C. Wade Meade Excavations Inthe21 Chapters Three Through Onthehill

taught years for at UT four andone-half Tyler. years heretired1970 through 2000.After thirty-nine from Tech andmoved to Tyler, where he TX, at Louisiana Tech University. inthe While there participated Meade Tech-Rome Program from from The University of Texas at Austin and then taught Archaeology Roman History and Roman C. Wade Meade excavations inthe21 Chapters Three through onthehill. Seven dealswithconstruction The dealswith Epiloguebriefly previous work onthePalatine. The SecondChapter shows thegeological evolution ofthehill. thecapitaltohad shifted Byzantium,itretained itsmystical Chapter importance. Onedealswith Governmentwas alsotheseat from oftheImperial 27B.C.E. until 330C.E. Even Constantine after Palatine that thisiswherehaditsbeginnings. dueto ofRome thefact theCity It isimportant ment ofthePalatine from Prehistoric Times to 476C.E. An Epiloguecovers events to 2007. The isanarchaeological,in bookform. It architectural, geological, andhistorical studyofthedevelop seasonsoffield onthe work Hill,AfterPalatine thirty theauthor felt it was time to putthe results served intheKorean served War withtheFirst Division.Hereceived Marine hisPhD st Century. ABibliography isattached at theend. ISBN 978-88-8265-768-0 C. WADE MEADESEAT OF THE WORLD -

«L’ERMA» C. WADE MEADE SEAT OF THE WORLD The Palatine of Ancient Rome 189 SEATOF THEWORLD The Palatine ofAncient Rome «L’ERMA» diBRETSCHNEIDER C. WADEMEADE STUDIA ARCHAEOLOGICA

189 STUDIA ARCHAEOLOGICA 189

1 - De Marinis, S. - La tipologia del banchetto nell’arte etrusca arcaica, 1961. 2 - Baroni, F. - Osservazioni sul «Trono di Boston», 1961. 3 - Laurenzi, L. - Umanità di Fidia, 1961. 4 - Giuliano, A. - Il commercio dei sarcofagi attici, 1962. 5 - Nocentini, S. - Sculture greche, etrusche e romane nel Museo Bardini in Firenze, 1965. 6 - Giuliano, A. - La cultura artistica delle province greche in età romana, 1965. 7 - Ferrari, G. - Il commercio dei sarcofagi asiatici, 1966. 8 - Breglia, L. - Le antiche rotte del Mediterraneo documentate da monete e pesi, 1966. 9 - Lattanzi, E. - I ritratti dei «cosmeti» nel Museo Nazionale di Atene, 1968. 10 - Saletti, C. - Ritratti severiani, 1967. 11 - Blank, H. - Wiederverwendung alter Statuen als Ehrendenkmäler bei Griechen und Römern, 2a Ed. riv. ed. ill., 1969. 12 - Canciani, F. - Bronzi orientali ed orientalizzanti a Creta nell’viii e vii sec. a.C., 1970. 13 - Conti, G. - Decorazione architettonica della «Piazza d’oro» a Villa Adriana, 1970. 14 - Sprenger, M. - Die Etruskische Plastik des v Jahrhunderts v. Chr. und ihr Verhältnis zur griechischen Kunst, 1972. 15 - Polaschek, K. - Studien zur Ikonographie der Antonia Minor, 1973. 16 - Fabbricotti, E. - Galba, 1976. 17 - Polaschek, K. - Porträttypen einer Claudischen Kaiserin, 1973. 18 - Pensa, M. - Rappresentazioni dell’oltretomba nella ceramica apula, 1977. 19 - Costa, P. M. - The pre-Islamic Antiquities at the Yemen National Museum, 1978. 20 - Perrone, M. - Ancorae Antiquae. Per una cronologia preliminare delle ancore del Mediterraneo, 1979. 21 - Mansuelli, G. A. (a cura di) - Studi sull’arco onorario romano, 1979. 22 - Fayer, C. - Aspetti di vita quotidiana nella Roma arcaica, 1982. 23 - Olbrich, G. - Archaische Statuetten eines Metapontiner Heiligtums, 1979. 24 - Papadopoulos, J. - Xoana e Sphyrelata. Testimonianze delle fonti scritte, 1980. 25 - Vecchi, M. - Torcello. Ricerche e Contributi, 1979. 26 - Manacorda, D. - Un’officina lapidaria sulla via Appia, 1979. 27 - Mansuelli, G. A. (a cura di) - Studi sulla città antica. Emilia Romagna, 1983. 28 - Rowland, J. J. - Ritrovamenti romani in Sardegna, 1981. 29 - Romeo, P. - Riunificazione del centro di Roma antica, 1979. 30 - Romeo, P. - Salvaguardia delle zone archeologiche e problemi viari nelle città, 1979. 31 - Macnamara, E. - Vita quotidiana degli Etruschi, 1982. 32 - Stucchi, S. - Il gruppo bronzeo tiberiano da Cartoceto, 1988. 33 - Zuffa, M. - Scritti di archeologia, 1982. 34 - Vecchi, M. - Torcello. Nuove ricerche, 1982. 35 - Salza Prina Ricotti, E. - L’arte del convito nella Roma antica, 1983. 36 - Gilotta, F. - Gutti e askoi a rilievo italioti ed etruschi, 1984. 37 - Becatti, G. - Kosmos. Studi sul mondo classico, 1987. 38 - Fabrini, G. M. - Numana: vasi attici da collezione, 1984. 39 - Buonocore, M. - Schiavi e liberti dei Volusii Saturnini. Le iscrizioni del colombario sulla via Appia antica, 1984. 40 - Fuchs, M. - Il Teatro romano di Fiesole. Corpus delle sculture, 1986. 41 - Buranelli, F. - L’urna «Calabresi» di Cerveteri. Monumenti, Musei e Gallerie Pontificie, 1985. 42 - Piccarreta, F. - Manuale di fotografia aerea: uso archeologico, 1987. 43 - Liverani, P. - Municipium Augustum Veiens. Veio in età imperiale attraverso gli scavi Giorgi (1811-13), 1987. 44 - Strazzulla, M. J. - Le terrecotte architettoniche della Venetia romana. Contributo allo studio della produzione fittile nella Cisalpina, 1987. 45 - Franzoni, C. - Habitus atque habitudo militis. Monumenti funerari di militari nella Cisalpina romana, 1987. 46 - Scarpellini, D. - Stele romane con imagines clipeatae in Italia, 1986. 47 - D’Alessandro, L., Persegati, F. - Scultura e calchi in gesso. Storia, tecnica e conservazione, 1987. 48 - Milanese, M. - Gli scavi dell’oppidum preromano di Genova, 1987. 49 - Scatozza Höricht, L. A. - Le terrecotte figurate di Cuma del Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli, 1987.

Continued at page 131 C. Wade meade

SEAT OF THE WORLD THE PALATINE OF ANCIENT ROME

«L’ERMA» di BRETSCHNEIDER C. Wade meade Seat of The World The Palatine of Ancient Rome

Progetto grafico: «L’ERMA» di BRETSCHNEIDER

On the cover: Street Map of Rome Showing Location Map of Palatine

Wade Meade, Caesar

Seat Of The World. The Palatine of Ancient Rome / Caesar Wade Meade - Roma : «L’erma» di Bretschneider, 2013. -136 p. : ill. ; 6 cm. -(Studia Archaeologica 189)

ISBN 978-88-8265-768-0

CDD 21. 937.6 1. Roma - Palatino Dedicated to Manda Michele My Daughter Who Suffered a Summer in Rome with Me

CONTENTS

Preface ...... » 9 Introduction...... » 11

CHAPTER I : DISCOVERIES AND EXCAVATIONS...... » 13 Early Studies...... » 13 Systematic Excavations...... » 15 Nineteenth Century...... » 17 Twentieth Century...... » 18 Recent Studies...... » 20

CHAPTER TWO: GEOLOGY OF THE PALATINE...... » 23 Geology of Italy...... » 23 Palatine Geology...... » 26

CHAPTER THREE: PREHISTORIC PALATINE...... » 31 Pre-Neolithic Times...... » 31 The Neolithic Age...... » 32 The Palatine in the Bronze and Iron Ages...... » 34

CHAPTER FOUR: THE PALATINE DURING THE REGAL PERIOD...... » 43 Romulus Unifies...... » 43 The King Exits the Hill...... » 50

CHAPTER FIVE: THE REPUBLICAN PALATINE...... » 57 Early Republic...... » 57 Temples Come to the Hill...... » 57 Contents 7 Private Homes...... » 62 Other Construction...... » 70

CHAPTER SIX: THE EARLY EMPIRE...... » 75 Julio – Claudian Builders...... » 75 Flavian Builders...... » 82 During the Golden Age...... » 88

CHAPTER SEVEN: THE LATER EMPIRE...... » 97 Severan Builders...... » 97 Decline ...... » 99

EPILOGUE...... » 103

Appendix I: Glossary...... » 107 Appendix Ii : Chronological List Of Monuments...... » 109 Appendix Iii: Lithologic Sections...... » 111 Appendix Iv: Classification...... » 115

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY...... » 119

8 C. Wade meade Preface

Seat of the World: The Palatine of Ancient Rome is the result of almost thirty seasons of field work in Rome, as well as synthesizing the work of many other scholars. The title was chosen because the government that ruled much of the world had its headquarters on the Palatine Hill from 27 B.C.E. until Constantine shifted the capital to Constantinople in 330 C.E. Even after this it retained some of its mystique, as various rulers resided there.

Many have aided in this work and need to be acknowledged. To the late Dr. John D’Arms of the University of Michigan, who was the Director of the American Academy in Rome for some of the times I stayed there, along with his staff, particularly Ms. Bianca Passeri and Ms. Christine White, aiding me in getting various permits; to Dottoressa Dondero-Bricchi, the Director of the Roman Forum and Palatine, and her successor Dottoressa Irene Iacopi, to grant me permits to measure, survey, and take borings, and Dottoressa Iacopi’s very capable assistant Signora Sandra Cardillo for all her assistance; to Professore Adriano la Regina, the former Soprintendenza alle Antichitá di Roma, for his courtesy and granting of permits; to James Callaghan and James Wade, graduate students at Louisiana Tech Rome, who carried equipment and helped me make a topographic survey of the Hill; to my friends in Rome: Massimo Parente, who provided me with geological publications, Simon Pratt of the Brit- ish School in Rome and Professore Patrizio Pensabene of the University of Rome, who were gracious enough to allow me to observe their excavations of the Temple of Victory; to my other Roman friends who provided assistance, such as Antonio Passeri and Francesco Lombardi, who aided me in many ways, and for Mariarosa Fiorentino and her family, who were so gracious with their hospitality, and Signor Georges Mouchet, our Louisiana Tech-Rome agent; to my colleagues at Louisiana-Tech Rome, such as the late Dean Paul J. Pennington, who headed the Tech-Rome Program until 1988, and his successor Professor Jack Painter, who served as Director from 1988 until 1995, and my Co- Director Professor Jonathan Donehoo, who served with me from 1995 through 2000, who constantly encouraged me; to those who administered the McGinty Trust Fund of the Louisiana Tech History Department, such as the former Chair of History, Dr. William Y. Thompson, and his successor Dr. Stephen Webre, and above all to our Departmental Secretary, Ms. Annette Owen, for funds for travel and purchase of equipment; to the members of my Roman Archaeology Classes, both at Louisiana Tech and in Rome;

Preface 9 to my Tech Museum workers, Carolyn Stawasz Hammonds, Kristi Walker, Jillian Rowlett, Amy Bounds, and Richard Allen; to Dr. Gary D. Joiner of Louisiana State University in Shreveport, my colleague and former student, who accompa- nied me on several trips to Rome, and painfully proofread this manuscript; to Elena Montani, Erik Pender, Massimo Banelli, Roberto Marcucci of «L'erma» di Bretschneider; And, finally, to my children, Dawn, Don, Cheille, and Manda, for their support and forbearance. For all those mentioned above, I am very grateful.

Tyler, Texas C. Wade Meade September, 2009

10 C. Wade meade Introduction

The writer’s love affair with the Palatine Hill began in the summer of 1970, when he took his archaeology class from Louisiana Tech Rome to the Hill for a visit. The first time one views the Palatine it looks like a jumble of ruined structures. Digging through the literature, measuring every structure, and crawling through the ruins, both above and below, a picture of the evolution of the Hill emerges.

This work is not a definitive monograph, but rather a brief history of the development of the Palatine from Prehis- toric Times to the fall of the Empire. Chapter One deals with excavations from 1215 to 2007. The geological evolution of the Hill is treated in Chapter Two. A look at the Prehistoric Palatine from Pliocene times until 753 B.C.E occupies Chapter Three. Chapters Four gives the history of the Hill during the Regal Period (753 – 509 B.C.E.) In Chapter Five the subject is construction during the Republic (509 – 27 B.C.E.). Chapter Six deals with building projects from 27 B.C.E. until 192 C.E. The final construction from 192 to 476 is given in Chapter Seven. A brief historical sketch is out- lined in the short Epilogue that traces events from 476 until the 21st Century.

For illustrations there are five maps, twelve photographs showing ruins, and thirteen plans. The plans are those of houses temples, palaces, and other structures. The writer has not included plans of all Palatine structures, but most of the major ones are included.

Introduction 11

CHAPTER I DISCOVERIES AND EXCAVATIONS

It is difficult to say just exactly when archaeological studies began on the Palatine Hill. In the late medieval and well into the modern period of history the earliest archaeological studies were no more than legalized plundering of the imperial palaces. Even though the objective was to recover building material and works of art, nevertheless, certain knowl- edge was gained. Thus, we can call this looting of the hill a form of archaeological study.

Early Studies Rafaelle Sanzio) visited the Domus Severi- ana.7 This was his first act as Commissioner During the papacy of Innocent III (1198- of Antiquities for the City of Rome.8 1216) a survey of the Domus Severiana In 1518 the monks of S. Bonaventura was made late in 1215 and early 1216.1 and S. Gregorio made excavations near At this time the Church was the owner of the Church of S. Bonaventura in the ruins much of the Palatine Hill. Innocent was of the Temple of the Caesars.9 The last ex- searching for marble, as he was busily re- cavation on the hill under Leo X occurred storing many of the Basilicas (Churches) of on April 8, 1521. This study was under the Rome.2 The building material of the Domus supervision of Girolamo Maffei.10 Severiana was used in papal construction. While digging in the floor of the Pal- More marble taken from the Domus ace of the Caesars (which could be either Severiana in 1494 gives a hint of the vast- the Domus Augustana or the Domus Fla- ness of the building.3 This was during via) in 1535, a fragment of a statue was the administration of Pope Alexander uncovered. In the same area another VI (1492-1503). Despite the threat of the fragment of the same statue was found French king Charles VIII in this year, Alex- in 1542.11 ander was planning his building projects.4 A traveler to Rome in the 16th Cen- Lorenzo di Jacopo made a brief search tury, Ulisse Aldrovandi, reported exca- of the Domus Severiana on May 12, 1514.5 vations taking place at the base of the This during the administration of Leo X Palatine near the Church of S. Anastasia (1513-1528), who like his predecessors in 1556. He reports that the ruins uncov- faced hostility from France.6 On Novem- ered could be the Temple of Neptune.12 ber 30, 1515, Rafaelle (the great painter Certainly, this was not the Temple of Nep-

Discoveries and excavations 13 1. Street Map of Rome Showing Location Map of Palatine.

14 C. Wade meade tune, since it was located in the area of 18th Century. Works of art to decorate pal- the Circus Flaminius.13 It can’t be deter- aces and villas were still the objective of mined what structures had been uncov- excavation, but drawings of uncovered ered, but we can speculate that it was ei- structures were now made. Two archae- ther the ruins of a Republican house, the ologists refer to this as “systematic exca- Paedogogium, the Schola Praeconum, or vations.”18 Scientific Archaeology, devel- the Ara Calvini, all in the area described. oped by Sir Flinders Petrie, was not to be- Even though its not possible to identify come the accepted way until the 1880’s. the structure, it does show that some ex- Duke Francesco I of Parma, owner cavations were being undertaken. of the Farnese Gardens, ordered excava- By the middle of the 16th Century the tions in 1724 under the direction of Abbé nephew of Pope Paul III, Cardinal Ales- Francesco Bianchini. These excavations sandro Farnese, had purchased most of continued until 1730, although Bian- the northwest portion of the Palatine chini died in 1729. In 1738 the work of and had begun to develop his famous Bianchini was published posthumously, gardens.14 By the end of the century entitled Del Palazzo dei Caesari.19 This nothing remained of the Septizonium ex- excavation was carried out in the Domus cept the foundation. It is destruction was Flavia and the underlying ruins of the completed by Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590) Domus Transitoria. After the drawings to secure building stone for his projects.15 were made, the area was covered again Records from the 17th Century are with dirt.20 Art works were still the ma- somewhat silent regarding work on the jor objective of the diggers, but at least Palatine Hill, but excavations were being a record of where they were uncovered conducted on a small scale. The traveler and notes of surrounding and underlying Pietro Santi-Bartoli during the time of structures were recorded. Many of the Innocent X (1644-1655) describes what large pieces of sculpture from these digs he calls a marvelous discovery. He states remain in the Museum of Parma.21 excavations in the Farnese Gardens re- According to George Turnbull, a vealed a chamber that contained tapes- travelling artist who visited Rome in the tries of gold, which unfortunately crum- 1730’s, there were excavations in the bled when exposed to air.16 Farnese Gardens in 1737.22 He states that Later in the same century Santi-Bartoli a mosaic of a Siren and a painting of Au- described another find. Construction in gustus were dug up. Unfortunately, no 1682 at the Monastery of S. Bonaventura exact location was given. unearthed fragments of statues, and what In 1774 or 1775 the French Abbé appeared to be a water reservoir along Rancoureiul excavated down to the lower with a length of lead pipe.17 This was the floors of the Domus Augustana.23 He also first hint of the great reservoir lying be- uncovered portions of the Baths of Sep- neath the Temple of the Caesars (Now timius Severus and found fragments of known as the Temple of Elagabalus). sculpture.24 Beginning also in 1774 were the excavations of Gavin Hamilton, work- ing under the Architect Giuseppe Pannini.25 Systematic Excavations Hamilton uncovered a statue near the Domus Augustana in 1775. This was The nature of excavations on the Palatine the famous Sauroctonos (Lizard Killer) of changed somewhat with the start of the Praxiteles, now housed in the Vatican Mu-

Discoveries and excavations 15 2. Sketch Map of Palatine.

16 C. Wade meade seum.26 The excavations of Rancoureiul After the departure of the French, in this same year discovered a lead pipe excavations on the Palatine were not with the name of Domitian inscribed conducted on a large scale. According to upon it.27 Excavations on the Palatine Hill Parker, who draws upon the records of were almost nonexistent for the remain- Carlo Fea, a travertine altar was discovered der of the century. in 1820.33 This altar, complete with inscription, indicates that it had been a restora- tion or replacement in 127 B.C.E. by the Nineteenth Century Praetor C. Sextius Calvinus. Parker gives no location for this discovery. Lugli, however, In 1805 Napoléon was proclaimed King identified it as the Ara Calvini, found near of Italy. After several years of dispute the corner of the Church of S. Anastasia, with the Pope (Pius VII), the French army and dates it to 92 B.C.E.34 He reports the under the command of General Miollis discovery as being made in 1829. Antonio moved in and occupied Rome on Febru- Nibby conducted some minor excavations ary 2, 1808, and Rome would remain un- in the vicinity of the Villa Mills in 1825-26.35 der French rule for six years.28 As early as In 1845 the Nusiner Vineyards, lo- October 2, 1802, Pius VII (1800-1823) had cated in the area behind the Church of S. issued a papal law protecting the antiq- Anastasia, was purchased by Tsar Nicho- uities of Rome. The man responsible for las I, who commissioned the Architect seeing this law was carried out was the Vescovali to excavate in the area. Some newly appointed Commissario della An- columns, which probably belonged to tichità, Carlo Fea.29 The new commission- the Paedogogium or the Schola Prae- er would serve for thirty-six years and conum, were discovered.36 This inspired would play a role in archaeology, even Pope Pius IX (1846-1878) to buy the prop- during the French occupation of Rome erty in late 1845 or early 1846. Under his that lasted from 1808 to 1814. direction more excavations were carried In agreement with the papal law the out in 1857 near the Paedogogium.37 Car- French government in Rome established dinal Macchi, excavating in 1859, discov- a Commission of Monuments on July ered substructures of the Domus Flavia.38 10, 1810. Three of the Directors respon- These discoveries in the 1850’s sible for the Antiquities of Rome were caught the eye of Napoléon III of France, Carlo Fea, Giuseppe Camporense, and who in 1860 purchased the Farnese Gar- Giuseppe Valadier.30 Most of the work dens from the King of Naples.39 Pietro conducted was in the Forum, Colosseum, Rosa, an architect, was hired by Napo- and Pantheon, but in 1811 the amount leon to lead the excavations, beginning of 121,362 francs was approved for work in 1861. Napoleon spent 40,000 francs in the Farnese Gardens on the Palatine.31 on these digs between 1861 and 1870.40 Despite this approval the funds were The objective of this work was to obtain not forthcoming. Finally, in 1812 monies statues for the museums of Paris. Rosa were received for work on the Palatine, worked from the center of the Domus Ti- but this was for the destruction of the beriana toward the Temple of Cybele. By Convent of S. Bonaventura and the plan- the end of the year 1862 he had cleared ning for garden expansion.32 By the time the Peristylium of the Domus Tiberiana, the French left Rome in 1814, no excava- found two damaged statues, and discov- tions had been conducted on the hill. ered a water reservoir.41

Discoveries and excavations 17 Rosa discovered a large substructure Supervision of archaeological activi- in 1864, lying beneath the Villa Mills and ties underwent a change in 1870. With the the Domus Flavia.42 This would later be efforts of Garibaldi, Cavour, and others, identified as the ruins of the Domus Tran- the new nation of Italy had emerged by sitoria of Nero. The following year Rosa 1861 with Vittorio Emanuele as king. Only moved to the north edge of the gardens Rome under control of the pope, a French and began to clear the Nova Via, the sec- garrison, and Venice were not parts of the ond oldest street in Rome.43 At the south united state. In 1870 this changed with side of the hill the papal excavations the fall of Napoleon III and the capture had moved from the Nusiner Vineyards of Rome by the king. Rome then became around to the area of the Church of S. the capital of Italy. Napoleon ceded the Bonaventura. P. E. Visconti was in charge Farnese Gardens to the state and the Ital- of these excavations and succeeded in ian government also took over the papal finding remains of two statues, as well portions of the Palatine.50 as exposing more of the chambers of the Rosa was allowed to continue his Temple of the Caesars (Elagabalus).44 excavations for the new government. Ex- The years of 1866 and 1867 saw Rosa cavations were resumed in 1871. Two sec- complete his clearing of the Via Nova and tions of lead pipe were found and more of the Clivus Victoriae. More statues were the structures of the Schola Praeconum found, and in 1867 Rosa began the ex- and Paedogogium were uncovered.51 cavation of the Temple of Apollo (at that Rosa, personally, worked from the Domus time called the Temple of Jupiter Sta- Tiberiana toward the Forum. In 1872 in the tor).45 Near S. Bonaventura the work of pronaos of the Temple of Cybele a statue Visconti revealed an exedra at the north was found. This statue, minus the head, end of the Stadium of Domitian, and a but with an inscription on the base, was statue of Venus was uncovered within identified as being that of Cybele.52 the confines of the Stadium.46 By the start of 1873 there was a hia- In 1868 Rosa discovered the Cryp- tus in Palatine excavations. Rosa was now toporticus built by Nero to connect the much more concerned with the Forum Domus Tiberiana with the Domus Tran- and Colosseum. Excavations started again, sitoria. He also discovered, near the Tem- however, in the Spring of 1877, as the gov- ple of Apollo, an inscription of Caesar’s ernment sponsored excavations began lieutenant Domitius Calvinus.47 The papal to clear the Stadium of Domitian and the excavations continued in and around the Temple of the Caesars (Elagabalus).53 By Stadium of Domitian, where they discov- 1893 most of the Stadium was cleared and ered the Baths of Septimius Severus. They the work in the vineyards of S. Bonaventura also uncovered a statue with an inscrip- had uncovered a large portion of the Tem- tion of Coelia Claudia.48 This maiden was ple of the Caesars.54 After this work, excava- a Vestal Virgin during the rule of Diocle- tions seemed to have ceased on the Pala- tian in the late 3rd Century. tine Hill for the remainder of the century. Rosa continued to carry out the clearing of the Cryptoporticus in 1869. He discovered more fragments of statues Twentieth Century and a cistern. The most important discovery, however, was the House of Livia and As the twentieth century began there was its beautiful paintings.49 a great deal of archaeological activity in

18 C. Wade meade the Roman Forum. In 1905 the Italian gov- imperial palace.63 More remains of build- ernment purchased the site of the Villa ings were also uncovered on the slopes Mills, which opened up a new area of ex- behind the Church of S. Anastasia. ploration.55 D. Vaglieri carried out excava- In 1933 Bartoli extended his work to tions on the Cermalus, particularly in the the vicinity of the Church of S. Sebastiano. vicinity of the House of Romulus in 1907.56 He was rewarded by the finding of the Activity was not resumed on the hill foundation of the Temple of the Caesars until 1911. In this year Giacomo Boni be- (Elagabalus).64 Later studies would confirm gan to excavate the area of the Domus that this was the temple in question. By Flavia occupied by the Villa Mills.57 These 1937 the Domus Augustana project had excavations would extend into the year been completed and it was decided to of 1914 and reveal the ruins of the Do- concentrate on the slopes from the Arch mus Transitoria, the House of the Griffins, of Constantine to the Church of S. Teodoro. and the Aula Isiaca.58 Work was slow and These excavations began in 1938 and con- deliberate, as the archaeological team tinued until the outbreak of World War II was also in the process of restoring the in 1939.65 Several pieces of sculpture were large quantity of paintings that was be- discovered in the excavations of 1938-39. ing uncovered.59 By the end of 1914 work With the end of World War II in the was suspended due to lack of funds. latter part of 1945, scholars from all over Another factor that caused cessation of the world could concentrate their efforts activity was the outbreak of World War I, once again upon archaeological inves- although Italy did not enter the war until tigations in many countries. In 1946 S. the Spring of 1915. Puglisi excavated the area in front of the As the war came to a close in 1918 Temple of Cybele, concentrating on the there was some minor archaeological early huts found there.66 This work was work carried out. In this year a statue continued by Pietro Romanelli in 1948-49 was found on the Clivus Palatinus.60 This and more huts were discovered around stimulated interest, but because of the the Hut of Romulus.67 In 1949-50 Gian- post-war turmoil there was no funding filippo Carrettoni also began to work in available. A small amount of work was the area, excavating around the House conducted in 1921, as excavation was of Livia, as well as under the Aula Regia conducted for a short period of time in of the Domus Flavia. Graves were discov- the area between the Scalae Caci and the ered under the Aula Regia.68 Temple of Apollo.61 Archaeological stud- Between 1950 and 1955, not only ies were again suspended due to the eco- were excavations being conducted, but nomic and political chaos that gripped paintings in the House of Livia and the Italy at this time. Domus Flavia were being restored.69 In By 1926 Mussolini was in firm control 1951 the heads of three statues were and the political and economic climate found in the Nymphaeum of the Domus was not as volatile as it had been previ- Flavia near the Temple of Apollo.70 In this ously. Alfonso Bartoli began in 1926 to same year fragments of a wall painting excavate the Domus Augustana.62 These were uncovered near the Scalae Caci.71 excavations lasted until 1937. The re- A statue of Artemis was found in 1952 in mainder of the Villa Mills and the Con- the Domus Severiana.72 vent of Visitations was demolished, al- Archaeological activity was resumed lowing complete access to all parts of the in 1954 around the Temple of the Caesars

Discoveries and excavations 19