism and Tribalism Among African Students. Paris: Mouton, 1969.

Nkrumah, Kwame. Background to Independence. In the Ideologies of Developing Nations. P. E. Sigmund, 1970.

Oliver, Roland, and Oliver, Caroline, eds. Africa In the Days of Exploration. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prenticc-Hall, Inc., 1965.

Omari, Peter T. Kwame Nkrumah. New York: African Publication Corporation, 1970. 138

Reindorf, C. C. The History o f the Gold Coast and Asante. Accra: Ghana Universities Press, 1966.

Selormey, Francis. The Narrow Path; An African Child. New York: Praeger, 1966.

Walinsky, Louis J. The Planning and Execution of Economic Development. McGraw-Hill, 1963.

Hard, W. E. F. A History of th e Gold Coast. London: George Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1952.

Ward, William E. A History of Ghana. London: George Allen and Unwin, L td., 1959.

Wolfson, Freda. Pageant of Ghana. London: Oxford University Press, 1958.

Periodicals

Adams, Walter. "Colonial University Education." Universities Quarterly. No. A (May, 1950), pp. 283-292.

Adjei-Boafo, A. "Wanted—Cultural Review Committee." Daily Graphic, November 30, 1973, p. 7 .

Amponsah, Marfo K. "Developing Ghana and Humanity." Weekly Spectator, December 22, 1973, p. 7.

Anfom-Evan, E., Dr. "Change Colonial Education." Daily Graphic, February 11, 1974.

Annan, Esther. "Arts Council o f Ghana." The Ghanaian Times, January 31, 1974, p. 4.

Ayi, Nii. "Are We Ghanaians or Semi Europeans? A Giange Is Needed." Daily Graphic, January 3, 1974.

Baker, Tanya, and Bird, Mary, "Urbanisation and the Position of Women." Sociological Review, Vol. VII, No. 1 (1959), p. 107.

B artels, F. L. "The Gold Coast Educational Problems." The Year Book of Education. London: Evans Brothers Ltd., 1949.

Beier, Ulli. "Transition Without Tears." Encounter, Vol. 15, No. 4 (October, 1960), pp. 65—68.

Belshaw, H. "Religious Education in the Gold Coast." International Review of Missions, Vol. 34 (194S). 139

Bigelow, Karl. "Higher Education in Tropical Africa." British A ffairs, No. 4 (December, 1960), pp. 172-178.

Biobaku, S. 0. "Africa's Needs and Africa's Universities." West African Journal of Education, No. 7 (June, 1963), pp. 61-63.

Blackett, P. M. S. "The Universities and the Developing Countries." Overseas U niversities, No. 6 (October, 1964), pp. 6-11.

Boatcng, Michael Osei. "What's In A Name? It Shows State ofa Culture." Daily Graphic, January 4, 1974.

Brickman, W. W. "Tendencies in African Education." Educational Forum, No. 27 (May, 1963), pp. 399-416.

Byl, Adhema. "Ghana's Struggle for Economic Independence." Current History, No. XLIII (December, 1962).

Clark, F. "The Double Mind in African Education." Africa, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 158-168.

Cllgnct, R., and Foster, P. "Potential Elites in Ghana and the Ivory Coast: A Preliminary Comparison." American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 70 (1974), pp. 349-362.

Cooper, Harold. "Political Preparedness for Self-Government." Annals of the American Academy of P olitical and Social Sciences, Vol. 306 (July, 1956), pp. 71-77.

Cotgrove, S. "Education and Occupation." British Journal of Sociology, Vol. I, No. 13 (March, 1962), pp. 33-41.

Crowley, Daniel J. "An African Aesthetic." Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism , Vol. 24, No. 4 (Summer, 1966), pp. 519-524.

Curie, A. "Nationalism and Higher Education in Ghana." Universities Quarterly, No, 16 (June, 1962), pp. 229-242.

Dennis, Wayne. "Racial Change In Negro Drawings." Journal of Psychology, No. 69 (1968), pp. 129-130.

Dillon, Wilton S. "Universities and Nation Building in Africa." Journal of Modern African Studies, No. 1 (March, 1963), pp. 75-89.

Douglas, Vibert A. "The Academic Atmosphere in Africa." Queens Quarterly (Ottawa), No. 72 (Summer, 1965), pp. 360-366. 140

Harbison, Frederick. "The African University and Human Resource Development." Journal of African Studies. No. 3 (May, 1965), pp. 53-62.

______. "Problems of Higher Education in the Newly Developing Countries (of Africa)." Educational Record. No. 46 (Spring, 1965), pp. 132-142. llorkovits, M* J. "African Gods and Catholic Saints In New World Religious B eliefs." American Anthropologist, Vol. 39 (1937), pp. 635-643.

Hodkln, Thomas. "African Universities and the State." Comparative Education, No. 3 (March, 1967), pp. 107-114.

______. "Idea of an African University." Universities Quarterly, No. 12 (August, 1958), pp. 376-384.

Hurd, G. E., and Johnson, T. J . "Education and Social Mobility in Ghana." Sociology of Education, No. 40 (Winter, 1967), pp. 55-79.

Kenyatta, Mzce-Joroo. "University and Nation Building." Pan-African Journal, No. 1 (Fall, 1968), pp. 163-164.

Kuma, Akosua. "Obsolete Customs—Education Is the Answer." Daily Graphic, October 30, 1973.

Kwapong, A. A. "Higher Education and Development." Daily Graphic, December 1, December 3, December 4, December 5, 1973, pp. 10, 5, 5, and 10 respectively (a series of four articles).

Lediga, S. P. "The Disciple of Christ Facing African Religion." The South African Outlook (May, 1962), p. 69.

Maclnncs, Collin. "Welcome, Beauty*Walk." Encounter, Vol. 15, No. 4 (October, 1960), pp. 38-52.

Mandi, Peter. "Quality and Quantity in the Educational Policies of Developing Countries." Studies on Developing Countries, No. 29 (1969). Centre for Afro-Asian Research of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest.

Martin, E. C. "Early Educational Experiment on the Gold Coast." Journal of the Royal African Society, Vol. 23. 141

Nikol, David. "Politics, Nationalism and Universities in Africa." African Affairs, No. 62 (January, 1963), pp. 20-28.

______. "African U niversities Today. How They Grow and What They Want." Commonwealth Journal, No. 5 (November-Decembcr, 1962), pp. 309-312.

Obcng-Wiafe, K. "What Ideology for Ghana." The Ghanaian Times, February 7, 1974, p. 6.

Oduro, Kofi. "Are We Ghanaians or Semi-Europeans?" Daily Graphic, February 7, 1974, p. 5.

Oknsabour, Mcnsah-Agoroampa. "Scrap These Inimical Customs." Daily Graphic, November 26, 1973, p. 5.

Okyere, Isaac. "Education in West Africa." Daily Graphic, December 15, 1973, p. 5.

Ormsby-Gore, W. "Education in the B ritish Dependencies of Tropical Africa." Year Book of Education. 1932.

Orraca-Tetteh, Kwci. "Approach to Cultural Reforms in Ghana." Daily Graphic, December 5, 1973, p. 5.

Parkes, Russel. "No Ivory Tower." Transition, No. 3 (November, 1963), pp. 43-46.

Perraton, II. D. "B ritish A ttitude Towards East and West Africa 1888-1914." Race. 8, 3 (January, 1961).

Pratt, R. C. "University of State in Independent Tropical Africa." U niversities Q uarterly, No. 21 (December, 1966), pp. 91-100.

Read, M. "Africans and Their Schools." B ritish Commonwealth Affairs, No. 8 (1953).

______. "Education in Africa: I ts Pattern and Role in Social Change." Annals of the American Academy of P o litic a l and Social Science, 298 (March, 1955), p. 173.

Reybum, William D. "Africanisation and African Studies." Practical Anthropology, Vol. 9, No. 3 (May-June, 1962).

Rhodes, S. "The Gold Coast Aborigines Abroad." Journal of African History, 6, 3 (1965).

Richards, Audrey I. "The Adaptation of Universities to the African Situation: Review Article." Minerva. No. 3 (Spring, 1965), pp. 336-342. 142

St. Clair, Drake. "Social Change and Social Problems in Contemporary Africa." The United States of Africa. Edited by Goldschmidt. 1963.

Sarpong, Peter Akwasi, Right Reverend. "Introduce Culture in Worship." Ghanaian Times, January 8, 1974, p. 12.

Scott, H. S. "The Development of the Education of the African in Relation to Western Contact." Year Book of Education. 1938.

Vorkeh, Kwame. "Culture, Tradition and Development." Dally Graphic, October 30, 1973, p. 5.

Weeks, Sheldon G. "Education in National Development." Pan African Journal, No. 1 (F all, 1968), pp. 190-192.

Wilkie, A. W. "An Attempt to Conserve the Work of the Basel Missions on the Gold Coast." International Review of the Missions, 1920, pp. 94-96.

Williams, Chancellor. "Educational Obstacles to Africanization in Ghana, Nigeria and Sierra-Leone." Journal of Negro Education, No. 30 (Summer, 1961).

Wright, F. "System of Education in the Gold Coast Colony." Board of Education Special Report on Educational Systems. London, 1905.

Other

References pertaining to Ghana;

Art and Crafts Outline of Primary Schools. Accra: Ministry of Education, 1957.

Art and Crafts Syllabus fog the Four-Year Course in Teacher Training. National Teacher Training Council. July, 1963.

Ministry of Education. Annual Report. Accra: Government Printer, 1956.

Second Development Plan 1959-64. Accra: Government P rinter, 1959,

References pertaining to Gold Coast:

Accelerated Development Plan for Education. Accra: Government Printer, 1951.

Report of the Committee Appointed to Examine Grant-in-Aid System for Educational Institutions. Accra: Government Printer, 1970. 143

Report of the Educational Committee, 1937-41. Accra: Government Printer, 1970.

Report on the Use of English As the Medium of Instruction In Gold Coast Schools. Accra: Government Printer, 1956.