Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-7, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in
The Schism of Buddhism and the Rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India
Duong Thi Thuy Duong Ph.D. Research Scholar in Department of Buddhist Studies University of Delhi, North Campus, Delhi 110007
1. Schism of Indian Buddhism of the second Buddhist Council at Ves lī about one At the time of the Buddha, the members of the hundred years after the nirv ṇa of the Buddha. The Saṃgha sometimes did not live in harmony. Once a schism happened due to the disagreement on the conflict between the monks arose in Kosambī.1 rules of Vinaya (disciplines) between the younger Though the Buddha himself tried to resolve it, it and native monks of Ves lī, and the elder and alien could not be resolved, so the Buddha left and went to monks. The former wanted to change some rules (ten 6 the forest for his rainy retreat. Devadatta, the rules) of monastic life to adapt to the changing Buddha’s cousin, did not obey his instruction for social realities of Ves lī, but the latter objected to living in harmony, but tried to struggle with him and these ideas and strictly upheld the Vinaya that came even wanted to murder him.2 These events can also down from the time of the Buddha. Though the ten be considered as the kind of schism of the Buddhist rules did not amount to a radical revision of Vinaya, Saṃgha. Witnessing it, the Buddha felt that the they caused the schism of the Saṃgha. Those who Saṃgha would be split after his demise. So in the supported the new ideas of Vinaya were called the Mah parinibb nasutta3 the Buddha advised the Mah saṃgha (Mah saṅghika), the opposite side was bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs that as long as the members of called the Sthavirav da (or Therav da). The schism the monastic Order followed the following four rules, gradually led to the rise of diverse sects and it will never be split: 1. Avoid to idle talk and gossips movements. that do not lead to the goal of homeless life; 2. Besides the controversy about the Vinaya, the Maintain meetings of the members of the Saṃgha in doctrinal differences also caused the division among peaceful way as frequently as possible; 3. Perform the members of the Saṃgha. Thirty five years after ceremonial acts, particularly the Uposattha ceremony the second Council at Ves lī, Mah deva propounded 7 in harmony; and 4. Obey and respect the elders the five points concerning Arahant, which were (senior members of the Saṃgha), especially the vehemently discarded by the Sthavirav dins (elders leaders of the Order. of Sthavirav da Sect). So, the council was held at Nevertheless, after the demise of the Buddha, the P ṭaliputra under the patronage of the ruling King Saṃgha seemed to have no guidance in the questions Nanda who was his friend. In it, the members of of homeless life. So the first Council was held to Mah saṃgha supported the viewpoints of confirm the teachings of the Buddha in order to Mah deva. The senior bhikṣus who opposed the five demonstrate that though the Buddha passed away, his dogmas were expelled from the Buddhist community 8 teachings were recognized by the assembly of the of P ṭaliputra. Saṃgha.4 However, not all members of the Saṃgha The schism of the Saṃgha began with the accepted the results of the Council: venerable Puṇṇa difference of viewpoints concerning the and Gav mpati declared that they would only follow interpretation and practice of moral rules (Vinaya) at the teachings, which they heard from very lips of the Ves lī and developed into doctrinal schism between Buddha.5 This was the first sign of the schism of the the Mah saṃgha or majority and Therav da or Buddhist monastic community. minority on the question of five dogmas propounded 9 During more than 100 years of development and by Mah deva at P ṭaliputra. From that time spreading of Buddhism, the monastic Order practiced onwards, the division of monastic community the teachings of the Buddha as well as the rules gradually widened. More than eighteen sects (Vinaya) in order to attain the goal of Buddhism. appeared; out of which eleven sprang from the However, the doctrines of the Buddha were Therav da tradition, and seven from the explained in different ways and the rules were Mah saṃgha that adopted new ideas in order to applied in accordance with local customs. This was a adjust to the geographical, social and cultural natural development. On this account the Buddhist changes. The latter sects became the fore-runners of sects in India appeared and increased in number. The the Mah y na tradition. Nalinaksha Dutt pointed out schism of monastic Saṃgha began clearly at the time
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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-7, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in that the factors below were the probable reasons for had excellent eyes (dibba cakkhuk nam), 6. Puṇṇa, the breakup of the Saṃgha:10 the greatest preacher of the Dhamma 1. Absence of the leader of the Saṃgha (dhammakathik nam), 7. nanda was well versed in community. the Suttas (bahussut nam), 8. Up li clearly 2. Particularization in each of the different understood the Vinaya (vinayadhar nam), 9. Revata doctrines of the Buddha’s teachings. Khadiravaniya, the greatest recluse in the forest 3. Grouping around the famous teachers. ( raññik n m), 10. R hula, the greatest student 4. Large permission in Vinaya. (sikkh k m nam), etc.16 Each student would Besides, during his life-time, the Buddha used naturally imbibe the qualities of his teacher. Thus, different ways, methods, ideas and instruction the bhikṣus under the guidance of S riputta were the techniques depending on the ability and composition foremost in wisdom, etc. More than a thousand years of the audience in order to make them understand his after the nirv ṇa of the Buddha, Hsuan Tsang, the teachings. His method characterized by versatility, Chinese Buddhist monk and pilgrim, traveled to flexibility and affluence led to the difference of India and mentioned that the monks specializing in interpretation of his teachings later. Abhidharma worshipped S riputta, Sam dhi’s/iddhi 1. The Buddha himself recognized that he was not power (miraculous power) disciples the ‘teacher’s fist’ regarding the doctrines. He Mah moggall na, Sūtra learners Pūṇṇa, r maṇera stressed that he only taught the Dharma that was for (novice) students R hula, bhikṣuṇīs nanda, the the happiness of all. He also did not take charge of Mah y nists Mañju rī and other Boddhisattvas.17 the Saṃgha of monks and nuns.11 He encouraged his 4. The Saṃgha disciplines were not rigid disciples to take refuge in themselves, not in others. precepts, but optional moral principles that were Let Dharma be the only island for refuge.12 In applied flexibly and changed depending on different addition, the Buddha said that the bhikṣus, bhikṣuṇīs, social conditions. Some monastic disciplines were laymen and laywomen who respected the Dharma, accepted on the periphery, but were strictly respected him.13 The Buddha also told his disciples prohibited to the bhikṣus who dwelled in the center. that after his demise, the Dharma, the doctrines and For instance, the Buddha made some exceptions for disciplines that he had taught would become their those who resided in Avantī where Mah kacc yana teacher.14 was preaching and guiding the Saṃgha.18 In the 2. During the lifetime of the Buddha, when there Mah parinibb nasutta, the Buddha told nanda that was no written language for recording his teachings, he was free to abolish some minor rules of the the only way for storing and transferring them down monastic Order after his passing away.19 Thus, to the next generations was recitation and following the rules had the purpose of creating the memorization. It was impossible for a single monk or power of self-control in the mind of each member of nun to memorize all the discourses of the Buddha, so the Saṃgha. among the Buddha’s disciples each memorized a As seen from the above instances, the disciplinary particular set of discourses. At the first Buddhist rules in the Buddha’s view were optional. He never Council, Venerable nanda who for a long time was obligated his disciples to strictly observe them, but the Buddha’s personal attendant recited the doctrines after his nirv ṇa his disciples made it the most (Suttas/Sūtras), while the venerable Upali was important matter in the Saṃgha. The introduction of requested to recite the disciplines (Vinaya).15 They the ten rules of Vinaya by the bhikṣus of Ves lī did were preserved and handed down from generations not harm the Saṃgha, but the senior monks (elders) to generations. Moreover there was a chance that made it very important because they were persistent someone who was interested in the doctrines would in it. This might have caused the schism of the not be able to memorize the disciplines and vice Saṃgha during the spreading and development of versa, which fact gradually became a reason for the monastic Buddhism. development of sects within Buddhism. According to Dīpavaṃsa, there were eighteen 3. The Buddha sometimes gave prominence to sects of which seven were the offshoots of the some of his disciples by complimenting them for Mah saṃgha and eleven of the Sthavirav da.20 They their particular abilities in certain sets of the are shown in the Chart I. Dharma. He also encouraged the newcomers to the Another source mentions a different number and Saṃgha to follow prominent monks in practicing the names of sects and sub-sects:21 The Mah saṅghikas doctrines and disciplines. The Anguttara Nik ya split into seven sects including the original one: 1. contains a list of the most prominent of the Buddha’s Mah saṅghika, Gokulika (Kukkulika), Paññattiv da disciples: 1. S riputta (Skt. riputra) was praised as (Prajñaptiv da), Bahu rutīya, Chetiyav da, having the highest wisdom (mah paññ nam); 2. Ekavyavah rika and Lokottarav da. Whereas, the Mah moggall na possessed the highest miracle Therav dins (Sthavirav dins) split into eleven sub- power (iddhimant nam); 3. Mah kassapa was the sects: Therav da, Mahī saka, Dharmagupta, greatest in austerity (dhūtav d nam), 4. Sarv stiv da, Sam, K yapīya, Saṅkantika Mah kacc yana, the greatest expositor, 5. Anurudha
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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-7, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in
(Sautr ntika/Saṅkr ntika), V tsīputrīya (Sammitīya), Lamotte cites the account of Vasumitra who Dharmottarīya, Bhadray nīya, and Shaṇṇ garika.22 classified the sects and sub-sects of Buddhism as seen in Chart II.23 Thus, notwithstanding the difference of accounts it can be asserted that in the first four centuries of the history of Indian Buddhism, a number of sects Monastic Buddhism developed and spread in most regions of India. According to T r n tha, a Tibetan historian who lived in the 16th century A.D., though the monastic Buddhism was split into eighteen sects, they Therav da Mah saṅgītika coexisted without a serious conflict.24
2. Rise of Mahāyāna Buddhism Vajjiputtaka/ Mahiṃs saka Ekabyoh r Gokulik The schism of Buddhism started at the second Pudgalav da Buddhist Council. In the beginning, there were the
two main sects: the Mah saṅghika (Mah saṃgha) Sabbatthav da Dhammagutta and Sthavirav da (Therav da). And from them eighteen sects sprang. By 150 B.C., a new set of Buddhist doctrines and practices developed. It Kassapika continued for two hundred and fifty years till 100 A.D. It was known as Mah y na Buddhism and it Saṅkanti was the result of development of the new Buddhist Bahussuttika Paññatti Cetiya Punav da doctrines during the period of Sectarian Buddhism. It
Suttav da did not originate from any individual, and was not connected with any special sect in the period of early Buddhism. It was rooted in various sects of Buddhism, and it originated in various regions of Dhammuttarika Dhadday nika Chann g rika Sammiti ancient India, the south, north and east. This new movement could be seen as an effort to combat factionalism in Buddhism and reform its monastic Chart1 1 tradition. Some modern scholars propound the theory that Monastic Buddhism Mah y na Buddhism derived from the Mah saṅghika Sect,25 since they shared a large number of doctrines. For instance, several doctrines
Mah s ṃghikas Sthavirav da in the Mah prajñ p ramit stra of N g rjuna (the 1st century A.D.) originated from the Mah saṅghika literature. On the other hand, various important concepts of Mah y na were derived and developed Ekavyavah rikas Sarv stiv da M lasarv stiv da from the doctrines of the Sarv stiv da Sect (a sub- sect of the Sthavirav da); the Yog c ra School or Vijñ nav da that was founded by Maitreyan tha at the 3rd century A.D. and developed to its highest K yapīyas Mahī sakas V tsīputrīyas Sautr ntikas stage by half-brothers Asaṅga and Vasubandhu in the 4th century A.D., borrowed many ideas from
Kaukkuṭikas Sarv stiv da. Thus, various doctrines of Mah y na clearly had a relation to those of Mah saṅghika and .26 Williams pointed out that the Lokottarav dins Dharmaottarīyas Dharmaguptakas Sarv stiv da Mah y na Buddhism might have developed among or influenced by some monks who had left Bahu rutīyas monasteries in order to practice more intensely and live a more austere life. Mah y na Buddhism was
Bhadr yanīyas Saṃmatīyas Channagirikas considered as the result of an austere revivalist movement of the Buddha’s followers who wished to return to the example of the Buddha himself who had made a long and tough journey to attain 27 Prajñaptiv din Caitya ailas Apara ailas Uttara ailas enlightenment.
Chart 2 Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Page 782
Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-7, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in
Akira Hirakawa mentioned three sources that concept was borrowed from the Mah saṅghika Sect contain detailed significant accounts of the origin of and developed in Mah y na Buddhism as the idea of Mah y na.28 The first source is Sectarian Buddhism Sambhogak ya29 (body of enjoyment). Second, (also called the Nik ya Buddhism). According to Mah y nists developed the concept of Bodhisattva him, many modern Buddhist scholars believe that who is already free from the cycle of birth and death Mah y na grew out of the Mah saṅghika Sect due (saṃs ra), but desiring to help all living beings a to the doctrinal similarities between the two. Bodhisattva is reborn in the lower realms. This However, the Mah saṅghika Sect persisted for a concept was developed by some sects during the long time even after the appearance of Mah y na. period of Sectarian Buddhism. In early Buddhist Moreover, the teachings of other Sects such as literature, particularly of the Sarv stiv da Sect, Sarv stiv da, Therav da, Dharmaguptaka, and Bodhisattva referred to the previous lives of the Mahīṣ saka also influenced and were incorporated Buddha. According to the Sarv stiv dins, into Mah y na. Thus, the rise of Mah y na cannot Bodhisattva living in saṃs ra was subject to his be seen simply as a result of the transformation of karma, but he/she was free of the law of karma if Mah saṅgha. he/she attained Arahanthood and entered the The second source is the biographical literature of nirv ṇa. By contrast, the Mah saṅghikas maintained the Buddha compiled by the individuals who were that Bodhisattva has already been freed from the considered as Mah y na teachers. This literature effects of the law of karma, he possessed all merits may have belonged to Sectarian Buddhism, but it in order to attain Buddhahood, but he/she is reborn in later became the means to overcome sectarian limits the lower realms out of his/her will and vow to save and provided the accounts of the rise of the new all living beings. Thirdly, the Mah y nists developed Buddhist movement, Mah y na. The Mah vastu, new teachings, particularly Abhidharma, which was composed by the Lokottarav dins (the sub-Sect of the result of the practice of deep meditation.30 the Mah saṅghika Sect), the Abhiniṣkramaṇasūtra of Thus, Mah y na appeared as a result of the Dharmaguptakas, the Lalitavistara of the interaction between the members of different Sects Sarv stiv dins, the two later were the sub-sects of that possessed separate doctrines and sūtras. So, Sthavirav da, which were close to the biographies of those who accepted these new doctrines and sūtras as the Buddha that were developed in Mah y na later. the teachings of the Buddha (Buddhavacana) might Besides, some biographical compositions by have been called the followers of Mah y na. But Buddhist poets, such as the Buddhacarita of they did not necessarily have to leave their former A vaghoṣa (the 2nd century A.D.) had close relations traditions. The members of Mah y na Buddhism, with the Sarv stiv da Sect, but its author was closely particularly the members of monastic Order were connected with other Sects, such as Bahu rutiya, still a minority among the followers of Indian Sautr ntika, and Yog c ra. He and other Buddhist Buddhism during the first few centuries of its poets like M tṛceta (the 2nd or the 3rd century A.D., development. They dwelled in their own just after A vaghoṣa) were known to be a part of the monasteries, and even lived together with other new Buddhist movement. members of Sectarian Buddhism (also called the The third source is the stūpa worship. After the Hīnay na Buddhism). This proves that the members nirv ṇa of the Buddha, his relics were divided into of new Buddhist movement retained the same eight parts and distributed among the eight states of disciplines (Vinaya) of monastic life as the followers central India. These eight relics were placed in eight of the Sectarian Buddhism; they only had different stūpas built for their worship. During the reign of doctrines and practices. At the end of the 4th and in King A oka, these relics were re-divided into many the beginning of the 5th century A.D. (399-414 A.D.) parts and placed in stūpas built by A oka in every the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hsien who visited India place of his kingdom. The stūpa worship gradually mentioned three kinds of monasteries: Sectarian spread wherever Buddhism spread. Stūpa worship Buddhism monasteries in which all members made a significant contribution to the rise of followed the doctrines of Sectarian Buddhism, Mah y na. For, the beginning of stūpa worship led Mah y na monasteries, and mix monasteries in to the establishment of Buddhist monasteries around which both the followers of Sectarian and Mah y na the stūpas. Further, groups of followers formed Buddhism were resided. Hsuan Tsang who traveled Orders and started to develop the new doctrine in India during fourteen years starting from 629 A.D. relating to the salvation powers of the Buddha. These also mentioned the same three kinds of Buddhist factors gradually contributed to the rise of monasteries. He added that sixty percent of Mah y na. monasteries belonged to Sectarian Buddhism, twenty This new Buddhist movement known as four percent to Mah y na and fifteen percent were Mah y na had three characteristic features. First, it monasteries in which the followers of both rather involved the concept of Buddhahood. The Mah y na and Sectarian dwelled together.31 Mah y nists believed that the Buddha was eternal in Thus, the development of Mah y na Buddhism body and life and was a supernatural individual. This demonstrated the creative and flexible nature of
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Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol-3, Issue-7, 2017 ISSN: 2454-1362, http://www.onlinejournal.in
Buddhism, which helped it to adapt to the changing social and cultural circumstances. Its appearance 14 Ibid., ii.156. produced a significant change in both Buddhist 15 N. Dutt, Buddhist Sects in India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998, pp.42-43. thought and practice. It displayed unlimited 16 compassion inviting all those who aspired after the Aṅguttara Nik ya i.23-24. (The Aṅguttara Nik ya, trans. F. L. Woodward, The Book of the Gradual Sayings, Vol.I, highest goal of Buddhism, Buddhahood. It London: PTS, 2000, Fisrt edn., Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, accommodated various ideas and popular religious 2006.) practices. All these aspects of Mah y na Buddhism 17 T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India, vol.I, contributed to its development and popularity. Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1996, p.302. 18 Mah vagga V, 13.13. (The Mah vagga, The Book of the Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka), Volume IV, The Mah vagga, trans. I.B. Horner, London: Luzac & Company Ltd, 1971.) 19 Dīgha Nik ya ii.156. 20 1 Majjhima Nik ya i.321. (The Majjhima Nik ya, trans. Dīpavaṃsa, trans. Hermann Oldenberg, New Delhi: Bhikkhu Ñ ṇ namoli & Bhikkhu Bodhi, The Middle Asian Educational Services, 1992, chapter IV, p.34. 21 E. Lamotte, Op.Cit., p.530. Length Discourses of the Buddha, Boston: Wisdom 22 Publications, 1995.) S.R. Goyal, A History of Indian Buddhism, Book Two, 2 Cullavagga VII, 3.6-14. (The Cullavagga, The Book of Jodhpur: Kusumanjali Book World, 2002, p.13. 23 E. Lamotte, op. cit., p.530. the Discipline (Vinaya-Pitaka), Volume V, The 24 Cullavagga, trans. I.B. Horner, London: Luzac & D. Chattopadhyaya, ed., T ran tha’s History of Company Ltd, 1963.) Buddhism in India, trans. Lama C. A. Chattopadhyaya, 3 Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1990, p.91. Dīgha Nik ya ii.72. (The Dīgha Nik ya, trans. Maurice 25 Walshe, The Long Discourses of the Buddha, Boston: P. Williams, ed., Buddhism – Critical Concepts in Wisdom Publications, 1995.) Religious Studies, Vol.III, London: Routledge, 2005, 4 Cullavagga XI, 1.3-6. p.180. 26 Ibid., p.181. 5 E. Lamotte, History of Indian Buddhism, from the Origins 27 P. Williams, Mahayana Buddhism - The Doctrinal to the aka Era, trans. Sara Webb-Boin, Paris: Peeters Foundations, London: Routledge, 2009, p.31. Press, 1988, p.126. 28 H. Akira, A History of Indian Buddhism, from the 6 The ten unlawful rules in the Cullavagga XII, 1.1. kyamuni to Early Mah y na, trans. & ed. Paul Groner, i. Siṅgiloṇa kappa: keeping salt in a horn. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press, 1990, pp.260-274. ii. Dvaṅgula kappa: taking food in the afternoon. 29 Sambhogak ya, the body of enjoyment. This is the iii. G mantara kappa: taking two meals on the same day. subtle body of limitless of form. It can be considered as the iv. v sa kappa: taking uposathas in different places body or aspect through which the Buddha enjoyed Himself within the same sīm (boundary). in the Dharma, in teaching the Dharma, in leading others v. Anumati kappa: deciding an act without enough to the realization of the Dharma, and in enjoying the members of Saṃgha. company of Bodhisattvas.. vi. ciṇṇa kappa: following the precedent custom. 30 P. Williams, ed., Buddhism Critical Concepts in vii. Amathita kappa: using fermented milk (yogurt) in the – Religious Studies, Vol.III, London: Routledge, 2005, afternoon. pp.181-182. viii. Jaḷogiṃ p tuṃ kappa: drinking fermented fruit juice. 31 H. Akira, Op.Cit., p.244. ix. Adasakaṃ nisīdanaṃ kappa: using borderless sheet. x. J tarūparjataṃ kappa: begging and keeping gold and silver. 7 Five points of Mah deva: see: Kath vatthu, vol.I, ed. by Arnold C. Taylor, London: Pali Text Society, 1894. Arahant: i. is impure by wicked Devas (Atthi arahato r go ti?). Kath vatthu II.1, p.164. ii. may remain ignorant (Atthi arahato aññ ṇaṃ ti?). Kath vatthu II.2, p.173. iii. may have some doubts (Atthi arahato kaṅkh ti?). Kath vatthu II.3, p.180 iv. attain goal (Arahant) through others (Atthi arahato paravit rṇ ti?). Kath vatthu II.4, p.187. v. attain goal (Arahant) by the path of an exclamation (Vacībheda). Kath vatthu II.3, 4 and XI.4. 8 N. Dutt, Early Monastic Buddhism, vol.II, Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, 1945, p.41-42. 9 Ipid., p.41-42. 10 N. Dutt, Buddhist Sects in India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1998, p.39. 11 Dīgha Nik ya ii.100. 12 Ibid., ii.101. 13 Ibid., ii.139.
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