Dichotomous Key and Illustrated Guide Dichotomous Key and Illustrated Guide to the Pests of Bivalve Aquaculture to the Pests of Bivalve Aquaculture in and Oregon in Washington and Oregon by by Steven R. Booth, Ph. D. Steven R. Booth, Ph. D. Pacific Institute Pacific Shellfish Institute www.pacshell.org www.pacshell.org revised January, 2014 revised January, 2014 Acknowledgments Acknowledgments This guide was funded by Prime Award No. 2007-51120-03885, This guide was funded by Prime Award No. 2007-51120-03885, Subaward No.07-001492-WAS15 from the USDA National Institute for Subaward No.07-001492-WAS15 from the USDA National Institute for Food and Agriculture. Food and Agriculture. This guide was produced by Dr. Steven R. Booth, Sr. Scientist, The Pacific This guide was produced by Dr. Steven R. Booth, Sr. Scientist, The Pacific Shellfish Institute (PSI), Olympia, Washington, 98501, with contributions Shellfish Institute (PSI), Olympia, Washington, 98502, with contributions and edits by all PSI staff: and edits by all PSI staff: Kristin Rasmussen, Executive Director Kristin Rasmussen, Executive Director Daniel Cheney, Sr. Scientist Daniel Cheney, Sr. Scientist Andrew Suhrbier, Sr. Biologist Andrew Suhrbier, Sr. Biologist Bobbi Hudson, Biologist Bobbi Hudson, Biologist Mary Middleton, Biologist Mary Middleton, Biologist and especially, Terence Lee, Biological Technician and especially, Terence Lee, Biological Technician This guide is an indirect outcome of the “Pest Management Strategic Plan This guide is an indirect outcome of the “Pest Management Strategic Plan for Bivalves in Oregon and Washington” (Issued: July 2010; Lead Authors: for Bivalves in Oregon and Washington” (Issued: July 2010; Lead Joe DeFransesco and Katie Murray, Oregon State University; Editor: Diane Authors: Joe DeFransesco and Katie Murray, Oregon State University; Clarke, University of , Davis), which is a summary of a workshop Editor: Diane Clarke, University of California, Davis), which is a summary held on March 11, 2010 in Long Beach, Washington. Workshop of a workshop held on March 11, 2010 in Long Beach, Washington. participants included producers of bivalve aquaculture from Washington Workshop participants included producers of bivalve aquaculture from and Oregon, members of state agencies from both states, researchers of Washington and Oregon, members of state agencies from both states, shellfish biology and ecology, and other stake holders and was facilitated researchers of shellfish biology and ecology, and other stake holders by Dr. DeFransesco. and was facilitated by Dr. DeFransesco. Photographs were obtained with the written consent of all contributors, Photographs were obtained with the written consent of all contributors, unless in the public domain, as noted for each as follows: unless in the public domain, as noted for each as follows: Cover: Top: Bottom: Jon Rowley; Bottom: Pacific Shellfish Institute Cover: Top: Bottom: Jon Rowley; Bottom: Pacific Shellfish Institute Filamentous Algae: Top – Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute; Bottom Filamentous Algae: Top – Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute; Bottom – Left – Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute; Bottom Right – Brian Allen, Left – Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute; Bottom Right – Brian Allen, Restoration Fund. Puget Sound Restoration Fund. Eelgrasses: Top – Kim Patten, Washington State University Long Beach Eelgrasses: Top – Kim Patten, Washington State University Long Beach Research Unit; Middle – Steve Booth, PSI; Bottom – PSI Research Unit; Middle – Steve Booth, PSI; Bottom – PSI Invasive Cordgrasses: p13 Top – Washington Department Fish & Wildlife / Invasive Cordgrasses: p13 Top – Washington Department Fish & Wildlife / Washington State Department of Agriculture; p13 Bottom – In the public Washington State Department of Agriculture; p13 Bottom – In the public domain by T. Forney, Oregon Department of Agriculture; p 14 – domain by T. Forney, Oregon Department of Agriculture; p 14 – Washington Department Fish & Wildlife / Washington State Department Washington Department Fish & Wildlife / Washington State Department of Agriculture of Agriculture Flatfish: In the public domain by Bill Barss, Oregon Department Fish and Flatfish: In the public domain by Bill Barss, Oregon Department Fish and Wildlife Wildlife Sculpins: In the public domain (SIMoN photo by Steve Lonhart) Sculpins: In the public domain (SIMoN photo by Steve Lonhart) Surfperches: Right – In the public domain (NOAA); Left – In the public Surfperches: Right – In the public domain (NOAA); Left – In the public domain (SIMoN photo by Steve Lonhart) domain (SIMoN photo by Steve Lonhart) Blister Mud Worms: John McCabe, www..us Blister or Mud Worms: John McCabe, www.oyster.us Red Worm: Ralph Elston, Aquatechnics Red Worm: Ralph Elston, Aquatechnics Barnacles: Top – Dave Cowles, Walla Walla University; Bottom – Steve Barnacles: Top – Dave Cowles, Walla Walla University; Bottom – Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Tunicates: Janna Nichols Tunicates: Janna Nichols Bamboo Worm: Top – Steve Booth; Bottom – Pacific Shellfish Institute Bamboo Worm: Top – Steve Booth; Bottom – Pacific Shellfish Institute Burrowing Shrimp: Top Left – Katylin Bosley, Hatfield Marine Science Center, Burrowing Shrimp: Top Left – Katylin Bosley, Hatfiled Marine Science Center, Oregon State University; Top Right – Tony D’Andrea, Hatfield Marine Oregon State University; Top Right – Tony D’Andrea, Hatfield Marine Science Center, Oregon State University; Bottom – Pacific Shellfish Institute Science Center, Oregon State University; Bottom – Pacific Shellfish Institute Acknowledgments – continued... Acknowledgments – continued... Burrows: Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Burrows: Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Horse and : Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Horse Clam and Siphon: Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute : Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Cockle: Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Sand Dollar: Top - Released for reuse as the copyright holder under Sand Dollar: Top - Released for reuse as the copyright holder under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license, Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license, Wikipidea, D. Gordon E. Robertson; Bottom - David Cowles, Walla Walla Wikipidea, D. Gordon E. Robertson; Bottom - David Cowles, Walla Walla University University Sea Stars: Top – Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute; Bottom - David Sea Stars: Top – Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute; Bottom - David Cowles, Walla Walla University Cowles, Walla Walla University Green : In Public Domain Green Crab: In Public Domain Red Rock, Dungeness, and Graceful Rock : Top – In the public Red Rock, Dungeness, and Graceful Rock Crabs: Top – In the public domain (photo by Dan Boon posted on Fish & Wildlife domain (photo by Dan Boon posted on United States Fish & Wildlife Services website); Mid – Dave Cowles, Walla Walla University; Bottom – Services website); Mid – Dave Cowles, Walla Walla University; Bottom – Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Slipper : Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Slipper Snails: Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Lewis Moon : Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Lewis Moon Snail: Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Oyster Drills and Eggs: Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Oyster Drills and Eggs: Steve Booth, Pacific Shellfish Institute Japanese Green : Japanese Green Mussel: Asian Clam: Released to the public domain (Wikipedia) by Graham Bould Asian Clam: Released to the public domain (Wikipedia) by Graham Bould

Gull identification table adapted from Dennis Paulson’s, Museum Director Gull identification table adapted from Dennis Paulson’s, Museum Director Emeritus, Slater Museum of Natural History, University of Puget Sound, Emeritus, Slater Museum of Natural History, University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA). Tacoma, WA).

The guide addresses some of the complex management decisions facing The guide addresses some of the complex management decisions facing bivalve producers in Washington and Oregon. Many of the organisms bivalve producers in Washington and Oregon. Many of the organisms described in the guide may be pests at times on bivalve farms but at described in the guide may be pests at times on bivalve farms but at other times are integral members of intertidal communities, or perhaps other times are integral members of intertidal communities, or perhaps important to both commercial producers and recreational users. Other important to both commercial producers and recreational users. Other organisms may be invasive with the potential to severely disrupt organisms may be with the potential to severely disrupt intertidal ecology. intertidal ecology. Contents Contents Dichotomous Key to Pests ...... 1 Dichotomous Key to Pests ...... 1 Gulls (Primarily Laurus spp.) ...... 7 Gulls (Primarily Laurus spp.) ...... 7 Diving Seaducks (Scoters & Goldeneyes, Family Anatidae)...... 8 Diving Seaducks (Scoters & Goldeneyes, Family Anatidae)...... 8 Crows and Ravens (Family Corvidae) ...... 8 Crows and Ravens (Family Corvidae) ...... 8 Filamentous Algae and Sea Lettuce (Ulva spp.)...... 9 Filamentous Algae and Sea Lettuce (Ulva spp.)...... 9 Eelgrasses (Zostera marina and Z. japonica) ...... 10 Eelgrasses (Zostera marina and Z. japonica) ...... 10 Invasive Cordgrasses ( spp.)...... 12 Invasive Cordgrasses (Spartina spp.)...... 12 Flatfish ( Pleuronectiformes)...... 15 Flatfish (Order Pleuronectiformes)...... 15 Sculpins (Family Cottidae) ...... 16 Sculpins (Family Cottidae) ...... 16 Surfperches (Family Embioticidae)...... 16 Surfperches (Family Embioticidae)...... 16 Shell Disease (Ostracoblabe implexa ) ...... 17 Shell Disease (Ostracoblabe implexa ) ...... 17 Blister or Mud Worms (Polydora spp.) ...... 18 Blister or Mud Worms (Polydora spp.) ...... 18 Red Worm (Mytilicola orientalis ) ...... 19 Red Worm (Mytilicola orientalis ) ...... 19 Trematodes (Sub-Class Digenea)...... 20 Trematodes (Sub-Class Digenea)...... 20 pugettensis pugettensis Barnacles (Family Balanidae) ...... 21 Barnacles (Family Balanidae) ...... 21 Tunicates or Sea Squirts Trematodes (Class Asidiacea) ...... 22 Tunicates or Sea Squirts Trematodes (Class Asidiacea) ...... 22 Invasive Bamboo Worm (Clymenella torquata )...... 24 Invasive Bamboo Worm (Clymenella torquata )...... 24 Ghost and Mud Burrowing Shrimp (Neotrypaea spp., Upogebia Ghost and Mud Burrowing Shrimp (Neotrypaea spp., Upogebia )...... 25 )...... 25 Shrimp and other Burrows...... 26 Shrimp and other Burrows...... 26 Horsespp. or Gaper ( capax, T. nuttallii ) ...... 28 Horsespp. or Gaper Clams (, T. nuttallii ) ...... 28 Cockles (Clinocardium nuttallii) ...... 29 Cockles (Clinocardium nuttallii) ...... 29 Western Sand Dollar (Dendraster excentricus ) ...... 30 Western Sand Dollar (Dendraster excentricus ) ...... 30 Sea Stars (Class Asteroidea)...... 31 Sea Stars (Class Asteroidea)...... 31 European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas) ...... 32 European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas) ...... 32 Red Rock, Dungeness, and Graceful Rock Crabs (Cancer, Red Rock, Dungeness, and Graceful Rock Crabs (Cancer, Metacarcinus ) ...... 33 ) ...... 33 Slipper Snails (Family Calyptraeidae) ...... 34 Slipper Snails (Family Calyptraeidae) ...... 34 Lewis’ Moon snail (Euspira (Polinices) lewisii ) ...... 35 Lewis’ Moon snail (Euspira (Polinices) lewisii ) ...... 35 Oyster Drills (Ocinebrellus inornatus, Urosalpinx cinerea )...... 36 Oyster Drills (Ocinebrellus inornatus, Urosalpinx cinerea )...... 36 Asian or Japanese Green Mussel (Musculista senhousia ) ...... 37 Asian or Japanese Green Mussel (Musculista senhousia ) ...... 37 Blue Complex (Mytilus edulis/trossulus/galloprovincialus )..38 Blue Mussels Complex (Mytilus edulis/trossulus/galloprovincialus )..38 Taxonomic Species List...... 39 Taxonomic Species List...... 39 Dichotomous Key to Pests1 Dichotomous Key to Pests 1 Key to Pests Key 1a Spends part of the time on dry land or present on shellfish beds only toPests Key 1a Spends part of the time on dry land or present on shellfish beds only when exposed at low tide, or paddles over submerged beds when exposed at low tide, or paddles over submerged beds ...... BIRDS ...... BIRDS 1b Spends most of the time in water or present on shellfish beds at all 1b Spends most of the time in water or present on shellfish beds at all times, or when submerged by tides; , fish, invertebrate, or times, or when submerged by tides; plant, fish, invertebrate, or fungus...... 2 fungus...... 2 2a Photosynthetic...... 2a Photosynthetic...... PLANTS 2b Not photosynthetic; fish, invertebrate, or fungus...... 3 2b Not photosynthetic; fish, invertebrate, or fungus...... 3 3a With fins and scales...... RAY-FINNED FISH 3a With fins and scales...... RAY-FINNED FISH 3b Lacking fins or scales; invertebrate, or fungus...... 4 3b Lacking fins or scales; invertebrate, or fungus...... 4 4a Lives within a bivalve host for at least part of life...... PARASITES 4a Lives within a bivalve host for at least part of life...... PARASITES 4b Lives within or on top of the aquaculture bed, or on related 4b Lives within or on top of the aquaculture bed, or on related equipment, or the shell of the cultured bivalve ...... 5 equipment, or the shell of the cultured bivalve ...... 5 5a Dwelling directly (sessile) on bivalve shell or culture equipment 5a Dwelling directly (sessile) on bivalve shell or culture equipment production...... FOULING ORGANISMS (in part) production...... FOULING ORGANISMS (in part) 5b Not dwelling directly on shellfish or shellfish culture equipment . . . 6 5b Not dwelling directly on shellfish or shellfish culture equipment . . . 6 6a Dwelling mostly below within the substrate, below the surface of the 6a Dwelling mostly below within the substrate, below the surface of the bed ...... BENTHIC ORGANISMS bed ...... BENTHIC ORGANISMS 6b Dwelling mostly on top of aquaculture bed surface 6b Dwelling mostly on top of aquaculture bed surface ...... EPIBENTHIC ORGANISMS ...... EPIBENTHIC ORGANISMS

BIRDS BIRDS 1a Feet with 3 toes, the first of which always points backwards 1a Feet with 3 toes, the first of which always points backwards ...... Perching birds 3 ...... Perching birds 3 1b Web footed ...... 2 1b Web footed ...... 2 2a With primarily white bellies and gray or black backs; call resembles 2a With primarily white bellies and gray or black backs; call resembles human laughter...... Gulls p 7 human laughter...... Gulls p 7 2b Stocky diving birds; rarely vocalize, but males sometimes whistle 2b Stocky diving birds; rarely vocalize, but males sometimes whistle ...... Scoters and Goldeneyes p 8 ...... Scoters and Goldeneyes p 8 3a Large robust birds; entirely black with iridescent feathers 3a Large robust birds; entirely black with iridescent feathers ...... Crows and Ravens p 8 ...... Crows and Ravens p 8 3b Other perching birds;, not problematic to bivalve aquaculture 3b Other perching birds; not problematic to bivalve aquaculture ...... likely eagles, sand-pipers, etc...... likely eagles, sand-pipers, etc.

PLANTS PLANTS 1a Plant possesses a root-like, but non-vascular holdfast that anchors it 1a Plant possesses a root-like, but non-vascular holdfast that anchors it to the substrate, but may foul production beds and equipment when to the substrate, but may foul production beds and equipment when torn from the holdfast; algae ...... 2 torn from the holdfast; algae ...... 2 1b Plant possesses a true vascular root, often with rhizomous nodes, 1b Plant possesses a true vascular root, often with rhizomous nodes, that extend down and across the substrate; lacks bladders for that extend down and across the substrate; lacks bladders for buoyancy; rooted plants ...... 4 buoyancy; rooted plants ...... 4 2a Plant with floating blue-green tubular, hollow, floating filamentous 2a Plant with floating blue-green tubular, hollow, floating filamentous stems...... Ulva flexuosa (filamentous algae) p 9 stems ...... Ulva flexuosa (filamentous algae) p 9 2b Plant with large floating green or golden-brown leaf-like sheets . . 3 2b Plant with large floating green or golden-brown leaf-like sheets . . 3 2 Dichotomous Key to Pests2 Dichotomous Key to Pests

Key toPests Key 3a Plant with very thin (2 cells), green, lettuce-like membranes toPests Key 3a Plant with very thin (2 cells), green, lettuce-like membranes ...... Sea Lettuce (Ulva lactuca ) p 9 ...... Sea Lettuce, (Ulva lactuca ) p 9 3b Plant with large, golden brown, leaf-like tissues embedded with 3b Plant with large, golden brown, leaf-like tissues embedded with bumpy gas-filled bladders to aid in buoyancy bumpy gas-filled bladders to aid in buoyancy ...... Fucus gardneri (a brown algae); not problematic ...... Fucus gardneri (a brown algae); not problematic 4a Plant consisting primarily of roots and bladed leaves, lacking visible 4a Plant consisting primarily of roots and bladed leaves, lacking visible stem (eelgrasses), or else with hollow jointed stems (true grasses) . . . 5 stem (eelgrasses), or else with hollow jointed stems (true grasses) . . . 5 4b Stem may be succulent (with fleshy water-storing tissues), or 4b Stem may be succulent (with fleshy water-storing tissues), or triangular with sharp edges (sedges), or rounded but not hollow and triangular with sharp edges (sedges), or rounded but not hollow and with 3 rows of leaves up the stem, each row arising a of the way with 3 rows of leaves up the stem, each row arising a of the way around the stem from the previous leaf (rushes), or otherwise different around the stem from the previous leaf (rushes), or otherwise different from above from above ...... Other saltmarsh and intertidal plants, not problematic ...... Other saltmarsh and intertidal plants, not problematic 6a Plant comprised primarily of roots and bladed leaves, lacking visible 6a Plant comprised primarily of roots and bladed leaves, lacking visible stem; entirely to mostly submerged during most of the tidal cycle. stem; entirely to mostly submerged during most of the tidal cycle...... Zostera spp. ( grasses) 7 ...... Zostera spp. (Eel grasses) 7 6b Plant comprised of roots, hollow stem with nodes, and leaves that 6b Plant comprised of roots, hollow stem with nodes, and leaves that arise from the stem as sheathes, possesses a ligule (collar of tissue arise from the stem as sheathes, possesses a ligule (collar of tissue between sheath and stem); entirely submerged only on very high tides between sheath and stem); entirely submerged only on very high tides ...... Poacea (true grasses) 8 ...... Poacea (true grasses) 8 7a Bladed leaves grow to 3 or more feet long and over ½ inches wide by 7a Bladed leaves grow to 3 or more feet long and over ½ inches wide by season’s end. Rooted rhizomes with 5 - 20 roots per node. season’s end. Rooted rhizomes with 5 - 20 roots per node...... Common eel grass (Zostera marina ) p10 ...... Common eel grass (Zostera marina ) p 10 7b Bladed leaves grow to 6 or 7 inches and ~3/8 inches wide by season’s 7b Bladed leaves grow to 6 or 7 inches and ~3/8 inches wide by season’s end. Rooted rhizomes with 2 roots per node. end. Rooted rhizomes with 2 roots per node...... Japanese eelgrass (Z. japonica ) p10 ...... Japanese eelgrass (Z. japonica ) p 10 8a Ligule consisting as only a single row of hairs; leaves without 8a Ligule consisting as only a single row of hairs; leaves without prominent midribs ...... Cordgrasses (Spartina spp. ) p12 prominent midribs ...... Cordgrasses (Spartina spp. ) p 12 8b Ligule membranous, comprising several rows of hairs, or both; leaves 8b Ligule membranous, comprising several rows of hairs, or both; leaves may have prominent midribs may have prominent midribs ...... Other saltmarsh or intertidal grasses, not problematic ...... Other saltmarsh or intertidal grasses, not problematic

RAY-FINNED FISH RAY-FINNED FISH 1a Asymmetrical body, protruding eyes on one side of the body 1a Asymmetrical body, protruding eyes on one side of the body ...... Flatfish (Order Pleuronectiformes) p15 ...... Flatfish (Order Pleuronectiformes) p 15 1b Body symmetrical, single eye on each side of the head ...... 2 1b Body symmetrical, single eye on each side of the head ...... 2

2a Typically with large spiny heads and rounded or fanlike pectoral and 2a Typically with large spiny heads and rounded or fanlike pectoral and caudal fins...... Sculpins (Family Cottidae) p16 caudal fins...... Sculpins (Family Cottidae) p16 2b Dorsal and anal fins divided into anterior spiny and posterior 2b Dorsal and anal fins divided into anterior spiny and posterior soft-rayed portions which may be partially or completely separated soft-rayed portions which may be partially or completely separated ...... Order Perciformes 3 ...... Order Perciformes 3 3a Deep-bodied with dark greenish back and silvery sides with fine 3a Deep-bodied with dark greenish back and silvery sides with fine horizontal bars with three broad yellow vertical bars. horizontal bars with three broad yellow vertical bars...... Shiner and other Surfperches (Family Embioticidae) p16 ...... Shiner Perch and other Surfperches (Family Embioticidae) p 16 3b Other, not especially pestiferous to bivalve aquaculture 3b Other, not especially pestiferous to bivalve aquaculture ...... Likely salmonids, Other non-pestiferous fish ...... Likely salmonids, Other non-pestiferous fish Dichotomous Key to Pests3 Dichotomous Key to Pests 3 Key toPests Key PARASITES PARASITES to Pests Key 1a Causes damage primarily to the shell (white spots) 1a Causes damage primarily to the shell (white spots) ...... Shell Disease (Ostracoblabe implexa ) p17 ...... Shell Disease (Ostracoblabe implexa ) p17 1b Resides within the bivalve; causes internal damage to the shell or 1b Resides within the bivalve; causes internal damage to the shell or organs...... 2 organs...... 2 2a Primarily causes cosmetic damage to the internal shell 2a Primarily causes cosmetic damage to the internal shell ...... “Mud” or “Blister” Worms (Polydora spp. (in part)) p18 ...... “Mud” or “Blister” Worms (Polydora spp. (in part)) p 18 2b Primarily causes damage to the molluscan organs and tissues .... 3 2b Primarily causes damage to the molluscan organs and tissues .... 3 3a Resembles a small red worm, but closer inspection reveals small limbs 3a Resembles a small red worm, but closer inspection reveals small limbs and 5 segmented body; actually a and 5 segmented body; actually a copepod ...... Red worm (Mytilicola orientalis ) p19 ...... Red worm (Mytilicola orientalis ) p19 3b Body not segmented; 2 suckers: 1 near mouth, 1 on underside 3b Body not segmented; 2 suckers: 1 near mouth, 1 on underside ...... Trematodes p20 ...... Trematodes p20

FOULING ORGANISMS FOULING ORGANISMS 1a With impermeable calcite plates that cover aperture when exposed at 1a With impermeable calcite plates that cover aperture when exposed at low tide ...... Barnacles p21 low tide ...... Barnacles p21 1b Without such plates, but may or may not be covered with a thick outer 1b Without such plates, but may or may not be covered with a thick outer covering resembling cellulose (“tunic”)...... 2 covering resembling cellulose (“tunic”)...... 2 2a Covered with a thick outer covering resembling cellulose (“tunic”), 2a Covered with a thick outer covering resembling cellulose (“tunic”), comprised of a stalk, sack-like body, and intake and outtake siphons; comprised of a stalk, sack-like body, and intake and outtake siphons; in some species small individual organisms (zooids) are joined in a in some species small individual organisms (zooids) are joined in a fleshy matrix to form large rubbery colonies ...... Tunicates p22 fleshy matrix to form large rubbery colonies ...... Tunicates p22 2b Not covered with a thick “tunic”; wormlike organism that burrowing 2b Not covered with a thick “tunic”; wormlike organism that burrowing into oyster shell, causing “mud blisters” . . Polydora spp (in part) p18 into oyster shell, causing “mud blisters” . . Polydora spp (in part) p18

BENTHIC ORGANISMS BENTHIC ORGANISMS 1a All or most of body can contract within two hinged calcarous shells 1a All or most of body can contract within two hinged calcarous shells ...... Bivalve Molluscs 6 ...... Bivalve Molluscs 6 1b Body and appendages may be encased in an exoskeleton, but cannot 1b Body and appendages may be encased in an exoskeleton, but cannot be retracted...... 2 be retracted...... 2 2a Segmented worms, with at least some segments possessing a pair of 2a Segmented worms, with at least some segments possessing a pair of paddle-shaped appendages (parapodia), although these are nearly paddle-shaped appendages (parapodia), although these are nearly absent in the bamboo worm ...... Polychaetes (Bristle Worms) 4 absent in the bamboo worm ...... Polychaetes (Bristle Worms) 4 2b Segmented body covered with calcareous exoskeleton that is molted 2b Segmented body covered with calcareous exoskeleton that is molted during growth; without compound eyes (as in insects) and without during growth; without compound eyes (as in insects) and without chelicerae (pair of 3 segmented “claw horn” on each side of the head chelicerae (pair of 3 segmented “claw horn” on each side of the head before the mouth, as in arachnids and horseshoe crabs), with 10 pairs before the mouth, as in arachnids and horseshoe crabs), with 10 pairs of legs: the first 3 pair function as mouth parts, one of which of legs: the first 3 pair function as mouth parts, one of which possesses enlarged pincers . . . Order (crabs and shrimp) 3 possesses enlarged pincers . . . Order Decapoda (crabs and shrimp) 3 3a Body wider than long; hard exoskeleton (except right after moulting); 3a Body wider than long; hard exoskeleton (except right after moulting); may bury itself in sediment when bed is fully exposed at low tide, may bury itself in sediment when bed is fully exposed at low tide, otherwise highly mobile; not a true bioturbater.... Crabs, in part 13 otherwise highly mobile; not a true bioturbater.... Crabs, in part 13 3b Body longer than wide; soft flexible exoskeleton; nearly always within 3b Body longer than wide; soft flexible exoskeleton; nearly always within burrows deep beneath surface; pestiferous as a bioturbater (liquifies burrows deep beneath surface; pestiferous as a bioturbater (liquifies and softens benthic substrate)...... Burrowing Shrimp 5 and softens benthic substrate)...... Burrowing Shrimp 5 4 Dichotomous Key to Pests4 Dichotomous Key to Pests

Key toPests Key 4a Lacking in all but a few tiny appendages; both ends truncated; toPests Key 4a Lacking in all but a few tiny appendages; both ends truncated; segments longer than wide; membranous collar on 4th segment overlaps segments longer than wide; membranous collar on 4th segment overlaps part of the third; each individual resides inside a tube constructed from part of the third; each individual resides inside a tube constructed from mud or sand which are connected to form colonies of hundreds of mud or sand which are connected to form colonies of hundreds of individuals; bioturbators (liquifies and softens benthic surface) individuals; bioturbators (liquifies and softens benthic surface) ...... Bamboo Worm (Clymenella torquata ) p24 ...... Bamboo Worm (Clymenella torquata ) p24 4b Rostrum nearly absent; flattened eyestalks; body color white, pink, 4b Rostrum nearly absent; flattened eyestalks; body color white, pink, red, or ; ...... Other polychaetes – not substantive pests red, or orange; ...... Other polychaetes – not substantive pests 5a Large rostrum (forward extension of the carapace, the “nose”); 5a Large rostrum (forward extension of the carapace, the “nose”); cylindrical eyestalks; dark blue-green or gray body cylindrical eyestalks; dark blue-green or gray body ...... Mud Shrimp (Upogebia pugettensis ) p25 ...... Mud Shrimp (Upogebia pugettensis ) p25 5b Rostrum nearly absent; flattened eyestalks; body color is white, pink, 5b Rostrum nearly absent; flattened eyestalks; body color is white, pink, red, or orange; ...... Neotrypaea spp 6 red, or orange; ...... Neotrypaea spp 6 6a No gap between dactyl (“moveable finger”) and chela (“fixed finger”) 6a No gap between dactyl (“moveable finger”) and chela (“fixed finger”) of larger cheliped (“pincer”) when closed of larger cheliped (“pincer”) when closed ...... Ghost Shrimp (N. californiensis ) p25 ...... Ghost Shrimp (N. californiensis ) p25 6b Conspicuous gap between dactyl and chela of larger cheliped when 6b Conspicuous gap between dactyl and chela of larger cheliped when closed...... Giant Sand Shrimp (N. gigas ) p25 closed...... Giant Sand Shrimp (N. gigas ) p25 7a Tube that extends from the buried bivalve to the surface (“siphon”) is 7a Tube that extends from the buried bivalve to the surface (“siphon”) is enlarged and cannot be totally retracted within shell; at least one end of enlarged and cannot be totally retracted within shell; at least one end of the shell is highly truncated (not rounded), with a gap between both the shell is highly truncated (not rounded), with a gap between both halves (valves) of the shell to allow for the enlarged siphon ...... 8 halves (valves) of the shell to allow for the enlarged siphon ...... 8 7b Siphon can be totally retracted within shell; both ends of the shell 7b Siphon can be totally retracted within shell; both ends of the shell rounded or pointed, not truncated; no gap between the valves...... 9 rounded or pointed, not truncated; no gap between the valves...... 9 8a Both siphon and neck of clam are enlarged and cannot be completely 8a Both siphon and neck of clam are enlarged and cannot be completely retracted within shell; both ends of the shell are highly truncated (not retracted within shell; both ends of the shell are highly truncated (not rounded), with a gap between both valves of the shell rounded), with a gap between both valves of the shell ...... Pacific , not pestiferous ...... Pacific Geoduck, not pestiferous 8b Siphon cannot be totally retracted within shell; both ends of the shell 8b Siphon cannot be totally retracted within shell; both ends of the shell rounded or pointed, not truncated; no gap between the valves rounded or pointed, not truncated; no gap between the valves ...... Horse or Gaper Clams (Family ) p28 ...... Horse or Gaper Clams (Family Mactridae ) p28 9a Shell with more than 30 distinct radial ribs (ridges that extend from 9a Shell with more than 30 distinct radial ribs (ridges that extend from the umbone (hinge at the top of the valves) towards the bottom of the the umbone (hinge at the top of the valves) towards the bottom of the shells; length (from end to end, perpendicular to hinges) very similar to, shells; length (from end to end, perpendicular to hinges) very similar to, or slighter shorter, than height; shell usually light tan, mottled with or slighter shorter, than height; shell usually light tan, mottled with various bands or blotches of brown; compete with geoduck for food and various bands or blotches of brown; compete with geoduck for food and space, particularly within geoduck protection tubes space, particularly within geoduck protection tubes ...... Cockles (Family Cardiidae p29 ...... Cockles (Family Cardiidae p29 9b Siphon can be totally retracted within shell; both ends of the shell 9b Siphon can be totally retracted within shell; both ends of the shell rounded or pointed, not truncated; no gap between the valves rounded or pointed, not truncated; no gap between the valves ...... Non-pestiferous bivalves ...... Non-pestiferous bivalves

EPIBENTHIC ORGANISMS EPIBENTHIC ORGANISMS 1a All or most of body can contract within a single large, or two hinged 1a All or most of body can contract within a single large, or two hinged calcarous shells...... Molluscs 8 calcarous shells...... Molluscs 8 1b Body and appendages may be encased in an exoskeleton, but cannot 1b Body and appendages may be encased in an exoskeleton, but cannot be contracted within shells...... 2 be contracted within shells...... 2 Dichotomous Key to Pests5 Dichotomous Key to Pests 5 Key to Pests Key

2a Body and appendages not encased in an exoskeleton; possess a toPests Key 2a Body and appendages not encased in an exoskeleton; possess a mesodermal skeleton (“test”) that may persist after death in mesodermal skeleton (“test”) that may persist after death in sandollars; the thick skin may be covered with spines; possess sandollars; the thick skin may be covered with spines; possess pentaradial symmetry (5 similar body parts interlock at the center), pentaradial symmetry (5 similar body parts interlock at the center), mostly in later life stages ...... Echinoderms 3 mostly in later life stages...... Echinoderms 3 2b . Possess calcareous exoskeleton and bilateral symmetry 2b Crustaceans. Possess calcareous exoskeleton and bilateral symmetry (body comprised to 2 sides which resemble each other); 10 legs, the (body comprised to 2 sides which resemble each other); 10 legs, the first 3 pair function as mouth parts, one of which possesses enlarged first 3 pair function as mouth parts, one of which possesses enlarged pincers...... Order Decapoda (crabs and shrimp) 4 pincers...... Order Decapoda (crabs and shrimp) 4 3a With bilateral symmetry (has front and back, anus located near the 3a With bilateral symmetry (has front and back, anus located near the rear) as well as top and bottom) in addition to pentaradial symmetry; rear) as well as top and bottom) in addition to pentaradial symmetry; lacks arms or legs, but with spines and small tube-feet that are used lacks arms or legs, but with spines and small tube-feet that are used for locomotion; actually hyperbenthic (burrow slightly beneath the for locomotion; actually hyperbenthic (burrow slightly beneath the surface); disk-shaped endoskeleton (“test”) may persist for months surface); disk-shaped endoskeleton (“test) may persist for months after death..... Western Sand Dollar (Dendraster excentricus ) p30 after death..... Western Sand Dollar (Dendraster excentricus ) p30 3b Adults with pentaradial symmetry only; with at least 5 obvious arms; 3b Adults with pentaradial symmetry only; with at least 5 obvious arms; resides primarily on sediment surface only; endoskeleton decays resides primarily on sediment surface only; endoskeleton decays quickly after death ...... Sea Stars (Class Asteroidea) p31 quickly after death ...... Sea Stars (Class Asteroidea) p31 4a Reduced abdomen entirely hidden beneath the enlarged thorax; 4a Reduced abdomen entirely hidden beneath the enlarged thorax; relatively long legs are hinged for characteristic sideways movement; relatively long legs are hinged for characteristic sideways movement; hard exoskeleton...... Infraorder Brachyura (True Crabs) 5 hard exoskeleton...... Infraorder Brachyura (True Crabs) 5 4b Not as above...... 4b Not as above...... Other shrimp and shrimp-like (Crangon Shrimp, Mysid Other shrimp and shrimp-like animals (Crangon Shrimp, Mysid Shrimp), generally not pestiferous Shrimp), generally not pestiferous 5a Fifth pair of legs flattened into broad paddles; five spines (“teeth”) on 5a Fifth pair of legs flattened into broad paddles; five spines (“teeth”) on the front edge of each side of the carapace and carapace widest the front edge of each side of the carapace and carapace widest between hindmost (fifth) spines; color of dorsal (top) side of carapace between hindmost (fifth) spines; color of dorsal (top) side of carapace quite variable for juveniles, but usually dark green with yellow quite variable for juveniles, but usually dark green with yellow marking for adults; color of ventral (bottom) side of carapace often marking for adults; color of ventral (bottom) side of carapace often bright red or yellow . European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas ) p32 bright red or yellow . European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas ) p32 5b Fifth pair of legs not as flattened; lacking a prominent rostrum 5b Fifth pair of legs not as flattened, lacking a prominent rostrum (frontal extension of carapace between the eye stalks); carapace (frontal extension of carapace between the eye stalks), carapace broadly oval; color not as above . Family Cancridea (Cancer Crabs) 6 broadly oval; color not as above . Family Cancridea (Cancer Crabs) 6 6a Tips of chilipeds (enlarged pincers) very dark to black; lacks 6a Tips of chilipeds (enlarged pincers) very dark to black; Lacks serrations on the ventral (bottom) side of the claws; adults brick red serrations on the ventral (bottom) side of the claws; adults brick red in color ...... (Red Rock Crab) p33 in color ...... Cancer productus (Red Rock Crab) p33 6b Tips of chilipeds not darkened; serrations present on ventral side of 6b Tips of chilipeds not darkened; serrations present on ventral side of claws; adults may be reddish, but not brick red...... 7 claws; adults may be reddish, but not brick red...... 7 7a Carapace widest at the 10th tooth in a that extends along the side 7a Carapace widest at the 10th tooth in a line that extends along the side of the carapace from the first next to the eye; spiny ridges on parts of of the carapace from the first next to the eye; spiny ridges on parts of the chilipeds (enlarged pincers); last segment of tail flap curved the chilipeds (enlarged pincers); last segment of tail flap curved ...... Metacarcinus (=Cancer) magister () p33 ...... Metacarcinus (=Cancer) magister (Dungeness Crab) p33 7b Carapace widest at the 9th tooth in a line that extends along the edge 7b Carapace widest at the 9th tooth in a line that extends along the edge of the carapace from the first next to the eye; no spiny ridges on parts of the carapace from the first next to the eye; no spiny ridges on parts of the chilipeds (enlarged pincers); last segment of tail flap pointed of the chilipeds (enlarged pincers); last segment of tail flap pointed ...... Metacarcinus (=Cancer) gracilis (Graceful Rock Crab) p33 ...... Metacarcinus (=Cancer) gracilis (Graceful Rock Crab) p33 6 Dichotomous Key to Pests6 Dichotomous Key to Pests

Key toPests Key 8a All or most of body can contract within a single shell; some are toPests Key 8a All or most of body can contract within a single shell; some are predators that drill holes into bivalves and feed on the body; some are predators that drill holes into bivalves and feed on the body; some attached to the shells of other snails or bivalves are attached to the shells of other snails or bivalves ...... Gastropod Molluscs (Snails) 9 ...... Gastropod Molluscs (Snails) 9 8b All or most of body can contract within two hinged Asymmetrical 8b All or most of body can contract within two hinged Asymmetrical shells; attach themselves to substrates via a byssus (tuft of fine silky shells; attach themselves to substrates via a byssus (tuft of fine silky filaments)...... Mussels 14 filaments)...... Mussels 14

9a Shell conical or cap shaped, not coiled; interior of shell with shelf 9a Shell conical or cap shaped, not coiled; interior of shell with shelf ...... Slipper Snails (Family Calyptraeidae) 10 ...... Slipper Snails (Family Calyptraeidae) 10 9b Shell coiled, with or without tall spire; interior of shell lacks shelf 12 9b Shell coiled, with or without tall spire; interior of shell lacks shelf 12 10a Shell definitely arched, higher than wide, apex beaklike 10a Shell definitely arched, higher than wide, apex beaklike ...... Crepicula adunca (Hooked Slipper Snail) p34 ...... Crepicula adunca (Hooked Slipper Snail) p34 10b Shell not arched; lower than wide; lacking beaklike apex ...... 11 10b Shell not arched; lower than wide; lacking beaklike apex ...... 11 11a Shell whitish, but with a shaggy, yellow brown periostracum 11a Shell whitish, but with a shaggy, yellow brown periostracum (outermost, thin layer of shell; composed of organic material that (outermost, thin layer of shell; composed of organic material that lends color to the shell; often lacking in older, dead specimens); shell lends color to the shell; often lacking in older, dead specimens); shell almost flat . Western White Slipper Snail (Crepicula nummaria ) p34 almost flat . Western White Slipper Snail (Crepicula nummaria ) p34 11b Shell whitish, but with brown periostracum, or without obvious 11b Shell whitish, but with brown periostracum, or without obvious periostracum; shell may be flat, concave, or misshapen ,depending periostracum; shell may be flat, concave, or misshapen ,depending on habitat ...... White Slipper Snail (Crepidula perforans ) p34 on habitat ...... White Slipper Snail (Crepidula perforans ) p34 12a Diameter nearly equal to height, almost globular, consisting mostly 12a Diameter nearly equal to height, almost globular, consisting mostly of the body whorl. Produces gelatinous ring or collar of eggs of the body whorl. Produces gelatinous ring or collar of eggs ...... Lewis’s Moon Snail (Euspira (Polinices) lewisii ) p35 ...... Lewis’s Moon Snail (Euspira (Polinices) lewisii ) p35 12b Height greater than diameter, but with no more than 7 whorls; axial 12b Height greater than diameter, but with no more than 7 whorls; axial ribs (ridges that run across the shell, perpendicular to body and ribs (ridges that run across the shell, perpendicular to body and spiral whorls) present on both upper (spire) and lower (body whorl) spiral whorls) present on both upper (spire) and lower (body whorl) ...... Drills (Family Muricidae) 13 ...... Drills (Family Muricidae) 13 13a Edges of the siphonal canal (extension at the bottom of the aperture 13a Edges of the siphonal canal (extension at the bottom of the aperture (body opening) touching or nearly touching for at least part of the (body opening) touching or nearly touching for at least part of the canal, essentially a closed tube; outer lip of the aperture thickened to canal, essentially a closed tube; outer lip of the aperture thickened to more than half the width of the aperture (in mature specimens) more than half the width of the aperture (in mature specimens) ...... Japanese Oyster Drill (Ocinebrellus inornatus ) p36 ...... Japanese Oyster Drill (Ocinebrellus inornatus ) p36 13b Edges of the siphonal canal do not touch, the canal is essentially an 13b Edges of the siphonal canal do not touch, the canal is essentially an open trough; outer lip of the aperture not as thick as half the width open trough; outer lip of the aperture not as thick as half the width of the aperture; much less than twice the diameter of the aperture; much less than twice the diameter ..... Eastern or Atlantic Oyster Drill (Ocinebrellus inornatus ) p36 ..... Eastern or Atlantic Oyster Drill (Ocinebrellus inornatus ) p36 14a Small (up to 1½”); olive-green, yellow-green or greenish-brown in 14a Small (up to 1½”); olive-green, yellow-green or greenish-brown in color, with purple stripes that extend from the center of growth color, with pale purple stripes that extend from the center of growth to the hind margin of the shell, and wavy brown lines surrounding to the hind margin of the shell, and wavy brown lines surrounding the center of growth the center of growth .....Asian or Japanese Green Mussel (Musculista senhousia ) p37 .....Asian or Japanese Green Mussel (Musculista senhousia ) p37 14b Large (up to 4½”); dark blue to black, sometimes brown to black in 14b Large (up to 4½”); dark blue to black, sometimes brown to black in color, with fine (not coarse) radial ribs...... complex color, with fine (not coarse) radial ribs...... Blue mussel complex (Mytilus edulis/trossulus/galloprovincialus ) p38 (Mytilus edulis/trossulus/galloprovincialus ) p38 Gulls (primarily Larus spp.)7 Gulls (primarily Larus spp.) 7 Status: Gulls, along with other waterfowl, are a primary pest of mussel Status: Gulls, along with other waterfowl, are a primary pest of mussel and clam aquaculture, particularly those grown on the ground or that are and clam aquaculture, particularly those grown on the ground or that are otherwise exposed at low tide. Gulls are omnivores and feed on other otherwise exposed at low tide. Gulls are omnivores and feed on other aquatic items aside from bivalves, including fish, carrion and garbage. aquatic items aside from bivalves, including fish, carrion and garbage. Gulls will aggregate and feed on burrowing shrimp that exit their burrows Gulls will aggregate and feed on burrowing shrimp that exit their burrows due to habitat disruption, but not to the extent to substantially suppress due to habitat disruption, but not to the extent to substantially suppress

populations. Members of the genus, Larus, (primarily) have become Birds populations. Members of the genus, Larus, (primarily) have become Birds highly hybridized due to their broad feeding habits and association with highly hybridized due to their broad feeding habits and association with expanding human civilization and loss of wild habitat. expanding human civilization and loss of wild habitat. Description: Medium to large grey white birds that have harsh wailing or Description: Medium to large grey white birds that have harsh wailing or squawking calls that may resemble human laughter. Primary species squawking calls that may resemble human laughter. Primary species along the Oregon and Washington coast can be generally characterized along the Oregon and Washington coast can be generally characterized by the patterns of black markings on the head and wings, the color of the by the patterns of black markings on the head and wings, the color of the mantle, color and pattern of spots on the bill, and color legs and the color mantle, color and pattern of spots on the bill, and color legs and the color of rings that surrounds the eyes. See table below (from Dennis Paulson’s, of rings that surrounds the eyes. See table below (adapted from Dennis Museum Director Emeritus, Slater Museum of Natural History, University Paulson’s, Museum Director Emeritus, Slater Museum of Natural History, of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA). University of Puget Sound, Tacoma, WA). ington and Oregon and ington Oregon and ington ecies along the Wash ecies along the Wash mantle, bill, legs, and eye ring. mantle, bill, legs, and eye ring. Species Mantle Bill Legs Eye Ring Species Mantle Bill Legs Eye Ring coasts based on color of head, coasts based on color of head, Identification guide to common gull sp to common gull guide Identification White head HerringThayer'sRing-billedGlaucous-winged neutral gray pale California spot red with yellow gray pale pale gray yellow with red spotMew spot red with yellow yellow with black ringBlack-legged pink pink redWestern neutral pink neutralDark yellow with red and black pinkheadBonaparte's yellow yellow-orange orange-red reddish-purple neutral pink to purple Sabine's gray dark spot red with yellow dull yellow red pale gray black black neutral tip yellow with black yellow-orange dull yellow green to red black red red orange red black sp to common gull guide Identification White head HerringThayer'sRing-billedGlaucous-winged neutral gray pale California spot red with yellow gray pale pale gray yellow with red spotMew spot red with yellow yellow with black ringBlack-legged pink pink redWestern neutral pink neutralDark yellow with red and black pinkheadBonaparte's yellow yellow-orange orange-red reddish-purple neutral pink to purple Sabine's gray dark spot red with yellow dull yellow red pale gray black black neutral tip yellow with black yellow-orange dull yellow green to red black red red orange red black

Management: See p 8 Management: See p 8 8 Diving Seaducks (Family Anatidae) and Crows and Ravens (Family Corvidae)8 Diving Seaducks (Family Anatidae) and Crows and Ravens (Family Corvidae) Diving Seaducks (Scoters & Goldeneyes, Family Anatidae) Diving Seaducks (Scoters & Goldeneyes, Family Anatidae) Status:histrionicus Scoters and goldeneyes can be a primary pest of unprotected Status:histrionicus Scoters and goldeneyes can be a primary pest of unprotected bivalves cultured on the ground. They feed on crustaceans as well as bivalves cultured on the ground. They feed on crustaceans as well as bivalves and other molluscs. They breed further north or inland during bivalves and other molluscs. They breed further north or inland during summer. The White-winged Scoter (Melanitta deglandi), the Surf Scoter summer. The White-winged Scoter (Melanitta deglandi), the Surf Scoter (M. perspicillata ), the Black Scoter (M. nigra), and the Common Goldeneye (M. perspicillata ), the Black Scoter (M. nigra), and the Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) are common to the coastal regions of the PNW (Bucephala clangula) are common to the coastal regions of the PNW Birds Birds during the winter. Another seaduck, the Harelquin, (Histrionicus during the winter. Another seaduck, the Harelquin, (Histrionicus ) (Harelquin duck), is uncommon in the region. ) (Harelquin duck), is uncommon in the region. Description: Medium stocky ducks. Males have broad swollen bills and Description: Medium stocky ducks. Males have broad swollen bills and are black; females are brown. are black; females are brown. Management: Passive measures include substrate covers, fencing, and Management: Passive measures include substrate covers, fencing, and nets on Manila clams, , and mussels (suspended culture). nets on Manila clams, geoducks, and mussels (suspended culture). Hazing (harassing to disturb the animals, causing them to leave) is often Hazing (harassing to disturb the animals, causing them to leave) is often difficult as these birds are often on the bed at the same times as workers. difficult as these birds are often on the bed at the same times as workers.

Crows and Ravens (Family Corvidae) Crows and Ravens (Family Corvidae) Status: Crows and raven may feed on ground cultured, unprotected Status: Crows and raven may feed on ground cultured, unprotected bivalves that are exposed by low tides. Like waterfowl, crows and ravens bivalves that are exposed by low tides. Like waterfowl, crows and ravens may contribute to higher fecal coliform bacteria levels on commercial may contribute to higher fecal coliform bacteria levels on commercial bivalve beds, which could result in downgrades or closures of growing bivalve beds, which could result in downgrades or closures of growing areas. The American Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and the Common or areas. The American Crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) and the Common or Northern Raven ©. corax) are members of the Family Corvidae, which Northern Raven ©. corax) are members of the Family Corvidae, which includes the magpies and jays. The distributions of other crows and includes the magpies and jays. The distributions of other crows and ravens do not include the most of the primary bivalve producing areas in ravens do not include the most of the primary bivalve producing areas in Washington and Oregon, although the Northwestern Crow ©. caurinus) is Washington and Oregon, although the Northwestern Crow ©. caurinus) is distributed along the outer Olympic Peninsula north to . distributed along the outer Olympic Peninsula north to Alaska. Description: Both crows and ravens are large black birds, but the Description: Both crows and ravens are large black birds, but the Common Raven has a larger and heavier, slightly curved beak, shaggy Common Raven has a larger and heavier, slightly curved beak, shaggy plumage on the throat and above the beak, and a wedge-shaped tail. plumage on the throat and above the beak, and a wedge-shaped tail. The call of the Common Crow is a short “caaw, caaw, caaw”, while the The call of the Common Crow is a short “caaw, caaw, caaw”, while the Raven’s call is deeper and more resonant. Both species produce a wide Raven’s call is deeper and more resonant. Both species produce a wide variety of other sounds, including the ability to mimic the calls of other variety of other sounds, including the ability to mimic the calls of other birds. Crows form flocks (or murders) while ravens are solitary. birds. Crows form flocks (or murders) while ravens are solitary. Management: Passive measures include substrate covers, fencing, and Management: Passive measures include substrate covers, fencing, and nets on Manila clams, geoducks, and mussels (suspended culture). nets on Manila clams, geoducks, and mussels (suspended culture). Hazing (harassing to disturb the animals, causing them to leave) is often Hazing (harassing to disturb the animals, causing them to leave) is often difficult as these birds are often on the bed at the same times as workers. difficult as these birds are often on the bed at the same times as workers. The highly intelligent, often brazen, crows and ravens are more difficult The highly intelligent, often brazen, crows and ravens are more difficult to haze than other birds. Shooting is illegal. to haze than other birds. Shooting is illegal. flexuosa flexuosa

Filamentous Algae and Sea Lettuce (Ulva spp.)9 Filamentous Algae and Sea Lettuce (Ulva spp.) 9 Status: Filamentous algae (Ulva flexuosa, formerly Enteromorpha Status: Filamentous algae (Ulva flexuosa, formerly Enteromorpha ) and sea lettuce (U. lactuca ) can foul aquaculture equipment and ) and sea lettuce (U. lactuca ) can foul aquaculture equipment and developing bivalves if detached leaves and stems reach high densities. developing bivalves if detached leaves and stems reach high densities. Blankets of sea lettuce can become thick enough to smother epibenthic Blankets of sea lettuce can become thick enough to smother epibenthic organisms, including developing bivalves, resulting in high levels of organisms, including developing bivalves, resulting in high levels of hydrogen sulfide, causing further mortality. hydrogen sulfide, causing further mortality. Description: U. flexuosa is a yellow to light green alga that can grow Description: U. flexuosa is a yellow to light green alga that can grow about 1 ft tall. The fronds are tubular with cylindrical stalks and are about 1 ft tall. The fronds are tubular with cylindrical stalks and are attached to a small round basal disc. Ulva lactuca is a very thin flat attached to a small round basal disc. Ulva lactuca is a very thin flat Plants green alga that also grows from a holdfast, up to 6 or 7 long and a foot Plants green alga that also grows from a holdfast, up to 6 or 7 long and a foot wide. The “leaves” are ruffled and often frayed or torn. wide. The “leaves” are ruffled and often frayed or torn. Management: Nets are sometimes placed over ground cultured Management: Nets are sometimes placed over ground cultured shellfish, primarily clams, then are removed and cleaned of algae shellfish, primarily clams, then are removed and cleaned of algae periodically. Some growers mechanically sweep the nets while in place. periodically. Some growers mechanically sweep the nets while in place. Thick blankets of algae can be removed by hand. Thick blankets of algae can be removed by hand.

l a f e o aUlvaUlva flexosa flexosa

Photo: Steve Booth Photo: Steve Booth

Ulva lactuca

Photo: Steve Booth Photo: Brian Allen Photo: Steve Booth Photo: Brian Allen Ulva lactuca 10 Eelgrasses (Zostera marina and Z. japonica )10 Eelgrasses (Zostera marina and Z. japonica ) Status: Zostera marina and Z. japonica are two of 20 eelgrass species Status: Zostera marina and Z. japonica are two of 20 eelgrass species worldwide, but only Z. marina and Z. japonica are present in Washington worldwide, but only Z. marina and Z. japonica are present in Washington and Oregon. Z. marina is native to the region but Z. japonica was and Oregon. Z. marina is native to the region but Z. japonica was introduced, likely from Korea and Japan, possibly as early as the 1930s. introduced, likely from Korea and Japan, possibly as early as the 1930s. The distribution of Japanese eelgrass (Z. japonica ) has expanded greatly, The distribution of Japanese eelgrass (Z. japonica ) has expanded greatly, especially in the last decade. Z. japonica inhabits higher intertidal ground especially in the last decade. Z. japonica inhabits higher intertidal ground than Z. marina, so has not directly replaced the latter. Both are important than Z. marina, so has not directly replaced the latter. Both are important to ecosystem function and aid in sediment deposition and stabilization. to ecosystem function and aid in sediment deposition and stabilization. They provide substrate for many epiphytic algae and invertebrates, They provide substrate for many epiphytic algae and invertebrates, habitat for many marine vertebrates, and forage for waterfowl. habitat for many marine vertebrates, and forage for waterfowl.

Plants Accordingly, these species have historically been granted “protected” Plants Accordingly, these species have historically been granted “protected” status on public lands. status on public lands. Z. japonica is now particularly dense on upper tidal elevation commercial Z. japonica is now particularly dense on upper tidal elevation commercial clam beds in parts of Willapa Bay and Samish Bay, where it interferes with clam beds in parts of Willapa Bay and Samish Bay, where it interferes with commercial clam production by restricting or redirecting water currents commercial clam production by restricting or redirecting water currents and associated nutrients and oxygen and accelerating sediment and associated nutrients and oxygen and accelerating sediment deposition. Japanese eelgrass may discourage Green Sturgeon, a listed deposition. Japanese eelgrass may discourage Green Sturgeon, a listed species, from foraging on burrowing shrimp. species, from foraging on burrowing shrimp. japonica japonica Description: Although eelgrasses are perennial plants, the bladed leaves Description: Although eelgrasses are perennial plants, the bladed leaves die back in the winter months, leaving just a few strands on the rooted die back in the winter months, leaving just a few strands on the rooted nodules. When regrowth begins in the spring, Z. japonica may be difficult nodules. When regrowth begins in the spring, Z. japonica may be difficult to distinguish from Z. marina but the latter quickly outgrows Z. japonica; to distinguish from Z. marina but the latter quickly outgrows Z. japonica; the leaves reach lengths of 3 feet or more by August, but are often less as the leaves reach lengths of 3 feet or more by August, but are often less as they can break into sections. The leaves of Z. japonica are narrower than they can break into sections. The leaves of Z. japonica are narrower than Z. marina (<¼” vs nearly ½”, respectively for mature individuals, but Z. marina (<¼” vs nearly ½”, respectively for mature individuals, but young Z. marina can have similarly narrow leaves). The leaves of Z. young Z. marina can have similarly narrow leaves). The leaves of Z. are generally <1 ft long whereas those of Z. marina can reach 3 are generally <1 ft long whereas those of Z. marina can reach 3 ft or more in length. Both species produce seeds, but population growth ft or more in length. Both species produce seeds, but population growth is primarily by sub-surface rhizomes, which plant a rooted nodule every is primarily by sub-surface rhizomes, which plant a rooted nodule every few feet from which a new group of leaves can sprout. Z. japonica has 2 few feet from which a new group of leaves can sprout. Z. japonica has 2 roots per nodule whereas Z. marina has 5 to 20. roots per nodule whereas Z. marina has 5 to 20. Management: Until recently, all Zostera species in Washington were Management: Until recently, all Zostera species in Washington were protected under several state and federal laws including the Hydraulic protected under several state and federal laws including the Hydraulic Code Rules, the Shoreline Management Act, the Growth Management Act Code Rules, the Shoreline Management Act, the Growth Management Act and Fish and Wildlife Habitat Conservation Areas (Washington) and by the and Fish and Wildlife Habitat Conservation Areas (Washington) and by the Army Corps of Engineers permitting processes for commercial shellfish Army Corps of Engineers permitting processes for commercial shellfish culture (Federal). The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife listing culture (Federal). The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife listing of Priority Habitats and Species exempted Z. japonica from protection in of Priority Habitats and Species exempted Z. japonica from protection in early 2011. In late 2011, the Washington State Weed Commission listed early 2011. In late 2011, the Washington State Weed Commission listed Z. japonica as a Class C noxious weed on Washington commercially Z. japonica as a Class C noxious weed on Washington commercially managed shellfish beds only. The Hydraulic Code has been revised to managed shellfish beds only. The Hydraulic Code has been revised to redefine seagrass to exclude Z. japonica, but other parts the Washington redefine seagrass to exclude Z. japonica, but other parts the Washington Authorization Code still consider it a seagrass. Nevertheless the Authorization Code still consider it a seagrass. Nevertheless the Washington Department of Ecology is drafting a National Discharge Washington Department of Ecology is drafting a National Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit for the use of the herbicide imazamox Elimination System (NPDES) permit for the use of the herbicide imazamox on commercial clam beds in Willapa Bay and Grays Harbor, only. In on commercial clam beds in Willapa Bay and Grays Harbor, only. In Oregon, Z. japonica is neither protected nor listed as a noxious weed. Oregon, Z. japonica is neither protected nor listed as a noxious weed. Eelgrasses (Zostera marina and Z. japonica )11 Eelgrasses (Zostera marina and Z. japonica ) 11

.j p n c Z. japonicaZ. japonica Plants . m r n Z. marinaZ. marina Plants

Photo: Kim Patten Photo: Kim Patten

Dense blankets of Z. japonica Dense blankets of Z. japonica

Photo: Steve Booth Photo: Steve Booth

Drying Z. marina on long lines Drying Z. marina on long lines Photo: PSI Photo: PSI pattens pattens alterniflora alterniflora

12 Invasive Cordgrasses (Spartina spp.)12 Invasive Cordgrasses (Spartina spp.) Status: Four species of invasive Spartina are currently of concern in Status: Four species of invasive Spartina are currently of concern in Washington State (S. alterniflora, S. angelica, S. densiflora , and S. Washington State (S. alterniflora, S. angelica, S. densiflora , and S. ) but the first has been the most problematic. After remaining at ) but the first has been the most problematic. After remaining at tolerable levels for 100 years since its introduction, likely in the 1890s, S. tolerable levels for 100 years since its introduction, likely in the 1890s, S. expanded into hundreds of acres of formerly bare mudflats in expanded into hundreds of acres of formerly bare mudflats in all coastal counties except Whatcom, especially Pacific. These Spartina all coastal counties except Whatcom, especially Pacific. These Spartina species were designated Class A noxious weeds by the Washington State species were designated Class A noxious weeds by the Washington State Noxious Weed Board. A collaborative eradication program involving the Noxious Weed Board. A collaborative eradication program involving the Washington State Department of Agriculture with strong collaborative Washington State Department of Agriculture with strong collaborative efforts from U.S. Fish and Wildlife, Washington Department of Natural efforts from U.S. Fish and Wildlife, Washington Department of Natural

Plants Resources, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Shoalwater Tribe, Plants Resources, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Shoalwater Tribe, and Willapa National Wildlife Refuge made remarkable progress towards and Willapa National Wildlife Refuge made remarkable progress towards the eradication of Spartina in Pacific County. In 2011, only 2 net ac of the eradication of Spartina in Pacific County. In 2011, only 2 net ac of Spartina remained within Willapa Bay, representing 0.02% of the peak Spartina remained within Willapa Bay, representing 0.02% of the peak acreage of the infestation in 2003, 9000 net ac. About 100 acres (of acreage of the infestation in 2003, 9000 net ac. About 100 acres (of mostly S. angelica) remain in Puget Sound. The eradication program mostly S. angelica) remain in Puget Sound. The eradication program features several integrated control strategies, as outlined below. Growers features several integrated control strategies, as outlined below. Growers are acting as scouts for weed appearance and, when found, notifying are acting as scouts for weed appearance and, when found, notifying state agencies for targeted management efforts. state agencies for targeted management efforts. Spartina is currently not a major problem for Oregon shellfish growers. Spartina is currently not a major problem for Oregon shellfish growers. Spartina presence in Oregon is currently limited to S. patens on the Spartina presence in Oregon is currently limited to S. patens on the Nature Conservancy’s Cox Island Preserve in the Siuslaw River estuary. Nature Conservancy’s Cox Island Preserve in the Siuslaw River estuary. Oregon has a Spartina response plan that addresses new infestations as Oregon has a Spartina response plan that addresses new infestations as they arise. they arise. Description: All Spartina species are best distinguished from other Description: All Spartina species are best distinguished from other saltmarsh plants by their hollow stem and the presence of straight hairs saltmarsh plants by their hollow stem and the presence of straight hairs on ligule or joint where the leaf attaches to stem. They are similar to one on ligule or joint where the leaf attaches to stem. They are similar to one another, differing somewhat in height, habitat preferences, and flowering another, differing somewhat in height, habitat preferences, and flowering season. S. angelica reaches a maximum height of 1.5 m, S. alterniflora, 2 season. S. angelica reaches a maximum height of 1.5 m, S. alterniflora, 2 m; S. angelica lives throughout the tidal marsh (low – high elevations) and m; S. angelica lives throughout the tidal marsh (low – high elevations) and blooms in June – September. More thorough species descriptions are blooms in June – September. More thorough species descriptions are presented at many websites (i.e., presented at many websites (http://www.psparchives.com/our_work/protect_habitat/ans/spartina.htm) (http://www.psparchives.com/our_work/protect_habitat/ans/spartina.htm)

General characteristics of invasive Spartina species. General characteristics of invasive Spartina species. Species Maximum Tidal Elevation Flowering Species Maximum Tidal Elevation Flowering Height (m) Season Height (m) Season S. angelica 1.5 low – high Jun – Sep S. angelica 1.5 low – high Jun – Sep S. alterniflora 2 mean high water – 1 m above mean late Jul – S. alterniflora 2 mean high water – 1 m above mean late Jul – low water Oct low water Oct S. densiflora 1.5 high Jun – Sep S. densiflora 1.5 high Jun – Sep S. pattens 1.2 high; infrequent tidal flooding Jun – Sep S. pattens 1.2 high; infrequent tidal flooding Jun – Sep S. angelica 2 low – high Jun – Sep S. angelica 2 low – high Jun – Sep

Invasive Cordgrasses (Spartina spp.)13 Invasive Cordgrasses (Spartina spp.) 13 . a g l c S. angelicaS. angelica Plants Plants

. a t r i l r S. alternifloraS. alterniflora

S. densiflora

Photos: WDFW / WSDA Photos: WDFW / WSDA

S. densiflora

S. patens

Photo: T. Forney (ODA) Photo: T. Forney (ODA)

S. patens 14 Invasive Cordgrasses (Spartina spp.)14 Invasive Cordgrasses (Spartina spp.) Seeding S. angelica, S. alterniflora clone, Seedomg S. angelica S. alterniflora clone, Puget Sound, 2001 Greys Harbor, 1999 Puget Sound, 2001 Greys Harbor, 1999 Plants Plants

Photo: WDFW / WSDA Photo: WDFW / WSDA Management: The Spartina eradication program featured several Management: The Spartina eradication program featured several integrated control strategies. Crushing of Spartina using large heavy integrated control strategies. Crushing of Spartina using large heavy tract vehicles (e.g., the Marshmaster™, Coast Machinery, LLC; Baton tract vehicles (e.g., the Marshmaster™, Coast Machinery, LLC; Baton Rouge, LA) was effective in localized areas by state agencies. Seedlings Rouge, LA) was effective in localized areas by state agencies. Seedlings were pulled by hand at areas of sparse infestation and difficult access. were pulled by hand at areas of sparse infestation and difficult access. Mowing before seed development slowed infestation rates. In 2001 and Mowing before seed development slowed infestation rates. In 2001 and 2002, the plant hopper Prokelesia marginata (Delphacidae: Homoptera), 2002, the plant hopper Prokelesia marginata (Delphacidae: Homoptera), was introduced to small, selected study sites in Willapa Bay that were was introduced to small, selected study sites in Willapa Bay that were heavily infested with S. alterniflora. Although hopper populations initially heavily infested with S. alterniflora. Although hopper populations initially remained sparse and declined each winter when cordgrass went dormant, remained sparse and declined each winter when cordgrass went dormant, they showed substantial increases at some sites by 2005. Plants in areas they showed substantial increases at some sites by 2005. Plants in areas of high hopper infestation (>5000/m2 ) were visibly stressed. Hoppers of high hopper infestation (>5000/m2 ) were visibly stressed. Hoppers increased in distribution range as well as density. The experiment was increased in distribution range as well as density. The experiment was terminated in 2007 when the herbicide-based eradication program with terminated in 2007 when the herbicide-based eradication program with imazapyr proved successful. Imazapyr (Habitat™), applied at 6 pt/ac to imazapyr proved successful. Imazapyr (Habitat™), applied at 6 pt/ac to infested areas once per year, is quite effective. It has been applied both infested areas once per year, is quite effective. It has been applied both by air and ground-operated equipment including airboats, large and by air and ground-operated equipment including airboats, large and small tracked vehicles, 4-wheelers, and back-pack sprayers. Glyphosate small tracked vehicles, 4-wheelers, and back-pack sprayers. Glyphosate (Rodeo™), applied at 3% v/v in 100 GPA spray volume, is less effective (Rodeo™), applied at 3% v/v in 100 GPA spray volume, is less effective than imazapyr, but was applied as a check for effective coverage of than imazapyr, but was applied as a check for effective coverage of imazapyr, as plants treated with glyphosate will turn brown as they die imazapyr, as plants treated with glyphosate will turn brown as they die whereas those treated with imazapyr will not. whereas those treated with imazapyr will not. Continuing efforts to eradicate Spartina in Washington depend on vigilant Continuing efforts to eradicate Spartina in Washington depend on vigilant monitoring by resource users, primarily shellfish growers. monitoring by resource users, primarily shellfish growers. In 2003, Oregon developed a Spartina Response plan that outlined a In 2003, Oregon developed a Spartina Response plan that outlined a strategy to “prevent, detect, identify, and eradicate the weed in Oregon”. strategy to “prevent, detect, identify, and eradicate the weed in Oregon”. Any person finding live Spartina plants should call 1-360-902-1923 Any person finding live Spartina plants should call 1-360-902-1923 (Washington State Spartina Coordinator or the Oregon Invader hotline (Washington State Spartina Coordinator or the Oregon Invader hotline (1-866-INVADER; e.g., 1-866-468-2337). (1-866-INVADER; e.g., 1-866-468-2337). Flatfish (Order Pleuronectiformes)15 Flatfish (Order Pleuronectiformes) 15 Status: Flatfish are minor pests of bivalve production, preying directly on Status: Flatfish are minor pests of bivalve production, preying directly on unprotected bottom crops, particularly if they enter culture tubes for unprotected bottom crops, particularly if they enter culture tubes for juvenile geoduck. Flatfish (Order Pleuronectiformes) comprise 10 juvenile geoduck. Flatfish (Order Pleuronectiformes) comprise 10 suborders and hundreds of species worldwide. Common species in PNW suborders and hundreds of species worldwide. Common species in PNW coastal areas include Starry Flounder (Platichthys stellatus), Petrale Sole coastal areas include Starry Flounder (Platichthys stellatus), Petrale Sole (Eopsetta jordani), and others. Adults of most species inhabit deeper (Eopsetta jordani), and others. Adults of most species inhabit deeper waters, but juveniles often live in shallow intertidal estuarine waters waters, but juveniles often live in shallow intertidal estuarine waters favorable to bivalve production. favorable to bivalve production. Description: Flatfish are easily characterized by their flattened bodies. Description: Flatfish are easily characterized by their flattened bodies. They reside directly on the substrate surface with their top side They reside directly on the substrate surface with their top side camouflaged to match that substrate or otherwise colored. Eyes protrude camouflaged to match that substrate or otherwise colored. Eyes protrude and are also on the top side of the head. and are also on the top side of the head. Fish Fish

Starry Flounder Starry Flounder

Petrale Sole Petrale Sole

Photo: Bill Barss (ODFW) Photo: Bill Barss (ODFW) Management: Passive measures include substrate covers, fencing, and Management: Passive measures include substrate covers, fencing, and nets on Manila clams, geoducks, and mussels (suspended culture). nets on Manila clams, geoducks, and mussels (suspended culture). 16 Sculpins (Family Cottidae) and Surfperches (Family embioticidae)16 Sculpins (Family Cottidae) and Surfperches (Family embioticidae) Sculpins Sculpins Status: At least 10 species of sculpin (Family Cottidae) reside in the Status: At least 10 species of sculpin (Family Cottidae) reside in the coastal estuaries of Washington and Oregon, and in Puget Sound, where coastal estuaries of Washington and Oregon, and in Puget Sound, where they feed on bivalves and other mollusks. Sculpins are usually a minor they feed on bivalves and other mollusks. Sculpins are usually a minor pest, but can be of concern to geoduck production if they enter the pest, but can be of concern to geoduck production if they enter the culture tubes and prey on juveniles. culture tubes and prey on juveniles. Description: Most sculpins have a large head and mouth, and an elongate Description: Most sculpins have a large head and mouth, and an elongate tapering body partly covered with scales or prickles. The large eyes are tapering body partly covered with scales or prickles. The large eyes are placed high on the head, and there are usually one to five well-developed placed high on the head, and there are usually one to five well-developed spines in front of the eyes. The pectoral (front) fins are broad and spines in front of the eyes. The pectoral (front) fins are broad and fan-like. Most species have a deeply notched or divided dorsal fin. fan-like. Most species have a deeply notched or divided dorsal fin. Fish Fish

koelzi koelzi

Cabezon Cabezon Photo: Steve Lonhart (SIMoN) Photo: Steve Lonhart (SIMoN) Surfperches Surfperches Status: Shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggregata), and other surfperches like Status: Shiner perch (Cymatogaster aggregata), and other surfperches like redtail perch (Amphistichus rhodoterusis), Calico Surfperch (Amphistichus redtail perch (Amphistichus rhodoterusis), Calico Surfperch (Amphistichus ), and Striped Surfperch (Embiotoca lateralis) and others (Family ), and Striped Surfperch (Embiotoca lateralis) and others (Family Embioticidae) nibble on long lined and suspended culture oysters Embioticidae) nibble on long lined oysters and suspended culture oysters and mussels, often causing substantial yield losses. They also prey on and mussels, often causing substantial yield losses. They also prey on small clam, oyster, and mussel seed in nursery. small clam, oyster, and mussel seed in nursery. Description: Surfperches have compressed and oval to oblong shaped Description: Surfperches have compressed and oval to oblong shaped bodies. The dorsal fins are not notched and the tail fin is forked. Bodies bodies. The dorsal fins are not notched and the tail fin is forked. Bodies are usually white with stripes or bars, but color may change depending on are usually white with stripes or bars, but color may change depending on breeding status and age. Sufperch have a greenish back and silvery sides breeding status and age. Sufperch have a greenish back and silvery sides with fine horizontal bars with three broad yellow vertical bars. Breeding with fine horizontal bars with three broad yellow vertical bars. Breeding males turn almost entirely black and speckles obscure the bars. males turn almost entirely black and speckles obscure the bars.

Striped Surfperch Redtail Surfperch Striped Surfperch Redtail Surfperch Photo: Steve Lonhart (SIMoN) Photo in public domain (NOAA) Photo: Steve Lonhart (SIMoN) Photo in public domain (NOAA) Management of both sculpins and surfperches: Passive measures include Management of both sculpins and surfperches: Passive measures include substrate covers, fencing, and nets on Manila clams, geoducks, and substrate covers, fencing, and nets on Manila clams, geoducks, and mussels (suspended culture). mussels (suspended culture). ostrearum ostrearum

Shell Disease (Ostracoblabe implexa )17 Shell Disease (Ostracoblabe implexa ) 17 Status: Shell disease (Ostracoblabe implexa, initially called Myotomus Status: Shell disease (Ostracoblabe implexa, initially called Myotomus ), is a parasitic fungus that infects oysters by growing through ), is a parasitic fungus that infects oysters by growing through the shell and creating small raised white spots or rings on the inner the shell and creating small raised white spots or rings on the inner surface. Infection may be stimulated by presence of oyster drill holes. surface. Infection may be stimulated by presence of oyster drill holes. Description: Damage is largely cosmetic, but can be severe enough to Description: Damage is largely cosmetic, but can be severe enough to affect marketability. As growth continues, the spots become larger and affect marketability. As growth continues, the spots become larger and turn black, the shell margin thickens, and the adductor muscles weaken, turn black, the shell margin thickens, and the adductor muscles weaken, eventually leading to death. A more thorough diagnosis involves eventually leading to death. A more thorough diagnosis involves microscopic examination and measurement of the mycelial (fungal) microscopic examination and measurement of the mycelial (fungal) network after decalcification of affected shells in 5% solution of disodium network after decalcification of affected shells in 5% solution of disodium diaminoethylenetetraacetate (EDTA) (From: Synopsis of Infectious diaminoethylenetetraacetate (EDTA) (From: Synopsis of Infectious Diseases and Parasites of Commercially Exploited Shellfish. Fisheries and Diseases and Parasites of Commercially Exploited Shellfish. Fisheries and Canada. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca) Oceans Canada. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca) Management: No practical direct controls exist. As for other diseases and Management: No practical direct controls exist. As for other diseases and parasites, bivalves from areas of known infestation should not be moved parasites, bivalves from areas of known infestation should not be moved to areas lacking infection. Better control of oyster drills should result in to areas lacking infection. Better control of oyster drills should result in Parasites some suppression of shell disease. Parasites some suppression of shell disease. 18 Blister or Mud Worms (Polydora spp.)18 Blister or Mud Worms (Polydora spp.) Status: Some species in this genus of polychaete worms have been Status: Some species in this genus of polychaete worms have been dubbed “blister worms” or “mud worms” as they cause small pockets dubbed “blister worms” or “mud worms” as they cause small pockets (“blisters”) in the bivalve shell, which often fill with mud, turn black, and (“blisters”) in the bivalve shell, which often fill with mud, turn black, and degrade the appearance and value of the bivalve product. P. websteri degrade the appearance and value of the bivalve product. P. websteri enters the bivalve as a larvae and develops next to the mantle where it enters the bivalve as a larvae and develops next to the mantle where it blisters the inner shell. P. cornuta (formerly P. ligni ) bores into the shell, blisters the inner shell. P. cornuta (formerly P. ligni ) bores into the shell, creating mud-filled pockets mostly on the shell exterior, but sometimes creating mud-filled pockets mostly on the shell exterior, but sometimes entering the mollusc, where it can cause mortality or affect development, entering the mollusc, where it can cause mortality or affect development, especially in already stressed individuals. P. cornuta is common in especially in already stressed individuals. P. cornuta is common in Washington and Oregon estuaries but remains a minor pest. Washington and Oregon estuaries but remains a minor pest.

Description: Small (~1 to 1.5" long and ¼” wide) non-descript bristle Description: Small (~1 to 1.5" long and ¼” wide) non-descript bristle worm. Prostomonium tip (flap overhanging mouth) is T-shaped. worm. Prostomonium tip (flap overhanging mouth) is T-shaped. Parasites Parasites

Worm in Oyster Beak Worm out of Oyster Worm in Oyster Beak Worm out of Oyster

Severe Damage Typical Damage Severe Damage Typical Damage John McCabe, www.oysters.us John McCabe, www.oysters.us Management: The experimental exposure of infested Eastern oysters to Management: The experimental exposure of infested Eastern oysters to both freshwater (12 hr) and heated seawater (70EC for 40 s) significantly both freshwater (12 hr) and heated seawater (70EC for 40 s) significantly reduced average infestation per oyster without significantly increasing reduced average infestation per oyster without significantly increasing oyster mortality. The oysters were cultured in crates hung on longlines. oyster mortality. The oysters were cultured in crates hung on longlines. The crates were temporarily removed from the longlines for the The crates were temporarily removed from the longlines for the experimental treatment. Similar exposures of infested oysters to brine experimental treatment. Similar exposures of infested oysters to brine solution (15 minutes followed by 15 minutes air-drying or 1 minute solution (15 minutes followed by 15 minutes air-drying or 1 minute exposure followed by 2 hr air-drying) was similarly effective against exposure followed by 2 hr air-drying) was similarly effective against mudworm infested Pacific oysters in Australia. These tactics may be mudworm infested Pacific oysters in Australia. These tactics may be practical in South Africa and Australia, where mudworm infestation rates practical in South Africa and Australia, where mudworm infestation rates are remarkably high, but are likely not cost effective oysters in are remarkably high, but are likely not cost effective oysters in Washington or Oregon, where oysters are more often cultured directly on Washington or Oregon, where oysters are more often cultured directly on the ground or as singles on long-lines. the ground or as singles on long-lines. Red Worm (Mytilicola orientalis )19 Red Worm (Mytilicola orientalis ) 19 Status: Mytilicola orientalis, sometimes called Thunberg’s parasite, was Status: Mytilicola orientalis, sometimes called Thunberg’s parasite, was likely introduced to the west coast of the United States in the 1930s from likely introduced to the west coast of the United States in the 1930s from Japan and again in the 1970s from France, and is now distributed along Japan and again in the 1970s from France, and is now distributed along the entire coast. However, it seems restricted to sheltered muddy the entire coast. However, it seems restricted to sheltered muddy estuaries, probably areas with greater wave and tidal action affect the estuaries, probably areas with greater wave and tidal action affect the free-swimming larvae. M. orientalis infests all oysters along the west free-swimming larvae. M. orientalis infests all oysters along the west coast, including the Olympic oyster, as well as mussels, clams, and coast, including the Olympic oyster, as well as mussels, clams, and cockles. Infestation has been reported as affecting the weight of oyster cockles. Infestation has been reported as affecting the weight of oyster meat, but the degree of impact is variable. Otherwise very healthy meat, but the degree of impact is variable. Otherwise very healthy bivalves may be less affected and lower infestation rates (< 10 parasites / bivalves may be less affected and lower infestation rates (< 10 parasites / animal) result in lower impact. ) result in lower impact. Description: A reddish colored copepod in the stomach and intestines of Description: A reddish colored copepod in the stomach and intestines of bivalves. Resembles a worm but has five thoracic segments, each with bivalves. Resembles a worm but has five thoracic segments, each with paired triangular protuberances extending to the side. A genital segment paired triangular protuberances extending to the side. A genital segment follows the thorax, then a narrower abdomen with incomplete follows the thorax, then a narrower abdomen with incomplete segmentation. The female is about 6 to 12 mm in length, 1.3 mm in segmentation. The female is about 6 to 12 mm in length, 1.3 mm in Parasites greatest width and can have paired elongate ovisacs (about 7 mm in Parasites greatest width and can have paired elongate ovisacs (about 7 mm in length each containing about 200 eggs) attached to the genital segment length each containing about 200 eggs) attached to the genital segment and possibly extending beyond the posterior end of the abdomen. The and possibly extending beyond the posterior end of the abdomen. The male is smaller than the female with a total length of about 2 to 5 mm male is smaller than the female with a total length of about 2 to 5 mm and greatest width of about 0.5 mm. The head of M. orientalis carries a and greatest width of about 0.5 mm. The head of M. orientalis carries a median red eye spot, the first pair of antennae has four segments and the median red eye spot, the first pair of antennae has four segments and the second has two. The second antennae are modified as a pair of stout second has two. The second antennae are modified as a pair of stout hooks that are used as anchors for resisting expulsion from the host. hooks that are used as anchors for resisting expulsion from the host. There is an overall reduction in the length and complexity of the There is an overall reduction in the length and complexity of the appendages in comparison to free living . (From: Synopsis of appendages in comparison to free living copepods. (From: Synopsis of Infectious Diseases and Parasites of Commercially Exploited Shellfish. Infectious Diseases and Parasites of Commercially Exploited Shellfish. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca) Fisheries and Oceans Canada. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca) Management: Tactics to quickly reduce infestations have not been Management: Tactics to quickly reduce infestations have not been identified. Bivalves from areas known to be affected (currently or identified. Bivalves from areas known to be affected (currently or historically) should not be moved to areas lacking infections. historically) should not be moved to areas lacking infections.

Red Worm Red Worm (Mytilicola orientalis ) (Mytilicola orientalis )

0 0.1 0.2 0 0.1 0.2 Inches Inches Photo: Ralph Elston Photo: Ralph Elston haimeanus haimeanus 20 Trematodes (Sub-Class Digenea)20 Trematodes (Sub-Class Digenea) Status: Most species are innocuous, however some species are reported Status: Most species are innocuous, however some species are reported to affect some clam behaviors, such as disorientation; or can severely to affect some clam behaviors, such as disorientation; or can severely damage tissues, leading to mortality, castration, or shell deformities. damage tissues, leading to mortality, castration, or shell deformities. Problematic species include members of the sub-class Digenea, including Problematic species include members of the sub-class Digenea, including Gymnophalloides tokiensis (Family Gymnophallidae), Bucephalus Gymnophalloides tokiensis (Family Gymnophallidae), Bucephalus , B. cucullus, other Bucephalus spp (Family Bucephalidae), and , B. cucullus, other Bucephalus spp (Family Bucephalidae), and Proectoeces maculatus (Family Fellodistomatidae). Proectoeces maculatus (Family Fellodistomatidae). Description: Diagnosis is complex and depends on slide preparation of Description: Diagnosis is complex and depends on slide preparation of tissues. Individuals suspected of infection should be packed and shipped tissues. Individuals suspected of infection should be packed and shipped under controlled conditions to bivalve pathologists. (Synopsis of under controlled conditions to bivalve pathologists. (Synopsis of Infectious Diseases and Parasites of Commercially Exploited Shellfish. Infectious Diseases and Parasites of Commercially Exploited Shellfish. Fisheries and Oceans Canada. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca) Fisheries and Oceans Canada. www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca) Management: Tactics to quickly reduce infestations have not been Management: Tactics to quickly reduce infestations have not been identified. Bivalves from areas known to be affected (currently or identified. Bivalves from areas known to be affected (currently or historically) should not be moved to areas lacking infections. historically) should not be moved to areas lacking infections. Parasites Parasites Barnacles (Family Balanidae)21 Barnacles (Family Balanidae) 21 Status: Barnacles may increase costs of bivalve production by fouling Status: Barnacles may increase costs of bivalve production by fouling boat hulls and other aquaculture equipment, or by causing cosmetic boat hulls and other aquaculture equipment, or by causing cosmetic damage to an in-shell product. The Little Brown Barnacle or Small Acorn damage to an in-shell product. The Little Brown Barnacle or Small Acorn Barnacle (Chthamalus dalli) inhabits the upper intertidal elevations, can Barnacle (Chthamalus dalli) inhabits the upper intertidal elevations, can tolerate long intervals out of the water, so frequently fouls bivalves tolerate long intervals out of the water, so frequently fouls bivalves cultured on long-lines or other tactics which allow such exposure. Larger cultured on long-lines or other tactics which allow such exposure. Larger barnacles (e.g., Semibalanus cariosus, Balanus glandula, B. crenatusi) barnacles (e.g., Semibalanus cariosus, Balanus glandula, B. crenatusi) inhabit a wider range of tidal elevation and may foul mussel rafts and inhabit a wider range of tidal elevation and may foul mussel rafts and other equipment that is underwater for longer time periods. other equipment that is underwater for longer time periods. Description: The Little Brown Barnacle reaches a maximum diameter of Description: The Little Brown Barnacle reaches a maximum diameter of 0.3 inches in diameter. When closed, the cover plates intersect so as to 0.3 inches in diameter. When closed, the cover plates intersect so as to form a cross. The Giant Acorn Barnacle reaches a diameter of 6 inches. form a cross. The Giant Acorn Barnacle reaches a diameter of 6 inches. Management: Oyster bags and equipment should be cleaned periodically Management: Oyster bags and equipment should be cleaned periodically to remove barnacles. Timing of seeding, thinning, gear placement, and to remove barnacles. Timing of seeding, thinning, gear placement, and harvest is an important control in fast-growing crops like single oysters harvest is an important control in fast-growing crops like single oysters and mussels. Boats, scows, and gear should be cleaned by hand or and mussels. Boats, scows, and gear should be cleaned by hand or machine. Bottom paints of boats and scows can inhibit settlement of machine. Bottom paints of boats and scows can inhibit settlement of barnacles for a period of time. Various , zinc, and tributyltin coat barnacles for a period of time. Various copper, zinc, and tributyltin coat products are registered for barnacle control, but some metal-free or products are registered for barnacle control, but some metal-free or reduced-metal biocides are also available for preventative use on boat reduced-metal biocides are also available for preventative use on boat bottoms. Most of these work by creating slick films that suppress bottoms. Most of these work by creating slick films that suppress Fouling Organisms barnacles from attaching. Finally, avoid areas of heavy barnacle Fouling Organisms barnacles from attaching. Finally, avoid areas of heavy barnacle settlement when possible. settlement when possible. Giant Acorn Barnacle Giant Acorn Barnacle

0 2 4 0 2 4

Inches Inches

Photo: Dave Cowles Photo: Dave Cowles Barnacles on Mussels Barnacles on Mussels

Photo: Steve Booth Photo: Steve Booth 22 Tunicates or Sea Squirts (Class Asidiacea) 22 Tunicates or Sea Squirts (Class Asidiacea) Status: Tunicates, in particular the sea squirts (Class Asidiacea), occur as Status: Tunicates, in particular the sea squirts (Class Asidiacea), occur as both solitary and colonial species. The latter are perhaps more both solitary and colonial species. The latter are perhaps more detrimental to oyster cultural, as they form dense rubbery mats which detrimental to oyster cultural, as they form dense rubbery mats which foul suspended cultured bivalves (i.e., mussel rafts). Several species of foul suspended cultured bivalves (i.e., mussel rafts). Several species of sea squirts are common in the intertidal marine and estuarine waters of sea squirts are common in the intertidal marine and estuarine waters of Washington and Oregon: Flattop sea squirt (Chelyosoma productum), Washington and Oregon: Flattop sea squirt (Chelyosoma productum), Brooding Transparent tunicate (Corella inflata), and Mushroom tunicate Brooding Transparent tunicate (Corella inflata), and Mushroom tunicate (Disaplia occidentalis). Native sea squirts can foul docks, boats, and (Disaplia occidentalis). Native sea squirts can foul docks, boats, and shellfish culture, but invasive sea squirts, which proliferate more quickly, shellfish culture, but invasive sea squirts, which proliferate more quickly, poseclava a greater threat. poseclava a greater threat. Washington State has identified three High Priority Invasive species of sea Washington State has identified three High Priority Invasive species of sea squirts: Styela clava (Club tunicate), Ciona savignyi (Transparent tunicate), squirts: Styela clava (Club tunicate), Ciona savignyi (Transparent tunicate), and Whangamata sea squirt (Didemnum ; Colonial). A 2006 and Whangamata sea squirt (Didemnum vexillum; Colonial). A 2006 survey of Washington state marinas, harbors, and shellfish grounds found survey of Washington state marinas, harbors, and shellfish grounds found the Didemnum vexillum at 10 sites, mostly in Central Puget Sound, but the Didemnum vexillum at 10 sites, mostly in Central Puget Sound, but also at a single site in Totten Inlet, South Sound. Ciona savignyi was also at a single site in Totten Inlet, South Sound. Ciona savignyi was found at 14 sites in South Hood Canal and Central Puget Sound. Styela found at 14 sites in South Hood Canal and Central Puget Sound. Styela was found only at Pleasant Harbor, Hood Canal and at the Blaine was found only at Pleasant Harbor, Hood Canal and at the Blaine and Semiahmoo Marinas on the North Washington Coast. Styela clava has and Semiahmoo Marinas on the North Washington Coast. Styela clava has been found in Oregon, only in Coos Bay, where it has been established been found in Oregon, only in Coos Bay, where it has been established since at least 1993. Didemnum vexillum was found in both Coos Bay and since at least 1993. Didemnum vexillum was found in both Coos Bay and

Fouling Organisms Winchester Bay, OR in 2010 and, judging by the size of the colonies, Fouling Organisms Winchester Bay, OR in 2010 and, judging by the size of the colonies, probably established in both bays in 2008. Further surveys indicate the probably established in both bays in 2008. Further surveys indicate the tunicates are isolated to those areas. tunicates are isolated to those areas. Description: Tunicates are filter feeders and consist primarily of a sack- Description: Tunicates are filter feeders and consist primarily of a sack- like body, intake and outtake siphons, and a stalk that is used to attach like body, intake and outtake siphons, and a stalk that is used to attach to a rock or some other stable part of the floor, or to a dock, boat, to a rock or some other stable part of the ocean floor, or to a dock, boat, or shellfish culture equipment. or shellfish culture equipment. Tunicates cannot be definitively identified in the . Diagnostic Tunicates cannot be definitively identified in the field. Diagnostic characters need to be closely examined and in some cases, tissue characters need to be closely examined and in some cases, tissue samples need to be examined under a microscope. Nevertheless, the samples need to be examined under a microscope. Nevertheless, the habit (solitary or colonial), color, and size can be used to roughly identify habit (solitary or colonial), color, and size can be used to roughly identify species. species. Styela clava can reach lengths of 5-6" and have a leathery, bumpy Styela clava can reach lengths of 5-6" and have a leathery, bumpy brown-to-rust color body. Their siphons are smooth and banded and the brown-to-rust color body. Their siphons are smooth and banded and the stalk is thin. They often grow hanging from docks or boats. stalk is thin. They often grow hanging from docks or boats. As the name suggests, Transparent tunicates are clear. However, the As the name suggests, Transparent tunicates are clear. However, the native brooding tunicate incorporates some foreign material into its tunic native brooding tunicate incorporates some foreign material into its tunic whereas the invasive Ciona savignyi is entirely transparent and grows whereas the invasive Ciona savignyi is entirely transparent and grows upright from a short stalk that is not always visible. upright from a short stalk that is not always visible. A native colonial sea squirt, the Red ascidian (Aplidium solidum), is A native colonial sea squirt, the Red ascidian (Aplidium solidum), is distinguished from the Didemnum vexillum partly by color; the former distinguished from the Didemnum vexillum partly by color; the former are most often red as the name suggests whereas the latter are yellow. are most often red as the name suggests whereas the latter are yellow. A. californicum is found in Washington and Oregon waters, and is A. californicum is found in Washington and Oregon waters, and is sometimes yellow, but more some colonies are white or red. sometimes yellow, but more some colonies are white or red. Tunicates or Sea Squirts (Class Asidiacea) 23 Tunicates or Sea Squirts (Class Asidiacea) 23

(Styela clava ) (Ciona savignyi ) (Styela clava ) (Ciona savignyi ) Fouling Organisms Fouling Organisms

(Didemnum vexillum ) (Didemnum vexillum ) (Didemnum vexillum ) (Didemnum vexillum )

Native tunicate Native “Peanut” tunicate Native tunicate Native “Peanut” tunicate All Photos: Janna Nichols All Photos: Janna Nichols Management: The occurrence, density, and distribution of these and Management: The occurrence, density, and distribution of these and other potentially non-native species should be diligently monitored. other potentially non-native species should be diligently monitored. Hand removal, primarily by divers, is fairly effective. Pressure washing is Hand removal, primarily by divers, is fairly effective. Pressure washing is also effective, but is not selective towards tunicates only and can be also effective, but is not selective towards tunicates only and can be destructive to wooden docks or structures. Wrapping tunicates in plastic destructive to wooden docks or structures. Wrapping tunicates in plastic is likely effective, although a test of the procedure was not successful for is likely effective, although a test of the procedure was not successful for several reasons, but primarily because the entire wharf could not be several reasons, but primarily because the entire wharf could not be wrapped. Treatment with acetic acid (vinegar) is also effective. wrapped. Treatment with acetic acid (vinegar) is also effective. 24 Invasive Bamboo Worm (Clymenella torquata )24 Invasive Bamboo Worm (Clymenella torquata ) Status: Clymenella torquata are native to the Asian Pacific, but have Status: Clymenella torquata are native to the Asian Pacific, but have spread to the coasts of England and the East and West Coasts of North spread to the coasts of England and the East and West Coasts of North America. Their distribution in West Coast estuaries so far seems to be America. Their distribution in West Coast estuaries so far seems to be limited to small areas in Samish Bay and Puget Sound, Washington, but limited to small areas in Samish Bay and Puget Sound, Washington, but they nevertheless are present on the Washington State Non-Native they nevertheless are present on the Washington State Non-Native Aquatic Species Watchlist. They are bioturbators and disrupt the Aquatic Species Watchlist. They are bioturbators and disrupt the substrate to such an extent that shellfish production in the parts of substrate to such an extent that shellfish production in the parts of Samish Bay where they occur has been essentially eliminated. Other Samish Bay where they occur has been essentially eliminated. Other members of the genus are native to Washington and Oregon but are not members of the genus are native to Washington and Oregon but are not nearly as problematic to bivalve aquaculture. nearly as problematic to bivalve aquaculture.

Description: All members of the Family Maldanidae (Phylum Polychaeta) Description: All members of the Family Maldanidae (Phylum Polychaeta) are commonly referred to as Bamboo Worms, as they vaguely resemble are commonly referred to as Bamboo Worms, as they vaguely resemble the plant. Like many polychaetes, Bamboo Worms reside within tubes the plant. Like many polychaetes, Bamboo Worms reside within tubes constructed from fine sediments. Body segments are longer than wide constructed from fine sediments. Body segments are longer than wide and swollen where they connect. While some species in the family have a and swollen where they connect. While some species in the family have a collar around the upper segments, C. torquata has an especially collar around the upper segments, C. torquata has an especially noticeable one on the fourth segment, extending into the third. noticeable one on the fourth segment, extending into the third. Management: Bamboo Worms have tried to be suppressed mechanically Management: Bamboo Worms have tried to be suppressed mechanically by covering with oyster shell or carpets and by roto-tilling. Sediments by covering with oyster shell or carpets and by roto-tilling. Sediments were significantly more compact in worm infested areas after any of these were significantly more compact in worm infested areas after any of these treatments, but only roto-tilling significantly suppressed worm biomass treatments, but only roto-tilling significantly suppressed worm biomass and tube density. Cutting resulted in some regeneration, but high and tube density. Cutting resulted in some regeneration, but high percentages of cut worms were ecologically dead within a matter of days. percentages of cut worms were ecologically dead within a matter of days. These tactics are severely labor intensive and also negatively effect the These tactics are severely labor intensive and also negatively effect the suitability of substrates to culture bivalves. The neo-nicotinoid pesticide, suitability of substrates to culture bivalves. The neo-nicotinoid pesticide, imidacloprid, effectively killed bamboo worms in the lab, but field trials imidacloprid, effectively killed bamboo worms in the lab, but field trials have not been conducted. have not been conducted.

Bamboo Worm Bamboo Worm (Clymenella torquata )

Benthic Organisms (Clymenella torquata ) Benthic Organisms

Photo: Steve Booth Photo: Steve Booth

All Photos: PSI All Photos: PSI Ghost and Mud Burrowing Shrimp (Neotrypaea spp., Upogebia pugettensis )25 Ghost and Mud Burrowing Shrimp (Neotrypaea spp., Upogebia pugettensis ) 25 Status: Burrowing shrimp affect bivalve cultivation, especially ground Status: Burrowing shrimp affect bivalve cultivation, especially ground culture, by pumping water through their burrows and the surrounding culture, by pumping water through their burrows and the surrounding sediments, destabilizing them and causing surface dwelling organisms to sediments, destabilizing them and causing surface dwelling organisms to sink and drown. Ghost shrimp (Neotrypaea californiensis) are the most sink and drown. Ghost shrimp (Neotrypaea californiensis) are the most common species in most areas, as a host-specific parasitic isopod, common species in most areas, as a host-specific parasitic isopod, Orthione griffinis , has caused precipitous declines in mud shrimp Orthione griffinis , has caused precipitous declines in mud shrimp (Upogebia pugettensis) populations within the last decade, especially in (Upogebia pugettensis) populations within the last decade, especially in Willapa Bay. The giant sand shrimp (N. gigas) is not as common as the Willapa Bay. The giant sand shrimp (N. gigas) is not as common as the other two species, but densities are high in northern parts of Willapa Bay. other two species, but densities are high in northern parts of Willapa Bay. Burrowing shrimp are mostly a problem to bivalve aquaculture in the Burrowing shrimp are mostly a problem to bivalve aquaculture in the coastal estuaries, as pelagic larvae disperse there from nearby ocean coastal estuaries, as pelagic larvae disperse there from nearby ocean currents. Puget Sound bivalve farms are further inland and subject to currents. Puget Sound bivalve farms are further inland and subject to lower salinities that suppress development. Burrowing shrimp can impact lower salinities that suppress development. Burrowing shrimp can impact almost all techniques of bivalve production of all bivalve species. almost all techniques of bivalve production of all bivalve species. Geoducks grown in shrimp infested areas are smaller and the tubes will Geoducks grown in shrimp infested areas are smaller and the tubes will sink. Mussels grown on rafts are unaffected, but this growing method is sink. Mussels grown on rafts are unaffected, but this growing method is not available in shallow intertidal areas. Burrowing shrimp densities are not available in shallow intertidal areas. Burrowing shrimp densities are high and very much a problem in the relatively shallow Willapa Bay. high and very much a problem in the relatively shallow Willapa Bay. Description: Burrowing shrimp are distinguished from other shrimp or Description: Burrowing shrimp are distinguished from other shrimp or shrimp-like animals by their 10 legs (Order Decapoda), that the females shrimp-like animals by their 10 legs (Order Decapoda), that the females carry fertilized eggs on their abdomen until they hatch (Sub-order carry fertilized eggs on their abdomen until they hatch (Sub-order Pleocyemata) and an elongate, flexible body with broad setose (“hairy”) Pleocyemata) and an elongate, flexible body with broad setose (“hairy”) pleopods (abdominal appendages) to pump water, and broad uropods pleopods (abdominal appendages) to pump water, and broad uropods (frontal “claws”) for sealing burrows (Infra-Order Thalassinidea). (frontal “claws”) for sealing burrows (Infra-Order Thalassinidea). Female ghost shrimp with eggs Ghost shrimp in Female ghost shrimp with eggs Ghost shrimp in burrow burrow Benthic Organisms Benthic Organisms

Juvenile mud shrimp Juvenile mud shrimp

Photos: Katylin Bosley Photo: Tony Photos: Katylin Bosley Photo: Tony D’Andrea D’Andrea Neotrypea gigas Neotrypea gigas

Photo: PSI Photo: PSI 26 Ghost and Mud Burrowing Shrimp (Neotrypaea spp., Upogebia pugettensis )26 Ghost and Mud Burrowing Shrimp (Neotrypaea spp., Upogebia pugettensis ) In the field, subterranean burrowing shrimp are usually distinguished In the field, subterranean burrowing shrimp are usually distinguished from other benthic organisms by the size and shape of their burrows. from other benthic organisms by the size and shape of their burrows. This an inexact method, as burrows vary according to the species and This an inexact method, as burrows vary according to the species and size of the shrimp, level of the tide, and the presence or strength of water size of the shrimp, level of the tide, and the presence or strength of water current. Small holes do not always indicate smaller shrimp, as burrows current. Small holes do not always indicate smaller shrimp, as burrows possess multiple holes and primary ones are larger than secondary ones. possess multiple holes and primary ones are larger than secondary ones. Small holes also indicate benthic dwelling clams. If currents are not Small holes also indicate benthic dwelling clams. If currents are not strong, a mound of sediment will form around the burrow. When burrows strong, a mound of sediment will form around the burrow. When burrows are especially deep, (often the case with mud shrimp), the sediments will are especially deep, (often the case with mud shrimp), the sediments will differ in color from the normal surface sediments. Small fecal pellets are differ in color from the normal surface sediments. Small fecal pellets are often present near the hole, in contrast to some polychaetes (lugworms) often present near the hole, in contrast to some polychaetes (lugworms) that create larger piles of cylindrical coils. that create larger piles of cylindrical coils. Shrimp burrows at low tide Burrow sediments from depth Shrimp burrows at low tide Burrow sediments from depth

Hole Created by N. gigas Hole Created by Clam Hole Created by N. gigas Hole Created by Clam Benthic Organisms Benthic Organisms

Burrowing Shrimp Fecal Pellets Lugworm Fecal Coils Burrowing Shrimp Fecal Pellets Lugworm Fecal Coils

All Photos: Steve Booth All Photos: Steve Booth Ghost and Mud Burrowing Shrimp (Neotrypaea spp., Upogebia pugettensis )27 Ghost and Mud Burrowing Shrimp (Neotrypaea spp., Upogebia pugettensis ) 27 Management: Mechanical and biological control tactics against burrowing Management: Mechanical and biological control tactics against burrowing shrimp have been demonstrated as ineffective except at a very small scale shrimp have been demonstrated as ineffective except at a very small scale of production. Heavy vehicles temporarily crush burrows and drive some of production. Heavy vehicles temporarily crush burrows and drive some shrimp to the surface, where they are exposed to predators, especially shrimp to the surface, where they are exposed to predators, especially sea gulls, but burrow densities rebound within a few weeks, indicating sea gulls, but burrow densities rebound within a few weeks, indicating partial and inadequate suppression. Attempts to smother shrimp with partial and inadequate suppression. Attempts to smother shrimp with tarps is deleterious to other benthic and epibenthic organisms. Gravel tarps is deleterious to other benthic and epibenthic organisms. Gravel quickly sinks after it is added to harden soft sediments. Ghost shrimp quickly sinks after it is added to harden soft sediments. Ghost shrimp have largely replaced mud shrimp in areas where they have been have largely replaced mud shrimp in areas where they have been impacted by the isopod described above. A similar host-specific isopod impacted by the isopod described above. A similar host-specific isopod infests only about 1% of the ghost shrimp populations and has a infests only about 1% of the ghost shrimp populations and has a complicated life cycle that involves an alternate host; it is unlikely that it complicated life cycle that involves an alternate host; it is unlikely that it can be implemented as a biological control tactic in the near future. can be implemented as a biological control tactic in the near future. Currently, the only effective tactics to effectively manage burrowing Currently, the only effective tactics to effectively manage burrowing shrimp are chemically based. Following a thorough assessment of several shrimp are chemically based. Following a thorough assessment of several alternative management tactics, including other chemicals besides alternative management tactics, including other chemicals besides carbaryl, that compound was selected for use on selected acreage in both carbaryl, that compound was selected for use on selected acreage in both Oregon and Washington in the early 1960's. Oregon banned its use in Oregon and Washington in the early 1960's. Oregon banned its use in 1985, resulting in the loss of hundreds of acres suited to oyster and clam 1985, resulting in the loss of hundreds of acres suited to oyster and clam production. Carbaryl was registered and permitted for use on limited production. Carbaryl was registered and permitted for use on limited acreage in Willapa Bay and Grays Harbor for several decades but was acreage in Willapa Bay and Grays Harbor for several decades but was discontinued after 2013. An alternative compound, which is much less discontinued after 2013. An alternative compound, which is much less toxic to vertebrates and most invertebrates, imidacloprid, has received toxic to vertebrates and most invertebrates, imidacloprid, has received registration by the EPS and is undergoing the permitting process by the registration by the EPS and is undergoing the permitting process by the Washington Department of Ecology. Washington Department of Ecology. Benthic Organisms Benthic Organisms 28 Horse or Gaper Clams (Tresus capax, T. nuttallii )28 Horse or Gaper Clams (Tresus capax, T. nuttallii ) Status: These very large clams can enter unprotected geoduck tubes and Status: These very large clams can enter unprotected geoduck tubes and compete with them for space and food. Horse clams are an incidental compete with them for space and food. Horse clams are an incidental crop in some areas, especially tribal shellfish grounds. crop in some areas, especially tribal shellfish grounds. Description: Fat Gaper clams (T. capax) are thicker than Pacific Gaper Description: Fat Gaper clams (T. capax) are thicker than Pacific Gaper clams (T. nuttalli ) (~1.5 as long as high, compared to >1.5 as long as clams (T. nuttalli ) (~1.5 as long as high, compared to >1.5 as long as high) with umbones (hinge between the shell valves) located ~ 1/3 from high) with umbones (hinge between the shell valves) located ~ 1/3 from the anterior end (the one without the siphon) compared to 1/4 from the the anterior end (the one without the siphon) compared to 1/4 from the end in the Fat Gaper. Both are distributed along the entire west coast, end in the Fat Gaper. Both are distributed along the entire west coast, but Pacific Gapers are more common in Washington and Oregon north to but Pacific Gapers are more common in Washington and Oregon north to Alaska, whereas Fat Gapers are more south to Baja, CA. Alaska, whereas Fat Gapers are more south to Baja, CA. Management: Geoduck tubes should be covered to prevent Horse clam Management: Geoduck tubes should be covered to prevent Horse clam settlement and removed by hand and relocated. The market potential for settlement and removed by hand and relocated. The market potential for horse clams in Washington and Oregon has not been well studied, but if it horse clams in Washington and Oregon has not been well studied, but if it were high enough, their status as a pest could be changed to that of crop were high enough, their status as a pest could be changed to that of crop in some areas. in some areas.

Horse Clam Horse Clam (Tresus nutallii ) (Tresus nutallii ) Benthic Organisms Benthic Organisms

siphon siphon

Photos: Steve Booth Photos: Steve Booth Cockles (Clinocardium nuttallii )Cockles29 (Clinocardium nuttallii ) 29 Status: Cockles can enter unprotected geoduck tubes and compete with Status: Cockles can enter unprotected geoduck tubes and compete with them for space and food. High densities of cockles in clam beds also them for space and food. High densities of cockles in clam beds also attract moonsnails, which also indiscriminately consume the commercial attract moonsnails, which also indiscriminately consume the commercial product. Cockles are an incidental crop in some areas, especially tribal product. Cockles are an incidental crop in some areas, especially tribal shellfish grounds. shellfish grounds.

Description: Cockles are very thick heart-shaped bivalves with prominent Description: Cockles are very thick heart-shaped bivalves with prominent raised radial ribs. Clinocardium nutalli, the dominant species in raised radial ribs. Clinocardium nutalli, the dominant species in Washington and Oregon, has more than 30 radial ribs and is shell is Washington and Oregon, has more than 30 radial ribs and is shell is usually light tan, mottled with various bands or blotches of brown. The usually light tan, mottled with various bands or blotches of brown. The long and especially strong “ foot” that cockles possess allow them to long and especially strong “ foot” that cockles possess allow them to jump when startled as an escape mechanism. jump when startled as an escape mechanism. Management: Geoduck tubes should be covered to prevent cockle Management: Geoduck tubes should be covered to prevent cockle settlement and removed and relocated by hand when observed. The settlement and removed and relocated by hand when observed. The market potential for both horse cockles has not been well studied in market potential for both horse cockles has not been well studied in Washington and Oregon, but if it were high enough, their status as a pest Washington and Oregon, but if it were high enough, their status as a pest could be changed to that of a crop in some areas. could be changed to that of a crop in some areas. Benthic Organisms Benthic Organisms

Photos: Steve Booth Photos: Steve Booth 30 Western Sand Dollar (Dendraster excentricus )30 Western Sand Dollar (Dendraster excentricus ) Status: Sand dollars live in dense colonies in the top 3 to 8 inches of Status: Sand dollars live in dense colonies in the top 3 to 8 inches of sandy sediments, and prevent the insertion of geoduck tubes, fences, or sandy sediments, and prevent the insertion of geoduck tubes, fences, or other protection devices. Layers of sand dollars also smother juvenile other protection devices. Layers of sand dollars also smother juvenile geoducks and impede the harvest of adults. geoducks and impede the harvest of adults. Description: Sand dollars, like other echinoderms, exhibit five-fold radial Description: Sand dollars, like other echinoderms, exhibit five-fold radial symmetry and possess an internal rigid skeleton (e.g., test), covered by symmetry and possess an internal rigid skeleton (e.g., test), covered by velvety spines. The Western Sand Dollar is beige to dark gray in color. velvety spines. The Western Sand Dollar is beige to dark gray in color. Management: Removal and relocation by hand is effective, but very labor Management: Removal and relocation by hand is effective, but very labor intensive and time consuming. Barriars may be also prevent intensive and time consuming. Barriars may be also prevent establishment. Geoduck tubes should be covered to prevent establishment. Geoduck tubes should be covered to prevent colonization. colonization.

Western Sand Dollar Western Sand Dollar

Photo: Gordon E. Robertson Photo: Gordon E. Robertson Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic

Photo: Dave Cowles Photo: Dave Cowles Sea Stars (Class Asteroidea)31 Sea Stars (Class Asteroidea) 31 Status: Sea stars (or ) feed directly on unprotected bivalves, Status: Sea stars (or Starfish) feed directly on unprotected bivalves, especially larger species like oysters and geoduck. Sea stars most often especially larger species like oysters and geoduck. Sea stars most often impact bivalves cultured on ground at lower intertidal levels (e.g., impact bivalves cultured on ground at lower intertidal levels (e.g., geoducks and some oysters), but can also attack oysters on higher geoducks and some oysters), but can also attack oysters on higher ground and longlines in areas of high salinity. ground and longlines in areas of high salinity. Description: In Washington and Oregon, Sea stars (Phylum Description: In Washington and Oregon, Sea stars (Phylum Echonidermata, Class Asteroidea) are represented by several genera Echonidermata, Class Asteroidea) are represented by several genera including Pisaster (Pink or Short-Spined Sea , Ochre Sea Star, and including Pisaster (Pink or Short-Spined Sea Star, Ochre Sea Star, and Giant Sea Star), Evasterias (Mottled Star, False Ochre Sea Star,Troschell's Giant Sea Star), Evasterias (Mottled Star, False Ochre Sea Star,Troschell's True Star, Pycnopodia (Sunflower Star), Leptasterias Six-rayed Sea Star, True Star, Pycnopodia (Sunflower Star), Leptasterias Six-rayed Sea Star, and Solaster (Sun Sea Star). Adults are radially symmetrical with 5 or and Solaster (Sun Sea Star). Adults are radially symmetrical with 5 or more spiney appendages that surround a ventrally positioned mouth. more spiney appendages that surround a ventrally positioned mouth. Management: Removal and relocation by hand removal is effective, but Management: Removal and relocation by hand removal is effective, but very labor intensive and time consuming. Barriers may be also prevent very labor intensive and time consuming. Barriers may be also prevent establishment. Geoduck tubes should be covered to prevent establishment. Geoduck tubes should be covered to prevent colonization. colonization.

Ochre Sea Star Ochre Sea Star

Photo: Steve Booth Photo: Steve Booth

Troschell’s Star Sunflower Star Troschell’s Star Sunflower Star Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic 6-Rayed Star Sun Star Organisms Epibenthic 6-Rayed Star Sun Star

Photos: Dave Cowles Photos: Dave Cowles 32 European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas )32 European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas ) Status: European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas) are not primary pests of Status: European Green Crab (Carcinus maenas) are not primary pests of bivalve aquaculture in Washington and Oregon due to their currently bivalve aquaculture in Washington and Oregon due to their currently sparse distribution and density. They are aquatic invasive species with sparse distribution and density. They are aquatic invasive species with potential to threaten not only both cultured and native bivalves, but also potential to threaten not only both cultured and native bivalves, but also native crabs with which they share common habitat and food. Green crab native crabs with which they share common habitat and food. Green crab prey upon young oysters and clams. A single green crab can consume 40 prey upon young oysters and clams. A single green crab can consume 40 half-inch clams a day, as well as other crabs its own size. half-inch clams a day, as well as other crabs its own size. Green Crab were first noted on the west coast of North America in San Green Crab were first noted on the west coast of North America in San Francisco Bay in 1989 and were sighted in the coastal estuaries of Oregon Francisco Bay in 1989 and were sighted in the coastal estuaries of Oregon and Washington in the late 1990s. Established populations currently and Washington in the late 1990s. Established populations currently appear to be small and limited to Yaquina Bay, Oregon and Willapa Bay, appear to be small and limited to Yaquina Bay, Oregon and Willapa Bay, Washington, apparently due to unfavorable and perhaps relatively short- Washington, apparently due to unfavorable and perhaps relatively short- term conditions of ocean currents and associated weather patterns. term conditions of ocean currents and associated weather patterns. Recent trapping by the Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission and by Recent trapping by the Pacific States Marine Fisheries Commission and by Fisheries and Oceans Canada indicate that small populations are Fisheries and Oceans Canada indicate that small populations are reproducing at selected sites on the coast and islands of , reproducing at selected sites on the coast and islands of British Columbia, principally in marginal areas where larger native crabs are not present. principally in marginal areas where larger native crabs are not present. Description: Green crab are smaller than Dungeness and Rock Crab, with Description: Green crab are smaller than Dungeness and Rock Crab, with a maximum size of ~3". Colors are generally as described in the key a maximum size of ~3". Colors are generally as described in the key above, but changes from green to red as the molting cycle progresses. above, but changes from green to red as the molting cycle progresses. Management: A monitoring program administered by the Washington Management: A monitoring program administered by the Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife was established in the late 1990s State Department of Fish and Wildlife was established in the late 1990s but was severely reduced in 2002 then disbanded in 2005 due to a lack but was severely reduced in 2002 then disbanded in 2005 due to a lack of funds and after conclusions that the relatively cool Pacific Northwest of funds and after conclusions that the relatively cool Pacific Northwest waters could not support sustainable population. Currently, both waters could not support sustainable population. Currently, both Washington and Oregon encourage citizens to look for and recognize Washington and Oregon encourage citizens to look for and recognize green crab. Any individuals should be removed and state agencies green crab. Any individuals should be removed and state agencies should be notified. Rock and Dungeness crabs help suppress green crab. should be notified. Rock and Dungeness crabs help suppress green crab. Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic

Photo in Public Domain Photo in Public Domain Red Rock, Dungeness, and Graceful Rock Crabs (Cancer, Metacarcinus spp.)33 Red Rock, Dungeness, and Graceful Rock Crabs (Cancer, Metacarcinus spp.)33 Status: The Red Rock Crab (Cancer productus), Dungeness Crab Status: The Red Rock Crab (Cancer productus), Dungeness Crab (Metacarcinus magister), and Graceful Rock Crab (Metacarcinus gracilis), (Metacarcinus magister), and Graceful Rock Crab (Metacarcinus gracilis), are native to Washington and Oregon. Both Red Rock and Dungeness are are native to Washington and Oregon. Both Red Rock and Dungeness are important recreational resources while Dungeness further contributes as important recreational resources while Dungeness further contributes as a commercial resource. Nevertheless, all three species of crab prey a commercial resource. Nevertheless, all three species of crab prey directly on all bivalves, especially seed, so can be significant pests. directly on all bivalves, especially seed, so can be significant pests. Description: As noted in the key, Red Rock Crab adults are brick red and Description: As noted in the key, Red Rock Crab adults are brick red and the tips of primary pincers are dark. Pincer tips are not darkened on both the tips of primary pincers are dark. Pincer tips are not darkened on both Dungeness and Graceful Rock. Dungeness Crab are not quite as red as Dungeness and Graceful Rock. Dungeness crab are not quite as red as Red Rock and can reach a larger maximum width (>10" vs 6¼”). Graceful Red Rock and can reach a larger maximum width (>10" vs 6¼”). Graceful Crab reach ~4¼" maximum width and lack ridges along the pincers. Crab reach ~4¼" maximum width and lack ridges along the pincers. Management: Predator nets and bags help protect clams and oysters Management: Predator nets and bags help protect clams and oysters from clams. Geoduck tubes should be covered. from clams. Geoduck tubes should be covered. Dungeness Crab Dungeness Crab (Metacarcinus magister ) (Metacarcinus magister )

Photo: Dan Boon (USFW); in the public domain Photo: Dan Boon (USFW); in the public domain Red Rock Crab Graceful Crab Red Rock Crab Graceful Crab ( Cancer productus ) ( Metacarinus gracilis ) ( Cancer productus ) ( Metacarinus gracilis )

Photo: Dave Cowles Photo: Dave Cowles Photo: Dave Cowles Photo: Dave Cowles Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic

Crab damage to clams Crab damage to geoduck Crab damage to clams Crab damage to geoduck Photo: PSI Photo: PSI Photo: PSI Photo: PSI 34 Oyster Drills (Ocinebrellus inornatus, Urosalpinx cinerea )34 Oyster Drills (Ocinebrellus inornatus, Urosalpinx cinerea ) Status: Slipper Snails, often called Slipper Shells, are a major pest on Status: Slipper Snails, often called Slipper Shells, are a major pest on single oysters in the region in old Olympia oyster single oysters in the South Puget Sound region in old Olympia oyster dykes and on sand or gravel substrates at deeper elevations. They settle dykes and on sand or gravel substrates at deeper elevations. They settle adunca adunca on top of oysters or clams, displacing them, competing with them for on top of oysters or clams, displacing them, competing with them for food, and sometimes smothering them. Slipper snails are born and set as food, and sometimes smothering them. Slipper snails are born and set as males, but after a couple of months, they become female. The odds of males, but after a couple of months, they become female. The odds of fertilization are improved by settling on females, but eventually the fertilization are improved by settling on females, but eventually the strategy in large piles of shells that can modify the substrate, slow the strategy in large piles of shells that can modify the substrate, slow the bottom currents, and increase silting. These three species are the most bottom currents, and increase silting. These three species are the most common species in Washington and Oregon state, but the Common (or common species in Washington and Oregon state, but the Common (or Atlantic) Slipper Snail (Crepidula fornicata) is probably also present, as Atlantic) Slipper Snail (Crepidula fornicata) is probably also present, as least in Washington. That species, as well as the Hooked Slipper Snail ©. least in Washington. That species, as well as the Hooked Slipper Snail ©. ) are native to the east coast, rather than the west coast of North ) are native to the east coast, rather than the west coast of North America. The Western White Slipper Snail ©. nummaria) and the and the America. The Western White Slipper Snail ©. nummaria) and the and the White Slipper Snail ©. perforans) are native to the west coast. White Slipper Snail ©. perforans) are native to the west coast. Description: Most Slipper Snails are actually , with a simple, single Description: Most Slipper Snails are actually limpets, with a simple, single shell than can be flattened, or even concave (western white), but most shell than can be flattened, or even concave (western white), but most often is an irregular cap-shape with the apex hooked to the rear. They often is an irregular cap-shape with the apex hooked to the rear. They are often attached to shells of other mollusks, especially inside those are often attached to shells of other mollusks, especially inside those occupied by hermit crabs and the shape of the host shell in part occupied by hermit crabs and the shape of the host shell in part determines the shape of the slipper. Length up to 5.5 cm but usually not determines the shape of the slipper. Length up to 5.5 cm but usually not much over 2.5 cm. much over 2.5 cm. Only the Hooked Slipper Snail has a prominent raised cap. The cap is as Only the Hooked Slipper Snail has a prominent raised cap. The cap is as tall or taller than the width of the shell, and is characteristically curved, or tall or taller than the width of the shell, and is characteristically curved, or hooked. Live Hooked Slipper Snails are brown. Live White Slipper Snail hooked. Live Hooked Slipper Snails are brown. Live White Slipper Snail are whiter than the Western White Snail, which has a yellow-brown are whiter than the Western White Snail, which has a yellow-brown periostracum (the thin live tissue covering the outer shell). White Slipper periostracum (the thin live tissue covering the outer shell). White Slipper Snails are among the few slippers that live inside the shells of other Snails are among the few slippers that live inside the shells of other gastropods (snails). The Common Slipper Snail is whiteish with spots of gastropods (snails). The Common Slipper Snail is whiteish with spots of brown or radiating lines. brown or radiating lines. Management: Slipper snails should be moved or relocated to non- Management: Slipper snails should be moved or relocated to non- cultivated areas. cultivated areas.

Slipper Snail Slipper Snail ventral view Slipper Snails on clam shell ventral view Slipper Snails on clam shell 2 2 Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic

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Photos: Steve Booth Photos: Steve Booth Lewis’ Moon snail (Euspira (Polinices) lewisii )35 Lewis’ Moon snail (Euspira (Polinices) lewisii ) 35 Status: Moon snails are large, predatory gastropods that drill holes Status: Moon snails are large, predatory gastropods that drill holes through the shells of bivalves. Their presence is often indicated by the through the shells of bivalves. Their presence is often indicated by the characteristic egg case which holds hundreds of fertilized eggs. Snails characteristic egg case which holds hundreds of fertilized eggs. Snails hatch and are dispersed when the floating case bursts and sinks to the hatch and are dispersed when the floating case bursts and sinks to the bottom. E. lewisii, named for Meriwether Lewis, is indigenous to the west bottom. E. lewisii, named for Meriwether Lewis, is indigenous to the west coast. It is mostly a problem in Hood Canal and South Puget Sound, coast. It is mostly a problem in Hood Canal and South Puget Sound, where they impact cultured oysters, Manila and Geoduck clams. where they impact cultured oysters, Manila and Geoduck clams. Description: The shell of the Lewis’ Moon snail, the largest moon snail, Description: The shell of the Lewis’ Moon snail, the largest moon snail, can reach a diameter of more than 5" and the foot, when extended, can can reach a diameter of more than 5" and the foot, when extended, can be more than 12" in diameter. The rounded, globular adults are usually be more than 12" in diameter. The rounded, globular adults are usually partially buried in sand. As noted above, moon snail infestations are also partially buried in sand. As noted above, moon snail infestations are also indicated by their discarded egg cases, which are gelatinous to rubbery indicated by their discarded egg cases, which are gelatinous to rubbery depending on age. depending on age. Management: Predator nets or caps prevent moon snails from entering Management: Predator nets or caps prevent moon snails from entering geoduck tubes. They can also be removed and relocated by hand, which geoduck tubes. They can also be removed and relocated by hand, which greatly increases costs. greatly increases costs.

Lewis Moon Snail Lewis Moon Snail and damaged clam and damaged clam

Egg Case Egg Case Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic

Photos: Steve Booth Photos: Steve Booth 36 Oyster Drills (Ocinebrellus inornatus, Urosalpinx cinerea )36 Oyster Drills (Ocinebrellus inornatus, Urosalpinx cinerea ) Status: As their common names imply, neither the Japanese (O. inornatus) Status: As their common names imply, neither the Japanese (O. inornatus) nor the Atlantic Oyster Drill (U. cinerea ) are native to Washington and nor the Atlantic Oyster Drill (U. cinerea ) are native to Washington and Oregon. They drill holes through the shells of oysters and clams and feed Oregon. They drill holes through the shells of oysters and clams and feed on the organism, often killing it. Mortality is higher among smaller or on the organism, often killing it. Mortality is higher among smaller or younger individuals. Damage levels vary from low to high among farms younger individuals. Damage levels vary from low to high among farms and bed locations. and bed locations. Oyster drills aggregate in the spring, often traveling long distances, in Oyster drills aggregate in the spring, often traveling long distances, in response to a pheromone, to collectively lay eggs on shells or other response to a pheromone, to collectively lay eggs on shells or other stable bottom substrates. stable bottom substrates. Description: As members of the Family Muriciae, the oyster drills exhibit a Description: As members of the Family Muriciae, the oyster drills exhibit a raised spire with distinct spiral ridges and axial whorls on both the upper raised spire with distinct spiral ridges and axial whorls on both the upper and lower parts of the body. O. inornatus has 5-6 whorls, each with ~8 and lower parts of the body. O. inornatus has 5-6 whorls, each with ~8 ribs; U. cinera has 5 whorls with 9-12 ribs per whirl. The canal at the ribs; U. cinera has 5 whorls with 9-12 ribs per whirl. The canal at the base of the aperture is entirely open. O. inoratus reaches a length of 1½” base of the aperture is entirely open. O. inoratus reaches a length of 1½” whereas U. cinerea is restricted to ¾” in length. Females of both species whereas U. cinerea is restricted to ¾” in length. Females of both species produce bright yellow egg cases that are slightly larger than grains of rice produce bright yellow egg cases that are slightly larger than grains of rice that eventually will hold 8–12 eggs. that eventually will hold 8–12 eggs. Management: Restrictions on the transfer of shell stock from infested to Management: Restrictions on the transfer of shell stock from infested to uninfested estuaries were established to curtail the spread of oyster drills uninfested estuaries were established to curtail the spread of oyster drills and other pests of bivalves. Trucks and handling equipment that are and other pests of bivalves. Trucks and handling equipment that are used to move seed from infested sites must be thoroughly cleaned, used to move seed from infested sites must be thoroughly cleaned, costing extra time and labor. Given the widespread distribution of oyster costing extra time and labor. Given the widespread distribution of oyster drills, these measures may be infeasible. drills, these measures may be infeasible.

Atlantic Oyster Drill Japanese Oyster Drill Atlantic Oyster Drill Japanese Oyster Drill 2 1 2 1

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Drill Eggs Organisms Epibenthic Drill Eggs

Photos: Steve Booth Photos: Steve Booth Asian or Japanese Green Mussel (Musculista senhousia )37 Asian or Japanese Green Mussel (Musculista senhousia ) 37 Status: Musculista senhousia, the Japanese green mussel, is an Status: Musculista senhousia, the Japanese green mussel, is an introduced species that competes for food and space with oysters and introduced species that competes for food and space with oysters and also causes them to stick together in clumps. They can form dense mats also causes them to stick together in clumps. They can form dense mats that foul predator nets and other production and gear. High densities that foul predator nets and other production and gear. High densities settle in near the head of some South Puget Sound bays. settle in near the head of some South Puget Sound bays. Description: In their native ranges, M. senhousia is smaller than other Description: In their native ranges, M. senhousia is smaller than other mussels, growing to 3 centimeters compared to the 7-10 cm sized Pacific mussels, growing to 3 centimeters compared to the 7-10 cm sized Pacific or blue mussels (Mytilus complex). M. senhousia is also greenish or blue mussels (Mytilus complex). M. senhousia is also greenish compared to the blueish 3 species Mytilus complex. compared to the blueish 3 species Mytilus complex.

Japanese Green Mussel Japanese Green Mussel (Musculista senhousia ) (Musculista senhousia ) Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic

Photos released to public domain without conditions by Graham Bould Photos released to public domain without conditions by Graham Bould 38 Blue Mussel Complex (Mytilus edulis/trossulus/galloprovincialus )38 Blue Mussel Complex (Mytilus edulis/trossulus/galloprovincialus )

Status: The blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, the bay mussel, M. trossulus, Status: The blue mussel, Mytilus edulis, the bay mussel, M. trossulus, List Species and the southern bay or , M. galloprovincialus are and the southern bay or Mediterranean mussel, M. galloprovincialus are very similar morphologically and appear to have hybridized in most of very similar morphologically and appear to have hybridized in most of their ranges. M. californianus may also co-occur on the open Washington their ranges. M. californianus may also co-occur on the open Washington and Oregon coasts, misplacing M. trossulus, which is less tolerant of high and Oregon coasts, misplacing M. trossulus, which is less tolerant of high wave action. All species can set on oysters cultured in bags and cages, wave action. All species can set on oysters cultured in bags and cages, causing the oysters to grow together or become misshapen. Mussel sets causing the oysters to grow together or become misshapen. Mussel sets on oysters increase the labor required at harvest to clean mussel fouling on oysters increase the labor required at harvest to clean mussel fouling from the oyster shells. Large mats of mussels can smother clams, from the oyster shells. Large mats of mussels can smother clams, causing them to move to the surface where they will be exposed and causing them to move to the surface where they will be exposed and weaken if the mats are removed. weaken if the mats are removed. Description: The Mytilus species have relatively smooth shells with Description: The Mytilus species have relatively smooth shells with smooth growth lines and no major radiating ridges. The periostracum is smooth growth lines and no major radiating ridges. The periostracum is a smooth, shiny black or brown and without hairs. a smooth, shiny black or brown and without hairs.

Photo: Steve Booth Photo: Steve Booth Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic Organisms Epibenthic Taxonomic Species List 39 Taxonomic Species List 39

I, Primary Pest List Species I, Primary Pest List Species II, Secondary Pest II, Secondary Pest

A, Benthic (dwells mostly subsurface) A, Benthic (dwells mostly subsurface) B, Epibenthic (dwells primarily on the surface) B, Epibenthic (dwells primarily on the surface) C, Fouling or sessile C, Fouling or sessile D, Parasitic D, Parasitic E, Inhabits the open water, planktonic, pelagic E, Inhabits the open water, planktonic, pelagic

Kingdom Anamalia Kingdom Anamalia Class Trematoda Class Trematoda Sub-Class Digenea Sub-Class Digenea Oyster Trematodes II - D, comprising at least: Oyster Trematodes II - D, comprising at least: Family Gymnophallidae Family Gymnophallidae Gymnophalloides tokiensis Gymnophalloides tokiensis Family Bucephalidae Family Bucephalidae Bucephalus haimeanus, Bucephal Bucephalus haimeanus, Bucephal Family Fellodistomatidae Family Fellodistomatidae Proectoeces maculatus Proectoeces maculatus Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms) Phylum Annelida (Segmented Worms) Class Polychaeta (Bristle worms) Class Polychaeta (Bristle worms) Order Spionida us cucullus, Bucephalus spp. Order Spionida us cucullus, Bucephalus spp. Family Spionidae Family Spionidae Polydora corunuta (Mud or Blister Worm) II - C Polydora corunuta (Mud or Blister Worm) II - C Order Scolicida Order Scolicida Family Maldanidae Family Maldanidae Clymenella torquata (Invasive Bamboo worm) I - A Clymenella torquata (Invasive Bamboo worm) I - A Class Oligochaeta Class Oligochaeta Phylum Phylum Mollusca Class (Snails) Class Gastropoda (Snails) Order Neotaenioglossa Order Neotaenioglossa Family Calyptraeidae Family Calyptraeidae Crepidula adunca (Hooked slipper snail) II - B Crepidula adunca (Hooked slipper snail) II - B Crepidula nummaria (Western white slipper snail) II - B Crepidula nummaria (Western white slipper snail) II - B Crepidula perforans (White slipper snail) II - B Crepidula perforans (White slipper snail) II - B Family Naticidae Family Naticidae Euspira (Polinices) lewisii (and others) Lewis’ Moon snail (and Euspira (Polinices) lewisii (and others) Lewis’ Moon snail (and others) I - B others) I - B Order Neogastropoda Order Neogastropoda Family Muricidae (Drills) Family Muricidae (Drills) Ocinebrellus inornatus (Japanese oyster drill) I - B Ocinebrellus inornatus (Japanese oyster drill) I - B Urosalpinx cinerea (Atlantic or drill) I - B Urosalpinx cinerea (Atlantic or Eastern oyster drill) I - B Class (Bivalve molluscs) Class Bivalvia (Bivalve molluscs) Order Mytiloida Order Mytiloida Family Family Mytilidae Musculista senhousia (Asian or Japanese Mussel) II - B Musculista senhousia (Asian or Japanese Mussel) II - B Mytilus edulis / trossulus / galloprovincialus (Blue mussel Mytilus edulis / trossulus / galloprovincialus (Blue mussel complex) II - B complex) II - B Order Veneroida Order Veneroida Family Mactridae (Horse and Gaper Clams) Family Mactridae (Horse and Gaper Clams) Tresus capax (Horse clam) I - B Tresus capax (Horse clam) I - B (Pacific gaper clam) I - B Tresus nuttallii (Pacific gaper clam) I - B 40 Taxonomic Species List 40 Taxonomic Species List

Species List Species Pylum Arthropoda – Sub Phylum Crustacea List Species Pylum Arthropoda – Sub Phylum Crustacea Class Class Malacostraca Order Decapoda Order Decapoda Family Callianassidae Family Callianassidae Neotrypaea californiensis (Ghost shrimp) I - A Neotrypaea californiensis (Ghost shrimp) I - A Neotrypaea gigas (Giant sand shrimp) I - A Neotrypaea gigas (Giant sand shrimp) I - A Upogebia pugettensis (Mud shrimp) I - A Upogebia pugettensis (Mud shrimp) I - A Family Family Cancridae Cancer magister (Dungeness crab) I - B Cancer magister (Dungeness crab) I - B Cancer productus (Rock crab) I - B Cancer productus (Rock crab) I - B Carcinus maenas (Green crab) I - B Carcinus maenas (Green crab) I - B Cancer gracilis (Graceful crab) I - B Cancer gracilis (Graceful crab) I - B Class Cirripedia Class Cirripedia Order Thoracica Order Thoracica Family Balanidae (Barnacles) Family Balanidae (Barnacles) Balanus spp. I - C Balanus spp. I - C Chthamalus spp. I - C Chthamalus spp. I - C Class Maxillopoda (Copepods) Class Maxillopoda (Copepods) Order Poecilostomatoida Order Poecilostomatoida Family Family Mytilicolidae Mytilicola orientalis (Thunberg’s parasite or red worm) II - D Mytilicola orientalis (Thunberg’s parasite or red worm) II - D Phylum Echinodermata Phylum Echinodermata Class Echinoidea Class Echinoidea Order Clypeasteroidea Order Clypeasteroidea Family Dendrasteridae Family Dendrasteridae Dendraster excentricus (Western, Excentric sand dollar) I -B Dendraster excentricus (Western, Excentric sand dollar) I -B Class Asteroidea Class Asteroidea Order Forcipulatida Order Forcipulatida Family Asteriidae (Sea stars) I - B Family Asteriidae (Sea stars) I - B Pisaster (Purple sea star, Ochre sea star) Pisaster (Purple sea star, Ochre sea star) Evasterias (Mottled star, False ochre sea star; Troschell's true Evasterias (Mottled star, False ochre sea star; Troschell's true star) star) Pycnopodia (Sunflower star) Pycnopodia (Sunflower star) Leptasterias (Six-rayed sea star) Leptasterias (Six-rayed sea star) Solaster (Sun sea star) Solaster (Sun sea star) Phylum Chordata Phylum Chordata Class: Ascidiacea (Tunicates or Sea Squirts) II - C Class: Ascidiacea (Tunicates or Sea Squirts) II - C Many species, 3 High Priority Invasive Spp: Many species, 3 High Priority Invasive Spp: Styela clava (Club tunicate) Styela clava (Club tunicate) Ciona savignyi (Transparent tunicate) Ciona savignyi (Transparent tunicate) Didemnum vexillum (Colonial tunicate) Didemnum vexillum (Colonial tunicate) Class Class Actinopterygii Order Pleuronectiformes (Flatfish) II - A Order Pleuronectiformes (Flatfish) II - A Order Scorpaeniformes Order Scorpaeniformes Family Cottidae (Common Sculpins) II - E Family Cottidae (Common Sculpins) II - E Order Perciformes Order Perciformes Family Embiotocidae Family Embiotocidae Cymatogaster aggregata (Shiner Perch) I - E Cymatogaster aggregata (Shiner Perch) I - E Other Perch species I - E Other Perch species I - E Taxonomic Species List 41 Taxonomic Species List 41

Class Aves List Species Class Aves List Species Order Anseriformes Order Anseriformes Family Anatidae Family Anatidae Melanitta deglandi (White-winged Scoter) I - B Melanitta deglandi (White-winged Scoter) I - B Melanitta perspicillata (Surf Scoter) I - B Melanitta perspicillata (Surf Scoter) I - B Melanitta nigra (Black Scoter) I - B Melanitta nigra (Black Scoter) I - B Bucephala clangula (Common Goldeneye) I - B Bucephala clangula (Common Goldeneye) I - B Order Charadriiformes Order Charadriiformes Family Laridae Family Laridae Larus spp. (Gulls) I -B Larus spp. (Gulls) I -B Order Passeriformes Order Passeriformes Family Corvidae Family Corvidae Corvus caurinus (Northwestern crow) I - B Corvus caurinus (Northwestern crow) I - B Corvus corax (Common Raven) I - B Corvus corax (Common Raven) I - B Kingdom Plantae (Plants) Kingdom Plantae (Plants) Phylum Chlorophyta Phylum Chlorophyta Class Ulvaceae Class Ulvaceae Order Ulvales Order Ulvales Family Ulvales Family Ulvales Ulva flexuosa (Filamentous algae) I - A Ulva flexuosa (Filamentous algae) I - A Ulva lactuca (Sea lettuce) I -A Ulva lactuca (Sea lettuce) I -A Angiosperms Angiosperms Monocotyledons Order Order Poales Family Poacea (Grasses) Family Poacea (Grasses) Spartina alterniflora (Smooth cordgrass) I - A Spartina alterniflora (Smooth cordgrass) I - A Spartina angelica (Common cordgrass) I - A Spartina angelica (Common cordgrass) I - A Spartina patens (Saltmeadow cordgrass) I - A Spartina patens (Saltmeadow cordgrass) I - A Spartina densiflora (Denseflower cordgrass) I - A Spartina densiflora (Denseflower cordgrass) I - A Phragmites australis (Common reed) I - A Phragmites australis (Common reed) I - A Order Alismatales Order Alismatales Family Zoasteracea Family Zoasteracea Zostera japonica (Japanese eelgrass) I - A Zostera japonica (Japanese eelgrass) I - A Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Fungi Division Mitosporic Division Mitosporic Ostracoblabe implexas II - D Ostracoblabe implexas II - D