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CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL The thesis by Judith Lubasi Ilubala-Ziwa is approved as fulfilling the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the University of Zambia Signed:………………………………. Date:……………………… Signed: ………………………………. Date:…………………….. Signed: ………………………………. Date:................................... i DECLARATION I, Judith Lubasi Ilubala–Ziwa, declare that this thesis represent my work. It has not previously been submitted for a degree at this or any other university and does not incorporate any published work or material from another thesis. Signed: ………………………………………… Date: ………………………………………….. ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my late mother, Elizabeth Siyumbwa Mwakamui Lukama, for providing me with the much needed education at such trying moments in her life. I also dedicate this work to my beloved daughters and son, Tisah, Etambuyu, Ekelesi, Mwaka and Weluzani for their support. iii COPYRIGHT All rights reserved. No part of this thesis may be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the author or the University of Zambia. iv ABBREVIATIONS AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ATR African Traditional Religion BSAC British South African Company CAMFED Campaign for Female Education CCZ Council of Churches in Zambia CDC Curriculum Development Centre CF Capuchin Fathers CMML Christian Missions in Many Lands CSO Central Statistics Office CSAWUZ Civil Servants and Allied Workers Union of Zambia CWM Community for Women and Men DDEP Diocesan Development Education Programme DRC Dutch Reformed Church EFA Education for All EFZ Evangelical Fellowship of Zambia EoF Educating our Future FAWE Forum for African Women Educationalists FAWEZA Forum for African Women Educationalists in Zambia FBO Faith Based Organisations FCS Free Church of Scotland GRZ Government of the Republic of Zambia HCSS Holy Cross Secondary School HCS Holy Cross Sisters HIV Human Immuno-Deficiency Virus ILRA Industrial and Labour Relations Act LMS London Missionary Society PAGE Programme for Advancement of Girls’ Education PEMS Paris Evangelical Missionary Society PESO Provincial Education Standards Officer PMCT Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission v POED Policy and Operations Evaluation Department PTA Parents Teachers Association MoE Ministry of Education NAC New Apostolic Church NGO Non Governmental Organisation NRDC Natural Resources Development College OSSERIA Organisation for Social Research for Eastern and Southern Africa RCZ Reformed Church in Zambia SADEC Southern African Development Community SAGM South African General Mission SDA Seventh Day Adventist TSC Teaching Service Commission UBZ United Bus Company of Zambia UFC United Free Church UNIP United National Independent Party UNDP United Nations Development Plan WF White Fathers ZCTU Zambia Congress of Trade Unions ZEC Zambia Episcopal Conference vi TABLE OF CONTENTS CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL .................................................................................................... i DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii COPYRIGHT ................................................................................................................................. iv ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................................ v TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................... xii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. xiii LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xv LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xvi CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ............................................................ 1 1.0 Overview ............................................................................................................................ 2 1.1 Reason for Study ................................................................................................................ 2 1.2 Barotseland ........................................................................................................................ 5 1.3 The Livingstone Diocesan Territory ................................................................................ 10 1.4 The Role of the Catholic Church in the Education of Women in Zambia ....................... 13 1.5 Policy Documents on Education ...................................................................................... 16 1.6 History of the Holy Cross Sisters in Zambia ................................................................... 21 CHAPTER TWO: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 27 2.0 Overview .......................................................................................................................... 28 2.1 The Status of Women in Zambia ..................................................................................... 28 2.2 Historical Development of Women Education in Zambia ............................................... 36 2.2.1 Traditional Education....................................................................................................... 36 2.2.2 Formal Education ............................................................................................................. 43 2.3 The role of Religious Congregations in the Catholic Church .......................................... 47 2.4 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 48 2.5 Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................ 48 2.6 Research Objectives ..………………………………………………………………… .. 48 2.7 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 49 2.8 Conceptual Framework ……………………………………………………………… .. 49 vii 2.8.1 Assertiveness.................................................................................................................... 56 2.8.2 Rights Awareness............................................................................................................. 58 2.8.3 Children’s Education ....................................................................................................... 62 2.8.4 Community Participation ................................................................................................. 63 2.8.5 Leadership ........................................................................................................................ 64 2.8.6 Employment Status .......................................................................................................... 65 2.8.7 Income.............................................................................................................................. 66 2.8.8 Income Generating Activities (IGAs) .............................................................................. 67 2.9 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 70 2.10 Limitations of the Study................................................................................................... 71 2. 11 Delimitations of the Study ............................................................................................... 71 2.12 Operational Definitions .................................................................................................... 71 2.13 Summary .......................................................................................................................... 72 CHAPTER THREE: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ........................................... 74 3.0 Overview .......................................................................................................................... 75 3.1 International Studies on Education of Women ................................................................ 77 3.2 Missionaries and Women Education in Zambia .............................................................. 80 3.3 Catholic Missionaries and Girls’ Education in Zambia ................................................... 92 3.4 Factors that Contribute to Women’s Slow Progress in Education ................................... 96 3.5 Summary ……………………………………………………………………………... 108 CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY ................................................................................. 110 4.0 Overview ........................................................................................................................ 110 4.1 The Worldview .............................................................................................................