Children’s literature- a vehicle for social, 'emotional’ and moral development j j boogse §* c s le roux

Introduction

Adults have persistently cherished expectations about the ability of children’s literature to influence behaviour. In didactic verse and narrative authors have set out to teach children various skills, attitudes and subjects. It is, for example, believed that books impart knowledge to the reader, draw out and foster qualities within the child such as imagination and self-understanding, and that books contribute to a child’s mental growth by stimulating the senses of touch, sight and hearing - the three main channels by which we learn. In a way books help the child focus his or her attention for a few seconds, and this paying attention is the prelude to all learning (Williams 1970:23-26). It is further believed that books can provide children with a sense of values, they can show them conduct to be admired or rejected (Williams 1970:26) and broaden their life experience.

Recently belief in the power of children’s literature has been demonstrated by those who have used children’s literature as a vehicle to curb sexual stereotyping, foster racial harmony and spread understanding of the disadvantaged and disabled. It thus becomes evident that it is believed that literature has the power to influence and contribute towards the social-emotional and moral development of the reader.

2M5 However, although it is believed that literature has the ability to effect change, faith in the power of children’s literature to shape personalities and to sensitise human beings to effective integration both into and to the benefit of society as a whole is diminishing. In the past, so it seems, literature has not produced the results anticipated and the effectiveness of children’s books to promote an individual’s social-emotional and moral maturity is debated. In a contribution to this debate, this paper examines the influence Puritan children’s literature had on Puritan children. The literature of this particular period is chosen as nowhere throughout history has literature rivalled Puritan works for singleness of purpose, content and concept.

Before this study can be made, it is necessary to briefly examine the theories of social-emotional and moral judgment development that will serve as criteria against which the above-mentioned literature will be evaluated and analysed.

Social-emotional and moral judgment development

Most people are familiar with Maslow’s hierarchy of social-emotional development requirements and detailed analysis of the hierarchy will thus not be undertaken. To refresh the memory the five basic needs are - ranking from the lowest to the highest level - physiological, security, affiliation, esteem and self-actualisation. The basic assumptions in the hierarchy are that when a need is satisfied, another need emerges to take its place and lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs are activated (Hellriegel 1982:479).

On the other hand, Lawrence Kohlberg has developed a similar hierarchy in relation to moral development which he bases on Piaget’s description of moral

2M6 judgment stages. Kohlberg (1966:8 & 1981:409—412) identifies six stages of moral judgment that will be outlined briefly.

Stage 1 (obey rules to avoid punishment) is the stage of punishment and obedience. “Right” means literal obedience to rules and authority, avoiding punishment and not doing physical harm. The stage takes an egocentric point of view and does not consider the interest of others.

Stage 2 (conform to obtain rewards) is the stage of individual instrumental purpose and exchange. This stage takes a concrete individualistic perspective. “ Right” is following rules when it is in someone’s immediate interest. The reason for doing right is to serve one’s own needs or interests.

Stage 3 (conform to avoid disapproval, dislike) is the stage of mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships and conformity. “Right” implies playing a good or noble role, being concerned about other people and their feelings, being loyal and trustworthy; motivated to follow rules and expectations. The perspective is that of an individual in relationship to others.

Stage 4 (conform to avoid censure by legitimate authorities and resultant guilt) takes the social system and conscience maintenance into account. “Right” includes doing one’s duty to society, upholding the social order and maintaining the welfare of society or the group. Moral decisions are generated from rights, values or principles that are agreeable to all individuals composing or creating a society designed to have fair and beneficial practices.

347 Stage 5 (conform to maintain a relation o f mutual respect) is the stage of prior rights and social utility. “ Right” is regarded as upholding basic rights, values and legal contract even when they conflict with the concrete rules and laws of the group. It includes being aware that other people hold a variety of values and opinions, and that most values and rules are relative to one’s group. The person considers both the moral and legal point of view, recognises the conflict between them and finds it difficult to integrate them.

Stage 6 (conform to avoid self-condemnation) assumes guidance by universal ethical principles. It comprises the moral point of view from which social arrangements derive or on which they should be grounded. The perspective is that of any rational individual recognising the nature of morality or the basic moral premise of respect for other persons as ends, not means. The reason for doing right is that, as a rational person, one has seen the validity of principles and has become committed to them.

These views of the social-emotional and moral development of man have numerous implications for the use of children’s literature. Among them are that

• children’s needs are at first intensely and narrowly personal (egocentric), but as they mature their needs broaden and become more widely socialised

• a young child’s most pressing need is a sense of physical security, which also includes love

• children have a strong desire for a clearer understanding of themselves and their relation to others

• as children grow older they pass through different stages - stages characterised by different physiological and psychological needs, as well as stages characterised by different levels of conformity (and reasons for conforming) to a code of social values.

2U8 As such, children’s literature needs to take note of these stages and to address issues relevant to these stages.

With these aspects of social-emotional development requirements and moral development standards in mind, the background and purpose of Puritan children’s literature is presented for closer investigation and review.

The Puritan temperament

All literature reflects the historical period in which it is written and it is therefore particularly important to examine the historical setting of this literature (MacDonald 1982:1). can only be understood in terms of their own background so it is necessary to briefly trace the history of Puritanism. Puritanism began as an agitation within the Church of in the latter half of the 16th century. It was a movement of reform of that institution. In the 1530s during the reign of Elizabeth I, the broke with the Pope of Rome and became Protestant. The Anglicans thought that the Elizabethan Settlement of the Church was sufficient, but the Puritans, however, wanted further reformation and believed that the Church should be restored to the purity of the first century Church as established by Christ Himself (Miller & Johnson 1963a:6). In essence the Puritans wished to purify the Church. This religious reform, implied social reform (MacDonald 1982:6).

Although many characteristics and traits - especially the trait of religious zeal - have been ascribed to the Puritans, it needs to be remembered that many of the so-called unique traits attributed to this group, were traits that were common to

2U9 all Englishmen in those times. In the eyes of the English, the most important issue in the Western world was the struggle between Catholicism and Protestantism. The Puritans were not extreme or unique in thinking that religion was the primary and all-engrossing business of man, or that all human thought and action should tend to the glory of God. Both Anglicans and Puritans were at one in conceiving man as sinful and both beheld him chained and enslaved by evil until liberated by the redeeming grace of Christ. Man was saved by faith not deeds (Miller & Johnson 1963a:8-9).

The strength of the Puritans lay in their realism and dedication. Whatever a Puritan did, he did with gusto and zest. In his inner life he was preoccupied with achieving a union with the divine; in his external life he was concerned with self- restraint. Puritanism was carried to New England by the first settlers in the early 17th century. Puritans went to New England to found the perfect society and the kingdom of the elect (Miller & Johnson 1963a: 1, 61) - the founding of the New Jerusalem in preparation of the Second Coming of Christ (Elliot 1979:xiv). Puritans considered religion a very complex, subtle and highly intellectualised affair. They objected to any attempt to humanise religion, to smooth over hard doctrines or to introduce sweetness and light at the cost of hardheaded realism and invincible logic (Miller & Johnson 1963a:4). The Puritan’s existence was not however divided between the spiritual and the physical. The movement aimed at imbuing the very core of the personality with the religious tenets adhered to. Puritanism was a philosophy - it was an organisation of man’s whole life, spiritual, emotional and intellectual (Schucking 1969:56).

The force of Puritanism was accentuated because it was the first tradition to be fully articulated and because it inspired certain traits that have persisted long after the vanishing of the original creed (Miller & Johnson 1963a: 1). The 17th

250 century Puritan (English or American colonial) was intensely and constantly aware of sin - sin in himself and sin in others. Evil was real, and man was touched with evil. Man’s span of life was not for pleasure, it was for the rigorous enslavement of worldly desires. Indeed fortunate the person who departed from this valley of temptation as a child. But children were not regarded as less corrupt than adults; if anything they were the weaker vessels, requiring toughening, disciplining. They must be imbued quite early on with a sense of their own weakness and a willingness to obey the moral dictates of their society. Coupled with this awareness of enemies within and without the individual personality, there had to be a certain prudence in all matters, whether of a secular or spiritual nature. Puritans, predominantly middle class, reflected the high values placed on the middle-class virtues of caution, propriety, thrift and planning. Puritan society tried to convey these views and precepts to its children through a variety of instructional media and formal education stood in high regard. By and large, their motivation for education was religious - to enable each individual to read the Bible and thus to be able to obey God’s laws and perhaps find eternal salvatiom In part, it was humanistic; to help every citizen acquire the knowledge and skills to be a productive member of society - though of course the end purpose of society was the glorification of God and therefore in itself a religious aim (Vaughan 1972:235).

Puritan purpose in children’s literature

The Pilgrim Fathers seeking freedom of faith founded their first settlements in the new country. One of their earliest efforts was directed towards firmly establishing their own religion. Initially relatively free, this eventually under the Mathers - Increase, Cotton, Nathaneal and Samuel - became a theocracy as

251 intolerant as that faith from which they had fled. This point is raised as the influence - the pious concern - of (his father was Increase Mather and his maternal grandfather the equally renowned John Cotton and his paternal grandfather, Richard Mather) (Levin [ed.] 1966:vii) is visible in his sermons, admonition of parents and literature prescribed suitable for children and which will be reviewed shortly.

The subject of children’s literature is closely linked with education. The modern attitude is that instruction and education are areas left to the schools rather than the homes. This attitude is a complete reversal of the way people used to think about education. It was almost universally assumed that educating a child was primarily a parent’s business, his right and responsibility (Williams 1970:7, 11). Furthermore, the Puritans were in the forefront of educational reform. They were responsible for founding the first charity schools and advocating universal education. Because of their emphasis on assuring the destination of the child’s soul, and the importance consequently placed on literacy which would promote salvation, the Puritans were the first to develop a critical theory about literature for children of different ages (MacDonald 1982:14; Sommerville 1982:102).

The first duty of a Puritan parent was the duty of any parent: to give food, shelter and protection (Morgan 1966:65). The existence of these people was however characterised by two significant factors: the predominant work ethic among members of the community and the reality of a high mortality rate (although it must be conceded that the mortality rate of the Puritans was much lower than the average for the pre-industrial world probably due to the clear instruction to take the best care possible of the young child) (Leverenz 1980:78). Consequently, idleness was frowned upon - play and recreation were discouraged, and because of the uncertainty of human existence, it was never

252 considered too early to start with training - especially training which would benefit the child in his eternal life - a reality that could befall him at any time. There was no doubt however as to which was of prime concern. In Cotton Mather’s words:

If your main concern be, to get the Riches of this World for your Children, and leave a Belly full of this World unto them, it looks very suspiciously as if you were yourselves the People of this World, whose portion is only in this Life (Morgan 1966: 87).

Puritans did not rely on mere exhortation to persuade parents of their spiritual duties. In 1642 Massachusetts enacted a law requiring masters of families to teach their children and apprentices to read - to read so that they would be able to read the English tongue and obtain knowledge of the capital lawes and to learn the catechism. Parents and masters who neglected this task were obliged to pay penalties. The grounds of the law are clear: Puritans insisted upon education in order to ensure the religious welfare of their children. In the printed codes of law, the capital laws alone had the distinction of being supported by Biblical citation - the capital laws were the most important laws of God (Morgan 1966:88). John Cotton urging parents to educate their children did not say Learn them to read but Learn them to read the Scriptures. Puritans sought knowledge not simply as an accomplishment or as a means of advancing material welfare, but because salvation was impossible without it (Morgan 1966:88-89). The main business of education was to prepare children for conversion by teaching them the doctrines and moral precepts of Christianity. An interesting thought is that education was not seen to be an attempt to enhance any good inherent qualities that the child might possess - the child could by nature not possess any desirable qualities. He had to receive all good from outside — from education — the process of instruction was one of infusing or instilling knowledge into an empty receptacle (Morgan 1966:97).

253 What means of instruction were available? When a study is made of children’s literature, it is conspicuous that the first wave of books directly intended for children’s consumption was Puritan. This medium included primers, moral story lessons, catechisms, prayers, hymns and in all these media, the method of exposition was often bluntly admonitory, with only the slightest effort to clothe the ethical or theological idea in action and character (Smith 1967:40-41). In keeping with the Puritan temperament alluded to above, Biblical reference was the jewel of their literature (Elliot 1979:xv). Let us now take a closer look at examples of Puritan children’s literature.

The main categories of Puritan children’s literature

Seventeenth century children’s books fall into three large groups: the traditional or folk material, the books of good advice and the religious books. In the theocratic society of the Puritans, the first group was generally condemned, the second esteemed and the third extolled (Sloan 1955:8). To understand why strong emphasis was placed on religious works and books of good advice it is necessary to remember the centrality of religion in the period (Sloan 1955:11). By nature, it was believed, children were depraved and needed to be rescued from the inevitable fate of eternal damnation (Sloan 1955:12). The Puritans addressed children for the same purpose as they addressed adults and sought to arouse in man the desire for spiritual salvation (Sloan 1955:13). A firm foundation of theory was laid by means of catechisms and the Bible. To keep the child from backsliding he was provided with many devotional books and manuals of prayer. The state of the child’s soul was of great importance, a subject to be pursued with high seriousness and unrelenting vigour (Sloan 1955:14). The Puritans let no opportunity pass by which evil might be extirpated. In this spiritual warfare, this 25d epic struggle of the child against the forces of evil, time was of the essence. That was one reason why the romances and such vain fictions were attacked: they wasted time, time which should be spent in soul-searching and edification. The idea of providing children with mere amusement unaccompanied by profitable lessons was abhorrent to the age (Sloan 1955:15). To fortify his message, the teacher or preacher would employ persuasion as a means to encourage compliance with the teachings. Of these stratagems, terror was only one. Puritans are accused of preaching hellfire and brimstone, but these messages appeared less often than is commonly supposed and may be because the Puritans preferred the intellectual and analytical method to the emotional. The Puritan appealed to the level of his audiences’ understanding - used homely similitude, applications, moral emblems, allegory and dialogue (Sloan 1955:16). The use of verse became a standard device for rhyme is an aid to memory (Sloan 1955:25). The Puritans were influenced in their style of writing for children by a need to adapt their message to the level of their audiences’ understanding. The struggle between edification and amusement subsided and a concession was made between the message that they wanted to convey by using methods which would appeal to the audiences’ taste (Sloan 1955:26).

Courtesy literature can be defined as literature setting the code or standards whereby a member of a particular social group should live. Four main kinds of courtesy books are distinguished: books of polite conduct, of policy, of civility, and of parental advice (Sloan 1955:29-30). In general, topics covered the same ground. All agreed on the shunning of sin and the cultivation of cardinal virtues (Sloan 1955:33). In Eleazer Moodey’s The School of good manners children are counselled in methods of applying to daily behaviour the fundamental beliefs of the faith and included such admonishments as:

255 • Let all thy thoughts be divine, awful and godly. • Let thy talk be little, honest and true. • Let thy works be profitable, holy and charitable. • Let thy manners be grave, courteous and cheerful. • Let thy recreations be lawful, brief and seldom. • Let thy will be compliant, obedient and ready. • Let thy meditations be of death, judgment and eternity (Smith 1967:42).

Where the courtesy books provided advice on how to succeed in the present, the religious books taught how to succeed in the hereafter. Apart from the Bible which was undoubtedly the most accessible religious book of those times (Sloan 1955:491) and which served - in several households where other literary works were not available - as the primary book from which the child learnt to read (Earle 1974:228; Sloan 1955:4), there was the catechism, a book which summarised in the form of questions and answers the Puritan system of Christian belief. The child was not allowed to answer any question on his or her own initiative because individual initiative in religion usually meant heresy. Therefore he was required to memorise his catechism and leave originality to the devil. But it did not follow that he should simply learn the answers without making an effort to understand them. Cotton Mather cautioned parents not to “let the children patter out by rote the words of the catechism, like parrots, but be inquisitive how far their understandings do take in the Things of God” (Morgan 1966:98).

However, let the attention now focus on extracts from two works that were widely recognised and advocated as literature suitable for children during the Puritan era. These literary works will be reviewed in the context of Puritan temperament and afterwards an analysis in terms of Maslow’s and Kohlberg’s criteria for social-emotional and moral development will be attempted.

256 The New England Primer

Apart from the weekly catechising of her parents, the Puritan child was subjected to instruction in school and in church. The hornbook was the first “ book” of instruction whereafter he would advance to a spelling book and then encounter the New England Primer, sometimes fittingly called the Little Bible o f New England because of its religious teachings (Earle 1974:128; Miller & Johnson 1963a:696). Authors of the primers seized every opportunity to promote moral and religious precepts, even while ostensibly teaching the alphabet. Primers included a catechism and the most well-known catechism to be included in the New England Primer was that by John Cotton entitled Spiritual milk for Boston babes in either England, drawn out o f the breasts o f both Testaments, chiefly fo r the spirituall nourishment of Boston babes in either England, but may be of like use fo r any children (Vaughan 1972:242). The discussion of the New England primer focuses on Cotton’s Spiritual milk.

The Primer with its rhyming alphabet commencing with the well-known verse “ In Adams fall, we sinned all; thy life to mend this Book attend” (Vaughan 1972:242) cannot be termed literature in the true sense of the word. However Cotton’s catechism included in the primer is indeed described as the first original piece of American literature for children.

After John Cotton settled in Boston, Massachusetts, his parish requested him to devise a catechism for children of the community. One of the reasons for the popularity of the resultant catechism was that it was much shorter than even the Shorter Westminister catechism - 67 compared with 107 questions. In addition the answers were also much shorter. 257 Cotton was convinced that the way to man’s salvation was by faith in Christ and obedience to the 10 commandments. It is a religious code based heavily on behaviour. The meaning of the commandments is construed rather broadly (MacDonald 1982:17). A few of the commandments and his comments are noted:

“Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain” is commonly taken to prohibit cursing. Cotton takes it to include “To make use of God and the things of God to His glory and our good, not vainly, not unreverently, not unprofitably” .

“Thou shalt not steal” is taken to mean “To get our goods honestly, to keep them safely and to spend them thriftily” .

“ Honour thy father and mother” encompasses not only the biological parents but “all our superiors, whether in family, school, church and commonwealth. Honour owed to one’s elders means reverence, obedience and (when I am able) recompense” (MacDonald 1982:17).

In different form but similar in tone, there were the biographies of pious children intended for the edification of the Puritan child. The most famous of these efforts was James Janeway’s (1671) Token fo r children: Being an exact account o f the Conversion, Holy and Exemplary Lives and Joyful Deaths of Several Young Children, by James Janeway. To which is added A Token fo r the Children o f New England or Some Examples o f Children in whom the Fear o f God was remarkably Budding before they died; in several Parts of New England. Preserved and Published fo r the Encouragement o f Piety in other Children.

James Janeway’s Token for children

In this book, accounts are provided of how pious children like little Sarah Howley, John Harvey and Mary A. meet early deaths in a state of unmistakable grace. The description and method are described by Janeway as follows:

258 You may now hear (my dear Lambs) what other good Children have done, and remember how they wept and prayed by themselves; how earnestly they cried out for an interest In the Lord Jesus Christ. You may read how dutiful they were to their parents, how diligent at their book, how ready to learn the Scriptures and their catechisms ... how holy they lived; how dearly they were loved; how joyfully they died ... Would you be In the same condition as naughty Children? O Hell is a terrible place, that is a thousand times worse than Whipping. God’s Anger is worse than your Father’s Anger. (Georgiou 1969:30; Smith 1967:42).

One of Janeway’s paragons, the 12-year-old Mary A. who sometimes chided her brother and mother for not thinking enough about God, once got her little friends together on the Lord’s Day "... and instead of playing (as other naughty Children used to do) ...” she lectured them on keeping the Sabbath holy and then prayed with them (Sloan 1955:10).

... she told them that she feared that they had little reason to be merry. They asked her whether one might laugh: She answered, No indeed, till you have grace, they who are wicked have more need to cry than to laugh. (MacDonald 12:23).

John Harvey chooses an adult victim:

One day seeing one of his near relations come into his father’s house distempered with drink, as he thought, he quickly went very seriously to him and wept over him, that he should so offend God and Hazard his soul; and begged of him to spend his time better than in drinking and gaming and this he did without any instruction from his parents, but from an inward principle of grace, and love to God and souls, as it is verily believed. (MacDonald 1982:23).

Sarah Howley, aged eight or nine, was much affected by the sermons she had heard. They made her

... deeply sensible of the condition of her Soul and her Need of CHRIST: she wept bitterly to think what a Case she was in, and went Home, and got by her self into a Chamber; and upon her Knees, she wept and cry’d to the Lord, as well as she could ...

259 But Sarah was not alarmed for herself alone:

... she got her little Brother and Sister into a Chamber with her, and told them of their Condition by Nature, and wept over them, and prayed with them and for them.

Sarah was a reader of good books and to parents and teachers exceedingly dutiful. At 14, Sarah fell ill, and in her illness she wrestled with her sense of sin, seeking assurance of salvation. At her death in 1690 she seemed, happily “ to be much swallowed up with the Thoughts of God’s free Love to her Soul” (Sloan 1955:44).

What influenced these youthful saints? Sermons were the most numerous of the religious works addressed to children. A vast number of sermons for children and youth were printed. Since church attendance was required by law, the sermon was undoubtedly the most widely appreciated and influential of all forms of composition and was the best way of moulding public opinion (Sloan 1955:45). Some children “suffered agonies of the soul” which left them with a “broken and contrite spirit” and these were the ones most often immortalised in print (Sloan 1955:10).

Biography in this context has the purpose of being instructive and served to inspire good conduct and taught people how to live and die in a Christian fashion. They were written to set an example for the living and this was the purpose of most of the biographies of children written at this time. Prior to that time, children had for edification the lives of adults only - the best-known collection of the lives of true Christians where those of John Foxe’s Book o f martyrs (1563) (Sloan 1955:50) comprising eight volumes, six thousand pages and over four million words (Williamson 1965 :ix). Janeway’s contribution, the Token

260 fo r children was the first work to portray children in a biography to inspire in children reflection on and dedication to holiness in Christian or Puritan living.

The standing and popularity of this work is attested to by the fact that Cotton Mather’s token for the children of New England was added to the first American edition of Janeway’s work in 1700 (Sloan 1955:44-45).

Evaluation

Children’s literature of the 17th century reflects a wholly adult sentiment regarding childhood, a sentiment that inevitably distorts reality. In a sense the 20th century could be accused of romanticising childhood and when the question whether the material of 17th century books for children was indeed fashioned to infuse the mind of that special state known as childhood is posed, it needs to be conceded that, yes, indeed, 17th century children’s books were fashioned by every known device to mould the mind of that special state known as 17th century childhood.

The popularity of the books cited above cannot be disputed - why else would these books have been in use for over 300 years or it become necessary to reprint them repeatedly or well-known authors such as Bunyan and Watts admit the positive influence of the literature of their childhood or one read accounts of children who were prepared to forego meals because they did not want to be distracted from their reading of these books. Quayle, for example, maintains that the Foxe’s Book of martyrs was filled with “ a crackling inferno of full-page copperplate engravings of dead and dying Christians that delighted the youth of

261 the sixteenth century onward as much as any “ X-rated, wide-screen presentation would please their counterparts today” (Darton 1982:65).

Generally, Puritan children’s literature is viewed negatively, and its critics tend to focus on the didactic and moralistic features of the texts. The content is viewed with derision, ridicule and disbelief. It should not be forgotten that Puritan literature grew from an earnest desire to make children happy. Not happy in our contemporary sense of the word, but in theirs. To be happy meant to be secure in the avoidance of Hell and in the assurance of Heaven. All literature reflects the historical period in which it is written and we should not pass judgement on Puritan literature with hindsight according to present-day criteria.

In further defence of Puritan literature, it is found that on closer examination certain basic, yet laudable principles emerge. The following are advanced.

• Puritans unwaveringly believed that the child was impressionable and pliable and could be moulded through education.

• Puritans exhibited unprecedented commitment and dedication to the education of children and had great confidence in education as a vehicle for social and moral reform. Education can be equated with literature as all literature at this stage was written for educative purposes. (It might be interesting to note that the Puritans are credited with having passed the first education legislation, and for being the first to establish charity schools and schools for indigenous groups in the American colonies.)

• In educational terms the child comprises various domains that need to be considered - the normative, affective, intellectual, physical, intuitive. Of these the Puritans emphasised the normative - a domain that easily tends to be disregarded in contemporary pragmatic societies.

262 Further principles could be mentioned, but these should suffice.

An evaluation of Puritan texts in terms of Maslow’s hierarchy and Kohlberg’s stages is now considered. It is not possible within the constraints of a conference paper to include a detailed examination, so reference to selected abstracts of texts referred to previously must do. The directives and intention of Janeway’s Token are alluded to in the introduction. Children are addressed as “my dear Lambs” - an indulgence not previously approved in children’s literature of this nature - in an attempt to humour the child; to appeal to the emotional needs of security and affiliation. In the introduction, mention is made of the “joyful deaths” - an allusion to the attainment of self-actualisation, transcendence - which feature at the apex of Maslow’s hierarchy. The child is cautioned in the introduction to attend to the norms and values of society — “ O Hell is a terrible place etc.” This same point is made when the reply Mary A. - one of Janeway’s paragons - gives to the question whether one might laugh is a clear: “ no indeed till you have grace: they who are wicked have more need to cry than to laugh.”

In Cotton’s interpretation of the commandment - “honour thy father and mother” - he construes it to imply reverence and obedience to all elders. This point is in keeping with Kohlberg’s sixth stage - respect for other persons as ends not means. In similar vein, John Harvey, another of Janeway’s characters, reproaches the inebriated relation “ from an inward principle of grace, and love to God and souls” . And so one may continue, but, in our modest opinion, adequate proof has been provided to indicate that, in terms of the psychological requirements and principles posed by both Maslow and Kohlberg, Puritan children’s literature was in complete compliance.

263 It needs to be remembered that these currently widely acknowledged pronouncements concerning social-emotional and moral development were made in the past four decades. Yet, unbeknown to them, the Puritans provided for these requirements in the literature they intended for the guidance and edification of their children. Would it be presumptuous to suggest that Puritan literature indeed verifies these psychological theories?

As educationists, it is our task to challenge the status quo and pursue the ideal. However, as educationists and not authors of children’s books or publishers, we believe it would be audacious to be prescriptive to those who have accepted the challenge to compose literature for children and youth. As educationists, however, we would like to petition that authors and publishers:

• be aware of the unique nature or essence of contemporary childhood; • respect the vulnerability of children and recognise the potential impact that literature has on the future of children; • convey a sense of hope or faith in a positive future; • be cautioned to avoid hypocrisy; • convey values and norms worthy of emulation - without being didactic or moralistic; • realise that their task as children’s authors is one which demands a responsible attitude.

Conclusion

By means of sermons, the Bible, catechisms and the pious biographies of young people, the child was brought to remember his Creator (Sloan 1955:56). These

26U were the most numerous of 17th century books for children. It would seem that the period was convinced that indoctrination was the only antidote to original sin. The anonymous Puritan who wrote The Office o f Christian parents (1616) began his advice by reminding parents that children must be brought up with the utmost care, for they had always been the pillars of the commonwealth, of the Church’s glory, and of the parent’s honour. Thus the perpetuation of institutions and creeds depended on the indoctrination of children (Sloan 1955:79).

Perhaps the words of Isaac Watts (Georgiou 1969:30) best illustrate the temperament of those times, who, couching his warnings in verse in The all- seeing eye states:

There’s not a sin that we commit, Nor wicked word we say, But in thy dreadful book ’tis writ ‘Against the judgment day. Lord, at thy foot ashamed I lie, Upwards I dare not look, Pardon my sins before I die, And blot them from thy book.

Bibliography

Arbuthnot, M.H. & Sutherland, Z. 1972. Children and books. 4th ed. Illinois: Scott, Foresman. Darton, F.J.H. 1982. Children’s books in England: five centuries o f social life. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Earle, A.M. 1974. Child life in colonial days. New York: MacMillan. Elliot, E. 1979. Puritan influences in American literature. Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Georgiou, C. 1969. Children and their literature. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Hellriegel, D. & Slocum, J.W. 1982. Management. Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley.

265 Kohlberg, L. 1966. Moral education in the schools: a developmental view. The School review, 74(1): 1-30. Kohlberg, L. 1981. The Philosophy of moral development. San Francisco: Harper & Row. Leverenz, D. 1980. The Language o f Puritan feeling. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. Levin, D. [ed.] 1966. Bonifacius — an essay upon the Good by Cotton Mather. Massachusetts: Belknap Press. MacDonald, R.K. 1982. Literature for children in England and America from 1646 to 1774. New York: Whitston. Mather, C. 1966. Bonifacius - an essay upon the good, edited by D. Levin. Massachusetts: Belknap. Miller, P. & Johnson, T.H. [ed.] 1963a. The Puritans - a sourcebook o f their writings. Volume I. New York: Harper & Row. Miller, P. & Johnson, T.H. [ed.] 1963b. The Puritans - a sourcebook of their writings. Volume II. New York: Harper & Row. Morgan, E.S. 1966. The Puritan family. New York: Harper & Row. Schucking, L.L.1969. The Puritan family - a social study from the literary sources. : Routledge & Kegan Paul. Sloan, W. 1955. Children’s books in England & America in the seventeenth century. New York: King’s Crown Press. Smith, J.S. 1967. A Critical approach to children’s literature. New York: McGraw Hill. Sommerville J. 1982. The Rise and fall of childhood. Beverley Hills: Sage. Vaughan A.T. [ed.] 1972. The Puritan tradition in America - 1620-1730. New York: Harper & Row. Williamson, G.A. [ed.] 1965. Foxe’s book of martyrs. London: Seeker & Warburg. Williams, G. 1970. Children and their books. London: Duckworth. The Picture book: power and potential rhono dubouu

Rosie’s walk by Pat Hutchins has become a classic of children’s picture book literature. And not without reason. An apparently simple story about a sassy hen going for a walk, it is told in one sentence and is illustrated in straightforward line and colour. But, by definition, and just because it is a picture book, it starts off by requiring of the reader two different forms of signification: the verbal or textual and the pictorial or the iconic. It demands two kinds of literacy in order to understand and appreciate the meaning and subtleties that this little story generates. If all picture books inescapably require of the reader two literacies then Rosie’s walk requires and provides these in quite a complex way. Two stories happen simultaneously; the one told in words, the other in pictures but the book’s open-endedness causes one to wonder whether these are not perhaps two separate stories. Does Rosie know she is being followed? And if she does, does she deliberately lead the fox up the garden path, as it were? Or is she oblivious to the fox’s plans? Who really knows the story? Perhaps it is the tethered goat who observes it all.

Rosie’s walk is a good example of the divided story where the differing perspectives of the narrator in the verbal text and the narrator in the visual text require that the reader make constant shifts between the two - through this subtle interaction between the two a warm and gentle humour pervades the whole and even the very young child can appreciate its intrinsic irony. The story, as a result,

267 never finishes and it is in this way that it has much in common with contemporary adult literature.

Rosie’s walk turns out, therefore, on closer inspection to be deceptively simple. No wonder, then, that it attracts a wide readership - from the youngest on-the- lap listener to the adult who can explore these differing perspectives. Each reader looks, sees, reads differently - and since the picture book demands to be shared it provides a rich source for a sharing of readings between adult and child in a variety of ways and on a variety of levels.

This narrative boundary-breaking is taken to even more complex lengths in the work of John Burningham.

In his Come away from the water, Shirley and his Time to get out the bath, Shirley there is not only a bifurcation of text and illustration - each double­ spread is separated between the pedestrian events which child and parent share in their real world; and the world of the child’s imagination.

In Granpa Burningham takes this interactive dialogue even further. The text is minimal. It consists of a conversation between a little girl and her grandfather through a variety of situations. The visual content is itself divided between sepia and full colour wash and the pictures reveal the separate lives and fantasies experienced by these two main characters while they inhabit the same physical world. The outcome is unresolved but reading it we know that we have been touched by a profound experience of change, of the inevitable process of time, of loss and of death. Burningham has explored a poignant relationship between the growing child and the aging grandparent.

268 In an essay: “The constructedness of text; picture books and the metafictive” David Lewis (1990) argues that between the postmodern (or metafictive) novel and the contemporary picture book there exist important parallels.

At first glance it might strike many as intellectual conceit to find common ground between John Fowles and John Burningham, between Milan Kundera and Anthony Browne, between Italo Calvino and Mitsumaso Anno. But Lewis regards it as far from accidental that three important features of postmodernism are present in the contemporary picture book - narrative boundary-breaking, excess and indeterminacy - features which I hope I have revealed in the examples of picture books I have discussed. A nd if we take children seriously then it is equally important to take their literature seriously - not solemnly, I hope - and if we share so much of our lives with children and at the same time retain that part of the child within us which remains open to flights of fantasy and worlds of possibility, then in sharing the picture book with them we are not only opening up for them the ability to make meaning out of word and image - both of which are central to their cognitive development — but we are at the same time feeding our adult souls which may have forgotten their own childhood.

The range of picture books is endless. It ranges in complexity from the naming books of infancy in which objects of everyday life are represented and the child learns and enjoys the image as a representation of the real thing to the complexity of a Maurice Sendak where, perhaps for the first time, it is the inner child with his or her fears and fantasies and rages that is confronted and with an intensity and honesty that come from memories of Sendak’s own childhood. In word and picture the most monstrous is conveyed not only with genius but, most importantly, with humour. Humour is the cathartic instrument through which adult and child can share their commonality and laugh together.

269 Within Sendak’s impressive body of work the trilogy of Where the wild things are, In the night kitchen and Outside over there can be seen as a metaphor for this developing complexity. While Where the wild things are speaks directly to the young child even though its compact text is elaborated upon by illustrations which contain layers of meaning, In the night kitchen requires an adult to lead a child to appreciate the allusions to popular culture (like the Laurel and Hardy bakers). And even though Outside over there is at its core just the story of two sibling/children left alone for minute - a minute in which they are caught up in traumatic events of a fantastic nature — there are so many layers of conscious and unconscious meaning that it is perhaps not a children’s book at all. For the young adult developing insight into the conflicts and experiences of childhood, for the adult reader for whom a whole host of emotions and memories are relived Outside over there is an astonishing revelation. Like so many fine picture books these are made for reading aloud and for sharing. And in this lies the power of the picture book to embrace an infinite audience and to enhance relationships amongst those who share in its richness.

Besides a vast range in complexity, picture books range from those which have no verbal text to picture books with vast verbal text and pictures which seem almost incidental to the story. In Up and away Michaels and Walsh (1990) identify six main subgenres of picture books. In choosing to discuss just two here it is because they are in many ways interrelated the wordless picture book and the comic or cartoon-style picture book. Both genres have a wide readership. Here the story is told through a series of sequential images and often, in the case of the wordless book, unframed. The comic form, well-established as a serious literary and art form in Europe and until recently so villified in England and America is now recognised as a form requiring an active reader. The picture has to be “ read” ; the narrative has to be constructed through the context clues that

270 are found in the picture frames; close observation of detail within the visual text is necessary.

The influence of cinema and television on the picture book form is obvious and common wisdom would have it that the influence of these on reading has in all respects been negative. But where concentration on television is often determined by the duration of the sound-byte the wordless and the comic book can demand a heightened concentration because they require a slowing down of the reading process. In fact it may be said that this is precisely what all picture books do. Where linear text urges the reader forward the picture encourages reflection and, unlike the TV viewer, the picture book can, indeed must, control the rate and depth of reading.

In complexity the wordless picture book stretches from Jan Ormerod’s Moonlight and sunshine - child-centred narratives which focus on the child and her family in pedestrian contemporary settings - to Raymond Brigg’s Snowman , his wordless fantasy about a boy and a snowman. A book without words does not imply a deficiency: rather is it a vehicle for generating inventive language and narrative as each reader brings to the visual narrative his/her own experience and expectations and therein lies its power to prompt a plethora of stories. And adding impact to its otherwise wordlessness Peter Spier’s Dreams ends with just 11 words “ and the next time you gaze up at the sky: dream dreams’’.

In a country which boasts 11 official languages the wordless picture book, within or without the conventions of the comic book format, provides an extraordinary challenge and a unique opportunity to create a common culture in which the visual provides the driving force for the narrative. The wordless picture book

271 could become an ideal medium for deconstruction as each language provides its own vehicle for the multiplicity of readings that this can generate.

The comic book format with its demands of visual narrative and character also demands the reading of dialogue and thoughts in balloon form as well as the voice-over of the narrator in the form of captions. Classics of this kind include the Asterix comics of Goscinny and Underzo and the evergreen adventures of an independent young fellow relying on his wits and his loyal dog in Herge’s Tintin series.

Such comics, with their superb mastery of language, can act as models by which comics of a lesser or even a dubious quality may be judged. This genre reaches its high point in the work of Raymond Briggs who finds the medium sympathetic to a treatment of very serious and important issues. So serious, in fact, that his devastatingly anti-nuclear When the wind blows and his heartbreakingly sad and outrageously funny Gentleman Jim can only begin to be appreciated at adolescence. But he is clearly on the side of the children even though in his comic world they take the form of the little people who are constantly being betrayed by governments, bureaucracies and ideologies.

When Briggs creates an alternative world in Fungus the bogeyman everything that our civilisation values and holds sacrosanct is viewed in reverse. It is a world that for all its value placed on damp and dirt and smelliness Bogeys are gentle creatures, their family life is based on true caring and their social relationships on politeness and consideration. So what if they eat “flaked corns” for breakfast - they value literature: their children read “the tale of Flopsy Bogey” while they are at home with “portrait of the artist as a young Bogey”.

272 Fungus is outrageously funny and in playing jokes on both an adult and a child audience it encompasses both in a shared experience. Its central message is an exquisite plea for tolerance and understanding for creatures different from ourselves and a biting satire of our society.

But being different and in need does not automatically make you lovable. In The Man a tiny, angry, hairy and thoroughly unpleasant man foists himself on the good nature and charity of a young boy. He is a sort of refugee, a victim, a has- nothing. “ There’s nothing worse than being uneducated: like being half alive, he moans. He demands, he is obstreperous, he is discontented. He is the archetype of entitlement and he is contemptuous of any gratitude, but because of his abnormal size he is not able to function in a world which operates according to certain set norms. The Man poses important moral questions such as “Should one be grateful when one just cannot fend for oneself?”

Such picture books should serve as models to be read and reread, looked at and closely observed. I advocate their translation into local languages and their use as paradigms for approaching our own history and our own society. We need to mine their daring and imagination, their skill and their wit to create our own Asterix the Gaul, perhaps in the form of Constand the Volkstater.

The picture book in this sophisticated form can easily become the cultish preserve of the adult intellectual. It must not be allowed to do this. Its true home is the world of childhood and its first and most important role is in helping children to become literate. Such picture books are filled with meaning and making meaning is ultimately what reading is all about.

273 Dickens was taught to read by his mother and the richness of picture books. In his biography of Dickens, Peter Ackroyd (1990:29) reminds us that the great man called picture books his first companions:

Picture books: all about scimitars and slippers and turbans and dwarfs and giants and genii and fairies, and Bluebeards and beanstalks and riches and caverns and forests and Valentines and Orsons: and all new and all true.

There are those who would argue that such literature is irrelevant, that it does not reflect a child’s real world and should therefore be discouraged. It certainly did nothing to restrict Dickens’s awareness of the real word; on the contrary, it provided an enriched imagination with the tools for observing, describing, re­ creating the society of his time and with an empathy for its victims.

In a society such as ours where literacy (both child and adult) present seemingly insoluble problems and where the sharing of resources of all kinds presents obstacles on a national scale, the picture book has the potential to play a vital role.

The picture book asks to be shared, needs to be shared and must be shared. We can repeat to someone else the text of a story but we cannot adequately transfer to another the pictorial narrative. In order to do so one has to, in the first place, translate the language of one medium into the language of another. In sharing the picture book both adult and child can benefit. The semi-literate parent can use the picture book as an aid to his own reading while sharing in an experience with his child; the illiterate parent can use the picture book to create narrative through the context clues of the visual story and in this way share a rich experience with the child; for the adult struggling towards literacy the picture

2 7 U book provides a unique medium for dealing with complex issues in an accessible way. The picture book provides a unique medium for encouraging an interaction with text and image for those who do not read, for those who cannot read, for those who can but will not read.

Perhaps more than any other picture book maker Dr Seuss spans an audience from the yongest reader (as in his Cat in the hat ) to books which serve as superb vehicles for group discussion with older children, adolescents and adults.

To mention a few:

The Sneetches is essential reading for older children. It is a paradigm for prejudice, self-righteousness, the slaves of fashion and those who are shrewd enough to exploit them.

Yertle the turtle is a fable for all times; it expresses the pain of those who have to suffer at the hands of ambitious and successful mediocrity and what happens to the little fellow at the bottom of the hierarchical pile.

The Lorax deals with the spuriousness of many of our so-called needs; the spoiling of our environment; the absurdity of “bigger is better” and the consequences of human greed.

The Butter battle book is a classic satire on the arms race with its Star Wars which characterised the years of the Cold War. 275 Oh, the places you'll go is an encouragement to those on the threshold of adulthood to pursue their hopes, to take initiative and to dream while looking reality straight in the eye.

The picture books of Seuss deal with complex issues in a forceful way and speak to a wide audience. These issues are not dealt with superficially or simplistically. For the young adult such books have a special place because Seuss speaks to those who are beginning to ask questions, to buck the system. He uses humour and zany language, not the heavy didactic hand of the sermon. He always leaves the reader hopeful, not because things are going to get better but because the individual with guts can initiate change and make things better. He is a natural subversive. Oh, God, how we need a Dr Seuss though thank God we do have some fine creators of picture books.

Our children enjoy the domestic warmth of a Marjorie van Heerden, the gentle humour of a Joan Rankin, the virbrant storytelling of a Gcina Mhlophe and, most especially, Niki Daly. Especially, because Daley has developed a dash, a vigour and a daring that takes him into a class of his own in South Africa. We have great need of picture book writers/ illustrators who can through skill and humour deal with our social conflicts as Michael Foreman does in his deeply political books - War and peas which concerns the problem of starvation in a world of plenty; The General which concerns a military establishment as it loses touch with the real world. Such books have the power to engage children being read to, to launch class discussion with older children, adolescents and adults.

In fact it seems that there is no area of reality or possibility that the picture book has not entered - from mathematics to philosophy, from history to

276 environmental issues. In fact all of this is encompassed in the oeuvre of one whose work most closely epitomises the picture book at its most universal in terms of subject matter, art form and audience - Mitsumaso Anno. And he does this through the most universal of languages — painting. In fact some of his books are about looking as an art in itself. His audience is both child and adult and his books are ideal and essential for sharing — between child and adult, child and child, adult and adult. From alphabet and counting books to his postmodern version of Aesop’s Fables he challenges both the imagination and the intellect. He demands a very active reader and viewer who can engage with him as if in a spirit of play.

Anno’s is an extraordinary genius - all the more so because he remains quintessentially a Japanese artist who interprets Western culture and landscape through the traditions of Japanese art. Where multiculturalism runs the risk of spreading itself thin over the cultural spectrum Anno’s is a crossculturalism which enriches and creates a fertile soil in which the imagination can soar to new heights.

In his recreation of Aesop’s Fables 41 of the traditional tales out of Africa are retold by Aesop and Mr Fox and delicately illustrated by Mitsumaso Anno in an atmosphere reminiscent of medieval Europe. Freddy Fox has found the book and has asked his father, Mr Fox, to read the fables to him. But Mr Fox is illiterate. His shame and embarrassment cause him to deny this fact. Instead he retells the fables (in the bottom quarter of each page) by interpreting the pictures. And this is not the half of it.

Rosie’s walk and Anno’s Fables have in common the fact that both reflect on human nature and behaviour - the one in two literacies, the other in a multi-

277 dimensioned work of art. Both display the characteristics of postmodern fiction. Most importantly both are saturated with play and humour which accounts for the fact that their audience is children of all ages and in all places. In that powerful fact lies the picture book’s potential.

References and recommended readings

Ackroyd, Peter. 1990. Dickens. London: Sinclair-Stevenson. Doonan, Jane & Lewis, David. 1991. Reading new books. Signal, 65:129-142. Eisner, Elliot (ed.). 1978. Reading and the creation of meaning, in Reading, the arts, and the creation o f meaning. Reston: National Art Education Association: 13-31. Griffiths, Rachel & Clyne, Margaret. 1988. Books you can count on: linking mathematics and literature. Melbourne: Nelson. Lewis, David. 1990. The constructedness of text: picture books and the metafictive. Signal, 21:131-146. Marcus, Leonard S. 1983/84. The artist’s other eye: the picture books of Mitsumaso Anno. The Lion and the unicorn, Vol. 7/8:34-46. Marriott, Stuart. 1991. Picture books in the primary classroom. London: Paul Chapman. Michaels, Wendy & Walsh, Maureen. 1990. Up and away: using picture books. Melbourne: O.U.P. Murris, Karin. 1992. Teaching philosophy with picture books. London: Infonet Publications. Rahn, Suzanne. 1983/4. Beneath the surface with Fungus the Bogeyman. The Lion and the unicorn, Vol. 7/8:5-19. Roxburgh, Stephen. 1983/4. A picture equals how many words? Narrative theory and picture books for children. The Lion and the unicorn, Vol. 7/8:20-23.

278 Name, and title register

Name register Bregin, Elana 142 Briggs, Raymond 271, 272 Achebe, Chinua 18, 19, 26-31 Brindley, DJ 143 Adams, Richard 159, 162-4 Brooks, Walter 158, 159 Adler, CS 81 Browne, Anthony 269 Aesop 149-50, 157, 214, 215 Bruce, Mary Grant 230 Aisu, Sam 62 Bruckner, Karl 76 Aleksin, Anatoly 40 Buchanan, Heather 5 Andersen, Hans Christian 74 Burgess, Thornton 158, 159 Annandale, Catherine 136-7 Burningham, John 268, 269 Anno, Mitsumaso 269, 277 Burton, Hester 76, 80 Asbjornsen, Peter Christen 74 Byars, Betsy 81, 83 Ashley, Bernard 77 Calvert, Patricia 82 Bailey, Dennis 137 Calvino, Italo 269 Baillie, Allan 76, 77, 78, 237-9 Carter, Peter 76, 80 Case, Dianne 140-1 Baker, Ivy 84 Clark, Anne Nolan 81 Bates, Dianne 83 Coetzee, JM 112 Beake, Lesley 84, 141, 143 Conlon-McKenna, Marita 15 Beckett, Samuel 20 Conly, Jane 79 Belly, Businge 63 Cooper, Susan 79, 128-35 Bingi, Rose 65 Cotton, John 252, 253, 257-8, 263 Bodecker, NM 159 Cunningham, Julia 81 Boje, Shirley 78 Bond, Kathy 138 Daly, Niki 144, 276 Boston, Lucy 79 Defoe, Daniel 110, 112, 113, 115-7, Bouwer, Alba 101-9 119-20, 123-4 Bransby, Lawrence 141, 142, 143 De la Fontaine, Jean 213

279 Dickens, Charles 274 Holman, Felice 84 Dickinson, Peter 77, 78 Horwood, William 80 Dladla, Mboma 138 Howard, Ellen 84 Dr Seuss, see Seuss, Dr Hughes, Monica 79, 83 Duncan, Lois 77, 78, 82 Hunt, Irene 81 Hurle, Garry 236 Edmond, Walter 159 Hutchins, Pat 267 Enright, Elizabeth 84 Erickson, Russell 158, 159 Ivanov, Sergey 40, 44-6

Fahmann, Willy 75 Janeway, James 258-60, 263 Fairbridge, Lynne 90, 97-100 Jermieson, Allan 136 Fine, Ann 82, 83 Joyce, James 7, 9, 221 Foreman, Michael 276 Fowles, John 269 Kanafani, Ghassan 177-194 Fox, Paula 83, 84 Kay, Mara 75 Foxe, John 260, 261 Kidd, Diana 239 Fritz, Jean 81 Kikamba, Norah 66 Kilner, Dorothy 153-4, 155, 162, 165, 167 Gardner, Alan 79 King-Smith, Dick 158, 159, 166 Gaydar, Arkady 36-8 Kipling, Rudyard 149, 155, 157, 164 George, Jean C 81 Koval, Juri 40 Giraudoux, Jean 113 Krauth, Caron & Nigel 240 Gissing, George 4 Kundera, Milan 269 Gleitzman, Maurice 84 Goscinny, R 272 Lake, David 237, 239 Grahame, Kenneth 80, 149, 155-6, 157-8, Landsman, Sandy 159 162-4, 166, 167 Le Guin, Ursula 79 Greder, Armin 241 L’Engle, Madeleine 79 Gregorowski, Christopher 145 Lewin, Hugh 78 Grimm, Brothers 74 Lingard, Joan 9, 78 Lobel, Arnold 158, 159, 166, 167 Harnett, Cynthia 80 Harries, Ann 137 Lofting, Hugh 159 Harris, Rosemary 77 Lowry, Lois 82, 83 Hathorn, Libby 241 Lunn, Janet 80 Hawdon, Robin 159 Heale, Jay 141 Maartens, Maretha 140, 143 Herge 272 MacLachlan, Patricia 84 Hofmeyr, Dianne 143 MacRois, Cormac 9

280 Magorian, Michelle 81 Peyton, KM 77, 82 Manley, Ruth 235, 240 Picchio, Carlo 75 Marsden, John 242, 243 Pinnock, Patricia Schonstein 140 Martin, David 233-5, 236 Poland, Marguerite 85 Matovu, Gerald 69 Potter, Beatrix 149, 155-6, 157, 162-4, Matveeva, Lyudmila 46-51 166 Mayne, William 235 Pratchett, Terry 80 McCallaghan, Andrew 139 Pushkin, AS 40 McCarthy, Mary 238 Mennen, Ingrid 144 Rankin, Joan 276 Mhlophe, Gcina 276 Robson, Jenny 84 Milton, John 129, 134 Minaev, Boris 40-45, 51 Scott, Dixon 80 Molver, Eileen 83 Scott, Michael 9 Moodey, Eleazer 255 Seed, Jenny 80 Morgan, Alison 76 Sendak, Maurice 269-70 Morimoto, Junko 240 Seton, Thompson 162 Mrs Trimmer 153-4, 167 Seuss, Dr 275, 276 Munitich, Brenda 142-3 Sewell, Anna 155, 156-7, 158, 159, 166, 167 Naidoo, Beverley 139 Shakespeare, William 40 Needle, Jan 80 Smith, Michael 77 Ng’ug’i wa Thiong’o 18-26, 31 Somaveda 219 Nimmo, Jenny 79 Speare, Elizabeth George 76, 81 Norton, Mary 79 Spier, Peter 271 Stock, Catherine 139 O’Brien, Robert C 78, 79, 159 Strachan, Ian 76, 77 O’Casey, Sean 7, 8-9 Stranger, Joyce 77 Ofek, Uriel 76 Suhl, Yuri 75 Oloro, Nancy 68 Sutcliff, Rosemary 80 Ormerod, Jan 271 Synge, JM 7, 8

Pandit Vishnu Sharma 215-219 Tolbert, Steve 238 Park, Ruth 80 Tolstoy, Leo 40 Parkinson, Siobhan 9-15 Tournier, Michel 110-126 Paterson, Katherine 76, 84 Trease, Geoffrey 80 Pearce, Philipa 80 Treece, Henry 80 Peck, Richard 82 Perse, Saint-John 113 Underzo, A 272

281 Valery, Paul 113 Blue Train to the moon 143 Van Heerden, Marjorie 276 Book of martyrs 260, 261 Verne, Jules 113 Borrowers avenged, The 79 Brihat Katha Maniari 219 Wa Thiong’o, Ng’ug’i, see Ng’ug’i wa Bronze bow, The 76 Thiong’o Burnish me bright 81 Walsh, Jill Paton 76 Butter battle book, The 275 Welch, Donald 80 Wheatly, Nadia 241 Cafe Thunderball 143 White, EB 158, 159, 164, 166 Castaways on Chimp island 159, 160 Williams, Michael 78, 144 Cat in the hat 275 Williamson, Henry 162 Chandamama 227 Changelings of Chaan, The 237-8 Yeats, WB 7, 8 Channeary 238, 239 Charlotte’s web 158, 164, 167 Chief! 143 Title register Chike and the river 26—9 Children vision 64-5 92 Queens Road 141 China coin, The 78, 239 Chinese boy, The 233-4, 236 Adventures of Reddy Fox, The 158 Chispa 173 Aesop’s Fables 149-54, 165, 166, 167, Come away from the water 268 277 Cracker Jackson 81 AK 78 Cry softly Thule Nene 78 Amar Chitra Katha 227 Amelia 9, 12-4, 15 Dark is rising, The 128, 130-2 Anno’s Fables 277 Day of the bomb, The 76 Ant and the grasshopper, The 221 Dead of the night, The 242-3 Anwar-e-Suhayli 220 Devil on my back 79 Are you in the house alone? 81-2 Diggers 80 Armien’s Fishing trip 139 Dingo summer, The 84 Ashraf of Africa 144 Dolphin Crossing 76 Asterix (series) 272, 273 Don’t look behind you 77 Down Street 142, 143 Babe: the gallant pig 158 Dragon stone, The 235 Beaver valley 159 Dream catcher 80 Bedtime story-books, The (series) 158 Dreams 271 Big dog 241 Drum, The 26, 29-31 Billabong (series) 230-1 Black beauty 155, 156-7, 158, 159, 166, 167 Eyes of the blind, The 76

282 Fabulous histories 153-4, 157 Hughie 234 Family at Fool’s farm 77 Humayan-Nama 220 Find a stranger, say goodbye 82 Hunter in the dark 83 Finnegan’s wake 221 Flour babies 82 In spite of all terror 76 Fly, eagle, fly! 145 In such a place 90, 97-100 Fly free 81 In the night kitchen 270 Foe 112 Ink bird, The 140 Follow the crow 78 Into the valley 78, 143-4 Four friends, The 69-72 Fox and the grapes, The 221 Jimmy goes to the Border 139 Freddy goes to Florida 158 Freedom Fighter 75 Journey 84 Fresh wind in the Willows, The 80 Journey of 1000 miles 76 Friday 110-126 Journey to Jo’burg 139 Friday and Robinson: life on Speranza Jungle book, The 155, 157 Island 110-126 Juno and the Peacock 8 Frog and Toad are friends 158, 167 Fungus the bogeyman 272-3 Kalilah wa Dimnah 220 Katha Sarithasagara 219 General, The 276 Kayaboeties, The 142 Gentleman Jim 272 Kayo 231 Gift of magic 78 Khetho 137 Giltspur (series) 9 Killing Mr Griffin 82 Ginger Meggs 231 Kind of wild justice, A 77 Goggle eyes 83 Kojuro and the bears 240 Golden bangle, The 68-9 Goodnight Mr Tom 81 Lazy Boy got punishment which made him Granpa 268 work 63—4 Great Gilly Hopkins, The 83 Leprechaun who wished he wasn’t, Green Knowe (series) 79 The 9-12 Greenwitch 128 Grey King, The 128, 132, 134 Life and perambulation of a mouse, The 153-4, 167 Hansel and Gretel 74 Little Bible of New England 257 Hitopadesa 219 Little brother 76, 237-8 Homeward bound 141 Little bush maid, A 230 Hostages, The 77 Little lantern, The 180-184, 185 How the hare fooled the sheep 60-1 Lor ax, The 275 How the hare set the lion against himself Lottery Rose 81 58-60 Lucky orphan girl, The 65-6

283 Mahabharata 214, 221, 224—6 Petals of blood 26 Man, The 273 Pigs might fly 158 Man in the red turban, The 234 Pinballs, The 83 Mantiss and the moon 85 Pioneer 40, 44-51 Many waters 79 Playboy of the Western world, The 8 Mates at Billabong 231 Playing Beatie Bow 80 Mellow yellow 84 Plum-rain scroll, The 235 Monkey Island 84 Pot of winter, A 143 Moonlight and sunshine 271 Promise, The 80 Mrs Frisby and the rats of Nimh 79, 159, Prove yourself a hero 77 161 Msinga easy reading series 138 Rachel and that woman 83 Mushroom center disaster, The 159 Ramayana 221-4 My Hiroshima 240 Rational brutes 153, 155 My place 241 Rebecca’s horse 136 Robinson Crusoe 110, 112-6, 119-20, Naingo and wounded walls 62-3 123-4 New England Primer 257-8 Root cellar 80 New Grubb Street 4 Rosie’s walk 267-8, 277 Night fires 78 Rustle in the grass, A 159 Nimble the mouse 165 Rusty Kee adventures, The 236 Njamba Nene and the cruel colonial chief 19 Salt River times 235-6 Njamba Nene and the flying bus 19-24 Sandwriter 80 Njamba Nene’s pistol 19, 25 Sarah, plain and tall 84 No peace for Amelia 12, 14, 15 Saret 238, 239 Nuwe stories van Rivierplaas 101-9 School of good manners, The 255-6 Scowler’s luck 141 Oh, the places you’ll go 276 Second step 76 Onion tears 239 Serena’s story 141 Orphan becomes king’s wife 66-7 Seventh raven 77 Ouma’s autumn 140 Shirley 268 Outside over there 270 Shorter Westminister catechism 257 Over sea, under stone 128, 130 Silver on the tree 128, 129, 133—4 Sin Can Can 240 Palestine’s children 177, 184-193 Sister 84 Panchatantra 211 -27 Skylark 84 Paradise lost 129, 134 Slake’s limbo 84 Park’s quest 76 Slave dancer, The 83 Pen friends 40-4 Smoke over Golan 76

284 Sneetches, The 275 Uncle Misha’s partisans 75 Snowman 271 Under Goliath 76 Sound of the Gora, The 137-8 Under the hawthorn tree 15 Spiritual Milk for Boston Babes ... 257 Stephanities kai Ichnelates 220 Vendredi ou la vie sauvage 110, 124 Stories van Rivierplaas 101-9 Vendredi ou les limbes du Pacifique 110 Storm warning 75 Voyages of Dr Dolittle, The 159 Story of Dr Dolittle, The 159 Story of Mboma, The 138 Waiting for Godot 20 Streetwize comics (series) 241, 243 War and peas 276 Strollers, The 84 Warton and Morton 158 Summer to die, A 82 Watership Down 159-60, 161, 167 When the wind blows 272 Tale of Peter Rabbit, The 155-6, 164 Where the wild things are 270 Tantrahhavika of Kashmir, The 219 Who , Sir? Me , Sir? 82 Tarka the otter 162 Wild wood 80 Tehanu 79 Willows in winter, The 80 Terry on the fence 77 Wind in the willows, The 80, 155-6, 157, Then there were five 84 162, 164 Thirteen going on forty 83 Wind spirit, The 110, 112, 113, 115-8, Thoko 142-3 120 Time to get out the bath, Shirley 268 Windlord 9 Timur and his squad 36-8 Wings 80 Tintin (series) 271 Winnie-the-Pooh 140 To and again 158 Token for children: being an exact account Year of the wolves 75 ... 258-9, 261, 263 Tomorrow, when the war began 242-3 Yertle the turtle 275 Yesterday’s daughter 82 Tom’s midnight garden 80 Tongelo 136-7 Truckers 80 Z for Zachariah 78 Two weeks with the Queen 84 Zed 77

285 UNISA ISBN O 86981 957 7 ISBN (set) 0 86981 959 3 volume 2