“For the Freedom of the Black People”: Case Studies on the Universal Negro Improvement Association in Canada, 1900-1950 by Carla Marano A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfillment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2018 © Carla Marano 2018 Examining Committee Membership The following served on the Examining Committee for this thesis. The decision of the Examining Committee is by majority vote. External Examiner Dr. Juanita De Barros Professor Supervisor Dr. James Walker Professor Internal Member Dr. Andrew Hunt Associate Professor Internal-external Member Dr. Jennifer Harris Professor Other Member(s) Dr. Carol Duncan Professor ii Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. iii Abstract Using a case study approach, this dissertation examines the history of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Canada in the early twentieth century. The UNIA, a secular organization intended to unite people of African descent across the globe, has not been studied in- depth in a Canadian context. This dissertation shows that the history of the UNIA cannot be fully understood without an examination of Canadian contributions to the Garvey movement. By examining various divisions of the UNIA in four Canadian regions (Montreal, Toronto, Cape Breton Island, and Edmonton), “For the Freedom of the Black People” argues that the UNIA served as an important catalyst to the establishment of black communities in Canada. At the local level, the UNIA acted as a community-building tool for black newcomers to Canada from the Caribbean and the United States. Uniquely, the case studies show that the UNIA in Canada maintained close ties to local black churches in order to bolster this growing sense of community. Moreover, the case studies also explain the ways in which local UNIA divisions adapted to meet the unique needs of each black community. In fact, the UNIA evolved to suit a changing demographic as immigration patterns and community goals shifted, and sometimes facilitated the launch of more specific organizations designed to remedy particular social and economic issues. This dissertation also argues that UNIA members in Canada played a critical role in the growth of the organization internationally, and in its survival after the death of its founder, Marcus Garvey. Beyond the local, Canadian Garveyites (i.e., followers of the UNIA) forged a Pan-African consciousness as members of a transnational confraternity that celebrated African heritage and pushed for racial equality. This Pan-African awareness inspired them to actively participate in the UNIA’s international programmes, like the Black Star Line, The Negro World newspaper, and the School of African Philosophy. In this way, Canadian Garveyites added their voice to the global fight against racial discrimination, thereby affirming their place within the African Diaspora. iv Acknowledgements Along this journey, many people have guided and supported me through both the ups and downs associated with a doctoral program. Projects like this are rarely completed without the help of wonderful colleagues, friends, and family, and I am forever indebted to them for their contributions to this dissertation and to my academic career. I could never thank them enough in words, but perhaps this is a start. First, heartfelt gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. James Walker, for his guidance throughout this program. His mentorship has meant the world to me. Dr. Walker’s words of encouragement and invaluable feedback have touched me deeply, and I am fortunate to have benefitted from his professionalism and his extensive knowledge on race relations in Canada. I am thankful for the help of my dissertation committee, Dr. Andrew Hunt and Dr. Carol Duncan. Their input was instrumental to this project, and their words of encouragement have pushed me toward a finish line that sometimes seemed miles away. I also sincerely appreciate the support of my external examiner, Dr. Juanita De Barros, and my internal-external committee member, Dr. Jennifer Harris. It means a great deal to me that these busy academics would all devote their time and energy to my project. This project was completed with the generous financial support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the Ontario Graduate Scholarship Program, and the University of Waterloo. The research for this dissertation could not be done without the aid of many librarians and archivists across the country, especially those at the Provincial Archives of Alberta, the Multicultural History Society of Ontario, the Nova Scotia Archives, and the Beaton Institute at Cape Breton University. I must express gratitude to the friends and colleagues I’ve met in the Tri-University program, especially the hard-working administrative staff: Donna Hayes, Aaron Ducker, Bonnie Bishop, and v Anne Leask. I offer them my warmest appreciation for their assistance over the years. I would especially like to thank my long-time friend and Tri-University program veteran, Lorene Bridgen- Lennie, who was a constant source of encouragement throughout this program. We walked this journey together, and I could not imagine having done it without her. I am deeply moved by the outpouring of support from my family and friends. To Jen, Tina, Elizabeth, Jordan, Sabrina, Joe, Brent, Bryan, and Chelsea: your friendship has gotten me through the tough times, and you’ve always been there to ease my worries and to remind me to have some fun. I can say with confidence that there is no one better to have in your corner than my siblings and siblings-in-law, Sal, Aria, Anna, Chris, and Cassie – thank you all. A special thank-you must go to my in-laws, Mary and Lou, who share in the happiness of this achievement. Of course, an enormous amount of gratitude goes to my parents, Gabriella and Tony, for your love and reassurance, and for always encouraging me to chase my dreams. Finally I want to thank my husband, Craig, for being my rock, my editor, my friend, and without a doubt, my biggest cheerleader. I cannot believe how lucky I am. vi Dedication To my late grandparents, Antonio and Antonietta: Even though you’re gone, your example of hard work and sacrifice continues to inspire me. vii Table of Contents Examining Committee Membership………………………………………………………………..ii Author’s Declaration…………………………………………………………………………….....iii Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………iv Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………………………….. v Dedication………………………………………………………………………………………...vii Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………...viii Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………..1 Prologue…………………………………………………………………………………………. 23 Chapter 1: Garvey’s Canadian Gateway: Montreal and its Ties to the UNIA……………………...48 Chapter 2: “We All Used to Meet at the Hall”: The Significance and Evolution of the UNIA in Toronto………………………………………………………………........108 Chapter 3: Building a Community in Cape Breton: The UNIA in Eastern Canada……………….143 Chapter 4: From Oklahoma to Edmonton: The UNIA on the Great Plains……………………...193 Epilogue……………………………………………………………………………………….....239 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………….....249 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………..257 viii Introduction This study seeks to uncover the history of the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in Canada. Broadly speaking, this dissertation asks the questions: what purpose did the UNIA serve in Canada, and is the UNIA a representation of the African Diaspora in Canada? More importantly, what separates the Canadian faction of the UNIA from its counterparts around the world? The four case studies conducted in this dissertation attempt to answer these questions. This dissertation argues that the UNIA proved to be an important catalyst to the establishment of black communities in Canada. Conversely, Garveyites in Canada played a significant role in the growth and survival of the Garvey movement around the world. Indeed, the UNIA served to unite and strengthen black communities across Canada while providing its members with the tools they needed to engage in the global Garvey movement and the fight against racial discrimination. Canadian UNIA divisions provided black communities across the country with a secular outlet aimed at celebrating their shared African heritage, creating a united voice in matters of politics and economics, and educating its membership on the issues most prevalent to black peoples across the globe. In doing so, the UNIA helped to bolster local black communities in Canada while forging a Pan-African consciousness in its membership. In turn, UNIA members in Canada put their Pan- African consciousness into action as participants in the association’s global initiatives. Canadian Garveyites saw themselves as part of a worldwide black community, and their contributions to the UNIA declared their presence within the African Diaspora. This dissertation is a continuation of my Master of Arts research which focuses on the reasons why West Indian immigrants in Canada comprised the majority of UNIA members in this country, and the ways in which they used the UNIA as an outlet of West Indian cultural expression. 1 The UNIA in Canada remains an understudied component of black Canadian studies, thus it seemed pertinent to more fully