International Journal of Plant Breeding and Crop Science

Vol. 8(1), pp. 1001-1008, February, 2021. © www.premierpublishers.org, ISSN: 2167-0449

Review Article Review on Integrated Pest Management of Coffee Berry Disease and Coffee Berry Borer

*Dadi Tolessa Lemma and Damtew Abewoy 1,2Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research, Wondogenet Agricultural Research Center, P.o.box 198, Shashemene, Ethiopia Corresponding Author: Damtew Abewoy, Email: [email protected], Tel: +251 921 58 2397 and Dadi Tolessa Lemma, Email: [email protected], Tel: +251 912 20 9334

Coffee is the first traded crop commodity and valuable in the world. Despite it is highly needed many constraints affect its production and quality. Among those constraints, Coffee berry disease and coffee berry borer are a serious pest of coffee that causes huge damage worldwide. Both are pests of the berry of coffee which is an economical part of the traded commodity. Coffee berry disease (CBD), which affects Coffea arabica, is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum kahawae. Some reports showed that the disease caused yield loss up to 81% in Wondo Genet, Ethiopia which is a huge loss and devastating. Coffee berry borer is also the major insect pest that causes significant yield and quality losses to coffee berries. The coffee berry borer can cause yield losses of 30-35% with 100% berries infested at harvest time. Climate change plays a great role in the increments of pests which enhance the damage and yield loss of coffee which is a headache for coffee-producing countries. Pest management of coffee is difficult because of climate change and tree nature. It needs many controlling mechanisms because we cannot control only by one pest management techniques. So, integrated pest management is needed to control both pests that attach the berry of the coffee which is very economical and needs high quality of production. So, the purpose of this review is to assess the behavior and controlling mechanisms for coffee berry disease and coffee berry borer which are the major pests of coffee in the world.

Keywords: Coffee berries, Coffee berry disease, Coffee berry borer, IPM, Yield losses

INTRODUCTION

Coffee (Coffea arabica L) is originated in Ethiopia and the country's foreign exchange earnings, over 5% of the GDP, second largest commodity traded next to oil in the world 12 % of the agricultural output, and 10% of the government (Gray et al., 2013) and plays a great role to balance trade revenues (CSA, 2010).

between developed and developing countries. Coffee is an There are four types of coffee production systems in important exchange commodity contributing to various Ethiopia: forest coffee, semi-forest coffee, garden coffee, degrees to the national income of the producing countries and plantation coffee. These four-production systems (Patricia, 2011). More than 33 million people in 25 mainly due to varying levels of plants associated with countries in Africa are leading their life by producing coffee, the nature of coffee tree regeneration, and human coffee. In Ethiopia, about 15 people are directly or intervention in the coffee production system indirectly deriving their livelihoods from the coffee (Woldemariam et al., 2008). production system (Gray et al., 2013). Ethiopia is the largest coffee producer in Sub-Saharan countries and the *Corresponding Author: Dadi Tolessa Lemma, Ethiopian fifth largest coffee producer in the world next to Brazil, Institute of Agricultural Research, Wondogenet Vietnam, Colombia, and Indonesia, contributing about 7- Agricultural Research Center, P.o.box 198, Shashemene, 10% of total world coffee production (Gray et al., 2013). Ethiopia, *Email: [email protected] Co-Author Current contributions of coffee are more than 25 % of the Email: [email protected]

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Forest with wild Arabica coffee populations occurs in the MAJOR PESTS OF COFFEE southeastern and southwestern highlands of Ethiopia mainly at altitudes between 1000 and 2000 m.a.s.l. Many coffee pests stack growth and development as well (Senbeta, 2008). By far the greatest amount of coffee in as a challenge for yield and quality of coffee across the Ethiopia is derived from spontaneous forest coffee. Forest globe. Among those major pests of coffee are discussed coffee accounts for about 10% of the total coffee below: production in Ethiopia. Semi-Forest coffee production system is also found in the Southern and South-Western Coffee Berry Disease (CBD) parts of the Country. Farmers thin and select forest trees to let inadequate sunlight to the coffee trees and still Coffee berry disease (CBD) is the top major disease of provide adequate shade. Farmers slash the weeds once a coffee in Ethiopia, which attack mainly the green berries of year to facilitate harvesting of the coffee beans. This coffee. It was first observed in Ethiopia in 1971 and then it system accounts for about 35% of coffee production. spreads and is found in all coffee-producing areas in which Plantation coffee is grown on plantations owned by the it has been favored by favorable environmental conditions state (currently put up for sale/privatization) and on some (Kifle et al., 2015). Coffee berry disease (CBD), which well-managed smallholder’s coffee farms. In this affects Coffea arabica, is caused by the fungus production system, recommended agronomic practices Colletotrichum kahawae. It is endemic to Africa and was like improved seedlings, spacing, proper mulching, using first recorded in western Kenya in 1922. Since then the manure, weeding, shade regulation, and pruning are disease has spread to most C. arabica growing countries practiced. It accounts for about 5% of the total production on the continent. CBD can cause considerable yield losses (Crown Coffee, 2002 as cited by Agegnehu et al., 2015). of up to 75% when not adequately controlled. Even though the application of fungicides to control the disease can Coffee production in Africa has largely stagnated over the result in yields being doubled, losses of up to 30% can still past two decades. Among the major factors limiting occur when the attack is severe (CABI, 2006). Merdassa increased Coffee production worldwide are losses due to (1985) as cited by Kifle and Demelash (2015) reported pests (insects, disease, nematodes, and weeds), both that yield losses of 51% at Melko and 81% at Wondo indigenous and exotic. Coffee is prone to several diseases Genet was occurred due to CBD. According to Eshetu et that attack fruits, leaves, stems, and roots, which in turn al. (2000), coffee berry disease alone is known to reduce reduce yield and marketability (Derso et al., 2000; Kifle et coffee yields between 25-30 %. Hararghe coffee is al., 2015). High rainfall and relative humidity are common susceptible to CBD; as a result, it is under threat of genetic in major coffee-growing areas, which favors disease erosion mainly because of the losses caused by the development and survival of inoculums on crop or disease and farmers prefer growing alternative cash crops alternate hosts over seasons. These conditions generally such as chat to planting coffee (Birehanu, 2014). Crop result in disease epidemics that reduce coffee yield. More losses may therefore vary from year to year depending on than 13 types of diseases registered to affect the coffee weather conditions. Berries are most resistant at the plant in Ethiopia. While major coffee diseases are Coffee ‘pinhead’ stage (first month) and when fully mature (at 16- Berry Diseases (CBD) caused by Colletotrichum kahawae, 18 weeks from the time of flowering). Active lesions Coffee Wilt Disease (CWD) of Gibberella xylarioides, and develop on the berry and expand until the whole berry is coffee leaf rust caused by Hemileia vastatrix, however, the affected. The beans are destroyed and the berries turn rest of the diseases considered to be minor (Kifle et al., black and either drop or remain on the coffee plant as 2015 and Derso et al., 2000). Several insect pests are mummified berries. Some of the berries drop off after known to attack coffee berries at different phenological developing a few active lesions (CABI, 2006). development stages and affect both the quality and quantity of the product. Coffeeberry infestation by insects The losses occur during early infestation by destroying the starts at bud formation and flowering stage. General beans or by preventing proper wet and dry processing feeders such as larvae of Lepidoptera damage buds, since the pulp cannot be removed completely, causing so- whereas scale insects and aphids infest and suck the sap called ''stinkers'' in the crop and reducing the quality. from the plant at all times during their nymphal and adult Intensive progress of the disease in the expanding stage stages (Chemeda et al., 2011). Therefore, the objective of of the berry development finally produces mummified this paper is to review the major pests of coffee (coffee berries with no economic value at all (Hindorf and Omondi, berry disease and coffee berry borer) situation and their 2011). Under very wet weather conditions CBD may also management tactics to reduce the loss they cause on cause brown lesions to develop on flower petals. Also, it coffee. can attack seedling hypocotyls of C. arabica. However, pale, corky brownish lesions may also develop, mostly on young pinheads and mature green berries. These lesions are known as 'scab' lesions and, as a pinhead and mature

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green berries are more resistant to CBD, their development is due to a resistant reaction to infection (CABI, 2006).

Figure 1: Coffee berry disease lesions on green berries

Source: CABI, 2006.

The major distinction currently separates C. kahawae from C. kahawae are dispersed by water and also require liquid the other species of Colletotrichum was the old colony of water or 100% relative humidity for germination. This C. kahawae produces pale yellowish to pinkish with dense implies that CBD epidemics should be expected in areas whitish-grey aerial mycelium and a few bright orange where rainfall is generally high or during years of high conidial masses on the tips of the active growing hyphae rainfall in otherwise dry areas (CABI, 2006). Temperature on MEA media. The young colony produces a grey, is another important factor in that temperatures between becoming grey to dark, olivaceous grey, dark greenish in 12°C and 30°C are also required for conidia to germinate, the reverse side of plates (Mohammed and Jambo, 2015). the optimum being 22°C. The host plant tissues may be infected within five hours of germination. The ideal Weather conditions are critical in the development of CBD. conditions for CBD development can therefore vary at Adequate moisture is essential as the spores (conidia) of different altitudes and from country to country.

Figure 2: Relationship between altitude and CLR and CBD incidence on coffee farms sampled in the Arabica coffee growing regions of Uganda.

Farm altitude (Meters) Source: Matovu, 2013

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Management tactics Coffee Berry Borer

CBD can be controlled through cultural measures, The coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus hampei is a major chemical applications, use of resistant varieties, and insect pest of coffee in many of the world's main coffee- biological control. A number of these different approaches producing countries causing considerable damage (Baker, should be considered as part of an integrated approach to 2000). Hypothenemus hampei was first recorded in coffee control. seeds of unknown origin being traded in France in 1867 and the first reports of the pest in Africa were from Gabon Cultural control methods in 1901 and Zaire in 1903 (Murphy and Moore, 1990). Infestations of this small beetle are difficult to combat; most Cultural management practices can indirectly control CBD. of the insect’s lifecycle is completed inside coffee berries, Providing wider spacing and ensuring that trees are making insecticide penetration and contact difficult (Baker pruned appropriately helps to prevent prolonged wetness 1999, Damon 2000). The suggestion that the original host and high relative humidity following periods of rainfall of H. hampei was C. canephora was initially strengthened (conditions that are ideal for CBD development). In shaded by the report from Davidson (1967) who concluded that the coffee, the canopy of the trees should be prevented from pest was absent from Ethiopia, the home of Arabica coffee. becoming too dense. Any infected berries remaining on Apart from a few reports of characteristically damaged the tree can act as a source of inoculum. All berries berries from the southwest of the country, there was no including dried berries should therefore be removed at the further mention of H. hampei in Ethiopia until Abebe (1998) end of the cropping season to prevent them from acting as reported the pest to be present at all but one of the sites a source of inoculum for the new crop. studied. The borer was found at all altitudes from below 1000 m to over 1900 m, in the major coffee-growing areas Biological control methods in the south and south-west of the country, with a relatively higher infestation at lower altitudes. The losses occur in Components of the microbiota (fungi and bacteria) on Ethiopia due to this insect pest is high. EARO, (2000) cited coffee plants have been tested against C. kahawae, many in Mendesil et al. (2004) showed that the insect can infest of which have shown very high levels of antagonism. 13.3% to 61% of dry leftover coffee berries. This may be However, these have not yet been developed as due to the preference of the insect and the unsuitability of commercial biocontrol agents (CABI, 2006). It has also the dropped berry as affected by decaying and rotting. been established that applying fewer than the Climate change particularly the rise in temperature in recommended number of sprays or lower rates of coffee-growing areas has aggravated the problem by fungicide than recommended for control of CBD results in creating an environment conducive to the rapid growth of increased disease severity, due to the elimination of the pest (Abdu and Tewodros, 2013). Characteristic natural antagonists that compete with C. kahawae on the damage includes the rotting of developing beans as a twigs and berries. result of saprophytic microorganisms that enter through the hole, the drop of young berries due to attack, and the Host plant resistance loss of bean weight due to insect feeding. The borer can cause bean yield losses of 30-35% with 100% of Coffee varieties resistant to CBD are available. They perforated berries at harvest time; nevertheless, damage include Ruiru 11, Hibrido de Timor, Rume Sudan, K7, and can be greater if the harvest is delayed (Barrera, 2008). several Catimors. In Ethiopia, 37 CBD resistant coffee cultivars were released and disseminated for growers. Of In Africa, CBB is regarded as the most prevalent and those commercial coffee varieties, three of them are important coffee pest and a problem for the coffee industry. hybrids, and eleven are developed for specialty coffee In Kenya, infestation levels of 80% during the peak season growing areas of Ethiopia (Kifle and Demelash, 2015). with significant losses in yield and quality have been reported (Masaba et al., 1985). Severe infestation may Chemical control methods result in up to 80% of berries being attacked in Uganda and Ivory Coast, and 96% in Congo and Tanzania Several fungicides are available for controlling CBD, but (Waterhouse and Norris, 1989). In Uganda, the damage the use of chemicals is costly. Copper-based fungicides has been found to vary mainly due to the uneven are relatively cheap, very effective against CBD, and also distribution of bio-control agents, and differences in give protection against coffee leaf rust. The most cropping systems and farmer practices (Kucel and economical approach is to use a tank mixture containing Orozco-Hoyos, 1998). half the normal rate of copper fungicide (5 kg of 50% WP copper oxychloride) and half the normal rate of organic The Coffee Berry Borer (Hypothenemus hampei), a major fungicide (2 kg chlorothalonil 75% WP). Fungicides should pest originating in Congo but now seen around the Bean be applied every three to four weeks during the rainy Belt, causes crop damage above $US 500 million season to protect developing berries (CABI, 2006). annually. Since 2001, the borer, previously confined to

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crops below 1,500 meters above sea level, has spread last century. Warming of 1-2°C will see the borer’s upslope, drawn by hotter, wetter conditions in places like numbers explode, spreading outwards from the equator Tanzania, Uganda, and Indonesia On Mt Kilimanjaro, the and upwards to higher altitudes (Killeen and Harper, borer is now found 300 meters higher than where it was 2016).

Figure 3: Larvae of the coffee berry borer, H. hampei, and damaged coffee

Source: CABI (2006)

Management tactics Jonsson et al. (2015) found higher levels of H. hampei under unshaded than shaded coffee in Uganda, whereas Cultural Control the reverse was true for the white stem borer (Monochamus leuconotus). Harvesting coffee berries is itself an important control measure. Rigorous collection of remnant berries after Biological Control harvest, both from tree and ground, can substantially reduce infestations as it breaks the cycle and leaves little The two bethylid parasitoids, Cephalonomia substrate for immigrating H. hampei. Collected berries stephanoderis, and Prorops nasuta have been introduced should be boiled or buried if infestation levels are high. If from Africa to India and many Latin-American countries in processed, they should be placed in a drier, or if sun-dried, the 1980s and 1990s. The few studies undertaken on their placed under netting smeared with grease or oil to capture effectiveness suggest that in general, they have only a escaping borers. These methods are most successful moderate controlling effect and that it is rare to find more when done carefully by resource-poor farmers (Le Pelley, than 5% of perforated berries parasitized one or more 1968). However, such manual collection methods are years after releases were made (Barrera, 1994). However, laborious, especially the collection of fallen berries or a follow-up study seven years after a campaign to rear and those on the lower branches. Studies in Colombia have release large numbers of C. stephanoderis in different shown that farmers tend to leave many berries after coffee growing areas of Pulney Hills, Tamil Nadu, India, harvest, especially low down on the trees and that the recorded 16-45% parasitism from five different areas older the tree, the harder the farmers find it to remove the (Roobakkumar et al., 2014). Phymastichus coffea was berries (Baker, 1997). seen as a promising biocontrol agent because it attacks adults and thus might help to prevent the establishment of There are some suggestions that populations of H. hampei the borer in the endosperm, where economic damage is tend to be lower under shade trees rather than in the full caused. (Baker, 1999). sun. Armbrecht and Gallego (2007) recorded significantly more predation under shade than full sun coffee. Others, In recent years there have been several studies to however (e.g. Bosselmann et al., 2009) have found the evaluate the effect of bird predation (e.g. Johnson et al., reverse. It is likely therefore that the effect of shade is 2010; Karp et al., 2013) which through exclusion cage highly dependent on many local factors, for example, experiments show significant control effects in heavily

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infested field conditions. The presence of H. hampei in the pests and diseases and are still few to meet consumer diet of some birds has been confirmed through DNA resistance (Gongora et al., 2012). analysis of fecal samples (Karp et al., 2014), however, less than 10% of birds tested positive for H. hampei. Exclusion studies have also been carried out with ants CONCLUSION e.g. Solenopsis geminata; (Trible and Carroll, 2014) which show a significant predation effect. Coffee one of the major exporting commodity in the world. The plant is produced in more than seventy countries Chemical control including Ethiopia. It is consumed largely in the world in which Brazil is the huge producer and consumer in the Chemical control of CBB previously relied on insecticides world. Even though it is widely produced around the globe such as dihedron and BHC (benzene hexachloride) but there are many constraints in its production which are these have been largely replaced by Endosulfan, occurred due to biotic and abiotic factors. Among biotic chlorpyrifos, fenitrothion, and fenthion. However, all of factors, different diseases and insect pests are the major these chemicals are toxic to humans and other animals problems and devastating organisms of coffee. Among and, without protective equipment and careful use, these pests, coffee berry disease and coffee berry borers spraying of coffee trees would prove hazardous. are economically important pests. Both of them attach the Endosulfan was traditionally used for CBB control and berries of coffee which is economical. The market needs would appear to be the most effective chemical, but it is quality beans without any defects, but these pests attack also now being withdrawn due to problems with safety and the beans and reduce the quality of the coffee. resistance in the borer. In particular, there are major health concerns for those applying the chemical who can become Currently, both pests are devastating coffee farms and highly contaminated when spraying tall trees on difficult reduce the yield of coffee. Coffeeberry disease is a very terrain. Furthermore, and as mentioned above, CBB important disease in many countries including Ethiopia. spends much of its life protected within the coffee berry. If Control the disease many works have been done by many used, a pesticide must therefore be applied before the countries by using many pest control strategies. For insect bores into the berry to be effective, so timing is example, in our country, different resistance varieties like crucial. Effectively this means spraying before the Aba Buna have been developed, but still, the disease is endosperm has developed which means applying attacking and reducing the yield of coffee. Also, coffee probably no later than 100 days after flowering. The berry borer is a major pest of coffee especially in southern amount of chemical used and the risks associated with America which are the major producers and exporter of their use may be reduced by spot application as opposed coffee. The countries have tried to establish different to spraying (Johnson et al., 2010). management options to control the pest, but still, it is the major insect pest that reduces the berries of coffee which Host-Plant Resistance is very economical and needs care for export quality. 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Review on Integrated Pest Management of Coffee Berry Disease and Coffee Berry Borer