The Shifting Narratives and Circling Bodhisattvas of Baoguo Si: a Study of Lay Buddhist Ritual at an Historic Temple on Mt
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The Shifting Narratives and Circling Bodhisattvas of Baoguo Si: A Study of Lay Buddhist Ritual at an Historic Temple on Mt. Emei, Sichuan China. Tenzin L Mullin A Thesis submitted for the degree of Masters of Arts At the University of Otago, Dunedin New Zealand November 2013 Acknowledgments I appreciatively acknowledge the efforts of many individuals who supported this dissertation. My utmost gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Elizabeth Guthrie for her compassionate guidance, cherished comments, and hard work. Without her wonderful support, this dissertation would not have been completed. I am also deeply thankful to Dr. Erica Baffelli, my primary supervisor. Without her determination, focus and intuition, this dissertation would never have taken shape. I would also like to express my appreciation to Dr. Will Sweetman and the entire department of Theology and Religious Studies at the University of Otago. I also wish to thank Dr. Venerable Yifa of the Woodenfish Program for her friendship, advice and kind support during my fieldtrips to China in 2011 and 2012. I extend my gratitude to those who have been so kind to befriend and aid me during my research journey. Firstly to Dr. James Hargett who introduced me resources and contacts at the Mt Emei Museum, and was so kind to always reply to my email queries. I also wish to thanks Justin O’Jack who introduced me to some of the staff of the Mt Emei Museum, and extended his hand in friendship by discussing various approaches to my topic of study. I would also like to thank Mr. Xiong Feng, chief historian of the Mt Emei Museum for finding the time to unearth his collection of literature on the history of Baoguo Si, and for meeting with me on short notice. Venerable Manlin also offered his help, which provided me with full access to the library at Dafo Chanyuan. I also extend my gratitude to the Baoguo Si monks, the lay Buddhists who visited the temple to conduct ritual, and the other visitors who took the time to speak with me and allowed me to observe and photograph them. My sincerest thanks also go to all my neglected friends and colleagues—Heath Te Au, Stephen Kilroy, Danilo Giambra, Nikki Aaron, Maciej Pociecha, Matthew Blair and Jonathon Lambert. I also would like to thank Kate Dorjee, Brett Lupton, and Dr. Brian J Nichols for kindly proofing sections of this thesis. Finally, I owe my deepest indebtedness and love to my beloved family for their amazing support, without any reservation, in particular my wife Maowei, an Emei native who accompanied me most fully on this academic journey. I acknowledge my two children Padma and Tara. I also would like to extend this appreciation to my numerous amazing siblings. Perhaps the greatest gratitude must be reserved for my birthparents, Roberta Mandell and Glenn Mullin, both of whom - along with my amazing stepparents – have ensured I had an open heart and an inquisitive mind. i Abstract China has an ancient tradition of sacred mountain pilgrimage. One of these sacred mountains is Emei Shan 峨嵋山, located in Sichuan province. For the past 1500 years Emei Shan has been associated with the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra 普贤菩萨, and many monasteries have been built on and along its pilgrimage route. My research focuses on lay Buddhist ritual at Baoguo Si 报国寺, an ancient and prestigious temple located at the foot of the Mt Emei Shan. During the Ming Dynasty Baoguo Si was established under the name of the Huizong Tang 会总堂. Originally it served a different function; a temple established for dialogue and communal practice of Buddhists, Daoists and Confucians. During the Qing dynasty it was shifted to a new location, then was converted into a Buddhist temple, and Emperor Kangxi gave the temple its current name Baoguo Si. The temple was used by the Nationalist Army and then by Sichuan University during the Sino-Japanese wars. Like most Buddhist monasteries in China, Baoguo Si was "closed" during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) its monks were forced to return to lay life and many traditions fell into disuse. After 1979, Baoguo Si was permitted to reopen and there has been a revival of lay interest in this important monastery since that time. Today Baoguo Si receives some two million visitors annually, as it is an important gateway along Emei Shan’s ancient pilgrimage route. While today there are such a large number of visitors to Baoguo Si, it is not possible to isolate them into two distinct groups of tourists and pilgrims. This is because most visitors engage in standard rituals that are performed at almost any Buddhist monastery (offering incense, lighting candles and prostrating to the buddhas and bodhisattvas). However there is a group of lay Buddhists known as laopusa 老普 萨 (old bodhisattvas) who visit the monastery to engage in a circumambulatory procession and recitation that takes place in the Samantabhadra Hall. This study first examines how narratives have played a role in making Baoguo Si so popular and creating an image for this temple as both an historic heritage site and a sacred temple. To do this I examine contemporary publications that promote Baoguo Si and Emei Shan. Then I present an ethnographic study of how laopusa use the temple today. ii Table of Contents Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................. i Abstract ................................................................................................................................. ii Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 The Setting .................................................................................................................................... 2 Pure Land ...................................................................................................................................... 4 Chapter One: In the background: Emei Shan. ........................................................... 9 The research methodology ...................................................................................................... 9 Narratives about Taoist history and arrival of Buddhism to Emei Shan .............. 11 Narratives of Amitabha's Pure Land at Emei Shan ....................................................... 18 Critiques of the religious experience of Emei Shan today ......................................... 21 “Religion”, “heritage”, and “tourism”: reflections on terminology ......................... 24 Chapter Two: Baoguo Si ................................................................................................ 31 Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) .................................................................................................. 32 Qing Dynasty (1644-1912) ................................................................................................... 35 Republican Period (1912-1949) ......................................................................................... 38 Baoguo Si under Mao .............................................................................................................. 40 Baoguo Si in the post-Mao era (1977 - the present day) ............................................ 44 Discussion: ................................................................................................................................. 47 Chapter Three: Lay Ritual at Baoguo Si ................................................................... 50 Baoguo Si as it stands today ................................................................................................. 50 Negotiated spaces at Baoguo Si ........................................................................................... 54 Lay Ritual at Baoguo ............................................................................................................... 58 Zoumiao: Returning to Baoguo Si on chuxi ..................................................................... 62 Chapter Four: Nianfo at Baoguo Si ............................................................................ 65 The laopusa ............................................................................................................................... 66 Circling the Bodhisattva: A characteristic day for laopusa at Baoguo Si .............. 68 Waiting at the Samantabhadra Hall .................................................................................. 69 The Main Ceremony ................................................................................................................ 70 Lunch Break and Afternoon Session ................................................................................. 72 A brief introduction into Amitabha's Pure Land and Nianfo .................................... 74 Analysis of Nianfo: theories and ritual and liturgy ...................................................... 77 Conclusion ......................................................................................................................... 83 The elephant in the room: future areas for study ....................................................... 84 Closing considerations ........................................................................................................... 86 Bibliography ..................................................................................................................... 88 iii Introduction In Emei City, Sichuan, on chuxi, 除夕 (New Year’s Eve) February 6, 2008,