News 81N

General News

Mimosa Leaves Niche for of fungal pathogens, and it has been the task and would further reduce the degree of New Agents of the biocontrol programme to select the shading beneath stands, whilst also reducing most promising of these and screen them seedling regeneration, hastening the A leaf-feeding geometrid moth, Macaria for introduction. Eleven insect and two replacement of mimosa with native vegeta- pallidata (= Xenoecista pallidata), released pathogen species have been released to date tion. in Northern Territory in September this [see also BNI 20(1), 6N-7N (March 1999), A chrysomelid beetle (Malacorhinus irreg- year is the latest in a long line of biocontrol Preventing wetland wipe-out]. ularis) from Mexico was one such candi- agents introduced into Australia against One agent, the leaf-beetle Chlamisus date. It has an adult leaf-feeding stage, but Mimosa pigra (mimosa or giant sensitive mimosae (introduced in 1985), only estab- its soil-dwelling larvae feed on various plant). In addition to the promise this agent lished on one river system and has had only plant parts, particularly seedlings and ger- holds, encouraging results reported for pre- minimal impact on mimosa. The impacts of minating seeds. Adult beetles were shown viously released agents suggest that the sus- a flower-feeding weevil (Coelocephalapion to prefer young, growing leaves. For larvae, tained biocontrol programme against pigrae, introduced in 1994) and a seed- survival to adult was best on seedlings, with mimosa is paying off. feeding bruchid (Acanthoscelides puniceus, the cotyledons preferred by all larval Mimosa currently occupies some 850 km2 introduced in 1983), which are widespread stages. By consuming leaves the adults of wetlands in Northern Territory and and sometimes abundant, are currently reduce the vigour, growth rate and seed threatens a great deal more. It has been being assessed. However, two stem-boring production of the plant, while by con- found recently for the first time in Queens- moths (a gracillariid (Neurostrota gun- suming seedlings the larvae reduce stand land, about 2000 km from the nearest infes- niella) and a sesiid (Carmenta mimosa) first regeneration. This ‘double-barrelled’ tation. Its potential distribution extends released in 1989) are undoubtedly the most strategy meant the potential for added from the north coast of Western Australia successful to date. Neurostrota gunniella impact from introducing this species was across the country and down as far as dispersed rapidly and is abundant in many great. locations. Carmenta mimosa is spreading northern New South Wales. Mimosa pigra Host-specificity testing on 82 plant species more slowly, but is already widespread on was declared one of Australia’s 20 Weeds showed that larvae survived and completed two river systems and firmly established on of National Significance in 1999. It has development only on Mimosa pigra (on two others. The two moths have been cred- been the target of a biological control pro- which survival to adult averaged 85%). ited with reducing seed production by up to gramme for the last 20 years, and since Minimal adult feeding was recorded on a 87% at some sites and for a large amount of 1983 a suite of biocontrol agents has been few Acacia and Mimosa species, but the leaf drop and stem dieback. Neurostrota introduced against it. results of further screening of these and gunniella abundance has been correlated other related species indicated that intro- Mimosa pigra is native to Central and with reduced seed output and canopy duction of the beetle would not impact on South America, extending from Mexico to growth, and C. mimosa has been shown to non-target species in Australia. Oviposition northern Argentina, but it has become further reduce seed production and has even normally occurs in the soil, so oviposition widespread as a weed in Africa and Asia as caused plant death in localized areas. Sub- testing was considered not to be applicable. well as Australia. Although it occurs in sequent regeneration of grasses and sedges small patches of inconspicuous and beneath heavily attacked plants, in turn, With testing completed successfully, Mala- straggly plants in its home range, in Aus- means it is more difficult for mimosa seeds corhinus irregularis was introduced to tralia it grows to 6 m tall and forms impen- to germinate and grow. Furthermore, bio- Australia in 2000. It is now reported to have etrable thorny thickets, which compete logical control integrates well with alterna- established successfully and to be inflicting with pastures, hinder mustering and pre- tive management options. Damage from significant damage to mimosa at release vent access to water. It also poses a serious biocontrol agents is greater on plant re- sites. At one site, last year’s seedlings were conservation problem as it can completely growth following burning, crushing or almost totally stripped of leaves by the alter the natural grass and sedge floodplain spraying. adults. It is too early to be able to assess landscape, replacing it with dense mono- larval impact, and plots continued to be Despite these promising results, control specific stands, and it threatens tourist monitored, but the signs are that this agent was still not adequate, and biocontrol scien- income in areas such as Kakadu National will indeed complement existing biocontrol tists continued to search for agents to com- Park. The weed grows at an alarming rate. agents by further reducing mimosa regener- plement those already at work. The agents Infestations in a river system can double in ation. area in just over a year following good rain- that had established by 2000 fed and repro- fall, and a single plant can produce more duced on flowers (1 sp.), seeds (1 sp.) and The latest agent to be released, Macaria than 200,000 seeds per year. Seeds are dis- stems (2 sp.), with only the ineffective pallidata, was another promising candidate persed mostly by water: some germinate Chlamisus mimosae attacking the leaves. as its larvae feed voraciously on Mimosa soon after release, others in subsequent sea- The best-performing agents were having a pigra leaves. They feed on both young and sons. good impact on seed production of mature mature foliage, first stripping the top sur- plants, so interest was focused on species face of leaves. At high densities they can In its home range, M. pigra is attacked by that fed on other plant parts; in particular, completely strip foliage, thus reducing some 440 insect herbivores and a number those that fed on foliage and/or seedlings plant growth and seed production.

Are we on your mailing list? BiocontrolNews and Information is always pleased to receive news of research, conferences, new products or patents, changes in personnel, collaborative agreements or any other information of interest to other readers. If your organization sends out press releases or newsletters, please let us have a copy. In addition, the editors welcome proposals for review topics. 82N BiocontrolNews and Information 2002 Vol. 23 No. 4

Although exposed when feeding, they rest The mimosa biocontrol programme is a safety and cost. Evaluating potential haz- on leaf tips during the day in positions that joint programme of the Northern Territory ards for application equipment and opera- imitate stems, and they tend not to leave Government (Department of Infrastructure, tors on land occupied by kudzu is difficult. their host plant unless forced to look for a Planning and Environment) and CSIRO, Also, repeated application over several new food source. They are abundant and supported by the Australia Government’s years is required to kill the large corms, damaging in M. pigra’s native range in Natural Heritage Trust and previously by which can weigh up to 75 kg. Use of expen- Mexico and museum records indicate they the Australian Centre for International sive herbicides against infestations on land are widespread across tropical America. Agricultural Research. The slow but sure of marginal economic value is generally not Only genetic material from Mexico was success of the programme against this dan- cost effective. Furthermore, application of tested for host specificity. Because of the gerous wetland weed proves the value of herbicides over large areas threatens con- wide geographic range and the possibility taking a collaborative, sustained approach tamination of ground water. While several of the existence of a species complex, only against intractable invasive weed problems. herbicides are effective against kudzu, application of the most effective in prox- this Mexican genotype was released into By: Tim Heard, imity to aquatic habitats is discouraged. Australia. CSIRO Entomology, Long Pocket Labs, In response to these obstacles, an integrated Adult female Macaria pallidata oviposit 120 Meiers Rd, Indooroopilly, approach including biological control is indiscriminately on most surfaces when Qld 4068, Australia being studied. Biological control is almost confined in a cage, so host specificity Email: [email protected] never implemented by itself in the USA, assessments focused on larval development Fax: +61 7 3214 2885 but instead is usually part of an integrated testing, which was carried out using 70 management programme that may include And: Quentin Paynter, plant species at CSIRO’s Long Pocket Lab- herbicides, mechanical removal, livestock CSIRO Entomology, PMB 44, oratories in Queensland. In Mexico, open grazing, and more responsible land stew- Winnellie, NT 0822, Australia. field tests on 28 plant species were also ardship. The goal of a biological control Email: [email protected] conducted near the CSIRO Mexican Field programme is balance between kudzu and Station in Veracruz to determine oviposi- ❑ its new habitat. Natural enemies are the tion acceptability and larval development means by which this goal may be achieved suitability under natural conditions. As is and these may be found either in the habitat common amongst moths, adult M. palli- Biocontrol to Combat Kudzu to which kudzu is native or in its new hab- data do not feed destructively but only on itat. Pursuit of biological control agents in substances such as nectar, so it was not Kudzu, Pueraria montana var. lobata (= P. kudzu's native range in China against pop- appropriate to assess adult feeding specifi- lobata), was introduced to the USA during ulations of the weed in the USA com- city. the middle of the 19th century as an orna- menced during 1998. mental. During first half of the 20th cen- Presently, the USDA (United States The results of testing demonstrated that sur- tury, approximately 134,760 ha were Department of Agriculture) Forest Service vival rates on all plant species apart from planted to feed livestock and for erosion is sponsoring exploration for biological Mimosa pigra were too low for any of them control. Presently, extension agents report control agents through cooperative agree- to support a population of Macaria palli- more than 404,280 ha of kudzu distributed ments with the Chinese Academy of Sci- data. Only six species supported develop- among approximately 700 counties. Esti- ences and three universities: Anhui ment to adult, with a highest survival rate of mates suggest 10% of some lands adminis- Agricultural University, South China Agri- 1.1% on Acacia decurrens (compared to tered by the Army Corps of Engineers are cultural University, and the South China 64% on Mimosa pigra). Adults that did occupied by kudzu. Although the largest Institute of Botany. Eleven sites in three emerge from the test species were often and most dense infestations have been doc- provinces (Shaanxi, Guangdong, and deformed, but viability could not be umented in the southeastern USA, small Anhui) have been surveyed for natural ene- assessed as so few emerged, and these over infestations have appeared recently in the mies. China is a vast country, and kudzu a protracted period. However, an adult Pacific North West, the Great Plains, and occupies a large area within its borders. To emerging (albeit deformed) from Neptunia the North East. This development supports optimize use of limited resources and plena (a native Mexican species) in the predictions concerning the range to which increase chances of encountering potential open field trial indicated that this is a host in kudzu may expand as a function of biological control agents at our sites, the native range, so Neptunia species increased carbon dioxide concentration and important parameters like defoliation, seed occurring in northern Australia (including of increased winter temperatures resulting damage, and stem and root boring were N. major, which is sympatric with mimosa) from global climate change. monitored continuously to identify the best will be monitored by the biocontrol pro- Kudzu kills trees by climbing up their boles opportunity for comprehensive surveys. gramme. On balance, however, it was con- and into their canopies, out-competing cluded that the moth was safe to release in So far, approximately 240 insects associ- them for light. Infestations cost commercial Australia. This conclusion was supported ated with kudzu have been identified. forests approximately US$119.00/ha annu- unanimously by the authorities that regu- Among them are defoliators, root and stem ally and compromise the integrity of valu- late the importation of biocontrol agents borers, and gall makers. Only a few, how- able natural resources. Recently, dense who granted permission to release. ever, satisfy the important criterion of host- infestations of kudzu have been reported to specificity in preliminary experiments. interfere with military exercises in North From a rearing perspective, Macaria palli- More refined study of these insects con- Carolina, South Carolina, and Virginia. data’s credentials are a biocontrol practi- tinues, which includes preliminary host- tioner’s dream: they have a short generation Herbicides are generally used to manage testing, identifying life cycle parameters, time, high fecundity, and are easy to rear. small, isolated populations of kudzu, but and quantifying their impact on kudzu. Releases of thousands of moths each month obstacles exist to their application. The Also, a comprehensive list of economically are underway. most important are concerns for applicator and ecologically important plants on which News 83N the host range of these insects will be tested Email: [email protected] / land weeds]. The screening project received in quarantine in the USA is being compiled [email protected] support from funders in British Columbia (we gratefully acknowledge the efforts of and in Montana and Wyoming, USA. And Jianghua Sun, George Markin and Jennifer Birdsall – Chinese Academy of Sciences, USDA Forest Service, Bozeman, Montana The European root-feeding weevil was first Beijing, People's Republic of China – for their efforts). So far, the most prom- released to target the weed at B.C. research ising potential biological control agent ❑ sites in 1997 and, says De Clerck-Floate, encountered during surveys of kudzu in has been very effective. On experimental China is a sawfly, Arge similis. Results of sites where the release rate has been 200 to Mass-Rearing Weevils to 400 insects, the weevils controlled the preliminary experiments in China testing Lick Houndstongue its host range suggest it completes its life weed within 2 years. It has also been encouraging to see that the weevils seek cycle only on kudzu. Help is on the way for western Canada’s new patches of houndstongue. cattle ranchers unarmed in their fight Pathogens (formulated as bioherbicides) against the invasive, noxious weed hound- Chemical control is another option, but one also may be used as biological control stongue (Cynoglossum officinale). A new that is impractical and costly on rangeland. agents. Bioherbicides generally cost as industry-supported project led by Agricul- In addition, explains De Clerck-Floate, much as chemical herbicides to formulate ture and Agri-Food Canada's Lethbridge houndstongue is a sneaky weed that will and apply, but they are less likely to con- Research Centre will rear tens- to hun- grow under canopy, which makes it hard taminate ground water and nearby aquatic dreds-of-thousands of a European root- for ranchers and weed managers to find and habitats. One pathogen encountered during feeding weevil, Mogulones cruciger, that selectively kill the plants. surveys of kudzu in China is an imitation targets and kills the weed. Researchers will rust, Synchytrium puerariae, which inter- then distribute the weevils to ranchers and The need for a cost-effective way to mass- feres with translocation of water and nutri- land managers in interior British Columbia rear the weevils is what prompted the new ents throughout a plant. Impact of this (B.C.), where houndstongue has become a project and propelled its strong support fungus on kudzu is being studied. serious problem of cattle production and a from industry, says De Clerck-Floate. She points out that insectaries and specialized Systematic resolution has been an obstacle blight on rangeland. laboratories are standard sites for mass-pro- to developing integrated management pro- As biocontrol researcher Rose De Clerck- ducing beneficial insects, but these require grammes for many invasive, exotic plants, Floate puts it, the weevil is likely to be the costly overheads and expertise. The including hoary cress, leafy spurge, and best way to control houndstongue, and will approach they have decided upon is poten- spotted knapweed. Distinguishing between allow ranchers and land managers to con- tially far less costly, and is truly novel in the kudzu and related taxa in the field by their trol their own weeds in an economically field of weed biocontrol. morphology is unreliable. Other plants for feasible way. She reports that the project is which the taxonomy and systematics are generating a lot of excitement within the As a first step, researchers will farm hound- poorly refined are frequently mistaken for ranching community – the weevil has stongue as a row crop in select areas, De kudzu, including P. montana var. chinensis started to become available in the past 2 Clerck-Floate says. Then they will seed the (= P. thomsoni) (= P. montana var. thom- years, and there is a bottleneck in demand insects into the weed and harvest the off- soni) and P. montana var. montana (= P. as more ranchers hear about its success. spring. She emphasizes that proper steps montana). Also, evidence from herbarium will be taken to prevent the weed crop from specimens suggests the hybridization of Houndstongue is a short-lived perennial spreading, and it will be grown specifically kudzu and related taxa. For this reason, weed of mountainous rangelands in north- in areas where houndstongue is already a molecular tools are being developed to dis- western North America, probably intro- problem, so any insects that move beyond tinguish between specimens. So far, results duced accidentally from Eurasia in the the row crop will be welcome. In addition of preliminary experiments support the use 1800s. It has become widespread because to work at the Lethbridge Research Centre, of randomly amplified polymorphic DNAs of a lack of the natural enemies that keep it researchers are conducting the project on (RAPDs). Continued study of this tool is in check in its area of origin. It is a colonizer private rancher and farmer properties, at necessary before it may be used to evaluate of disturbed areas, and often infests aban- their request. The weevils produced from the composition of populations in China doned cropland, and forest sites cleared for this activity will be ready for distribution to and in the USA. More convenient and reli- cattle grazing, mining operations and road the various partner groups in 2004 or 2005. able differentiation of kudzu and related construction. Houndstongue hinders forage taxa in the field will expedite surveys for establishment, which affects both cattle and Eventually, the project may evolve to the biological control agents by allowing pro- wildlife, and has potential to poison the ani- point where ranchers and land managers fessionals to reconcile identity of potential mals. Its burrs irritate cattle and reduce their can cost-effectively produce their own agents with identity of their targets. market value. It also contains pyrrolizidine weevils, says De Clerck-Floate. She alkaloids which make it highly toxic to live- explains that as part of the initial phase of Over the next 3 years the completion of stock. B.C. cattlemen rank houndstongue this project, they will examine the best host testing against leguminous crop plants second only to knapweed (Centaurea spp.) strategies for rearing the weevils, looking at in China is anticipated. Rearing methods as a priority for control. variables such as fertilization and row will be developed for those insects with spacing that ultimately result in more, some promise as biological control agents, A biological control programme began in bigger and healthier weevils. This will and their study will continue in quarantine 1988 with European exploration for poten- improve future rearing efforts. facilities in the USA. tial agents against houndstongue (by CABI Bioscience Switzerland Centre). After 9 With promotional help from the Boundary By: Darryl Jewett and Kerry Britton, years of host-specificity testing, the weevil Weed Management Committee of B.C., the USDA Forest Service, M. cruciger was introduced to Canada in project obtained one year of funding from 320 Green Street, Athens, 1997 [see BNI 22(1), 2N (March 2001), the Cattle Industry Development Council Georgia 30602, USA Weevils' success against Canadian range- of B.C., the Kettle River Stockman's Asso- 84N BiocontrolNews and Information 2002 Vol. 23 No. 4 ciation, and the Southern Interior Stockman's funding to this effort. Following comple- parts of Asia, the Americas and Africa. A Association. De Clerck-Floate hopes to tion of host specificity tests on the hound- third of the annual world production of continue the project for another 3 years and stongue root weevil, Mogulones cruciger, banana of 90 million tonnes is in Africa; will be looking at bringing more groups on Montana and British Columbia jointly sub- Uganda alone produces ten million tonnes board for funding support. mitted a petition to introduce the weevil in and is considered one of biggest banana 1996. The petition was reviewed by the US producers in the world. In the East African The Boundary Weed Management Com- Technical Advisory Group for Biological Highlands, the highest per capita consump- mittee and interested ranchers have pro- Control Agents of Weeds and the corre- tion of banana in the world is found. Edible vided houndstongue seed for planting. The sponding Canadian review committee. In bananas include diploids, triploids and B.C. Ministry of Forests will provide some April 1997, both committees recommended tetraploids with a range of end uses including of the needed 'seed' insects from their insect the petition be approved. The weevil was dessert, cooking, roasting and brewing propagation facilities in Kamloops, and the released in British Columbia in 1997 and is bananas. In East Africa, for example, remaining insects to be seeded into the proving to be an excellent biocontrol agent. cooking banana is a leading staple food, weed crop in June 2003 will be produced at while brewing bananas are also wide- the Lethbridge laboratory this winter. However, similar progress was not made in spread. the USA. The US Fish and Wildlife Biocontrol research at Agriculture and Service, which also reviews all US biocon- The above-ground part of the banana plant Agri-Food Canada's Lethbridge Research trol agent petitions due to its mandate to consists of a pseudostem, which is formed Centre illustrates the government's com- protect endangered species, expressed con- by the leaf petioles, the leaves themselves mitment to promote innovation for growth, cern about the potential impact of this and the inflorescence. The underground maintain security of the food system and insect on a related, endangered plant spe- part of the banana is a corm that can clearly protect the health of the environment, as cies in southern Texas. This concern has be differentiated into the central cylinder proposed in the new Agriculture Policy stopped all progress on the M. cruciger and the cortex. Primary roots emerge in Framework. The framework aims to petition in the USA. Progress with other groups of three or four from the central cyl- increase profitability for producers by weed biocontrol agent petitions will likely inder and spread horizontally to a distance giving them the tools and capabilities to be delayed or stopped for similar reasons. of up to 5 m. Most roots are found in the top respond to constantly changing consumer In view of this, Montana recently sus- soil at depths between 15 cm and 60 cm. demands for safe food produced in an envi- pended the funding of biocontrol agent The main function of the roots, beside ronmentally responsible way. screening on most weed projects until the water and nutrient uptake, is anchorage of Source: Email news release from Meristem bureaucratic impediments are reduced. The the plant. The corm produces roots and lat- Direct (sponsored in part by the Canada fact that Montana, a national leader in bio- eral shoots which can be classified as Alberta Livestock Research Trust Inc.) control of weeds, has suspended most bio- peepers and sword and maiden suckers. Email: [email protected] control agent screening activity says a lot The last two are the preferred planting about the seriousness of these bureaucratic material. Bananas are propagated vegeta- Contact: Rose De Clerck-Floate, problems. tively; therefore, all distinct bananas are Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, clones. A banana mat usually consists of a Ironically, the weevil was introduced just Lethbridge Research Centre, mother plant and one to several suckers. 5403 - 1 Avenue South, north of the Montana border, so the insect PO Box 3000, Lethbridge, will undoubtedly enter the USA on its own Banana is a perennial plant and produces Alberta, Canada, T1J 4B1 in the near future. While the weevil’s dis- several generations of growth cycles; the Email: [email protected] persal into the USA will be welcome to first is called the plant crop, and the suc- Fax: +1 403 382 3156 weed managers, the bureaucratic conflict ceeding cycles the ratoon crops. In Uganda, Web: www.agr.gc.ca/science/lethbridge remains. It is obvious that for biocontrol to fruit is available year round and besides proceed in the future, the agencies being an important staple and food security ❑ reviewing the petitions will have to con- crop, banana is also an important cash crop. sider risk assessment. The damage done by Banana is considered a hardy crop; never- Impasse Dogs the weed and the benefits of a biocontrol theless, declining yields in the East African Houndstongue Biocontrol agent must be weighed against any poten- Highlands have been reported in recent in the USA tial risks if we are to implement long-term, years. Major biotic production constraints cost-effective weed management and sup- of cooking banana (‘matooke’) as identi- Invasive weeds do not recognise national port healthy ecosystems. fied by the Uganda National Banana boundaries, so the cattle ranchers of Mon- Research Programme (UNBRP) in collabo- tana, USA have the same problems with the Contact: Jim Story, ration with the International Institute of weed houndstongue (Cynoglossum offici- Montana State University, Tropical Agriculture (IITA) are the banana nale) as their Canadian neighbours in Western Agric. Research Center, weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) and plant- British Columbia. However, due to differ- 580 Quast Ln., Corvallis, MT 59828, USA parasitic nematodes. ences between the two countries in how Fax: +1 406 961 3026 The banana weevil is considered the most applications to introduce biocontrol agents Email: [email protected] important pest of cooking banana and are processed, US scientists have been ❑ causes reduced bunch size, snapping, top- unable to introduce some biocontrol agents pling, and complete mat die off. The adults that have been approved and released are usually found in leaf sheaths or in soil at against houndstongue in British Columbia. Banana Endophytes: Potential for Pest the base of the banana mat. Weevil eggs are Although the majority of host specificity Biocontrol inserted singly into the leaf sheaths or corm testing of houndstongue biocontrol agents at a rate of up to two eggs per week. The has been funded by British Columbia, Bananas (Musa spp.) are an important fruit larvae feed within the corm cortex, central Montana has also provided substantial commodity and a main starchy staple in cylinder and, occasionally, the pseudostem News 85N thereby destroying the banana plant. The mental and an economic point of view, has secondary metabolites in the control of insect passes from egg to adult in 6-8 a major advantage over other biological plant pests, as shown for grass endophytes, weeks. Population build-up is slow because control agents that are applied directly to has not been elucidated for endophytes of of low fecundity and, therefore, weevil the soil. The latter, due to the high levels of crop plants. However, fungal endophytes problems are most pronounced in ratoon inoculum needed to treat the soil, are more have been shown to produce more biologi- crops. Crop losses due to weevil attack can costly, have to be applied more frequently, cally active secondary metabolites than reach 44% in the third ratoon. Weevil pop- and their efficacy is often strongly influ- fungi from other habitats. ulation studies found only a weak relation- enced by environmental factors. Another Endophyte Research to Support ship between adult weevil density and advantage is that endophytic fungi live in Banana IPM damage. This suggests that control strate- plant tissue, thereby reducing the risk of gies targeting weevil immature stages may side-effects on non-target organisms Whereas most studies of endophytic fungi be more effective than those directed at including crops and humans. The applica- have concentrated on aerial parts of plants, adults. tion of indigenous strains further limits research at IITA in Uganda on banana environmental risks. endophytes focuses on fungal endophytes A complex of different nematode species of roots and corms, which are subject to causes destruction of banana roots. The bur- Endophytes are defined as organisms that, devastating attack by banana weevil and rowing nematode (Radopholus similis) is at some time in their life cycle, live symp- nematodes. Biological protection of these considered the most destructive nematode tomlessly within plant tissues. Clearly, plant parts would therefore considerably species to banana roots worldwide. Disease latent pathogens and opportunistic fungi increase banana plant health. severity is affected by a number of environ- that occur alongside mutualistic fungal mental factors but usually correlates with endophytes must not be included in a bio- In a study on fungal endophytes from roots the number of nematodes present in the logical pest control approach using endo- and corms of the important banana clone roots. Radopholus similis is a migratory phytes. Mutualism is the symbiosis of two Pisang Awak (Musa ABB) originating endoparasite and completes its life cycle in organisms in which both organisms benefit from Thailand, it was found that the most 20-25 days within the root cortex. Roots from each other, either through nutrient frequently isolated – and maybe the most invaded by nematodes are frequently colo- cycling or protection. It is assumed that important – genus appears to be Fusarium, nized by soil microorganisms, become mutualistic endophytes have evolved from followed by Acremonium. The dominant necrotic, atrophy, and may finally die. The plant pathogenic fungi and that most if not species in this study was F. oxysporum. damaged root system results in reduced all higher plants host endophytic fungi. Of This species was reported as an endophyte water and nutrient uptake and poor these, the grass-endophyte associations of many crop plants and as an effective col- anchorage of the plant. Yield is reduced and have become the best-known of interac- onizer of plant roots. However, the fungus the vegetative cycle is lengthened. Uprooting tions between endophytes and plants. Grass is also notorious as the causal agent of or toppling is the most obvious symptom endophytes have in many cases developed Fusarium wilt of many crops; these are dis- and it is the major cause of yield loss in mutualistic relationships with their hosts tinguished as specialized forms and physio- banana and plantain. Toppling can be con- and in some cases can protect the plant logical races. Nevertheless, the majority of fused with snapping, caused by the banana from herbivory. isolates of F. oxysporum are non-patho- weevil, and nematode damage is therefore genic. Endophytes in the fungal family Clavicipi- often underestimated. Crop and ratoon taceae are important organisms in grasses It was further found that in root, and to a losses due to nematode attack in banana and produce a number of toxic substances lesser extent corm, tissues typical soil fungi under Ugandan conditions can reach 50% in in vitro as well as in vivo that are suspected belonging to the genera Penicillium, on-station trials. The banana weevil and to confer insect resistance. From that point Aspergillus and Gongronella constitute large nematodes are moved from one field to of view, these associations can be termed proportions of the fungi isolated. Some another with infested planting material. The mutualistic. However, some of the com- fungal genera with biological control best way to start a new plantation is there- pounds that have an effect on insects such potential such as Trichoderma were infre- fore to use clean planting material. Tissue as the ergot alkaloids also have detrimental quently isolated from plant tissue. In this cultured bananas are the best source of clean effects on mammals. Rye grass staggers, study, no entomopathogenic fungi (i.e. planting material and are now widely used fescue foot and sleepygrass are some of the fungi such as Beauveria bassiana that in commercial plantations all over the conditions caused. This has been a limiting directly attack insects) were isolated from world. Plants derived from tissue culture factor for the utilization of these fungi in banana. It appears that few fungal genera can be produced in large quantities on biological control. and species dominate the endophytic fungal demand and they have higher yields community of banana. because of bigger bunches and earlier matu- Endophytes of plants other than grasses are ration than conventional sucker-derived substantially different. They generally Vegetative compatibility grouping (VCG) material. Because they are produced under belong to different fungal families, orders, has been used to determine the relationship sterile conditions, all pests and most patho- or even classes to the grass endophytes and of selected endophytic isolates belonging to gens, except for some banana viruses, are consequently exhibit different lifestyles. F. oxysporum with tester strains for dif- eliminated. However, in most cases bananas Their presence has been proven in all plants ferent specialized forms including the ones are planted in infested soils and reinfesta- investigated including important crops, e.g. for the banana wilt fungus, F. oxysporum f. tion with weevils and nematodes remains a rice, maize, tomato and banana. Interac- sp. cubense. Isolates within one VCG rep- concern. Therefore combining the benefits tions of these fungi with their host plants resent a genetically isolated population and of clean planting material with a biological and other organisms are generally less they usually share the same genes for, e.g., control agent seems favourable. understood than for grass endophytes. The pathogenicity. None of the endophytic iso- presence of systemic infection by endo- lates was vegetatively compatible with the Hidden Strengths of Endophytes phytic fungi has not yet been demonstrated pathogen or caused disease in susceptible The use of endophytic fungi may offer such in these plant groups but must not be banana clones and other crops such as an approach and, from both an environ- excluded. Similarly, the involvement of sweet potato and tomato. Using VCG, it 86N BiocontrolNews and Information 2002 Vol. 23 No. 4 was also found that non-pathogenic isolates ratio of small to large larvae was higher in that endophytes can provide protection in form a heterogeneous part of the F. endophyte treated plants compared to the the first growth cycle. This may be suffi- oxysporum population and that most iso- control plants. Endophyte treated plants cient to give a perennial crop such as lates tested for activity against the banana also showed less weevil damage expressed banana a head start. Until endophytic iso- weevil and nematodes were not closely as percentage of destroyed corm tissue. lates are found that effectively colonize the related. From these studies it was also con- From this it may be concluded that weevil suckers of the ratoon crop, and until the cluded that different strains of the fungus development is affected by the endophyte extent to which the surrounding soil influ- can colonize the same plant, although dif- treatment. There seems to be a cultivar ences the composition and distribution of ferent plant tissues. The extent to which the influence on endophyte performance or root and corm endophytes is known, durable same plant tissue, e.g. the corm, is colo- host plant reaction towards endophyte inoc- biological control in banana will not be nized by different strains of F. oxysporum ulation. In vivo screening experiments are possible with the use of fungal endophytes is currently being investigated. on-going at IITA in Uganda to answer these alone. The use of fungal endophytes for the questions. biological control of the banana weevil and A number of unidentified fungal isolates nematodes must be seen as one component from healthy roots were used in in vitro More information is available on endo- of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). screening experiments at IITA and the Uni- phytes for the control of banana nematodes. versity of Bonn, Germany. All isolates Endophyte inoculation into tissue cultured By: Bjorn Niere, Cliff Gold and Danny originated from Uganda and were mainly banana resulted, depending on the banana Coyne isolated from East African Highland cultivar and the strain used, in reduced Work described in this article was con- banana clones. In those experiments, cul- nematode reproduction in pot experiments. ducted by Cliff Gold, Paul Speijer and ture filtrates of the endophytic isolates were Plants in these experiments were usually Bjorn Niere (IITA), Richard Sikora, Ralf- tested for their activity against weevil eggs between 4 and 6 months old. Nematode Peter Schuster and Matthias Griesbach and larvae and vermiform stages of R. numbers in endophyte treated plants were (University of Bonn) and funded by the similis. Inactivation or mortality of nema- reduced by more than 30% over the con- German Federal Ministry for Economic todes or weevil larvae exposed to these cul- trols in some but not all banana clones. Cooperation and Development (BMZ). ture filtrates were recorded at certain Nematode damage, expressed as a per- intervals. Secondary metabolites produced centage of necrotic root tissue, was also Contact: Bjorn Niere, by the fungi had inactivating or killing reduced depending on the clone and strain IITA-ESARC, PO Box 7878, effects on both weevil larvae and nema- used. The number of nematode females was Kampala, Uganda todes. Spore suspensions applied to weevil reduced in some East African Highland Email: [email protected] eggs resulted in mortality rates of up to 80- banana cultivars inoculated with fungal ❑ 90 %. In most cases, effective isolates were endophytes. The reasons are not yet estab- identified as F. oxysporum. Other isolates lished but it may be speculated that devel- that produced entomotoxic or nematotoxic opment of nematode juveniles into females Insider Knowledge: metabolites belonged to F. solani, F. con- is affected by the endophyte inoculation. Endophytes for Cacao centricum and Acremonium spp. Out of 15 The fact that not all clones responded Disease Biocontrol isolates that produced highly toxic culture equally to the same isolate is an indication Cocoa is a major global commodity crop, filtrates to nematodes, eight belonged to F. that endophytic strains need to be compat- with 3,410,022 tonnes of beans, with an oxysporum. All these isolates could be ible with their host. Therefore, the best estimated value of US$2,259,401,000, pro- identified as distinct strains on the basis of combination of cultivar or clone with an duced annually. The main cocoa produc- vegetative compatibility. Although these endophytic isolate needs to be identified tion takes place within 8° of the equator. screening experiments do not necessarily and remains a research priority. The major cocoa producing regions are reflect the situation in planta, they were a In a few cases, increased plant growth was West Africa, Latin America and Malaysia; necessary and useful step in the selection observed although this should not be seen 60% of world cocoa production is in West process of candidate strains. as the principal effect of endophytes on Africa with Côte d’Ivoire accounting for In pot experiments, endophytes were inoc- banana plants. The mechanisms leading to approximately 40% of global output. ulated onto tissue cultured banana plants the effects on weevil development and Cocoa is a product of the cacao tree (Theo- and plants were subsequently challenged nematode control have not been clearly broma cacao) which is considered to have with weevils or nematodes. Inoculation of identified. Production of secondary metab- evolved in the Upper Amazon region of endophytes into tissue culture banana can olites, competition for nutrients or induced South America. It grows as an initial single easily be integrated in the normal process of resistance may play a role. Fungal infection stem which branches at 1-2m to form a tissue culture plant production. Endophytes of weevil larvae and nematodes or their jorquette and if unpruned can reach a height are usually inoculated at an early stage eggs has not been observed in planta but of 15 m. It is cauliflorous in habit with the when plants are removed from the culture must not be excluded. Long-term control flowers and fruit (pods) borne on the stem vessels and prior to planting in pots with will require persistence of the fungal endo- and branches. The pods reach maturity after soil. From there the normal weaning phyte in the plant or the activation of effec- 4-6 months and contain seeds (beans) process is followed. tive and durable plant defence responses. inside a white mucilage; these beans are Currently the mechanisms leading to reduc- Inoculation of endophytes into tissue cul- processed to produce cocoa. tions in pest levels are being investigated at tured banana and subsequent challenge IITA in Uganda. Threats to Production with the banana weevil did not produce conclusive results. Although spore suspen- Since the frequency of re-isolation of the There is an increasing demand for cocoa in sions in in vitro experiments caused high strains tested on banana plants so far the food and cosmetic industries in devel- mortality of weevil eggs, total numbers of decreases over time, possibilities for long- oped countries. Current land under cultiva- weevil larvae were in most cases not term protection in a perennial crop may not tion is unlikely to be extended into new affected. However, it was observed that the be strong. Initial results suggest, however, areas; any increase will require increased News 87N productivity. One of the main biological that they can confer resistance to pathogens source of potential new biocontrol agents. constraints to increased cocoa production is through a number of mechanisms: compet- Of particular interest are Trichoderma, disease, in particular fungal diseases. The itive exclusion, parasitism, metabolite pro- Clonostachys, Acremonium, Verticillium and three major fungal diseases of cacao are duction and induced resistance. A number Cylindrocarpon species which have proven black pod, witches’ broom and frosty pod. of research groups are actively investi- biocontrol activity. gating the use of endophytes to control dis- Initial comparisons of isolates from Theo- Black pod is caused by various Phytoph- eases of cacao. thora species. It is characterized by rotting broma species in natural forest ecosystems pods and associated cankers and results in Ideologically different approaches to the and exotic agroecosystems, by ordinal an estimated 44% loss in production world- identification of sources of endophytic bio- analysis, have demonstrated that endophyte wide. The main pathogen globally is P. control agents, for the control of cacao dis- populations are more diverse within the palmivora, with the more aggressive P. eases, are currently being studied: isolation natural forest ecosystem. This also suggests megakarya, which is still in an invasive from: the endophytes from natural systems may be a source of novel biocontrol agents. phase, threatening cocoa production in • Exotic agroecosystems West Africa. • The centre of origin, or diversity, of T. However, screening of the endophytes as Witches’ broom disease caused by cacao and its pathogens biocontrol agents of M. roreri and C. perni- Crinipellis perniciosa is presently ciosa is problematic. Due to the potential Seeking Old Allies restricted to Latin America and is found in mechanisms that an endophyte may all cacao growing areas of South America, CABI Bioscience (led by Harry Evans), as employ to confer resistance, screening Panama and Trinidad. It results in 21% loss part of a USDA-ARS (US Department of should, where possible, be undertaken in of cocoa production globally. It is still in an Agriculture – Agricultural Research planta. However, this is complicated by the invasive phase, threatening the cacao Service) funded programme, is working biology of the pathogens themselves; both growing areas of Central America. within the principles of classical biological are infective only in actively growing mer- Crinipellis perniciosa infects meristematic control in the pursuit of an endophytic bio- istematic tissue. tissue resulting in hypertrophy and hyper- control agent. This involves returning to the For frosty pod this necessitates screening plasia in vegetative parts of the plant (veg- centre of origin or diversity of the host plant the endophytes on the actively growing etative and cushion brooms) and rotting of and its pathogens to identify co-evolved pod, a limitation compounded by the the pods. endophytes. It is hypothesised that, as window of infection being restricted to the endophytes do not appear to be transferred Similarly, frosty pod rot due to Monilioph- first 3 months of growth. Small-scale field horizontally within woody perennials, once screening is required, and this is now being thora roreri is currently restricted to Latin removed from the centre of origin to exotic America – Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, Ven- initiated in Ecuador in collaboration with agroecosystems the cacao loses its co- INIAP (Instituto Nacional Autónomo de ezuela, Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, evolved endophytes and is colonized by Guatemala and Honduras. It is estimated to Investigaciones Agropecuarias) at Estacion local endophytes. However, the co-evolved Experimental Tropical, Pichilingue, cause a 5% loss of world production. Frosty endophytes may confer resistance to dis- pod is still in an invasive phase, and Quevedo, Ecuador. These studies will look ease, while their local replacements do not. to identify those isolates with the ability to threatens the cacao growing regions of The classical approach has been success- Brazil, Bolivia and Mexico. The disease colonize pods and reduce frosty pod inci- fully used in the past to control invasive dence. appears as a mass of cream-coloured spores weeds and alien insect pests, but this is the on the pod surface. Again it is similar to first time it has been deliberately employed Crinipellis perniciosa infects meristematic witches' broom disease in infecting the to control plant disease. tissues in the pod and vegetative parts of meristematic tissue of the pod resulting in cacao. This allowed the development of a Surveys have been undertaken in the centre destruction of the beans. model bioassay using endophyte-inocu- of origin of T. cacao and C. perniciosa in lated seedlings, which are subsequently Control of black pod caused by P. meg- the upper Amazon. Fungal endophytes akarya, frosty pod rot and witches’ broom challenged with basidiospores of C. perni- have been collected from the woody stem ciosa and assessed for the production of disease through conventional cultural and tissues of Theobroma and the closely brooms. Screening of pre-selected isolates chemical control has been woefully inade- related Herrania species. Endophytes, in the UK and in Brazil, in collaboration quate. These pathogens are still in an inva- from both woody stem tissues and healthy with Almirante Cacau demonstrated that sive phase locally and pose a potential pods, have also been collected in western the endophytes exhibited varying degrees threat internationally. Although plant Ecuador from T. gileri, the purported orig- breeding offers a means to control the dis- of control. One isolate identified as inal forest host of M. roreri. In addition, Gonytrichum aff. macrocladum reduced eases in the long term, in the short term an collections were made in exotic agroeco- witches’ broom incidence by 100%. This is alternative strategy is required. Biological systems in Mexico, Costa Rica, Brazil, now undergoing further assessment. control, in particular the use of endophytes, Ecuador and Peru. is being pursued to fulfil this role. Initial studies will involve application of Control of frosty pod rot and witches’ the endophytes by spray application. In the Endophytes: a Novel Strategy broom is the primary aim of the studies future it is hoped that this inundative being undertaken. However, an effective Endophytes are known to occur in all plants approach will be replaced by an inoculative endophyte may confer resistance to all the so far studied. Mutualistic endophytes are method, the endophytes being applied to major fungal pathogens of cacao. of interest as potential biological control nursery or grafting materials to provide agents as they inhabit the host plant's tis- Approximately 2000 fungal isolates have life-long resistance to disease. sues for all or part of their life cycle, asymp- been collected and identified, with a high Assessing Local Talent tomatically. The relationship between these proportion of new species and even new endophytes and their host is as yet not well genera being identified. This is an indica- Almirante Cacau (led by Alan Pomella), characterized. However, it is considered tion that these novel organisms could be a which is Masterfoods’ cocoa research 88N BiocontrolNews and Information 2002 Vol. 23 No. 4 facility in Brazil, is investigating the poten- been demonstrated that seeds can be inocu- some potential biocontrol agents have tial of local endophytes from the exotic agr- lated with fungi in the model system cur- already been identified and are presently oecosystem in Bahia, the main cocoa rently being utilized by CABI Bioscience undergoing further assessment. A network producing region of Brazil. In collaboration and Almirante Cacau. Almirante Cacau has of research groups is working towards the with the University of São Paulo (led by Dr also shown that it is possible to inoculate development of endophytic biocontrol as João Lúcio Azevedo) a study has been seed with bacteria by immersion in a bacte- an environmentally sustainable option as investigating the fungal and bacterial endo- rial suspension for 24 hours. For mature part of future integrated crop management phytes on cacao in Bahia assessing the trees, application of endophytes through packages. Initial application may be aug- community diversity and its composition injection into the stem, using a high-pres- mentative/inundative but the long-term over time. Endophytes (134 fungi and 135 sure syringe at 20 psi, has been assessed. hope is to produce inoculated vegetative bacteria) have been isolated from branches Early studies have shown introduced endo- material from which the endophyte will of infected and non-infected trees. The bac- phytes to move some distance from the provide life-long protection for the cacao. terial isolates were grouped on morpholog- point of injection. Further studies will By: K. A. Holmes & H. C. Evans, ical features, with certain groups being assess the impact of the introduced endo- CABI Bioscience UK Centre, consistently recovered only from highly phytes on disease incidence in the field. Silwood Park, Ascot, Berks. SL5 7TA, UK resistant cacao trees, an indication that More research is being conducted in other Email: [email protected] / these may be associated with disease resist- parts of the world to assess the ability of [email protected] ance. In in vitro assays, 41 fungi and 24 local endophytes to control diseases of Fax: +44 1491 829123 bacteria were antagonistic to C. perniciosa, cacao. and subsequent glasshouse trials of these And: Alan Pomella, pre-selected endophytes demonstrated that The Smithsonian Tropical Research Insti- Almirante Cacau, BR 101, three fungi and five bacteria provided 70% tute (STRI) (led by Allen Herre) in Panama Entr. P/Barro Preto, Km2, and 50-62.5% reduction in disease inci- has been studying indigenous endophyte Itajuípe, Bahia, Brazil dence, respectively. communities within the leaves of T. cacao Email: [email protected] on Barro Colorado Island, and in exotic Fax: +55 73 211 1673 In addition to this study isolates from Almi- agroecosystems in Bocas del Torro and rante Cacau, in particular isolates of Tri- ❑ Nombre de Dios, in Panama. They isolated choderma, have been assessed in more than 500 morphospecies from leaves. laboratory and glasshouse studies, using the Pre-selected isolates have been assessed in Brazilian Wasp Has model system developed with CABI Bio- glasshouse and field trials. In glasshouse Sweet Tooth science. Of 350 endophytes screened a T. studies application of endophytes to leaves stromaticum (FA 323) isolated from Theo- An exotic wasp from Brazil, which has a was observed to reduce incidence of Phy- broma grandiflorum has proved the most taste for honey and lays its eggs in maggots, tophthora in those leaves inoculated, but no successful, consistently providing more may be a new weapon in the arsenal against systemic resistance was observed. In field than 70% reduction in disease incidence nuisance and disease-causing flies for live- studies in Bocas del Torro, monthly appli- under controlled conditions. Its mode of stock and poultry farmers in the USA. cation of endophytes to cacao significantly action may in part be due to induced sys- reduced the incidence of black pod caused In the USA, biological control of filth- temic resistance as enzymatic studies have by Phytophthora but failed to impact upon feeding flies (synanthropic Diptera) such as demonstrated that the amount of total pro- frosty pod rot caused by M. roreri. New houseflies and stable flies has until now tein expressed in asymptomatic plants inoc- trials are being initiated using new agents relied largely on a complex of native para- ulated with this endophytic Trichoderma and mixtures to attempt to reduce the inci- sitoids in the genera Muscidifurax and stromaticum and C. perniciosa is much dence of frosty pod rot. Spalangia. Farmers can buy the parasitic higher than in control plants inoculated wasps from commercial insectaries. Research with C. perniciosa or water. The Institut de Recherche Agricole pour le suggests that such an approach could be Développement (IRAD) (led by Pierre A new phase of research has been initiated successful if the right species and strains Tondje) in Cameroon is investigating the with the recent collection of fungal and bac- were applied in the right locality. One possibility of using local endophytes to terial endophytes from Theobroma cacao drawback of these native agents, however, control Phytophthora disease, in particular and related species in Amazonia. These is that they are all pupal parasitoids, feeding the aggressive P. megakarya. They have will be evaluated as part of a classical bio- and laying their eggs only in the pupal collected fungal (1000) and bacterial (274) control strategy. stage. In theory, complementing these with endophytes from the pods and leaves of species that attack other (egg and/or larval) The ultimate aim of the research on endo- cacao in cocoa farms. These endophytes stages could increase the level of control. phytes is to introduce them into the agroec- have been screened in leaf disc and pod Other approaches have been tried, osystem. At Almirante Cacau studies are assays developed in collaboration with including the use of pathogens and preda- already underway to assess various applica- USDA-ARS. From this screening pro- tory mites, and inundative releases of para- tion systems. Propagation of cacao is com- gramme a number of potential endophytic sitoids and predators. monly achieved by the grafting of new biocontrol agents have been identified and genetic material, which is supplied to the are currently being assessed in field trials. Although partially successful, none of these farmer as budwood. The production of strategies has become the sole method for The Future endophyte-colonized budwood could aid fly control, and the wrong choice of a para- reductions in disease incidence as part of an The development of endophytes as a con- sitoid strain may even have detrimental integrated crop management package. trol strategy is still in its infancy, but much results. Instead, the focus has been on inte- Almirante Cacau have succeeded in inocu- basic research is underway. Identification grated controls including methods such as lating budwood by dipping in an endophyte of effective endophytic biocontrol agents cultural control, adult baiting and aerosol suspension for 60 minutes. An alternative for the economically important fungal dis- treatments with short residual insecticides. means of propagation is with seed. It has eases of cacao is being pursued. Indeed, However many biological control agents News 89N have not been thoroughly surveyed, nor evaluated in quarantine to rule out non- nals.) However, APS declares itself against their potential adequately assessed. target effects, before an import permit is including on the list any pathogen already sought so that it can be used as a biological present in the USA and under some level of A gregarious larval parasitoid, Tachina- control agent against muscoid flies. management, including exotic or geneti- ephagus zealandicus, from Brazil has been cally modified strains of endemic pathogens. Sources: Agricultural Research Magazine, exciting increasing interest. Over the last It argues that this would have counterpro- August 2002, Attacking flies with wasps. few years USDA-ARS (US Department of ductive effects on the very research and www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/aug02/ Agriculture – Agricultural Research Service) international cooperation needed to limit flies0802.htm scientists at the Center for Medical, Agri- existing and naturally occurring crop cultural and Veterinary Entomology in University of California, Riverside, damage. It adds that although determina- Gainesville, Florida, and cooperators at the Professor Legner Faculty Homepage tion of a broader threat list of exotic and University of Campinas in Brazil have been www.faculty.ucr.edu/~legneref/ endemic plant pathogens for preparedness evaluating this wasp as part of an effort to purposes would be valuable, there should screen Brazilian wasp species that may be Contact: Chris Geden, USDA, ARS, CMAVE, not necessarily be any restrictions on many biocontrol candidates against flies in the of these agents. USA. Tachinaephagus zealandicus may Gainesville, FL 32607, USA have considerable potential for biological Email: [email protected] APS also identifies capacity building initia- control as the range of habitats it utilizes is Fax +1 352 374 5922 tives crucial to improving preparedness, considered unparalleled by any other fly ❑ including: parasitoid, and it is particularly promising • A regionalized system of diagnostic in the US context as it attacks flies in the Agricultural Bioterrorism: laboratories larval stage. It does not thrive in hot condi- Reconciling Security and • A national plant disease centre provid- tions (>35ºC), but could be useful in the Research cooler months in the southern USA, or ing a service analogous to that provided for human health by the Centers for throughout the summer in the north. As USDA-APHIS (US Department of Disease Control and Prevention Agriculture – Animal and Plant Health Unlike the native US species, which feed Inspection Service) issue a 'select list' of • Personnel training on their immobile pupal hosts in order to nine plant pathogens being considered for develop their eggs, T. zealandicus does not • Continued enhanced funding for plant regulation under the Agricultural Bioter- pathogen genomics host-feed. Females have viable eggs when rorism Act 2002, the October feature article It argues that such institutions and initia- they emerge, but they need a further energy on the American Phytopathological Society tives will be invaluable to US agriculture source to be able to sustain further attacks. (APS) website calls for a balance to be regardless of whether the pest or disease Identifying the food source of a parasitic struck between strategies for countering threat comes from criminal activity or from wasp is often difficult and can create an agricultural bioterrorism. In addition, while the multitude of naturally occurring, obstacle to rearing and mass-rearing which it recognises positive developments, it also emerging, or re-emerging plant diseases or sometimes proves insurmountable – but not outlines continuing unmet needs for pests that farmers and scientists come in this case. The team working on T. zea- increasing crop biosecurity. landicus has found that feeding the wasps across each year. on honey tripled their attack rate on target In 'Crop biosecurity and countering agricul- APS acknowledges that a balance needs to flies in the USA and increased the number tural bioterrorism: responses of the Amer- be struck on the level of detail and timing of of progeny developing in them. Interest- ican Phytopathological Society' the APS information sharing, confidentiality and ingly, the team found that honey added for notes that sessions at its 2002 annual public access to information on organisms 2-3 days to the diet of native wasps meeting revealed two fundamentally dif- of bioterrorist potential, but it concludes increased their attack rates and longevity ferent strategies for assuring crop biosecu- that the risk that such knowledge might compared to those just exposed to pupae. rity: prevention (increased security, secrecy increase the vulnerability of agriculture to and border protection) and preparedness bioterrorism is small compared to the enor- Honey also proved to be a useful vehicle for (early detection, rapid diagnosis and rapid mous contributions to both the prevention administering medicine: honey treated with recovery). It argues that while both are and preparedness strategies of continued the antibiotic rifampicin helped T. zealand- important, too much focus on security and free and open exchange of the information icus ward off disease caused by a newly secrecy will impair the necessary free and produced from genomics and all other basic identified Nosema, which is transmitted open conduct of science and information research on plants and microorganisms. from females to their offspring, and spreads exchange fundamental to both prevention between larvae feeding on the same host. and preparedness. It notes that the new US American Phytopathological Society Infected wasps take longer to develop into legislation focuses mainly on prevention, www.apsnet.org/ adults and lay substantially more male eggs whereas the scientific community has and ❑ – a real barrier for rearing wasps for biolog- continues to focus on preparedness, ical control, and especially in a commercial including preparedness as a means of pre- environment. Treatment allowed new, dis- vention. Rabbits and Possums in ease-free colonies to be established using GMO Potboiler uninfected females. It is harder to treat the APS calls for the select list of plant patho- native wasps in this way because, although gens to be limited to currently exotic path- Advances in biotechnology mean that the they will feed on honey, they are not obli- ogens of US crops, and be subject to dream of creating 'designer solutions' for gate feeders on anything but the hosts. periodic review based on scientifically intractable problems in many fields, based risk assessment procedures. (It offers including agriculture and the environment, Although it has been found in the wild in to examine its editorial policies with is rapidly becoming a reality. However, the USA before, and no problems were respect to new information on pathogens on unless action can be agreed to resolve con- reported, T. zealandicus is currently being this list submitted for publication in its jour- flicts of interest, some of the dream could 90N BiocontrolNews and Information 2002 Vol. 23 No. 4 fade. Recognising this, researchers into There are also differences, which mean that cies, whereas that would be (in) the home biotechnological methods for managing protocols developed for evaluating the range of an 'old association' classical bio- wild European rabbit (Oryctolagus cunic- safety of classical biological control agents control agent. The key difference between ulus) populations from around the world are not always applicable to disseminating the risks of introducing a GM agent and a are coming together at a symposium (see GMOs. Classical biological control, in the classical biological control agent taken final section) to try and agree on ways of large majority of cases, uses a natural from the native range of the host species is reconciling conflicting needs to suppress or enemy from the area of origin of the target the potential impact of the GM agent if it enhance rabbit populations in their respec- species (an 'old association'). The confi- reached populations in the area of origin of tive countries. In the process, they may dence with which scientists can predict the the target. For example, many of the GMOs both draw on the experience of classical likely outcome on the target population of under development reduce the fertility of biological control and contribute fresh introducing such an organism is based in females by inducing immunocontraception ideas. part on field evidence from their common or immunosterility. While this may be area of origin. Even in the rarer case where desirable in a country where the species is a This article highlights inter-country (trans- a natural enemy is introduced from an area pest, it is not desirable everywhere, and boundary) issues raised by the development outside the target's native range (a 'new could have disastrous consequences should of disseminating GMOs with reference to association'), there is generally field data on the GMO spread to the native range of the rabbits and possums, and discusses how its ecological interactions with its natural target species. Consequently, although in they relate to experience with classical bio- host, which is usually a close relative of the most cases the area of origin of a species logical control and invasive alien species. It target species (and if not, this has to be and the area where it is an introduced pest looks at guidance on assessment of risk in taken into consideration in the risk analysis are sufficiently isolated from each other to these two areas and considers how that process, which is discussed further below). prevent natural spread, export prohibitions might be developed for disseminating In the case of a GMO, the association with on both the pest (in case it harbours the GMOs. It also discusses obligations under its host is also ‘new’. The genetic modifica- introduced GMO) and the GMO itself are international agreements. tion may have little or no impact on the crucial. However, the illegal introduction Conflicts of interest have featured previ- biology of the host-parasite interaction at of the (naturally occurring) virus that ously in the BNI news section, notably in the level of the organism (extensive testing causes rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) relation to classical biological control of is conducted to examine this). However, a into New Zealand following its govern- invasive alien species (IAS) such as black GM agent that reduces natality or increases ment’s decision not to introduce RHD wattle in South Africa and cactus in the mortality in the target population could shows that, like all quarantine measures, New World. Current interest in developing (and should if the agent is to be effective) movement controls may not be able to pro- genetically modified (GM) biocontrol have a significant impact on the target’s vide complete protection against the spread agents brings a new dimension to the topic. population dynamics, because these are of organisms, GM or otherwise. Scientists Research into the development of dissemi- two of the fundamental processes affecting must also get the science right in order to nating (i.e. self-replicating and self- recruitment or loss of individuals to a pop- minimize the consequences of accidental or spreading) genetically modified organisms ulation. The complexity of the interactions deliberate spread. For example, scientists (GMOs) to manage populations of exotic between the processes means that a (more researching a disseminating GMO to pro- vertebrate pests is being undertaken in a or less subtle) alteration to one of them tect rabbits against disease in Spain (see number of countries. In Australia, for could have unpredictable consequences on below) showed in the laboratory that the example, a variety of targets includes Euro- population levels. The effects of the genetic GMO was capable of only a limited trans- pean rabbit, house mouse, European fox, modification on the ecology of the target, mission, so an ever-expanding epidemic cane toad and carp [also see BNI 21(4), and to some extent ecosystem, can be mod- would not be expected. Such a tool could be 89N-93N (December 2000), Mammal bio- elled, and studied in lab and field trials considered for managing populations on a control: the hunt continues; and BNI 22(3), (necessarily small-scale, to permit appro- local level. The researchers note, however, 58N-59N (September 2001), Cane toads, priate levels of quarantine), but there is no that this would need to be demonstrated in possums and GM]. field experience to draw on to establish the natural field conditions too (and other risks, realism of the models or the trials in the dealt with below, would also need to be There are parallels between the new tech- context of the more complex entire eco- addressed). nology and classical biological control, system. which over the last century has chalked up The case of the European rabbit provides a some striking successes against introduced In addition, risks associated with onward good illustration of conflicts that need to be pests through the introduction of natural spread from the area of introduction differ. addressed during the development of dis- enemies, mostly from the area of origin of Natural enemies for classical biocontrol are seminating GMOs. The rabbit is native to the pest. Both technologies involve the generally sought in the native range of the Spain, where it is conserved and managed potentially irreversible introduction of an target pest, but a GM agent has no native as a resource for hunting and as a natural organism. Thus, before an introduction, range because it does not occur in nature – prey for endangered predators. In some both need comprehensive assessment of the although its potential range is the same as other parts of Europe and in many southern likely outcome of the introduction com- that of the 'natural' (unmodified) species. hemisphere countries (Australia, New Zea- pared with alternative options (doing Both classical and GM biocontrol agents land, Argentina and Chile, for example), it nothing or using other control measures). would have a novel impact in the area of is a serious introduced pest. The potential Both also would benefit from international introduction, and in areas they spread to for conflict is revealed starkly by recent agreement on methodologies and criteria from there. In areas of onward spread, the interest in developing disseminating GMOs for assessment of what is safe and accept- effects of either might or might not be to manage wild rabbit populations. In Aus- able. Classical biocontrol, as the more desirable, depending on the status of the tralia, research is being conducted on using established method, may have some useful target species in these new areas. However, a modified myxoma virus to disseminate experience, borne sometimes of hard les- for a GM agent the area of onward spread immunosterility in female rabbits, while in sons, to impart to the emerging technology. includes the area of origin of the target spe- Spain research on a different disseminating News 91N

GMO (but again a modified myxoma virus) clearly more effective layers of control are could expect the other to assist it in this to disseminate protective immunity to RHD still needed. GM agents might prove a pow- regard unless each were prepared to recip- and myxomatosis gave promising results in erful tool in this regard, and one that could rocate. The countries would therefore have an island field trial. A report on the Spanish be integrated with existing forms of control. a mutual interest in developing a workable GMO is currently with the European solution. Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Paradoxically, in Spain the rabbit is consid- Products (EMEA), and the timescale for ered fundamental to the conservation of What Does 'Safe' Mean? threatened species, and the emphasis is on further research is not known. The work Deliberate introduction is the bread-and- restoring rabbit populations decimated by raised awareness in both countries of the butter of classical biological control. Risk myxomatosis and RHD. The Iberian lynx, international implications of deploying analysis to develop appropriate manage- Lynx pardinus, has disappeared from two- such agents. The undesirable potential con- ment options for introductions is a familiar thirds of the territory it occupied 30 years sequence of a Spanish GM virus entering process for anyone working in this field. ago as a result of habitat loss, a reduction in Australia could be the incapacitation of the Many issues that have to be addressed for rabbit populations (its main prey), progres- only effective broadscale controls on the disseminating GMOs are fundamentally sive fragmentation of its populations and rabbit: myxomatosis and RHD, both vitally similar to non-GM biocontrol: what are the human-induced mortality. Only about 400 important tools for managing rabbits over likely hazards from the introduction of the are believed to survive, and IUCN (the huge areas. Similarly, should the Australian novel organism, what would be the conse- World Conservation Union) has identified GM virus reach Spain, the already-threat- quences and what mechanisms are needed it as the most critically endangered cat spe- ened rabbits and endangered predators to minimize the risk? Others, such as cies worldwide. As part of a package of dependent on them could be further threat- acceptability, are similar but probably more measures to protect it, the Council of ened. significant for GM biocontrol. Europe (CE) Standing Committee of the In Australia, the rabbit is famously respon- Convention on the Conservation of Euro- Some of the risks posed by GM biocontrol sible for the widespread destruction of pean Wildlife and Natural Habitats (the agents are not unique to biocontrol and are native ecosystems, and its control is seen as Bern Convention) recommended in 1991 already being considered comprehensively crucial both to improving rangeland and to that the density of rabbit populations during development. These relate mainly to restoring and preserving the country's throughout the lynx's range should be the potential for a GMO to exchange its unique indigenous flora and fauna. Mulga increased, and subsequently an action plan genetic material with taxonomically similar (Acacia aneura) is an important and wide- has been formulated. Similarly, the western sympatric species through reproductive spread tree in Australia’s semi-arid and arid Mediterranean endemic and globally means. Stability of induced genetic change rangelands, but the species is threatened threatened Spanish imperial eagle, Aquila is perceived to be of more importance for with a marked reduction in distribution and adalberti, has only some 150 breeding pairs GMOs in general than for traditionally bred abundance by the combined effects of rab- remaining in the wild, all in Spain. The organisms. If there is judged to be a high bits and domestic and feral livestock. population decline in Spain is attributed to risk of adverse consequences in this con- Mature mulgas are generally too tall to be a number of factors, in which habitat text, a decision not to continue to develop killed by this onslaught, but seedlings and destruction, poisoning and electrocution on or release a disseminating GMO could be juveniles are not. Seedlings are especially power lines figure highly, but also signifi- taken. Another area of risk, for both GM vulnerable as they have very little resist- cant is population reduction of rabbits, and classical biological control, is the ance to grazing and in addition are sought which form 50-70% of prey. Bird Life potential for biocontrol agents to attack/ out by rabbits. The result in some areas is a International, on behalf of the EU (Euro- infect/feed on non-target species (notably complete or partial absence of regeneration, pean Union), has drawn up an action plan species related to the target pest). This is and mulga will disappear from landscapes which includes increasing rabbit popula- assessed by host-specificity testing (see where existing trees senesce and die tions, as number of rabbits was shown to be below), and many initially promising bio- without adequate replacement. Many other one of two factors (with age of birds) most control agents fall at this hurdle. Biocontrol palatable shrub and tree species are simi- affecting the eagle's breeding success. researchers accept that risk analysis is a key larly affected in Australia’s rangelands. element in development of agents for RHD (introduced – prematurely through Countries with rabbit management con- release. Accepting that safety comes first is accidental escape – as a biocontrol agent in cerns share a common interest in devel- one thing; agreeing what is safe is another. Australia) has significantly reduced rabbit oping an understanding of the biology and populations in Australia as a whole. How- ecology of the rabbit and of the interactions Central to the issue of safety is the interpre- ever, research in the Gammon Ranges between rabbits and their resources, dis- tation of risks. Because risk implies uncer- National Park in the Flinders Ranges of eases and parasites. Such knowledge may tainty, it is likely that different countries, South Australia investigated the threshold be applied in Spain to conserve rabbits and made up of independent stakeholders with density of rabbits that would allow palat- in Australia to reduce their numbers, and potentially conflicting interests, will reach able perennial trees to regenerate. Domestic this divergence may result in conflict over different conclusions when conducting risk livestock are excluded from the park, methods developed to achieve these ends. assessments. Even when the findings of the although some feral goats and feral don- In considering the development of a man- risk assessment are the same, for example keys are present. Results collected over 25 agement strategy based on disseminating in similar climatic conditions with similar years from fenced exclosures that allow GMOs, countries would need to take into host availability, countries may interpret only rabbits inside indicated that average account the possible spread of the GMOs the results differently. Some types of risk densities may need to be below one rabbit beyond their borders, and the impact they are more acceptable to one country than to per square kilometre to stop them eating could then have on rabbit management another. The right to sovereignty in setting more than 50% of newly germinated mulga elsewhere. In the case of rabbit GMOs, acceptable level of risk is a fundamental seedlings in their first 6 months of life. Australia and Spain would have an interest principle of the World Trade Organization Such an extraordinarily low density may in protecting themselves against any GMO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary not be necessary in all areas, but where it is, being developed by the other, but neither and Phytosanitary Measures (WTO/SPS). 92N BiocontrolNews and Information 2002 Vol. 23 No. 4

However, the need for more detailed har- control of such pests. It does refer to biolog- unintentionally. Responsibilities of a monized guidance on assessment of risk for icals for veterinary use (Chapter 1.5.3), country planning to introduce an exotic dis- biological control has been recognised. Ini- including the exemplary category of con- ease, including for the purpose of biolog- tiatives for crop pests (including weeds and ventional or genetically modified microor- ical control, are highlighted by the diseases) may provide models that could be ganisms (no. 15 in 1.5.3.2). While the Convention on Biological Diversity adapted for vertebrate pests. Animal Code addresses the need for quality (CBD). These responsibilities (even to the assurance in manufacturing practices for point of liability) appear specifically under The WTO/SPS recognises three pre- production of vaccines (Chapter 1.5.2.3), the initiative on invasive alien species existing international technical organiza- this section focuses on other biologicals (IAS), the essence of which is encapsulated tions as the standard-setting bodies pro- and recommends quality assurance of all in Article 8 (h). Subsequent decisions taken viding details to the conceptual Agreement. stages of manufacture, not only testing of by the Conference of Parties (countries One of these, the International Plant Protec- the final product. contracting to the CBD) on how to go about tion Convention (IPPC), with a Secretariat fulfilling their obligations under the CBD in FAO (Food and Agriculture Organiza- A new or revised standard may be emphasise prevention of unintentional tion of the UN), Rome, develops technical requested by a member country, its introductions and the use of precaution guidance through International Standards Regional Commissions, the International when considering intentional introductions. for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM) but Committee of OIE, or an international The CBD also invites international bodies only in regard to phytosanitary risks. Since organization with which OIE collaborates. to consider incorporating criteria related to 1996 biocontrol has had a general interna- Guidance on any form of control of the threats to biological diversity (posed by tional protocol, Code of Conduct for the unwanted mammals that are pests would be IAS) in amending or elaborating standards Import and Release of Biological Control a whole new area for OIE but inclusion of and agreements. Agents (ISPM No. 3), for countries imple- this concept has been considered by OIE menting classical biological control to because no other convention or international Some help for implementation of the gen- apply directly or use as a model for national body comprehensively covers this area. eral responsibility stated in the CBD may regulations. This lists the responsibilities of be found in the growing body of work on Beyond that overall topic of biocontrol of government authorities and exporters and IAS. Threats from IAS have grown over the mammals that are pests, the OIE has not yet importers of a biocontrol agent, but does last century, with an alarming increase in tackled GMOs as a category or provided not set out in detail how to assess whether a recent decades owing to rapidly acceler- guidance related to GMOs within its proposed introduction is safe (although ating trade, tourism, transport and travel, existing topics. Any code it established publication of detailed guidelines for con- which have dramatically enhanced the relating to GMOs may need to deal with the ducting a biological control programme has spread of IAS and allowed them to sur- development/constitution of the GMO been proposed). Host specificity testing is mount natural geographic barriers. Recog- itself (as with the manufacturing process central to assessing the safety of a proposed nition of the threats they now pose to for vaccine and biologicals referred to classical biocontrol agent, and has long biodiversity and livelihoods has led to sub- above) in addition to the sanitary and trade- been fundamental to weed biocontrol stantial work by national and international related issues that occupy much of its because of the early acknowledgement of bodies, including GISP (the Global Inva- present business. Although the GM biocon- potential risks to non-target plants, espe- sive Species Programme), which has pro- trol issue raised here does not fit easily into cially crops. Protocols for weed host-spe- duced 'A Toolkit of Best Prevention and the OIE's current expertise, there has been cificity testing have been developed over Management Practices'. After review of increasing interest in guidance regarding the decades by experts in the field and are many countries' experiences, GISP identi- wildlife diseases, and the issues of develop- now being refined for specific conditions. fied four major steps by which a country ment and shipment of other biologicals More recent has been the development of can deal with alien species: prevention, may provide some interesting points similar protocols for insects, which are now early detection, eradication and control. regarding safety in the production process. well-advanced, but consideration of micro- GISP also notes that deliberate introduc- bial biocontrol agents is still at an early All GMOs that could cause injury to plants tions of non-indigenous species should all stage. The ISPM No. 3 is timetabled for may soon be subjected to an additional be subject to an import risk assessment as a revision in 2003-2004 and may provide process under the IPPC through a supple- step in choosing and developing these man- greater detail on some of these issues. ment to ISPM No. 11 on Pest Risk Analysis agement options. Examples of biocontrol of plant pests and for Quarantine Pests. ISPM No. 3 also may weeds do not apply directly to vertebrate cover GM biocontrol agents, although no A logical step for countries releasing dis- pests, but may offer useful ideas. detailed guidance is included in the original seminating GMOs would be to have mech- version. The OIE may decide to fill out the anisms to prevent their exit. This will be The Office International des Epizooties sections that cover GM microorganisms difficult to do, even though it may be easier (OIE), another of the three standard-setting affecting animal health. European Direc- in some cases than others: Australia, with bodies recognised by the WTO/SPS, tives and national laws regarding release of no land borders, might find it easier than develops guidance on pests and diseases of exotic and/or GM organisms will also have Spain to secure them against would-be emi- animals. Its International Animal Health a role in decisions regarding use of biolog- grant rabbits or control agents, but even Code contains standards, guidelines and ical control against rabbits. Australia was unable to prevent RHD being recommendations designed to prevent the exported. One safeguard for a GMO would spread of infectious agents and diseases After taking into account the available be to incorporate a marker gene to allow its pathogenic to animals and humans into the WTO/SPS related guidance on risk analysis spread to be monitored – the technology to importing country during trade in animals, to support decisions regarding import and/ do this already exists. An additional safe- animal genetic material and animal prod- or intentional introduction of an organism, guard would be some kind of safety device ucts. The OIE Animal Code does not deal however, it remains possible (even if not in to allow its effects to be countered. This is with the introduction of mammals that are the spirit of the text) to ignore the impacts likely to be a very active area of future themselves 'pests' nor with the biological of (re-)export of an organism, very possibly research as commercial companies recog- News 93N nise the importance of safety issues, which cant economic, ecological and social control agents and GMOs that impact on will have a spin-off in safety options for dimensions. [see BNI 23(3), 63N-64N plants may provide a useful model for ver- GM biocontrol. (September 2002), Cactoblastis: classical tebrate biocontrol. The gains may be two- beauty or invasive beast]. Although some way, however: work on vertebrate pests One rabbit disease in particular (RHD) has argue that these unanticipated impacts and GM biocontrol agents and their regula- manifested both invasiveness and unpre- should have been predicted, biocontrol sci- tion could advance the protection of other dictability, and illustrates some of the diffi- entists also are grappling with the realiza- taxonomic groups against disease. culties of being certain about the safety of tion that priorities and values may change, disseminating organisms, whether GM or nationally, regionally or globally, so that Possums Fuel Debate naturally occurring. During the 1980s and what once seemed like a sound decision to Whilst development of disseminating 1990s RHD spread rapidly from China to introduce an agent may now be questioned. GMOs involves cutting-edge science, the Europe and elsewhere, probably through With the benefit of a hundred years of hind- safety challenge is no less difficult. Aus- trade in rabbits or their meat and fur. In sight, biocontrol has some valuable lessons tralia and New Zealand, amongst leaders in 1991 RHD was imported into quarantine in to share, including the need for more recog- this field, are both undertaking consulta- Australia for evaluation as a biological con- nition of transboundary issues and greater tive, transparent processes to draw up bio- trol agent. In 1995, during field trials being regional and international consultation on technology legislation, based on the conducted on Wardang Island near the proposed introductions. Notwithstanding precautionary approach. The New Zealand Australian mainland, RHD eluded the strict the existence of the IPPC Code of Conduct Hazardous Substances and New Organisms quarantine measures established to confine and more recent adherence to the CBD, it is Act (1996) was followed by a Royal Com- it to the island and escaped to the adjacent recognised that countries still rarely consult mission of Inquiry to consider strategic mainland. Two weeks later it was detected each other about the introduction of exotic options for New Zealand with respect to over 300 km away, almost certainly as a biocontrol agents, but such consultation genetic modification, and the New Zealand consequence of spread by flying insects. It needs to become the norm. As countries Government has just (October 2002) issued subsequently spread (both naturally and develop legislation to regulate GMO a draft Biotechnology Strategy for com- deliberately as a control tool) throughout releases, they will be able to incorporate ment. most of southern Australia. It was intro- proactive measures to take into account duced illegally into New Zealand [see BNI national safety concerns and international In Australia, the Gene Technology Bill 19(4), 99N-101N (December 1998), RHD obligations in a way that the IAS and bio- (2000) is the key component of the new after one year in New Zealand]. Discussion control sectors only belatedly began to do. national regulatory framework. It included of these issues in relation to GMOs may the establishment of a Gene Technology help to find a way to avert such problems Some concepts of safety address the lack of Regulator, who prepares a risk assessment by technical means or political agreement, consultation and coordination among coun- and risk management plan (RARMP) for or both. It is essential that development of tries specifically on transboundary move- every proposed intentional release of a precautions for the safe management of ment of GMOs. The Cartagena Protocol on GMO into the environment, in consultation risks of international movement of dissem- Biosafety to the CBD establishes an with expert groups and key stakeholders, inating GMOs between the native and pest advance informed agreement (AIA) proce- including the public. Amongst specific ranges of the target species progress at an dure, similar to that used for pesticide trade, issues to be addressed are the potential of equivalent rate to those for other risks. for ensuring that countries are provided the GMO to affect the environment and the with the information necessary to make potential for dissemination or persistence From the IAS perspective, the development informed decisions before agreeing to the of the GMO or its genetic material in the of GMOs presents groundbreaking oppor- import of such organisms into their terri- environment. Transboundary issues are not tunities, and biotechnologists are in an tory. The Protocol reaffirms the precau- explicitly stated, but would be expected to enviable position. For IAS, risk analysis to tionary approach contained in the Rio be included. However, the legal position is date has been largely retrospective, driven Declaration on Environment and Develop- presently unclear, and their inclusion might by the need to combat the result of centuries ment, but also requires the use of risk anal- be challenged in the courts. The Regulator of sometimes accidental but often delib- ysis to develop science-based decisions. is also tasked with monitoring international erate introductions of species that have sub- Over 100 countries have become signato- practice in relation to the regulation of sequently become invasive pests. Classical ries to this Protocol since January 2000, and GMOs, and maintaining links with interna- biocontrol has played a role in some 37 have taken the steps of national adher- tional organizations that deal with the regu- notable control successes against IAS, but ence in order to become contracting parties lation of gene technology and with agencies it is also facing the aftermath of a less-reg- (including Spain, but not Australia). The that regulate GMOs in countries outside ulated youth: cases where there has been Protocol comes into force once the 50th Australia. some unanticipated movement and/or Party to the CBD ratifies or approves it behaviour by agents introduced in earlier through the national procedures. This could Despite these legislative advances, safety decades. For example, Cactoblastis cac- easily take place in 2003. obstacles to introducing disseminating torum, an Argentinian moth introduced to GMOs for vertebrate control are well illus- Australia in the 1920s against the intro- Although there is currently no global con- trated by a conflict of interest over possums duced invasive prickly pear (Opuntia), was vention for the protection of animals that emerging between Australia and New Zea- the spectacular and earliest success of weed corresponds to the IPPC convention, and land. Australian brushtail possums (Tricho- biocontrol. This success has been repeated measures to deal with issues of releasing surus vulpecula) introduced into New in South Africa and a number of other animal-related GMOs have not yet been Zealand have colonized more than 90% of countries, including some Caribbean considered, the pioneering of this process its land area and are the most significant islands in the 1950s. However, Cactob- by IPPC partly reflects the more advanced source of bovine tuberculosis, the country’s lastis has now spread from the Caribbean to status of crop-related biotechnology. The most important disease of cattle and farmed mainland North America where the threat it international efforts to harmonize method- deer. Possums are also the most important poses to native cactus species has signifi- ologies and criteria for assessment of bio- mammalian pest in the New Zealand envi- 94N BiocontrolNews and Information 2002 Vol. 23 No. 4 ronment contributing to the progressive Under current procedures, risk is assessed aspect of that relationship is, the loss of indigenous flora and fauna biodiver- when researchers go to ERMA (Environ- researchers believe, less likely to result in sity. New control measures are needed, not ment Risk Management Authority) to seek fundamental changes to the relationship as only to avoid high-cost poisoning and trap- approval for any field trials. Following the a whole. As noted above, field research is ping in perpetuity, but because present use advice of the Royal Commission, the New underway to determine the host-parasite of poisons for vertebrate control poses Zealand Government placed a 2-year mor- relationship between the naturally occur- sometimes unacceptable environmental atorium (until October 2003) on the release ring nematode and the possum, to provide and trade risks, and faces growing public of GMOs that can persist in the environ- baseline data for future studies on a GM opposition, both at home and abroad. ment to allow this consideration to take nematode. Although risks to human health have been place. The Ministry for the Environment minimized, and there has been a dramatic has just released a draft Biotechnology The prospect of a disseminating GM agent decline in the number of tuberculosis- Strategy for discussion. This declares as for possum control being released in New infected cattle and deer herds since possum one aim to put arrangements in place to Zealand has provoked some opposition in control was stepped up in 1994, there is a give adequate consideration to ethical and Australia: if the GM nematode reduces pop- desire to minimize the risk of imposition of safety issues. ulations in New Zealand (as it is designed to technical international trade barriers. These do), it would have the potential to do the Although now facing a conflict of interest would threaten NZ$1.3 billion of export same to indigenous Australian host popula- over possums, Australia and New Zealand returns. The New Zealand Government is tions. The chosen vector, the parasitic nem- have a history of working together on many investing in research into a number of alter- atode (Parastrongyloides trichosuri), is issues, including safety, quarantine and native strategies, and GM biocontrol is one specific to the brushtail possum and a close biocontrol. Indeed, the New Zealand pro- such avenue. relative in Australia, the mountain brushtail gramme on biological management of pos- possum (T. caninus). While this limited Given that the whole point of a dissemi- sums has been complemented through host range would make it a promising clas- nating GMO is that it spreads through a investment in a number of Australian sical biocontrol agent, a GM version of it population, and given the possible irrevers- research institutions, including the Marsu- could be, quite literally, a different beast in ibility of this once a GMO has been pial Cooperative Research Centre (CRC), ecological terms. If it were to reach the released, there are likely to be instances and Standards New Zealand and Standards home range of its Trichosurus hosts, it where their use would be highly risky – for Australia developed a joint risk manage- would be a ‘new association’ (and if the example, if one could spread to the native ment standard (AS/NZS 4360: 1999 Risk transgene does its job, an effective natural host range of the target. Whilst technology Management). They are well placed, there- enemy), which would upset the ecological may yet provide an answer, an alternative fore, jointly to address issues created by the balance between the possums and their would be to develop a non-disseminating new technology. native, co-evolved natural enemies (including GMO, together with methods of applica- One of the candidates for a possum GMO naturally occurring P. trichosuri). Coinci- tion and distribution (as is necessary for demonstrates how GM biocontrol can raise dentally, recent taxonomic research, which microbial biopesticides and inundative use transboundary issues relating to the target has shown T. caninus to be two species, of insect agents). Landcare Research has in its area of origin – in this case a potential highlights another dilemma for biocontrol: purposely limited research on a GMO to threat to Australia's indigenous possum the goalposts can move as more informa- control brushtail possums to non-dissemi- fauna. The New Zealand Hazardous Sub- tion becomes available. In this case, new nating systems because of both national and stances and New Organisms Act (1996) research is needed into the effects of P. tri- international public concerns, including makes it incumbent on applicants applying chosuri on T. caninus, as now defined, and fears about possible spread to Australia. for permission to release GMOs to consider the newly described T. cunninghami. Any AgResearch is being funded by MAF (Min- their international obligations. The possum assessment of a GMO for possums must istry Agriculture & Fisheries) and FRST GMO also provides an example of how consider the potential impact on the three (Foundation for Research, Science and control using a disseminating GMO differs species in Australia, including aspects of Technology) to work on transgenic nema- from classical biocontrol, illustrating the population distribution and ecology of T. todes and marsupial virology, with the aim danger of direct transfer of concepts such as caninus and T. cunninghami on which cur- of evaluating disseminating delivery sys- host specificity. rent knowledge may be rather confused. tems for biocontrol. Landcare Research is assisting it with studies of the ecology and AgResearch is looking at the potential for Host specificity in the target range is, as for epidemiology of the naturally occurring producing a nematode containing an inher- any biocontrol agent, an essential charac- (unmodified) parasite, to provide baseline ited transgene that disorders reproduction teristic for a parasitic species being consid- data for future risk analysis of a GM para- (by compromising fertility of females) that ered as a transgenic vector. Clearly, site. The draft National Science Strategy could spread through the New Zealand however, for a GM agent the target species for Possum and Bovine Tuberculosis Con- possum population. Infected animals may outside the target area is a non-target spe- trol, which has been circulated for com- survive several years without reproducing cies and the risk of creating a new and ment to stakeholder organizations, outlines and thus continue to spread the GM nema- highly damaging host association in the plans to develop non-disseminating and tode. Researchers are looking to induce a target’s home range must also be disseminating delivery systems. The target subtle and hopefully relatively gradual addressed. Biocontrol terms such as 'host date for having a disseminating GMO for reduction in populations, which will mini- specificity' and 'non-target species' need to possums ready for evaluation is 2010. mize the selection of host resistance to the be re-interpreted for this emerging tech- parasite, but will have a major impact in the nology. In summary, a host range restricted The development of a disseminating GMO long term. The selection of a nematode was to brushtail possum and ‘T. caninus’ does must necessarily advance hand-in-hand partly because the relationship between not make the nematode acceptable for with progress on safety. The New Zealand hosts and nematode parasites and the deter- development as a GM biocontrol agent regulatory approval system for release of minants of specificity and pathogenicity unless the risk of it reaching Australia can GMOs is under consideration for revision. have many components, so that altering one be demonstrated to be acceptably low. News 95N

These are the kinds of issues that a number Failure to understand or take account of the protecting their ecosystems against a GMO of countries are becoming concerned about ecological significance of proposed devel- developed by the other. This mirror-image and are asking to be addressed. opments is widespread in the biotech- symmetry was the chief reason that the nology sector, and researchers into rabbit was chosen as the main focus for a The use of a nematode like P. trichosuri mammalian biocontrol could play a pio- forthcoming international symposium. that has a free-living stage may raise the neering role in breaking down inter-disci- risk stakes of introduction to Australia. The plinary barriers. With their history of inter- Can Rabbits Show the Way? eggs are passed out in possum faeces where country collaboration and strong capacities they hatch and develop to an infective Recognising the urgency and importance of across the board in ecology, invasive spe- larval stage that may remain viable for up to moving transboundary issues relating to cies biology, biocontrol and biotechnology, 2 months. Although this makes it a good disseminating GM biocontrol forward, the together with the lead they have given in candidate for dissemination, it also raises organizers of the 3rd International Wildlife legislation on national biosafety and GMO the possibility that it could cross the Management Congress (to be held in regulation, New Zealand and Australia Tasman Sea from contamination of soil, Christchurch, New Zealand, 1-5 December should be ideally placed to foster a meeting foodstuffs or camping equipment, or from a 2003) have accepted a proposal to hold a of genetic and ecological minds, and turn deliberate release (as with RHD in New symposium: 'Rabbits, RHD, disseminating this current conflict into a model resolution Zealand). At present, insufficient is known GMOs and conflicting international objec- for others to follow. about the nematode's behaviour in the free- tives'. The symposium will examine the need to regulate the use of these GMOs in living phase of its life cycle to know how to Although the scientists working on the order to minimize the risk of adverse conse- assess the risk. It will be possible to model development of disseminating GMOs for quences should they spread outside the the risk of accidental introduction once the mammal pest control have discussed safety country of their release, and the need to necessary ecological data on the nematode issues at national and international meet- build safety devices into them that would have been collected. There is some reason ings, there is as yet no formal inter-country allow the developers to achieve their objec- for optimism: some plant-parasitic nema- initiative to tackle them. In this case, appro- tives whilst also allowing other countries to todes are also disseminated in soil but there priate steps would be for the New Zealand protect their ecosystems. The goal is to are notable absences in the plant parasitic government formally to recognise Aus- assist with progression towards agreement fauna of Australia despite ample opportu- tralia’s interest in the release of dissemi- on appropriate management of the risks nity for introduction. Their absence may be nating GMOs to manage possums in New from disseminating GMOs in the interests largely attributable to Australia’s stringent Zealand, and to develop policy, consulta- of all affected countries, which may be and effectively applied quarantine regula- tive, technological and regulatory frame- applied in the future to other disseminating tions, but even they are not 100% effective: works to deal with the issues involved in GMOs being developed to control other a number of other damaging plant-parasitic assuring the safety of a GM biocontrol pests in other countries. nematodes have managed to evade detec- agent. New Zealand researchers need tion and enter the country. In addition, risk funding to investigate the possibility of It was because of the advanced state of of deliberate introduction cannot be dis- developing safety devices that will allow research with disseminating GMOs for rab- missed: possums are a significant pest to Australia to protect its possums against the bits and, as importantly, the common some Australian householders, inhabiting introduction into Australia of disseminating interest of Spanish and Australian scientists roof cavities and creating a nuisance GMOs released in New Zealand. The ques- in working together that rabbits were through noise, defaecation/urination, etc. tion of how, by whom and at whose chosen as the model. As Spanish Another reason for optimism is that there expense research should be conducted on researchers have written, "Since the pro- are differences in prevalence between Aus- the possums in their home range in Aus- posed use [of a GMO] involves the envi- tralia and New Zealand, which could be tralia has also to be resolved. However, ronmental release of a recombinant virus, due to marked differences in environmental international issues need to be addressed considerations regarding safety are as conditions; the range of P. trichosuri in sooner rather than later. Any notion that important as the potential efficacy of the Australia appears to be more restricted than another country's interests (in this case candidate [GMO]." The organizers note that in New Zealand. These differences Australia's) are subsidiary should be disa- that support needs to be generated for may constitute a mitigation of risk, but that vowed by the New Zealand Government taking the concerns further and developing has yet to be verified. Further research and the organizations conducting this work. mechanisms (regulatory and technological) including extensive and detailed surveys of AgResearch researchers call for a mapping to deal with them equitably. the nematode fauna of Australia's possums out of the research that needs to be done and The purpose of the symposium is to further would be useful in this regard. the establishment of the necessary funding and a scientific basis for that research. explore three broad areas of common, and There is a strong imperative to resolve the conflicting, interest: issue for possum nematodes. As a substan- On the many previous occasions when New • Epidemiology of RHD tial importer of New Zealand produce, Aus- Zealand and Australian cooperation has tralia could feasibly feel forced into been fruitful and mutually beneficial, their • Consequences of RHD for rabbit banning the (substantial) import of fruit, interests have coincided. This time their populations and biodiversity vegetable, cereal crops, etc. from New Zea- interests are at odds with each other. With • International issues related to the land if it were to perceive the risk to its pos- New Zealand’s bargaining position appar- possible spread between countries of sums as too high. New Zealand, also ently the stronger of the two, it may be disseminating GMOs used to manage possessed of one of the world's most effec- more difficult to achieve an equitable solu- rabbits, possums and other pests tive quarantine services and a leader in tion. In the case of rabbits, the bargaining implementing biodiversity conservation positions of the main protagonists (Spain Clearly many of the issues that will arise legislation (Biosecurity Act 1993), would and Australia) are more equal. Both are are relevant to future developments of probably be able to understand Australia’s exploring the potential of GMOs to manage GMOs for other pests in other countries – dilemma. rabbits, and both also have an interest in as indeed they mirror issues of classical 96N BiocontrolNews and Information 2002 Vol. 23 No. 4 biological control and IAS. Broadly, the Email: [email protected] Environment Australia: conference will address: Fax +61 (8) 8303 9555 www.ea.gov.au/index.html Biodiversity>Invasive Species>Feral Ani- • Potential sources of conflict Elaine Murphy, mals>Rabbits • Reducing conflict through technical Science & Research Unit, innovation (in biocontrol agents) Department of Conservation, South Australian Animal and Plant Control Private Bag 4715, Christchurch, • Political mechanisms to resolve conflict: Commission New Zealand can international agreement regulate www.pir.sa.gov.au/pages/sus_res/ Email: [email protected] the use of GMOs? animal_plant/rabimpact.htm Fax: + 64 3 365 1388 The organizers hope to focus on the rabbit NZ AgResearch to develop a model solution, which may Further Information www.agresearch.cri.nz/ provide a lead to solving the more general 3rd International Wildlife Management NZ ERMA problems of using disseminating GMOs for Congress www.ermanz.govt.nz/ pest control or protection of native species www.conference.canterbury.ac.nz/ against disease. Spain and Australia have wildlife2003/ NZ Landcare Research an incentive to negotiate and arrive at a www.landcareresearch.co.nz/ workable solution, as both have an urgent, CBD COP Decision VI/23, see: www.biodiv.org/decisions/?ac-cop if diametrically opposed, problem to solve. NZ MAF, Biological Control of Possums Spain and Australia would gain mutually Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety www.maf.govt.nz/mafnet/rural-nz/ from achieving a solution, whether tech- www.biodiv.org/biosafety/ research-and-development/pest-control/ nical or political, and each country may biological-management-of-possums/ need to compromise. Reciprocity offers the IPPC httoc.htm best prospect for developing workable www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpp/pq/default.htm NZ Parliamentary Commissioner for the solutions to this emerging issue. As a land- GISP Toolkit Environment mark meeting, this symposium has the task www.cabi-bioscience.ch/wwwgisp/ of doing the groundwork on which a www.pce.govt.nz/ coherent regulatory strategy can be built. Australian Office of the Gene Technology 'Caught in the headlights' Regulator Contacts: Robert Henzell, www.health.gov.au/ogtr/index.htm NZ NSSC Possum & Bovine Tb Control Animal and Plant Control Commission, www.frst.govt.nz/about/possum.cfm GPO Box 2834, Adelaide SA 5001, Australian Pest Animal Control CRC Australia www.pestanimal.crc.org.au/ ❑

IPM Systems

Stemming a Coffee Pest be made to establish new plants in place of Potted History uprooted ones. As coffee trees take time to Coffee stem borers (Xylotrechus quadripes come into production, the effects of borer Damage is caused by larvae, which hatch and Monochamus leuconotus), both ceram- damage are felt for at least 5 years. A from eggs deposited in cracks and crevices bycid beetles, are now the major pest con- survey of the three countries reveals the and under loose scaly bark of the main straint to arabica coffee production in India extent of the problem. coffee tree stem and thick primaries. The (X. quadripes) and Zimbabwe and Malawi beetles show an oviposition preference for (both M. leuconotus) and are inflicting • In Malawi, where coffee is the fourth plants exposed to sunlight. Young larvae severe economic losses. A new project most important export earner, the borer feed on the corky tissue just under the bark, funded by the CFC (Common Fund for is the major pest constraint for which splits making the stem appear Commodities) with co-financing from smallholder coffee farmers, with ridged. Later, larvae enter the hardwood national governments aims to meet the incidence exceeding 90%. and tunnel in all directions, even into the urgent need for an effective integrated man- roots. Infested trees normally have yellow, • In Zimbabwe the borer has led to the agement package for the pest. The new wilting leaves, and ejected larval frass and uprooting and subsequent replanting of project, which is being implemented by emergence holes can be found on the stems. many plantations. CABI Bioscience, the Natural Resources Severe ring barking of the main roots Institute, UK (NRI), the Coffee Board of • In south India, where the borer has occurs below ground level, and extends India, the Coffee Research Centre, existed in coffee estates for more than above ground in rejuvenated coffee. Chipinge, Zimbabwe and Lunyangwa a century, uprooting an average of one Research Station, Malawi, recently held its infested plant per hectare per year Attack often causes death of young (1- to 2- inauguration workshop in Chikmagalur, accounts for an annual loss of about year-old) coffee and severe wilting of older India. US$8-10 million. The borer is the most (3- to 4-year-old) trees. Mature trees are not necessarily killed but, especially in Africa, Draining Losses destructive pest of arabica coffee in the country, and a growing trend to convert they become susceptible to termite attack, Losses from the stem borer are cumulative. from arabica to robusta threatens particularly in the absence of supplemental In addition to crop losses, investment has to export earnings. irrigation during the dry season. In general, News 97N infested trees are of poor vigour and yield sible, the project, in partnership with in the project, but where stem borers are poorly. national programmes and coffee farmers, also a problem (e.g. China, Sri Lanka and will assess current measures to identify Vietnam). Current management strategies are gener- shortcomings and optimize good practice. ally ineffective, or rely on undesirable It also aims to research and develop new With the world coffee industry in crisis, and chemical applications. Cultural control technologies in pest management, concen- prices at an all-time low, smallholder liveli- methods include uprooting and burning trating particularly on the potential of bio- hoods are under threat as never before, and infested trees, treating the stems during the control agents (parasitoids, fungal if the smallholder farming sector is to sur- oviposition period to kill or dislodge eggs pathogens and nematodes) and other bio- and young larvae, catching and killing vive and compete with large plantations, it logically-based methods including adults during their period of activity, and needs help to solve problems and develop improved agronomic practices, safer pesti- maintaining shelter belts in order to shade new strategies. In the prevailing conditions, cides, botanical repellents and pheromones. the coffee bushes. Chemical control smallholder farmers tend to reduce all A participatory approach will be used to includes treatment of stems and primary inputs including pest control efforts, which maximize dissemination of the knowledge branches with BHC (or other general insec- leads to reduced quality and quantity, thus generated in this project. ticides) to reduce the pest incidence. further affecting their economic position. To achieve the project aims, the collabo- The best response to the situation, however, Biological control of X. quadripes was rating scientists will conduct socio-eco- is to concentrate on increasing quality, and attempted in Vietnam during the 1920s. nomic and biological surveys, screen coffee adopt tactics that help reduce inputs of dan- Mass rearing and release of the two most varieties, identify and evaluate potential gerous and costly chemicals. Such a easily reared parasitoids found in planta- biological control agents and initiate strategy will also facilitate entry to new tions (Doryctes strioliger and Sclero- rearing programmes, and establish field markets, which pay more for environmen- dermus domesticus) led to an increase in trials to quantify the efficacy and potential tally friendly, sustainably produced cof- parasitism rates, but this was not main- of control methods. The dissemination of fees. This project aims to help smallholders tained after releases ceased. The high cost the project outputs will be enhanced by achieve this, and protect them from any of developing a continuous mass rearing developing and facilitating improved future claims that they are insensitive to the programme led to the work being aban- extension mechanisms through training of increasing environmental awareness of doned. trainers and extensionists in farmer partici- consumer countries. A variety of control measures are under patory approaches. trial on a local basis in the different coun- Contact: Good Grounds for Development tries: The project was formally launched on 11 Peter Baker (International Co-ordinator), • Maintaining optimum shade. September 2002 at a 4-day Knowledge CABI Bioscience UK Centre, • Tracing infested plants before flight Workshop held in Chikmagalur in India’s Bakeham Lane, Egham, periods each year by looking for ridges main coffee-growing state of Karnataka. Surrey TW209TY, UK on main stems and thick primaries. Delegates from all the countries involved in Email: [email protected] Identified plants are collar pruned (and the project, including scientists, extension- Fax: +44 1491 829100 uprooted if the borer has entered the ists and growers from India heard presenta- root) and infested material is burned. tions on the history and technical aspects of Sean Murphy (India Co-ordinator), • Removing loose scaly bark of the main the stem borer problem and its management CABI Bioscience UK Centre, stem and thick primaries using coir with overviews of the problem in each Silwood Park, Ascot, Berks SL5 7TA glove or coconut husk, but avoiding country. All delegates were invited to share Email: [email protected] damage to the stem, which could kill their views and participated in group dis- Fax: +44 1491 829123 the coffee or facilitate pathogen entry. cussions which led to finalized workplans for the first 2 years of the project. • Spraying/swabbing the main stem and George Oduor (Africa Co-ordinator), thick primaries during flight periods The vast amount of knowledge, experi- CABI Africa Regional Centre, with Lindane 20EC and a wetting ences and ideas imparted to all at the event ICRAF Complex, PO Box 633, agent. will be made more widely available. The Village Market, Nairobi, Kenya proceedings of the workshop will be pub- Email: [email protected] Blending Best Measures lished and distributed to assist the dissemi- Fax: + 254 2 522150 Given the urgency of the situation and the nation of technologies to help other coffee- need to alleviate losses as quickly as pos- growing countries not directly participating ❑

Announcements

Mass Gathering The workshop will focus on all issues topics and contributed presentations on the related to the rearing of entomophagous different aspects of arthropod rearing as it The 10th Workshop of the IOBC Global and phytophagous insects and mites, and to relates to quality control. Papers will serve Working Group on Arthropod Mass Rearing and Quality Control (AMRQC) principles and practices of quality control. as a basis for discussion and exchange, with will take place in Montpellier, France on The programme will consist of invited the final aim of improving collaboration 21-24 September 2003. papers presenting an overview of selected among scientists and practitioners. 98N BiocontrolNews and Information 2002 Vol. 23 No. 4

Contact: Ms. Mireille Montes de Oca, Giant Hogweed Unites The status reports and a draft giant hog- IOBC AMRQC Workshop, Europe weed manual will be available at or just AGROPOLIS International, before the workshop. The status reports An international workshop on Heracleum Avenue Agropolis, will be used as the basis for the proceedings mantegazzianum (giant hogweed), to be F-34394 Montpellier, Cedex 5, France of the workshop, which are to be published held on 5-7 March 2003 in Riga, Latvia, Email: [email protected] separately. will bring together people from across Fax +33 4 67 04 75 99 Europe with an interest in this weed, For further information and registration, Further information, including practitioners, policy makers and see the giant hogweed homepage: including a pre-registration document, researchers from governmental and non- www.flec.kvl.dk/giant-alien/ can be found on the AMRQC website: governmental organizations. www.AMRQC.org Or contact: The meeting will be an opportunity to draw Hans Peter Ravn, ❑ together knowledge of giant hogweed, and Danish Forest and Landscape Research thus to provide an overview of its status in Institute Europe, focusing in particular on its identi- Email: [email protected] Canberra Bioherbicide fication and distribution and control meas- ❑ Workshop ures. Country status reports will be used to generate an initial set of best practice guide- Cocoa Conference The next workshop of the International lines. These will be disseminated more widely by making them available for publi- Bioherbicide Group (IBG) will be held as a The 14th International Cocoa Research cation in delegates’ own languages in liter- satellite meeting during the International Conference will be held in Ghana in ature available to local practitioners. Symposium of Weed Biocontrol in Can- October 2003 with the theme, ‘Towards a berra, Australia in 2003 [www.ento. The specific aims of the workshop are to: Sustainable Cocoa Economy - What Strate- gies to this End?’ One of the aims of the csiro.au/weeds2003]. Abstracts are requested • Produce status reports on H. conference is to increase productivity and from those interested in attending the IBG mantegazzianum for every country in quality through production and distribution workshop. which the species occurs, including of improved planting material and promo- Canada and the USA, which can be tion of IPM. It will include sessions on International Bioherbicide Group used to inform discussion and planning pests and diseases, agronomy and physi- Newsletter: at the workshop http://ibg.ba.cnr.it ology, breeding, utilization of cocoa by- • Use the status reports to disseminate products and extension-transfer and effi- country information to practitioners, Contact: Maurizio Vurro, cient utilization of the results of cocoa together with the overview of best research. Istituto di Scienze delle Produzioni practice Alimentari, The conference is being organized by the • Solicit feedback on the first draft of a Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Cocoa Producers’ Alliance (COPAL). giant hogweed management manual Viale Einaudi 51, 70125 Bari, Italy Contact: Secretariat, Cocoa Producers’ Email: [email protected] • Disseminate further information on Alliance Fax: +39 805486063 Heracleum mantegazzianum Email: [email protected] • Establish good contacts across Europe ❑ and with North America ❑

Conference Reports

Pathologists Converge tists from 31 countries participated in the Fungi: combined 2002 meeting held at Iguassu on Brazil • Microecology of entomopathogenic fungi Falls. The VIII International Colloquium on • Toward the integration of fungal Invertebrate Pathology and Microbial Con- The scientific sessions encompassed a wide entomopathogens with other biological trol, the 35th Annual Meeting of the variety of topics, beginning with a Plenary control agents Session on Baculoviruses and the presenta- Society for Invertebrate Pathology, and the • Genetic structure of fungal populations VI International Conference on Bacillus tion of the Founders’ Lecture by Dr Peter thuringiensis (ICBt) were held at Fos do Luthy, in honor of Dr Huguette de Barjac. Viruses: Iguassu, Brazil on 18-23 August 2002. The Divisions on Viruses, Bacteria, Fungi, Microsporidia, Nematodes, and Microbial • Prospects for the use of viral pesticides The International Colloquium on Inverte- Control sponsored a variety of symposia, • Arthropod-borne viruses brate Pathology, sponsored by the Society contributed paper sessions, and workshops, Bacteria: for Invertebrate Pathology, is held every and held annual business meetings. The fourth year in conjunction with the symposia sponsored by the Divisions and • Bacterial insecticidal proteins: specificity, society’s annual meeting. Over 380 scien- meeting organizers are listed below: improvement and novel toxins News 99N

• Bt transgenic plants and insect • Microbial germplasm repositories: the The 36th Annual Meeting of the Society for resistance to Bt toxins legacy, the problem, the future Invertebrate Pathology will be held on 26- 31 July 2003 in Burlington, Vermont, USA. • Bti and Bsh mosquiticidal strains: use • Microsporidia within Entomophthorales All scientists interested in the biology of and necessities invertebrate pathogens as well as their use Meeting participants enjoyed several social Nematodes: in biological control are welcome. Watch activities including a poolside welcome the SIP website for details regarding this • Entomopathogenic nematodes: research reception at the Hotel Bourbon, a tradi- and future meetings. trends tional Brazilian barbeque with entertain- ment and dancing, a trip to Iguassu Falls By: Leellen Solter and Mark Goettel, Microbial Control: (raincoats provided), and the annual 5 km Society for Invertebrate Pathology Newsletter Editors • Solar irradiation of fungal pathogens: race which was held in the Iguassu National deleterious effects, and mitigation Park. The banquet at Hotel Bourbon hon- Contact: Leellen F. Solter, through genetics and formulation oured student award winners (travel Insect Pathology, awards, paper presentations, and posters) Illinois Natural History Survey, • Microbial control of insect pests of and featured an excellent Brazilian band 140 NSRC, Box 18, potato – from Tierra del Fuego to the and dancing. 1101 W. Peabody Dr., Great White North Urbana, IL 61801, USA Information on obtaining copies of the Cross-Division: Email: [email protected] Abstracts and Proceedings will soon be Fax: +1 217 244 1707 • Bacteria/insect interactions: virulence made available at the Society's website: aspects www.sipweb.org ❑ 100N BiocontrolNews and Information 2002 Vol. 23 No. 4