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Genre and Excarceral Politics in Victorian Literature by Rachel E Prison Forms: Genre and Excarceral Politics in Victorian Literature by Rachel E. Cawkwell A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment Of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (English Language and Literature) In the University of Michigan 2021 Doctoral Committee: Professor Adela Pinch, Chair Professor Daniel Hack Associate Professor Ashley Lucas Professor Yopie Prins Rachel E. Cawkwell [email protected] ORCID iD: 0000-0003-1505-3984 © Rachel Cawkwell 2021 DEDICATION For my grandmothers, Marilyn Dunkel and Jean Cawkwell, who passed away while this dissertation was in progress. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation has benefited both directly and indirectly from many people in my life. One of the joys of finishing this project is getting a chance to name and acknowledge everyone who has sustained me through the past six years: My undergraduate English professors at Emory University, particularly my mentors Sheila Cavanagh, Michael Elliot, and Laura Otis. Michigan’s English Department staff and faculty, for providing a place for me to grow intellectually. I am especially grateful to my committee members, Adela Pinch, Yopie Prins, Daniel Hack, and Ashley Lucas. A special word of thanks to Adela Pinch, my dissertation chair, and Yopie Prins, who have been my primary mentors throughout graduate school. From my first year through my final year, I appreciate how you have always cared about me as a full person and encouraged me in all my interests. I could not have imagined a stronger academic support system. The faculty, graduate students, and undergraduate students of Michigan’s Documenting Criminalization and Confinement project, who I have been proud to work alongside for two years. I have been immensely inspired by the faculty leadership of Heather Ann Thompson, Ashley Lucas, Matthew Lassiter, William Lopez, Melissa Burch, Nora Kritinsky, and Ruby Tapia. The graduate students at University of Michigan who I’ve had the pleasure to know, particularly the student groups Nineteenth Century Forum, Carceral Studies, and Rackham iii Public Scholars. A special shout out to the two cohort members who have been my rocks: Elizabeth Harlow and Bretney Moore. The Ultimate community of Ann Arbor for being the best athletic and social outlet imaginable, especially Ann Arbor Ultimate. Thank you for keeping me sane. The community organizations that have inspired me and kept me grounded during my time in Ann Arbor: 826michigan and InsideOut Literary Arts, with special thanks to Catherine Calabro Cavin, Frances Martin, and Shawntai Brown for being my personal heroes in the world of youth literary education. My family for supporting me in countless ways and always encouraging my academic endeavors. Particularly my parents and siblings: Roger Cawkwell, Gail Cawkwell, Philip Cawkwell, Samuel Cawkwell, and Rebecca Cawkwell. My partner Paul Versluis, for allowing our home to be overrun with books, for always listening, for knowing when to suggest bread & cheese or a stargazing expedition, and for dancing through life with me. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Dedication ii Acknowledgments iii List of Tables vi List of Figures vii Abstract viii Introduction 1 Chapter I. The Ballads of Jack Sheppard: Imagining an Excarceral Future with a Refrain from the Past 11 Chapter II. Little Dorrit’s Life Stories, or Fairy Tale Dreams of Reentry 72 Chapter III. The Ticket-of-Leave Man: Melodramatic Heroes and Villains of Reentry 129 Chapter IV. An Epoch without Arrest: William Morris’s Abolitionist Utopias 182 Coda 238 Works Cited 250 v LIST OF TABLES TABLE I.1. Singing distribution in Ainsworth's Jack Sheppard 26 I.2. Comparison of singing distribution in Ainsworth and Buckstone versions 48 of Jack Sheppard vi LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE I.1. Distribution of ballads in Ainsworth’s Jack Sheppard 26 I.2. First verse of “Saint Giles’s Bowl” 29 I.3. Page 123 in Ainsworth’s Jack Sheppard 37 I.4. Comparison of song distribution between Jack Sheppard novel and play 47 I.5. The image at the top of Jack Sheppard’s Garland 66 I.6. The image at the top of Jack Sheppard’s Glory 67 II.1. Two Benjamin Robert Haydon paintings 88 III.1. Song in Punch (1857) satirizing ticket-of-leave men 148 III.2. Program page for The Ticket-of-Leave Man 166 III.3. “The Ticket-of-Leave Man” in FUN on October 24, 1863 174 V.1 Student blackout poetry of "The Ballad of Reading Gaol” 244 vii ABSTRACT Prison Forms: Genre and Excarceral Politics in Victorian Literature focuses on popular nineteenth-century literature that engages with criminal justice topics that were timely in their era and continue unresolved in the twenty-first century. I read literary and periodical texts from the Victorian era through a lens of carceral studies scholarship to locate carceral and excarceral tendencies in the intertwined and centuries-long trajectories of prison reform and penal abolition. I center the word “excarceral” to focus on the aspects of penal abolitionist thought that works to undo prison logics and structures and to create viable alternatives, rather than the prison moratorium or decarceration strains of thought. This term also centers Peter Linebaugh’s formulation of excarceration as inspiring broad recognition of and resistance against carceral forces. In addition to contributing to the ongoing theoretical conversation over this broader time frame, this project closely examines four case studies to understand how literature contributes to the political discussions of their moments. Each chapter of this dissertation extends from a single text to examine both a genre concern and an aspect of the British penal system. I articulate how an instance of a literary genre emerges from an intersecting horizon of expectations, the generic and the political. These two exigencies together encourage or inhibit the text’s alignment with liberatory or carceral logics. The United Kingdom increasingly moved towards incarceration as its primary mode of punishment over the nineteenth century, but the four chapters of this dissertation resist the idea of a unified, inevitable progression toward reliance on carceral logics. I begin by exploring the viii concept of excarceration within the ballad form. Ballads about jail-breaking hero Jack Sheppard, originally written for William Harrison Ainsworth’s 1839 Jack Sheppard, propagated and normalized the potential of excarceration for readers, by shifting and spreading through the media of theater and cheap broadsides. I next move to the mid-1850s to consider the generic expectations of life stories in and beyond prisons. In Charles Dickens’s Little Dorrit, the novel form plays with the full range of the life story genre, from personal fantasy to recorded memoir, and I use this opportunity to examine how incarceration shapes life paths and self-conceptions. Then, I focus on the process of reentry in the realm of melodrama, through Tom Taylor’s 1863 play The Ticket-of-Leave Man. I show how the melodramatic mode’s unique relation to realism establishes real concerns about national character while failing to transcend the form’s focus on static heroes and villains. Finally, I return to the excarceral themes of the first chapter to explore the intersection between penal abolition and utopianism. I read William Morris’s theatrical and periodical work on the late 1880s alongside his 1890 novel News from Nowhere to show Morris’s consistent pairing of immediate action with an abolitionist future vision. Collectively, these case studies affirm the value of marrying generic and political analysis of texts. At a moment when the United States is engaged in national conversation around the racist history and effects of our criminal justice system, my dissertation suggests the value in looking comparatively at historical case studies to understand the way processes of expression interact with theories of punishment and freedom. ix INTRODUCTION In the middle of Jack Sheppard, William Harrison Ainsworth’s 1839 novel, readers encounter a speech about prison abolition from a minor character, the Master of the Mint. The leader of a debtor’s sanctuary in London, he talks of the future he desires for himself and his indebted companions: I hope to see the day, when not Southwark alone, but London itself shall become one Mint, —when all men shall be debtors, and none creditors, —when imprisonment for debt shall be utterly abolished, —when highway-robbery shall be accounted a pleasant pastime, and forgery an accomplishment, —when Tyburn and its gibbets shall be overthrown, —capital punishments discontinued, —Newgate, Ludgate, the Gatehouse, and the Compters razed to the ground, —Bridewell and Clerkenwell destroyed, —the Fleet, the King’s Bench, and the Marshalsea remembered only by name! (225) Although framed as a rousing speech, Ainsworth undercuts the Master’s words by having him describe an unfathomable and vice-ridden abolitionist future. When the Master of the Mint calls for the removal of all debtors’ prisons and the end of capital punishment, he speaks in the excess, naming prison after prison that should be destroyed. Such excess makes his speech seem ludicrous and his demands absurd. The Master of the Mint’s vision also links an inconceivable end of carceral control over the London poor with the inevitable triumph of immoral actions. He imagines highway robbery occurring as a “pleasant pastime” and forgery being celebrated. In a future without debtors’ prisons, the Master still foresees debt. Despite living in a space resistant 1 to police forces, a positive, societal construction of
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