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Conclusion
In just a few short years, international satellite television has emerged as a key political and economic issue, not just within ASEAN, but in all the developing countries of Asia. The political importance of DBS stems from the fact that it seriously challenges the regulatory powers of the state relating to televisual information. This has serious implications for regime control , and has contributed to significant tension within government leaderships and between states and DBS players.
This tension has been illustrated most dramatically in China where, in October last year, the government banned private household ownership of parabolic antennae.' While there were officiall y 40,000 parabolic anten nae in China at the time of the announcement, illegal antennae and cables put "the number of viewers in the multi-millions".2 The perceived threat to governments' authority by DBS is retlected in a report on the ban which begins: "In a move to ti ghten its control of media and prolong its rule, Chin a's communist government has introduced sweeping rules to limit access to satellite television broadcasts."3 Such an assumption -that DBS can affect the very survival of the government of the world's most populous country- attests to its perceived power.
For it is power that li es at the heart of the change and confli ct that has accompanied satellite television into Southeast Asia. Economic, political and technological movements have altered the way in whi ch the power over televisual information is shared or assigned. News Corporation's purchase of Star TV has accentuated the trend of Asia's communications industry becoming a component of global structures. Driven by economies of scale gained through access to Asia's huge audiences, News Corporation has embraced technology to achieve true internationalisation of its satellite television services. In the process, it has dwarfed the scope of the other Western DBS news operator in Southeast Asia, Turner Broadcasting. Following the purchase of Star TV, News Corporation's chairman and chief executive- Rupert Murdoch - unveil ed plans "to develop TV channels with potential worldwide audiences"! Britain's Broadcast magazine wrote that: "Channels with global viewing potential could
61 broadcast across Murdoch's television empire, which includes the US network Fox Network, BSkyB in the UK and Star TV in Southeast Asia."5 The commercial benefits for News Corporation under these arrangements are obvious.
However, one of the first casualties of the News Corporation takeover of Star TV has been BBCWST. News Corporation has replaced BBCWST on the northern footprint of AsiaSatl over China with Mandarin-language movies. This move is designed to curry favour with governments whose policies and methods have been questioned in BBC reports. Having denied his motives for several months, Murdoch revealed in June 1994 that he had made the decision to "sooth bad relations with China". He added: "I was well aware that the freedom fighters of the world would abuse me for it."6
While no such machinations in the DBS industry have occurred in ASEAN territories, this episode illustrates how authoritarian regimes are still able to influence events. In the Chinese case, state cooperation would greatly assist News Corporation's market penetration. Reduced political scrutiny in news services would be the price extracted from News Corporation. Editorial ethics would be jettisoned for commercial considerations. With the arrival of News Corporation in the region, liberal television news may have already reached its high water mark and is now retreating in the face of commercial considerations.
Such a development stands starkly at odds with the original structure of Star TV, under which BBCWST had full editorial control. As shown in the Bangkok uprising in 1992, BBCWST and CNNI seriously undermined the legitimacy of Thai state broadcasting and the government itself. Then, in the eyes of middle class Thais, Western television news was a symbol of liberalism and freedom of expression. With the spectre of rapid and comprehensive vertical control of technology and services by the transnational players such as News Corporation, there is the potential for relatively monolithic and illiberal news practices to develop.
ASEAN's leadership has raised concerns about such potential private sector information monopolies. Malaysia's Dr Mahathir claimed Murdoch was "threatening to control the news in Asia".7 Such a sentiment underlines the paradoxes in the discourse related to DBS. For on one hand, regimes express opposition to the erosion of their television news sovereignty by the international DBS companies. On the other, they have become players in the DBS industry,
62 from which they derive substantial economic benefit. These policy contradictions, which first emerged in Indonesia as elements of the state separately played the roles of telecommuni cations broker and in formation gatekeeper, was the chink in the armour of ASEAN's media sovereignty. The medium of delivery for the states' television services, Palapa, was to be the conduit for CNN and Australia Television throughout the region. Palapa is an enduring symbol of the unforseen and unintended consequences of technological development and quests for modernity by the state.
Elsewhere in ASEAN, governments are now following Indonesia's lead into the telecommunications industry. Malaysia launched the two-satellite Measat system in 1994 for both domestic and international customers.8 The Science and Technology Minister- Law Hieng Ding - alluded to issues of both sovereignty and economics when he said: "Now we are paying an exorbitant sum for using satellite facilities and getting pictures from some of our neighbours."" A private Thai company- Shinawatra- has been granted an eight-year monopoly to operate the Thailandsat system, which is expected to be launched next year, while Singapore Telecom has also signalled it will enter the satellite communi cations industry. 10
When it comes to regu latory strategies towards parabolic antennae, the ASEAN states in this study can be divided into two distinct groups. After fa ltering attempts to prevent people using the antennae to watch foreign television, Indonesia and Thailand adopted 'open skies' policies. The governments have sought to accommodate the technological change and to carve out roles for themselves in the new arrangements. Television industries in both countries are currently undergoing major organisational changes as a result. In Malaysia and Singapore, however, the bans continue. In Malaysia's case, the policy is something of a failure. This stems from the decision of the government to intervene only after tens of thousands of parabolic antennae had already been installed. The greatest dissent towards the restrictions is in Sabah and Sarawak, where the centre's authority is weakest. Many of the antennae are in remote locations in these states. On the other hand, Singapore appears to have achieved total obedience. With its small geographical area and highly organised surveillance systems, Singapore has maintained its televisual media sovereignty, a unique achievement in the 1990s. However, the policy of banning parabolic antennae in Singapore and Malaysia will soon be overtaken by technology. European firms have already developed and marketed non-parabolic DBS reception antennae. 11 For Asian systems "physically inconspicuous" antennae of
63 between thirty and sixty centimetres in size that "look no different from antennas (sic) used for terrestrial television" will be available in the "not to di stant future" according to the Asia-Pacific Broadcasting Union.'2
Accounting for the range of experiences between the four countries in this study is assisted by the interdependence approach to state media relations, developed by Negrine and Papathanassopoulos. Their emphasis on the layers of collaboration within a state system, with bureaucratic and economic links, has been reinforced by the empirical data presented in this paper. The state is clearly not a monolithic entity. By tracing the complex interactions within the state, and with external players, it has been shown that the governments have sought to "counter the loss of autonomous control"') by extracting economic rewards. Additionally, the interdependence approach underlines the complexity of policy development and responses. This helps explain the apparent policy contradictions, particularly in Indonesia where elements of the state leadership were working towards sharply differing strategic goals.
In this environment, there have been important and rapid changes to the way political information networks operate in the region. This has broader effects on the very conduct of politics. The most clear demonstration of the impact of DBS occurred in Bangkok during the 1992 civil uprising. The DBS services acted as vital two-way conduits of information, both at a mass level and an interpersonal level among the elite. Demonstrators were emboldened by the coverage, perhaps knowing it was being aired simultaneously across the world. CNNI and BBCWST were able to be juxtaposed with the military-backed regime's overtly propagandist coverage of the unrest, further undermining the legitimacy of the government and later forming the basis of calls for broadcasting reform in Thailand.
DBS is only one factor in a complex web of change. Broader technological, political and social movements are required for the international media services to have a catalytic affect. However, a state's attempt to maintain national cohesion in the face of real class or racial tension has been seriously undermined. This may explain the depth of political reaction to the screening of scenes of the Dili massacre on Palapa by Malaysia's TV I. Staff at TV I in Kuala Lumpur were demoted for showing scenes in September 1992 that the Western news services had been showing for months. Malaysia's foreign minister flew to Indonesia to apologise to President Suharto. With the proliferation of DBS delivery systems, such political collaboration among ASEAN's state elite will not be effective for
64 much longer. News coverage of regional crises in the future centred on communali sm - or as in the case of Indonesia, a political succession - will increasingly be beyond the control of the state.
More broadly , efforts by governments to place a "moratorium on modernisation " 1 ~ have become increasingly untenable. To a degree Indonesia and Thailand have acknowledged this, while Singapore and Malaysia continue to hold out against the trend. Post colonial patterns of news presentation in ASEAN that feature themes of nation building and social harmony are being challenged and eroded by DBS services that do not follow the same newsgathering principles. The arrival of international news and information services - as part of wider cultural and economic exposure - has the potential to disperse Western liberal values among audiences previously shut off from such material. " [C]ommunity expectations have radicall y changed; exposure to transnational broadcasts has sti mulated demands for more sophisticated programming and for greater variety." 15
ASEAN's governments are having to rework their broadcasting policies under the combined pressure of technology, international markets and the rising middle class. While the states are involved in the international market place, they are unlikely to be able to quarantine the commod ity of news information. The ability of foreign people to travel with relative freedom within these countries means television pictures and in formation can be gathered. Technolog ical changes mean the televisual images can now be exported from and imported into these countries without the collaboration of the state itself. The extent to which states can contain events will depend on their ability to hold back the aspirations of an increasin gly affluent middle c lass, by a mi xture of political paternali sm and providing alternative programming, in which the governments maintain some of their regulatory grip as information gatekeepers.
It cannot be suggested, however, that all state broadcastin g influence and structure will be swept away by a wave of transnational DBS companies. Limitations exist to the penetration of DBS: language, cost and government regulatory and marketing strategies. Primordial loyalties to language and political culture should not be underestimated, especially if elements of civil society are not able to provide a clear oppositionist focus in the media. Malaysia and Singapore aim to counter pub! ic demand for international DBS by offering a range of cheaper subscription services to their citizens, before DBS reception equipment becomes undetectable. Once the Southeast Asian media has finished
65 its current period of readjustment, the impact of indigenous language broadcasting structures is li kely to increase in significance, as local producers respond to niche demands using the benefits of increased access through technology and deregulation. There is scope for states and indigenous organisations to use their economic power to exploit DBS technology, as shown by the founder of Star TV, Li Ka-Shing. In response, transnational broadcasters are adjusting some of their programming to suit cultural and linguistic sensibilities of the region. This is driven by marketing and the need for political accommodation with states.
A senior Western television executive said in 1992: "The Asia-Pacific has become something of a laboratory where all the big issues of broadcasting are being tested". 16 Judging by the emerging commercial structures in the region, the result from the laboratory will be that values flow from the West in greater proportion than they flow to the West. This constitutes media imperialism, so extensively articulated by the developing world in the 1970s and 80s, but only now being felt in television because of technological developments which have loosened the grip of the state. The effect in Southeast Asia is a radical change in the style, language and political orientation of news. Its consequences are already being felt in the relationship between ASEAN's states and their peoples.
Direct broadcasting by satellite has provided a technological means of making the mobility of television images even greater than the written word. When combined with the internationalisation of the commercial structures of television, this mobility means power over television news and information is moving irrevocably from state control to the global market. It is inevitable that there will be ongoing broadcasting policy contradictions and uncertainty in Southeast Asia -as well as conflict surrounding the nature and purpose of news- during this shift in power.
66 Interviews
The following interviews were conducted to gather data for this paper:
Attwell, Rachel, Deputy Editor (Production), BBCWST News, London, 25 November 1992.
Donald, Bruce, Project Director, Australia Television International, Sydney, 18 May 1993.
Emery, Dick, Director of Marketing, Independent Television News, London, 5 December 1992.
Faulder, Dominic, Immediate Past President, Foreign Correspondents' Club of Thailand, Bangkok, 9 February 1993.
Hawke, Ben, Managing Director, Australia Television International, Sydney, 2 August 1993.
Onwimol, Somkiat, Pacific International Communication s, Bangkok, I 0 February 1993.
Revill, Stuart, Secretary-General, Commonwealth Broadcasting Association, London, 15 December 1992.
Siriyuvasak, Ubonrat, Faculty of Communication, Chulalongkorn University Bangkok, II February 1993.
A further six interviewees requested anonymity. They were two senior executives from Australian public broadcasting organisations, a sociologist and an economist in Indonesia, one communications analyst in Malaysia and a Western diplomat in Bangkok.
67 Notes:
Chapter 1
I. BBC World Service Television News. 19 May 1992. BBC Television News Archives, London.
2. These were the words used in the subsequent report by correspondent, Brian Barron. BBC World Service Television News. 19 May 1992. BBC Television News Archives, London.
3. "Govt media keeps lid on death toll", The Nation (Bangkok), 20 May 1992.
4. "TV highlights troops' injuries and di scipline", The Nation, 19 May 1992.
5. Paul Handley, "People's wrath", Far Eastem Economic Revie1 v, 28 May 1992, p. I I.
6. Paul Handley, "Press and Pirates", Far Eastern Economic Review, II June 1992, p. 10.
7. The Palapa satellite system delivers CNN, ESPN (US sports channel), Home Box Office (US movie channel), Australia Television, and channels from Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and the Philippines.
8. The primary footprint requires a small (2m to 3.6m) dish for reception. Palapa's fringe footprint, which requires a dish of up to 13m, is much bigger - stretching from Nepal, across central China to Korea and across the Pacific to New Caledonia and most of Australia. Quoted in Australia Television information pack, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Sydney, 1993.
9. Star is an acronym for Satellite Television Asian Region.
10. "Murdoch axed BBC to appease Chinese", The Australian Financial Review, 15 June 1994, p. 27.
68 II. Raymond Snoddy "Murdoch set on widening his vision", Broadcast, 25 March 1994, p. 16.
12. 'The Detailed Regulations of the Government Ruels For Satellite TV Receivers- Ministry of Radio, Film and Television", People's Daily (Beijing), 27 February 1994.
13. Margaret. Scott "News from nowhere", Far Eastern Economic Review, 28 November 1991 , p. 32.
14. Arthur C. Clarke "Satelli te revolutionary", Far Eastern Economic Review, 28 November 1991, p. 35.
15. Only the Singapore Broadcasting Corporation and a handful of fi nancial companies are permitted to own satellite dishes in Singapore. Lai Kwok Kin, "Satellite TV presages battle for Asian skies", Bangkok Post, 28 February 1992, p. 18.
16. "Malaysian govt. orders dismantling of private satellite dishes", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 5, September-October 1992, p. 5.
17. An Influential and Growing Audience, marketing pamphlet published by Australia Television, Sydney, 1993, p.l.
18 . An Influential and Growing Audience, marketing pamphlet published by Australia Television, Sydney, 1993, p.l .
19. The MacBride report is officially titled: International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, Many Voices, One World: Communication and Society, Today and Tomorrow, New York, Unipub, 1980.
20. William Fitzmaurice 'The New World Information and Communications Order: Is the International Programme for the Developme nt of Communication the Answer?", New York University Journal of International Law and Politics, Vol. 15, No.4, 1983, p. 953.
2 1. K. Kumar "Genesis of the Debate", Communication Research Trends, Vol. I 0, No. 4, 1990, p. 4.
69 22. International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems, Many Voices, One World: Communication and Socrety, Today and Tomorrow, New York, Unipub, 1980, p. 148.
23. C. Lee Media Imperialism Reconsidered: The Homogenizing of Television Culture, Beverly Hills (US), Sage Publications, 1979, p. 42.
24. Michael Gurevitch, "The Globalism of Electronic Journalism", in James Curran and Michael Gurevitch (eds), Mass Media and Society, London, Edward Arnold, 1991, p. 180.
25. R. Negrine and S. Papathanassopoulos, The lntemationalisation of Television, London, Pinter, p. 6.
26. Gareth Locksley, TV Broadcasting in Europe and The New Technologies, Luxemburg, Commission of the European Communities, 1988, p. I.
27. Ralph. Negrine, (ed.) Satellite Broadcasting: The Politics and Implications of the New Media, London, Routledge, 1988, p. I.
28. "Asia drafts satellite ethics code", Broadcast, 3 June 1994, p. I.
29. O.P. Khushu, "Satellite Communications in Asia: An Overview:" Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communication Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. I, 1993, p. 6.
30. Gareth Locksley, TV Broadcasting in Europe and The New Technologies, Luxemburg, Commission of the European Communities, 1988, p. 2.
31 Ralph. Negrine, (ed.) Satellite Broadcasting: The Politics and Implications of the New Media, London, Routledge, 1988.
32. Ralph. Negrine, ( 1988), p. I.
33. R. Negrine and S. Papathanassopoulos, The lnternationalisation of Television, London, Pinter, p. 51.
34. R. Negrine and S. Papathanassopoulos, The lntemationalisation of Television, p. 51.
35. Paul G. Buchanan, "Review - Transitions from Authoritarian Rule/Prospects for Democracy. 4 vols. Edited by G. A. O'Donnell,
70 P.C. Schmitter, and L. Whitehead (Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1986)", American Political Science Review, Vol. 82, No.3, 1988, p. 102 1.
36. Fourteen interviews were conducted in Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and the United Kingdom.
Chapter 2
I . Quoted in "Harmoko tell s press to avoid sensational, tende nti o us reporting", The Jakarta Post, 7 June 1989, p. I.
2. John Lent "Mass Communication in Asia and the Pacific: Recent Trends and Development". In Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. I, 1989, p. I 9. See also Eric Dauchy, Indonesia: Traditional Communication Pattern s, Mass Media and Telecommu11ications: Emphasis on Palapa Satellite Communications Network, Leuven, Faculteit Der Social e Wetenschappen Departm ent Communicatiewetenschap, 1984.
3. Paul Handley, "Press and Pirates", Fa r Eastern Economic Review, II June 1992, p. 10.
4. John Lent "Mass Communication in Asia and the Pacific: Recent Trends and Development", Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. I, I 989, p. I 7.
5. Adam Schwarz, "All is re lative", Far Eastern Economic Revie1v, 30 Apri l 1992, p. 54.
6. Quoted in Edward Janner Sinaga, "Indonesia", in Achal Mehra (ed.), Press Systems in Asean States, Singapore, Asian Mass Communi cations Research and Information Centre, 1989, p. 29.
7. The principles of Pancasila are: Belief in one and supreme god; a just and civilised humanity; national unity, de mocracy- led by the wisdom of consensus among representatives; and social justice for the people of Indonesia.
71 8. Achal Mehra, "Introduction", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 4.
9. William C. Adams, "Network News Research in Perspective: A Bibliographic Essay" in William Adams and Fay Schreibman (eds), Television Network News: Issues in Content Research, Washington, Centre for Telecommunication Studies, Washington University, 1978, p. 14.
I 0. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities, Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, London, Verso, 1983, p. 14.
11. Eric Hobsbawm, "Introduction: Inventing Tradition", in Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds), The Invention of Tradition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1983, p. 13.
12. Anthony D. Smith, "The Nation: Invented, Imagined, Reconstructed?", Millennium: lou mal of International Studies, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1991 , p. 364.
13. Lee Kuan Yew, "Singapore and the Foreign Press", Address to the American Society of Newspaper Editor, 14 April 1988, reproduced in Achal Mehra (ed.), Press Systems in Asean States, Singapore, Asian Mass Communication Research and Information Centre, 1989, p. 119.
14. Soeharto, "Role of the press in National Development", adapted from a speech on the National Press Day, 9 February 1989. Translated by Sankaran Ramanathan and Lock Yut Kam, in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 134.
15. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism, Ithaca, Cornell University Press, 1983, p. 49.
16. John Breuilly, Nationalism and th e State, Manchester, Manchester University Press, 1982, p. 2.
17. Alfian, Godwin C. Chu and Taufik Abdullah, "Communication and Development- An Indonesian Experiment" in Alfian and Godwin C. Chu. (eds) Satellite Television in Indonesia, Honolulu, East-West Center, 1981, p. 4.
18. John. Lent "Mass Communication in Asia and the Pacific: Recent Trends and Development". In Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. I, 1989, p. 19.
72 19. Rukunegara seeks greater unity of the Malaysian peoples; maintenance of a democratic way of life; creation of a just society with equitable share of wealth; a liberal approach to cultural traditions; and the building of a progressive society oriented to modern science and technology. Syed Arabi Idid, "Malaysia", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 49.
20. Mohamad Hamdan Adnan, "Communication and the Law in Malaysia" Paper presented to Workshop on Law for Journalists, Institut Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, 15- 17 March, 1988, quoted in Syed Arabi Idid, "Malaysia", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 47.
2 1. John A. Lent, "Human Rights and Freedom of Expression in Malaysia and the Philippines", Asian Profile, 1989, Vol. 17, No. 2, p. 143.
22. Gordon P. Means, Malaysian Politics: The Second Generation, Singapore, Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 138.
23. Isyed Arabi Idid, "Malaysia", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 45.
24. Mahathir Mohamad, "The Social Responsibility of the Press", Keynote address at the World Press Convention, Kuala Lumpur, 18 September 1985, reproduced in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 114.
25 . Madzhi Johari, "The Socio-economic Impact of Broadcasting Satellites", Paper presented to seminar on Socio-economic impact of Broadcast Satellites in the Asia-Pacific Region, Jakarta, July 1990, p. 5.
26. Jaafar Kamin, "Television Programming for the Asia-Pacific Region : Meeting Multicultural needs of the Asian Market Place", Paper presented at the Asia Pacific Cable and Satellite Television Summit, Hong Kong, 8- 10 December 1992, p. 3.
27. John Lent, "Mass Communication in Asia and the Pacific: Recent Trends and Development". In Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. I, 1989, p. 17.
28. Lent, ibid
73 29. Bunziputera literally means "sons of the soil " and is an expression to emphasise the special rights of people of Malay ethnicity in Malaysia's multi-racial society . See David Joel Steinberg (ed),/11 Search ofSouth east Asia: A Modem Hist01y (Revised Edition), Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 1985, pp. 4 11 -413.
30. Ranggasamy Karthigesu, "Giobalisation on Television: How Asia Acts and Reacts", Paper presented to the 32nd Conference of the International Communication Association, Miami, 1992, p. 8.
31. John A. Lent, "Human Rights and Freedom of Expression in Malaysia and the Philippines", Asian Profile, 1989, Vol. 17, No.2, p. 144.
32. Basskaran Nair, "Singapore", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 86.
33. Basskaran Nair, "Singapore", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 87.
34. Michael Haas, "The Politics of Singapore in the 1980s", Joumal of ContemporwyAsia, Vol. 19, No. I, 1989, pp. 48-49.
35. Basskaran Nair, "Singapore", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 90.
36. Lee Kuan Yew, "Singapore and the Foreign Press", Address to the American Society of Newspaper Editor, 14 April 1988, reproduced in Achal Mehra (ed.), pp. 12 1-1 22.
37. Recently a narrowcast cable system, Singapore Cable, has been established as a subscription service.
38. Michael Haas, "The Politics of Singapore in the 1980s", Joumal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 19, No. I, 1989, p. 57.
39. See Ubonrat Siriyuvasak, "The Social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting in Thailand", Paper presented to seminar on the Social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting in Asia, Singapore, February 1993; Kavi Chongkittavorn, "It's high time Thai television is freed", Th e Nation, May 29, 1992; Saowarop Panyacheewin, "Freedom to Inform: Pressure on For Independent Broadcasting", Bangkok Post, 2 June 1992.
74 40. Quoted in Pira Chirasopone, "Thail and", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 95.
41 . Pira Chirasopone, "Thailand", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 92.
42. Pira Chirasopone, "Thailand", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 94.
43 . Ubonrat Siriyuvasak, "The Social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting in Thailand", Paper presented to seminar on the Social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting in Asia, Singapore, Februa ry 1993, p. I.
44. Pira Chirasopone, "Thailand", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 94.
45. Edward Janner Sinaga, "Indonesia", in Achal Mehra (ed.), pp. 34-35.
46. Edward Janner Sinaga, "Indonesia", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 30.
47. Paul Tickell, "The Indonesian Press", Paper presented at the Media Independence in the Australasian Region conference, Sydney, December 1989, p. 4.
48. Paul Tickell, p. 3.
49. Arief Budiman, "The Indonesian Press: A Turtle Press?", Paper presented at the Media Independence in the Australasian Region conference, Sydney, December 1989, p. 2.
50. "Indonesia", Paper presented at the Media Independence in the Australasian Region conference, Sydney, December 1989, p. I (reprinted from Information, Freedom and Censorship; the Article 19 World Report /988, Longman, London, 1988, pp. 140-144).
51. John Lent "Mass Communication in Asia and the Pacific: Recent Trends and Development". In Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. I, 1989, p. 19.
52. "Government warns four publications for errors", The Jakarta Post, 5 June 1989,p. l.
75 53. Alfian, Tony Nnaemeka and Mochtar Pabottinggi. ( 1981 ). "Analysis of News Programs" in Alfian and Godwin C. Chu. (eds), p. 85.
54. Alfian, and Godwin C. Chu. ( 1981) "Policy Goals and System Constraints" -in Alfian and Godwin C. Chu. (eds) Satellite Television in Indonesia, p. 23.
55. Alfian, Tony Nnaemeka and Mochtar Pabottinggi. ( 1981 ). "Analysis of News Programs" in Alfian and Godwin C. Chu.(eds), p. 96.
56. S. Ina Mariani, "Social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting in Indonesia", Paper presented at Social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting in Asia seminar, Singapore, February 1993, p. 3. See also Selo Sumardian, "The Social and Cultural Effects of Satellite Communication on Indonesian Society", Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 18, No. I, 1991, pp. 15- 19; Social Impacts of Satellite Communication, Jakarta, Department of Information, Republic of Indonesia, 1980.
57. "President Soeharto inaugurates RCTI studio and office building", The Jakarta Post, 28 August 1989, p. 2.
58. "TPI seeks to become family channel", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1994, p. 8.
59. Mochtar Kusuma-Atmadja, Keynote address, Edited proceedings of the Pacific Cooperation and Information Technology Conference, Vancouver 7- 9 December 1988, p. 37.
60. S.K. Ishadi, "Towards the Information Revolution Era: Using Satellites in Indonesia", Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 16, No. I, 1989, p. 46, emphasis added.
61. "Indonesia", Paper presented at the Media Independence in the Australasian Region conference, Sydney, December 1989, p. 2 (reprinted from Information, Freedom and Censorship; the Article /9 World Report /988, Longman, London, 1988, pp. 140-144).
62. S.K. Ishadi. ( 1989), p. 43.
63. Geoffrey B. Hainsworth "Indonesia's Economic Downswing and Political Reforms", Currellf Hist01y, 1987, Vol. 86, No. 519, p. 174.
76 64. Margaret Scott, "The Sky's the limit", Far Eastern Economic Review, Vol. 148, No. 24, 14 June 1990, p. 39.
65. An influential and growing audience, marketing pamphlet published by Australia Television, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, Sydney, 1993, p.l.
66. S.K. Ishadi. ( 1989), p. 45.
67 Richard Robison, "Authoritarian States, Capital-owning classes, and the Politics of Newly Industrializing Countries: The Case of Indonesia", World Politics, 1988, Vol. 4 1, No. I, p. 73.
Chapter 3
I. BBC Annual Report and Accounts 1991/92, London, BBC, p. 57.
2. O.P. Khushu "Satellite Communications in Asia: An Overview", Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. I, 1993, p. 3.
3. Steve Glain, "Hong Kong-Based Star TV Grows Up Fast", The Asian Wall Street Journal, 29-30 May 1992, pp. I , 28.
4. R. Negrine and S. Papathanassopoulos, The Jnternationalisation of Television, p. 6.
5. "BBC, CNN vie for g lobal television news market", Bangkok Post, 22 December 1992, p. 20.
6. Jane Doughty, "Star Wars", Expression, December 1992-January 1993, p. 27.
7. Jane Doughty, "Star Wars", Expression, December 1992-January 1993, p. 28.
8. "BBC, CNN vie for global television news market", Bangkok Post, 22 December 1992, p. 20.
9. R. Negrine and S. Papathanassopoulos, p. 51.
77 10. "Harmoko foresees growing role for ASEAN press", The Jakarta Post, I December 1989, p. I
II. H. E. Harmoko, Paper presented to Seminar on the Socio-Economic Impact of Broadcast Satellites in the Asia-Pacific Region, Jakarta, Indonesia, 25-27 July 1990, pp. 9- 10.
12. Quoted in "Apology to Indonesia over TV news item", The Star (Penang), 27 September 1992.
13. "Malays ia says sorry over RTM foul-up", The Star, 29 September 1992.
14. Stephen Then, "Mohamed: Disciplinary action , changes in RTM over Dili airing", The Star, 4 October 1992.
15. Regulation no. 111/KEP/MENPEN/90, quoted in S. Ina Ratna Mariani, "Indonesia", Paper presented to Seminar on the social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting, Singapore, 1-3 February 1993, pp. 7-8
16. Jonathan L. Parapak, 'The Progress of Satellite Technology and its Role in the Development of the Asia-Pacific Region", Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 17, No.4, 1990, p. 197.
17. "US television networks to use Indonesian satellite", Fa r Eastern Economic Review, Vol. 153, No. 37, 12 September 199 1, p. 59, emphasis added. The wording "throughout Southeast Asia" was perhaps designed to overcome Indonesian Information Ministry regulations banning services "deliberately broadcast to Indonesia by a foreign television station". By labelling CNN and ESPN pan-regional services, the implication that they were specifically targeting Indonesia appeared more difficult to sustain.
18. "US television networks to use Indonesian satellite", Far Eastern Economic Review, Vol. 153, No. 37, 12 September 1991 , p. 59.
19. See R. William Liddle, "Indonesia's Democratic Past and Future", Comparative Politics, Vol. 24, No.4, 1992, pp. 443-462; and Adam Schwarz, "All is relative: Suharto family's businesses face mounting criticism in Indonesia", Far Eastern Economic Review, Vol. 154., No. 17, 30 April 1992, pp. 54-56.
78 20. Interview with Australian broadcasting industry executive, I 993.
2 1. "US television networks to use Indonesian satellite", Far Eastern Economic Review, Vol. 153, No. 37, 12 September 1992, p. 59.
22. Quoted in "Indon ban of foreign broadcasters stays", Business Times, 2 September 1991.
23. Because of iiTegularities in broadcast equipment standards, not al l owners of parabolic antennae could view CNN in colour.
24. "Asia braces itself for satellite TV", Business Times, 7 October I 991 .
25 . Jonathan Karp, "Medium and message", Far Eastem Economic Review, 25 February 1993, p. 5 1.
26. John Dikkenberg, "A Star is Born", Asia Magazine, No. 29, 6-8 September 1991 , p. 7.
27. Steve Glain, "Hong Ko ng-Based Star TV Grows Up Fast", The Asian Wall Street Journal, 29-30 May 1992, p. I.
28. Margaret Scott, "Dishing the rules", Far Eastem Economic Rel'ie1v, Vol. 148, No. 24, 14 June 1990, p. 35.
29. Quoted in Margaret Scott, "Dishing the rules", Far Eastem Economic Review, Vol. 148, No. 24, 14 June 1990, p. 39.
30. Jonathan Karp, p. 5 1.
31. Fred Brenchley, "Revealed: Murdoch's Star wars strategy", The Australian Financial Review, 20 May 1994.
32. Jonathan Karp, "Medium and message", Far Eastem Economic RevieiV, 25 February 1993 , p. 51.
33. Steve Clark, "Broadcasting to a world made smaller", The Times (London), 3 Ju!le 1990.
34. Peter Goodwin, "Heavens above", TV World, May 1993 , p. 89 .
79 35. BBC Annual Report and Accounts 1991/92, London, BBC, p. 57.
36. Christopher Irwin, Chi ef Executive BBCWST, Evidence of Select Committee on Subscription Television Broadcasting Services, Australian . Senate Hansard, 31 August 1992, p. 290.
37. Christopher Irwin, Chief Executive BBCWST, Evidence of Select Committee on Subscription Television Broadcasting Services, Australi an Senate Hansard, 3 1 August 1992, pp. 290, 292.
38. BBC Annual Report 199112, p. 57.
39. Steven Barnett and David Docherty, "Purity or Pragmatism: Principles and Practice of Public-Service Broadcasting", in Jay G. Blumler and T . J. Nossiter (eds), Broadcasting Finance in Transition: A Comparative Handbook, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 29.
40. William D. Rowland and Michael Tracey, "World wide Challenges to Public Service Broadcasting", lou m al of Communication , Vol. 42, No.2, 1990, p. 9.
4 1. R. Negrine, Politics and th e Mass Media in Britain, London, Routledge, 1989, p. 120.
42. Interview with Rachel Attwe ll , Deputy Editor (Production), BBCWST News, London, 25 November 1992.
43. Christopher Irwin, Chief Executive BBCWST, Evidence of Select Committee on Subscription Television Broadcasting Services, Australian Senate Hansard, 31 August 1992, p. 294.
44. Interview with Rachel Attwell, Deputy Editor (Production), BBCWST News, London, 25 November 1992.
45. Interview with Rachel Attwell, Deputy Editor (Production), BBCWST News, London, 25 November 1992.
46. Mark Furness, "News' Asian satellite TV stake", Th e Australian, 27 July 1993, p. 35.
80 47. J. Lent "Mass Communication in Asia and the Pacific: Recent Trends and Development". In Media Asia, 16, I, 1989, p. 17.
Chapter 4
Quoted in "Satellite TV gets mixed reception in Asia", Business Ti mes (Singapore), 20 September 1990.
2. Quoted in "Broadcasters Cite Satellite TV Threat", The Asian Wall Street Journal, 17 October 1991.
3. "Asia drafts satellite ethics code", Broadcast, 3 June 1994, p. I.
4. Clayton Jones, "Satellite set to beam Asians the truth", The Nation , 2 November 1992, p. C I.
5. Margaret Scott, "The Sky's the limit", Far Eastem Economic Review, Vol. 148, No. 24, 14 June 1990, p. 34.
6. "Samy Vellu sets deadline for removal of satellite dishes", The Straits Times, 7 November 1992.
7. "Asia braces itself for satellite TV", Business Times, 7 October 1991.
8. Saowarop Panyacheewin, "Programmes for the privileged few", Bangkok Post, 2 1 February 1992, p. 23.
9. "Privatise TV to pave way for satellite broadcasts: Boon Heng", Business Times, 28 March 1990.
I 0. Mark A. Huckill, "Impact of Satellites in Singapore", Paper presented to Seminar on the Social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting in Asia, 1-3 February 1993 , p. 3.
II. Singapore Government "Socio-Economic Impact of Broadcast Satellite in Asia-Pacific: A Singapore Viewpoint", Paper presented to Seminar on Socio-Economic Impast of Broadcast Satellites in the The Asia Pacific. 25-27 July 1990.
81 12. Toni Keul emans, "The Impact of Broadcast Satellites on Traditional Values", Paper presented to Semin ar on Socio-Economic Impact of Broadcast Satellites in the Asia-Pacific Region, Jakarta, 25-27 July 1990, p. 7.
13. "MP makes out a case for satellite broadcastin g", The Straits Times, 28 March 1990.
14. Linda Lim, "Review- State and fam il y in Singapore: Restructuri ng and Industrial Society by Janet W. Salaff, Ithica Cornell University Press, 1988, in The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol ,. 49, No. I , 1990, p. 218. emphasis added.
15. R. William Liddle, "Indonesia's Democratic Past and Future", Comparative Politics, Vol. 24, No.4, 1992, p. 449.
16. "Satellite TV gets mi xed reception", Business Times, 20 September 1990.
17. "Satellites may penetrate Singapore's media controls", The Nation, 13 January 1992, p. A4.
18. SCV is delivered via UHF and comprises a news channel, a movie chann el, Home Box Office and a Mandarin language entertai nment chann el, Mark A. Huckill, "Impact of Satellites in Singapore", Paper presented to Seminar on the Social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting in Asia, 1-3 February 1993, p. 3.
19. "Satellites may penetrate Singapore's media controls", The Nation, 13 January 1992, p. A4.
20. Quoted in "Satellites may penetrate Singapore's media controls", The Nation, I 3 January 1992, p. A4.
2 1. Interview with Rachel Attwell, Deputy Editor (Production), BBCWST News, London, 25 November 1992.
22. Lai Kwok Kin, "Satellite television presages battle for Asian skies", Philippine Daily Inquirer, I March 1992, p. 18.
82 23. "Satellites may penetrate Singapore's media controls", The Nation , 13 January 1992, p. A4.
24. An Influential and Growing Audience, marketing pamphlet published by Australia Television, Sydney, 1993, p.l.
25. Zainoor Sulaiman, "A Malaysian Perspective", Paper presented to seminar on the social and cultural impact of satellite broadcasting in Asia, Singapore, 1-3 February 1993, p. 4.
26. "KL bans use of satellite dishes for TV shows", The Straits Times, 2 August 1991.
27. Quoted in M. Scott "News from nowhere", Far Eastern Economic Review, 28 November 1991, p. 33. Also see Madzhi Johari, The Socio-economic Impact of Broadcasting Satellites, Seminar on Socio-economic impact of Broadcast Satellites in the Asia-Pacific Region, Jakarta, July 1990.
28. "Satellite TV blamed for Indian riots", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. I, January-February 1993, p. 5.
29. "Satellite TV blamed for communal riots in India", The Straits Times, 14 December 1992.
30. ibid
31. "Satellite TV blamed for Indian riots" , Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. I , hnuary-February 1993, p. 5.
32. Basskaran Nair, "S ingapore", in Achal Mehra (ed.), p. 86.
33. "Samy Vellu sets deadline for removal of satellite di shes", The Straits Times, 7 November 1992.
34. "Samy Vellu sets deadline for removal of satellite dishes" , The Straits Times, 7 November 1992.
35. Zainoor Sulaiman, "A Malaysian Perspective", Paper presented to seminar on the social and cultural impact of satellite broadcasting in Asia, Singapore, I -3 February I 993, p. 3.
83 36. "Malaysian govt. order dismantling of private satellite dishes", Asia 11 Mass Commu11icatio11 Bulleti11, Vol. 22, No.5, September-October 1992, p. 5.
37. Zainoor Sulaiman, "A Malaysian Perspective", Paper presented to seminar on the social and cultural impact of satellite broadcasting in Asia, Singapore, 1-3 February 1993., p. 4.
38. Zainoor Sulaiman, " 1993, p. 13.
39. Zainoor Sulaiman, 1993, p. 14.
40. Zainoor Sulaiman, 1993, p. 14.
4 1. Maggie Ford, "Jakarta and CNN in satellite transmi ssions deal", Busi11ess Times, 19-20 October 1991.
42. Maggie Ford, "Jakarta and CNN in satellite transmissions deal", Busi11 ess Times, 19-20 October 1991 .
43. "Indonesian TV networks face major chall enges", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. 3, May-June 1993, p. 8.
44. Quoted in "Indonesian TV networks face major challenges", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 23, No.3, May-June 1993, p. 8.
45. Interview with Ben Hawke, Managing Director, Australia Television, Sydney, 2 August 1993.
46. O.P. Khushu "Satellite Communications in Asia: An Overview", Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. I , 1993, p. 7.
47. Jane Doughty, "Star Wars", Expression, December 1992-January 1993, p. 29.
48. Interview with Rachel Attwell , Deputy Editor (Production), BBCWST News, London, 25 November 1992.
49. Matt Baker, "Murdoch outlin es plans for global network", Broadcast, 3 September 1993, p. I.
84 50. John A. Hall, "Class and Elite, Wars and Social Evolution: A Comment on Mann", Sociology, Vol. 22, No.3, August 1988, pp. 385-391 .
51 Doug Tsuruoka, "Prop for Pluralism", Far Eastem Economic Review, ) I February 1993, Vol. 156, No.6, p. 24.
52. Michael Haas, "The Politics of Singapore in the 1980s", Journal of Contemporary Asia, Vol. 19, No. I, 1989, p. 72.
53. Michael Haas, "The Politics of Singapore in the 1980s", Joumal of Contempora/y Asia, Vol. 19, No. I, 1989, p. 71.
54. O.P. Khushu "Satellite Communications in Asia: An Overview", Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. I, 1993, p. 9.
55. Mihaly Simai, "Globalization and Fragmentation in the World Economy and the Information Revolution", Paper presented at conference on Improving the Quality of life with Information and Technology and Communications, Bangkok, October 1992, p.30.
56. Ranggasamy Km1higesu, "Globalisation on Television: How Asia Acts and Reacts", Paper presented to the 32nd Conference of the International Communication Association, Miami, 1992, p. 3.
57. R. Negrine and S. Papathanassopoulos, p. 5 1.
Chapter 5
I. Teresa Poole, "Thai Army death squads hunt rioters", The Independent (London), 19 May 1992, p. I.
2. "Thailand, the generals and the king", The Economist, 23 May 1992, p. 26.
3. Pascal Privazt and Ron Moreau, "Dyin g for Democracy", Newsweek, 2 June 1992, pp. 56-57.
85 4. Ubonrat Siriyuvasak, "The Social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting in Thailand", Paper presented to seminar on the Social and Cultural Impact of Satellite Broadcasting in Asia , Sin gapore, February 1993, p. 3.
5. Ubonrat Siriyuvasak, 1993, p. 4.
6. Final report on Incidents Involving Journalists Covering Disturbances in Bangkok 17-24 May 1992, Foreign Correspondents' Club of Thailand, Bangkok, July 1992, p. 5.
7. Saowarop Panyacheewin, "Programmes for the privileged few", Bc111gkok Post, 2 1 February 1992, p.24.
8. Ubonrat Siriyuvasak, 1993, p. 4.
9. "Yingyord Manchuvisith and Patcharee Luengutai, "Nukul asks PTD to review policy on dish antennas", Th e Nation, 17 January 1992, p. B3.
10. Siam Rath, "Give the new premier a chance", The Nation, II April 1992.
II. "Dateline Bangkok", Bangkok Post, 7 April 1992.
12. "Editorial", Bangkok Post, I 0 April 1992.
13. "Editorial", Bangkok Post, 10 April 1992.
14. "No TV lights to brighten the 'political darkness' : Electronic media ignore 'mourning of democracy', The Nation, 17 April 1992.
15. Graeme Loveridge, "Censors apart, thank you for being news connoisseurs", The Nation, 18 May 1993.
16. "Suchinda denies gag placed on TV stations", Th e Nation, 28 April 1992.
17. "Army Radio hits out at protest against Premier", Bangkok Post, 22 April 1992.
18. Pravit Rojanaphruk "News not fit for adult viewing?", The Nation, I May 1992.
86 19. "PM urged to explain information policy", Bangkok Post, 25 April 1992; and "PM asked to safeguard press freedom", The Nation, 25 April 1992.
20. "State media ban attacks on Govt", Bangkok Post, 30 April 1992.
21. Quoted in "Editorial", Bangkok Post, 5 April 1992.
22. "Editorial: For Thai land's sake, there is no choice: Suchinda must step down", The Nation, 6 May 1992.
23. Chamlong abandoned the hunger strike several days later without the conditions being met.
24. "Dateline Bangkok", Bangkok Post, 7 May 1992.
25. Quoted in "Anan moves to allay fears of censorship", The Nation , 9 April 1992.
26. "Foreign media barred satelli te transmission", Bangkok Post, 9 May 1992.
27. "Agency banned from transmitting footage", The Nation, 9 May 1992.
28 . Interview with Dominic Faulder, Foreign Correspondents' Club of Thailand, Bangkok, 9 February 1993.
29. Wasant Techawaongtham, "TV/Radio: Back in the dark ages", Bangkok Post, 12 May 1992.
30. Bangkok Post, 18 May 1992.
31. "TV highlights troops' injuries and di sc ipline", The Nation, 19 May 1993.
32. "TV hi ghlights troops' injuries and di scipline", The Nation, 19 May 1993.
33. "Govt media keeps lid on death toll", The Nation , 20 April 1992.
34. "Govt media keeps lid on death toll", The Nation, 20 April 1992.
35. Final report on Incidents Involving Journali sts Covering Disturbances in Bangkok 17-24 May 1992, Foreign Correspondents' Club of Thailand, Bangkok, July 1992, p. 5.
87 36. BBC World Service Television News, 17 May 1992, BBC Television News Archives, London.
37. Interview with Rachel Attwell, Deputy Editor (Production), BBCWST News, London, 25 November 1992.
38. BBC World Service Television News, 19 May 1992, BBC Television News Archives, London.
39. BBC World Service Television News, 19 May 1992, BBC Television News Archives, London.
40. "Broadcasts expanded", Bangkok Post, 2 1 May 1993.
4 1. Quoted in David Watts, "Royal family acts to stem Thai turmoil", The Times, 2I May 1992, p. II.
42. Interview with Western embassy official, Bangkok, I I February, 1993.
43. Interview with Western embassy official, Bangkok, II February, 1993.
44. Interview with Rachel Attwell, Deputy Editor (Production), BBCWST News, London, 25 November 1992.
45. Wipawee Otaganonta and Saowarop Panyacheewin, "Tapping in to the new information exchange", Bangkok Post, 23 May 1992, p 0 2.
46. "Censorship makes more people want to buy satellite dishes", Bangkok Post, I June 1992, p. 19.
47. "Telephones get protest workout", Bangkok Post, 13 May 1992.
48. "Hand phones thwart govt media gag", The Nation, 14 May 1992, p. A2.
49. "TV news audience soared during May crisis", The Nation , 4 August 1992, p. B2.
50. Virat Saengthongkham et al, "The Medium is the Message", Manager, No. 43, July 1992, pp. 22-23.
88 51. Kasvi Chongkittavorn, "It's high time Thai television is freed", The Nation, 29 May 1992; and "Saowarop Panyacheewin, "Freedom to inform: Pressure on for Independent broadcasting", Bangkok Post, 2 June I 992.
52. Interview with Somkiat Onwimol, Pacific International Communications, Bangkok, 10 February I 993.
53. ibid.
54. Wipawee Otaganonta, "A yuppie mob", Bangkok Post, 13 May 1992.
Chapter 6
1. "The Detailed Regulations of the Government Rules For Satellite TV Receivers - Ministry of Radio, Film and Television", People's Daily (Beijing), 27 February 1994. Some institutions are able to apply for parabolic antennae: education, scientific research, finance, trade and journalism facilities; hotels over three star standard; and work and residential compounds for foreign citizens.
2. Eric Ellis, "Beijing Moves to limit spread of satellite TV", The Australian Financial Review, 7 October I 993, p. I 2.
3. Eric Ellis, "Beijing Moves to limit spread of satellite TV", The Australian Financial Review, 7 October I 993, p. I 2, emphasis added.
4. Matt Baker, "Murdoch outlines plans for global network", Broadcast, 3 September I 993, p. I.
5. Matt Baker, "Murdoch outlines plans for global network", Broadcast, 3 September I 993, p. I.
6. "Murdoch axed BBC to appease Chinese", The Australian Financial Review, 15 June 1994, p. 27.
7. "Colony's cross-media laws aimed at Kuok: Malaysian PM", The Australian Financial Review, 7 October 1993, p. 17 .
8. O.P. Khushu "Satellite Communications in Asia: An Overview", Media Asia: An Asian Mass Communications Quarterly, Vol. 20, No. I, 1993, p. 5.
89 9. Quoted in Surya Gangadharan, "Launch of Thai land sat I scheduled for 1993-94", Bangkok Post, 9 April 1992, p. 18.
10. ibid.
II. "Satellite TV reception without a dish", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 22., No. 5., September-October 1992, p. 4.
12. O.P. Khushu "Satellite Communications in Asia: An Overview", 1993, p. 6.
13. R. Negrine and S. Papathanassopoulos, 1990, p. 5 1.
14. Takeshi Hayashi, "Development and Communication in Asia", Paper presented to the 2nd Communication Forum, The Japan Society of Information and Communication Research, Tokyo, 1991, p. 33.
15. O.P. Khushu 1993, p. 7.
16. Malcolm Long, "The Audio-Visual Revolution in the Asia-Pacific Region", Address to the Communications and Media Law Association of Australia, March 1992, p. 3.
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Otaganonta, Wipawee, 1992. "A yuppie mob", Bangkok Post, 13 May 1992.
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Panyacheewin, Saowarop, 1992. "Programmes for the privileged few", Bangkok Post, 2 1 February 1992, p.24.
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97 Poole, Teresa, 1992. "Thai Army death squads hunt rioters", The Independent (London), 19 May 1992, p. I .
Privazt, Pascal, and Moreau, Ron, 1992. "Dying for Democracy", Newsweek, 2June, 1992,. pp. 56-57.
Rath, Siam, 1992. "Give the new premier a chance", The Nation, II April, 1992.
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Rojanaphruk, Pravit, 1992. "News not fit for adult viewing?", The Nation, I May 1992.
Rowland, William D., and Tracey, Michael, 1992. "Worldwide Challenges to Public Service Broadcasting", Journal of Communication, Vol. 42, No.2, I 990, pp. 8-27.
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Press Articles With No Author Cited
"Agency banned from transmitting footage", The Nation (Bangkok), 9 May 1992.
"Anan moves to allay fears of censorship", The Nation, 9 April 1992.
"Apology to Indonesia over TV news item", The Star (Penang), 27 September 1992.
"Army Radio hits out at protest against Premier", Bangkok Post, 22 April 1992.
"Asia braces itself for satellite TV", Business Times (Singapore), 7 October 1991.
"Asia drafts satellite ethics code", Broadcast, 3 June 1994, p. I.
"BBC, CNN vie for global television news market", Bangkok Post, 22 December 1992, p. 20.
"Broadcasters Cite Satellite TV Threat", The Asian Wall Street Journal, 17 October 1991.
"Broadcasts expanded", Bangkok Post, 21 May 1993.
"Censorship makes more people want to buy satellite dishes", Bangkok Post, I June 1992, p. 19.
100 "Colony's cross-media laws aimed at Kuok: Malaysian PM", the Australian Financial Review, 7 October 1993, p. 17.
"Dateline Bangkok", Bangkok Post, 7 May 1992.
"Editorial", Bangkok Post, 5 April 1992.
"Editorial", Bangkok Post, I 0 April, 1992.
"Editorial: For Thailand's sake, there is no choice: Suchinda must step down", The Nation, 6 May 1992.
"Foreign media barred satellite transmission", Bangkok Post, 9 May 1992.
"Going with the Flow", Far Eastern Economic Review, II June 1992, pp. 11-12.
"Government warns four publications for errors", The Jakarta Post, 5 June 1989, p. l .
"Govt media keeps lid on death toll", The Nation, 20 April 1992.
"Hand phones thwart govt media gag", The Nation, 14 May 1992, p. A2.
"Harmoko foresees growing role for ASEAN press", The Jakarta Post, December 1989, p. I.
"Harmoko tells press to avoid sensational, tendentious reporting", The Jakarta Post, 7 June 1989, p. I.
"lndon ban of foreign broadcasters stays", Business Times, 2 September 1991.
"Indonesian TV networks face major challenges", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 23, No.3, May-June 1993, p. 8.
"KL bans use of satellite dishes for TV shows", The Straits Times, 2 August 1991 .
"Malaysia says sorry over RTM foul-up", The Star, 29 September 1992.
"Malaysian govt. orders dismantling of private satellite dishes", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 22, No.5, September-October 1992, p. 5.
101 "MP makes out a case for satellite broadcasting", The Straits Times, 28 March 1990.
"Murdoch axed BBC to appease Chinese", the Australian Financial Review, 15 June 1994, p. 27.
"Murdoch may split Star in two", Television Asia, No.2, October 1993, p. 5.
"No TV lights to brighten the 'political darkness': Electronic media ig nore 'mourning of democracy', The Nation, 17 April 1992.
"PM asked to safeguard press freedom", The Nation, 25 April 1992.
"PM urged to explain information policy", Bangkok Post, 25 April 1992.
"President Soeharto inaugurates RCTI studio and office building", The Jakarta Post, 28 August 1989, p. 2.
"Privatise TV to pave way for satellite broadcasts: Boon Heng", Business Times, 28 March 1990.
"Samy Vellu sets deadline for removal of satellite dishes", The Straits Times, 7 November 1992.
"Satellite TV blamed for communal riots in India", The Straits Times, 14 December 1992.
"Satellite TV blamed for Indian riots", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 23, No. I, January-February 1993, p. 5.
"Satellite TV gets mixed reception in Asia", Business Times, 20 September 1990.
"Satellite TV reception without a dish", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vo. 22., No.5., September-October 1992, p. 4.
"Satellites may penetrate Singapore's media controls", The Nation, 13 January 1992, p. A4.
"State media ban attacks on Govt", Bangkok Post, 30 April 1992.
"Suchinda denies gag placed on TV stations", The Nation, 28 April 1992.
102 "Telephones get protest workout", Bangkok Post, 13 May 1992.
"Thailand, the generals and the king", The Economist, 23 May 1992, p. 26.
"The Detailed Regulations of the Government Rules For Satellite TV Receivers -Ministry of Radio, Film and Television", People's Daily (Beijing), 27 February 1994.
"TPI seeks to become family channel", Asian Mass Communication Bulletin, Vol. 24, No.2, 1994, p. 8.
"TV highlights troops' injuries and discipline", The Nation, 19 May 1993.
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103 Will Atkins
Originally from Perth, Will Atkins has been a journalist in Australia, the UK and Asia in both print media and television. He is cun·ently enrolled in a Ph.D. in the Department of Government, University of Sydney entitled "Southeast Asia and the Global Village: The Politics of New Media in ASEAN 1985- 1995". He was awarded the University Medal for his Honours thesis which forms the basis of this paper.
104 The Centre for Asian Communication, Media and Cultural Studies. Edith Cowan University.
The Centre seeks to Provide a focus for the study of communication and culture in the Asia region. Australia's increasing involvement in Asia requires an awareness of Asian media processes and institutions, their cultural positioning and discourses. Additionall y there is a need to understand the way in which the Australian media report Asia. These two discourses intersect and shape both the flow of public information between the two regions and their understanding of each other. An attempt to achieve an awareness of this complex process determines the aims, objectives and research programme of the Centre for Asian Communication, Media and Cultural Studies.
Aims and Objectives.
The Centre aims to:
• develop a research profile in the field of Asian communication, media and cultural studies;
• promote an awareness of the importance of the e merging mediascape to contemporary Asian affairs;
• bring together academics, journalists and students working in the area to explore current and relevent issues and topics in the field of Asian communication and cultural studies;
• organise seminars, workshops, and conferences to promote research in the field;
• publish works that promote an awareness and understanding of the field;
• establish a Visiting Scholar programme
105 Research.
The Centre has established research programmes in Indonesia and China that look at the impact of satellite television and cable television systems respectively. The Centre is also involved in research that is examining issues relating to the 'law of the skies', an issue that is perceived to be of great significance throughout Asia.
Disclaimer
The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those held by the Centre for Asian Communication, Media and Cultural Studies, or Edith Cowan University.
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