Qin Dynasty Qín Cháo 秦朝 221–206 Bce

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Qin Dynasty Qín Cháo 秦朝 221–206 bce

Although the Qin dynasty lasted for a scant initiated by other states to their logical conclusion. His fifteen years and was repressive, it was China’s reforms concentrated on rural dwellers, who previously first imperial dynasty and developed a cen- had played no part in the workings of the state and who tralized administration and a model of gov- were now to be granted land in return for performing agricultural labor and military service and for paying taxes. ernment that subsequent emperors followed Under Shang Yang this reform was extended to all adult for centuries. males in Qin, a development that required replacing the feudal aristocracy with a central government to adminis- ter a large population. Positions in this new bureaucracy lthough it lasted only fifteen years, the Qin -dy were granted on the basis of merit rather than inheritance, nasty (221–206 BCE) was China’s first imperial as earlier. Fajia (legalism), a philosophy that stressed that dynasty. It developed a centralized administra- rulers should have absolute power and should govern with tion and a model of government that later emperors followed the help of a strict legal code that favored no single class, until the emperor of the final dynasty, the Qing (1644–1912), pervaded Shang Yang’s concept of government. abdicated in 1912. In fact, the name of China was probably The rise of the Qin state culminated in the years after derived from the word Qin (pronounced “chin”). The Qin 260 bce, by which time only seven large states were left in rulers achieved their successes, however, by harsh, totalitar- the struggle for supremacy. A man who would be known ian acts that hastened their dynasty’s fall. posthumously as “King Zhuangxiang” (an early Chinese custom gave rulers posthumous names by which they would henceforth be known) ruled Qin. Lü Buwei was the Rise of the Dynasty chancellor or prime minister. He compiled guidance from classical texts for a system that was aligned to the cosmos After the Western Zhou dynasty (1045–771 BCE) fell, and that would serve to govern a proposed imperial state. the state of Qin emerged as one of many small states that Thethirteen- year-old Zheng (c. 259–210 bce) came to the formed in the absence of a strong ruling house. The peo- throne in 245 bce; seven years later he instigated a palace ple of the Qin state, living in present-day Shaanxi Prov- coup to depose the regent who had ruled in his name. ince among various nomadic tribes in the far west of early Between 230 and 221 bce the Qin—who had once been China, had long been fierce warriors. Rich deposits of iron regarded as too barbaric to pose a serious threat because ore found in their region aided their weapons industry. they had absorbed various central Asian invaders into The Qin began their rise to prominence during the War- their state—annihilated their rivals. By 221 bce Zheng ring States period (475–221 BCE), when Shang Yang (d. 338 had unified all the states that had emerged from the feudal BCE), a politician and scholar, took reforms that had been rule of the once-mighty Western Zhou dynasty. Zheng, 1827 A © 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC 1828 Berkshire Encyclopedia of China 宝库山中华全书

The Terracotta Army at Xi’an, built for the tomb of the first Qin emperor Shi Huangdi (also known as Shi Huang). Photo by Paul and Bernice Noll. having survived various assassination attempts, most no- the glittering cortege, the dead emperor in tow, trundled toriously one by the folk hero Jing Ke, proclaimed him- through the countryside while his subjects remained un- self “Shi Huangdi” (first [literally, commencing] august aware of his demise. emperor). He moved to the new capital of Xianyang in a Li Si was again at the center of intrigue concerning region of the North China Plain associated with former the question of succession. Shi Huangdi’s first son, Fusu, dynastic capitals and took control of his territories. for a time had been exiled by the emperor at Li Si’s urg- ing. Fearing for his life if Fusu come take the throne, Li Si and the chief eunuch, Zhao Gao, convinced Fusu that his Fall of the Dynasty father had ordered him to commit suicide. Thus dispos- ing of Fusu, Li Si and Zhao Gao installed the emperor’s A morbid occurrence attended the end of Shi Huangdi’s eighteenth son on the throne. Revolts broke out almost reign. He died in 210 BCE in eastern China, but his death immediately among imperial laborers. The second em- was not announced for two months more, during which peror was essentially a puppet. Zhao Gao made all deci- time the imperial entourage traveled back to the capital at sions. Two rebel armies were advancing on the capital Xianyang. Senior minister Li Si, who had been a compan- by 207 BCE. Zhao, facing blame as the main architect of ion to the emperor on his journey, had decided to with- the disaster, tricked the second emperor into committing hold news of the emperor’s death until members of the suicide. The throne then passed to a boy who was formally government could regroup, lest the news cause uprisings entitled “child- emperor.” In an intrigue of his own, during because of Shi Huangdi’s widespread unpopularity. Thus, the coronation ceremony the boy assassinated Zhao. But

within a couple of months the child-emperor was forced Xiongnu but were unable to defeat them. As a result, huge to surrender to the invading Han king Liu Bang and was numbers of peasants were drafted to build a long wall to not spared. With its child-emperor dead and his capital defend the northern frontier. Over time most of the Qin destroyed, the Qin dynasty ended in 206 BCE, just fifteen wall, built of mud, crumbled, but it remained an inspira- years after it had begun. tion for later dynasties, which initiated their own construction and reconstruction projects. The Great Wall of China is south of Shi Huangdi’s wall and was completed Changes Made by Shi Huangdi by the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). After Shi Huangdi was in power as the first emperor he made sweeping changes to consolidate and support Qin Cultural Developments authority. Some elements of Confucianism, such as the importance of ancestor worship and filial duty, were The Qin apparently staged competitive martial displays still emphasized; however, in organizational matters Shi known during the Warring States period as jueli, which Huangdi observed the philosophical tenets of legalism combined the word jue (literally, horn/horning, sug- as modeled by Shang Yang. The empire was divided into gesting an aggressive attacking quality) and the word li thirty-six commanderies. Authority was carefully distrib- (strength). These ritual displays fell under the category uted to prevent too much power in any one man’s hands. of wu, which is normally translated as “martiality” but Each commandery thus was ruled by a civilian governor had a cosmic dimension lacking in the English word. Wu who was assisted by a military governor. An inspector connoted the nature of the cosmos during the months of reported to the central government on the activities of decay and death in autumn and winter as opposed to the both governors. The emperor enforced a strict penal code life-giving months of spring and summer. The staging of and relocated Zhou aristocratic families to the capital of acts of ritual violence during the winter was thought to Xianyang, where they could be monitored in mansions bring the social order into accord with the cosmos itself. built for that purpose. Jueli were great occasions of state and included chariot Shi Huangdi extended the military reforms of Shang handling, archery, a team sport of kickball, as well as Yang to the entire empire. His rule brought a number of wrestling and strength competitions that pitted man technical innovations in warfare. For example, the impe- against man, man against animal, and animal against ani- rial army was supplied with crossbows and lamellar armor mal. These displays were as much entertainments as they (rows of overlapping leather plates sewn together). Swords were religious rites. The Qin changed the term to juedi were improved and distributed in large numbers. A nation- (horning-resisting), perhaps implying the to-and-fro of wide system of canals and roads was established to enable combat, and arguably made the dimension of entertain- troops to move quickly to quell revolts and to facilitate ment more explicit. At the imperial retreat of Ganquan trade. Currency and weights and measures were standard- the second emperor was said to have enjoyed juedi and ized. The newly uniform width of axles allowed carts and youpai (performers or entertainers such as musicians, carriages to travel the ruts dug to accommodate them on jesters, singers, dancers, and acrobats). Such entertain- the freshly built highways. For both administrative and ments may not have originated on the North China Plain. commercial reasons Shi Huangdi also supervised unifi- The first emperor certainly enjoyed songs, music, and cation of the writing system, which had developed mul- dance that were familiar to him from the former home- tiple regional variants during the Warring States period land in the far west with its nomadic contacts. A recently (475–221 bce). These variants were regularized in a new discovered bell that had been left behind by looters on the script called xiao zhuan ti (small seal script), which was to grounds of Shi Huangdi’s mausoleum was marked with be used for official documents throughout the empire. the words Qin yuefu. The word yue refers to song-dance The armies of the Qin dynasty expanded the empire’s forms, and fu means “institute.” As documented for borders by invading lands to the south. To the north they the Han dynasty (206 bce–220 ce) office of the same repulsed attacks by nomads from central Asia such as the name, this institute would have had as its purpose the

© 2009 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC 1830 Berkshire Encyclopedia of China 宝库山中华全书 enrichment of court music and dance by incorporating processional formation, as if setting out on a military cam- forms from cultures, including nomadic ones, outside the paign; the army presumably was to act as Shi Huangdi’s borders of the empire. escort and protector. In the west vault as many figures again are believed to remain hidden. Archaeological excavations of the future will be able Quest for Immortality to test the accuracy of the description of the mausoleum provided by China’s first great historian, Sima Qian. Shi Huangdi, seeking to deny death, sent thousands of Sima, writing during the Han dynasty, observed that the youths in search of Peng Lai, the mythical islands of im- massive and elaborate tomb was under construction from mortality, which were said to lie in the East China Sea. 245 to 210 bce, that is, from when Zheng became king at Some scholars believe that this search resulted in the age thirteen until the year of his death. Many laborers settling of an area of Japan by the youths, who not sur- literally were worked to death building the tomb, and all prisingly (because they faced execution if they failed on surviving laborers were buried with the emperor. Sima their mission) never returned to their homeland. The Qin described a huge central chamber with a ceiling studded founder claimed as an ancestor the mythical founder of with pearls and other precious stones to represent the sun, the ancient Chinese people, Huangdi (yellow emperor; moon, and stars; snaking across the floor (the Earth), mer- Huang here refers to a different Chinese character than cury “replicas” of the Yangzi (Chang) and Huang (Yel- the one in the first emperor’s name meaning “August”). low) rivers flowed into a miniature ocean also made of This Huangdi reputedly never died but instead rose to mercury, the metal said to have such great regenerative tian (heaven) in a chariot pulled by dragons. Shi Huangdi powers. Lighting was provided by burning whale oil, the employed alchemists to find the secret to immortality and longest-burning fuel at the time. Within this and other took long journeys to sacred mountains, where he prac- chambers of the compound, which represented palaces, ticed sacrificial rituals for the same purpose. At Mount temples, and offices, armed crossbows were set, primed Tai he conducted the mysterious sacrifices known as to fire on any intruders from this world. feng and shan, also in the hope of cheating death. Ironi- cally, Shi Huangdi was said to have died after ingesting mercury-based concoctions that, alchemists declared, Reign of Shi Huangdi held the key to eternal life (alchemists continued to ped- dle the claim for centuries, evidence to the contrary). As mentioned, the reign of the second emperor brought Shi Huangdi was buried just east of the modern-day breakdown and disorder rather than much that could be city of Xian. Judging from the part of the imperial tomb called “constructive.” Most of the achievements of the complex excavated so far, it is apparent that the complex Qin dynasty occurred during the rule of the first emperor was planned as the final resting place of a man whose life in just eleven years but came at the cost of harsh and re- would be continuing on some grand scale. The dimen- pressive laws established to regulate his subjects in large, sions are impressive: The complex is 515 meters north to disciplined bodies. Overworked peasants not only served south and 485 meters east to west. The mausoleum it- as agricultural laborers but also doubled as soldiers and self, enclosed by a thick outer wall with a tower at each as builders of the lavish architectural projects undertaken corner, is divided into an east vault and a west vault, of by the ruler. Prison sentences and maiming punishments which the former has been largely uncovered. Here have commonly were meted out to dissenters or to those un- been found royal chariots and horses sculpted in bronze fortunate enough to gain the emperor’s disapproval. Shi and in 1974, most famously, an army of seven thousand Huangdi reportedly executed officials who were late to life-sized terracotta figures representing the imperial their assigned tasks, even if their lateness was the result guard, cavalry, infantry, and chariot drivers. Each figure of weather conditions that made travel impossible. Shi was sculpted wearing the uniform and carrying the weap- Huangdi also made enemies among aristocrats who in ons appropriate to his branch of service; remarkably, each the new meritocracy no longer were entitled to inherited face was individually molded. The figures were lined up in court office. In 213 BCE, eight years into his reign, his

growing fear of the power of intellectual debate resulted a variety of state cults), the Han largely maintained and in an order for the execution of hundreds of Confucian built on the military, economic, and political structures scholars and the burning of all books except those on the it inherited from the Qin. In fact, the traditional image subjects of medicine, forestry, divination, and agriculture. of Shi Huangdi as a tyrannical monster recently has been A single copy of each of the condemned books was held giving way, in China and elsewhere, to a more nuanced in the imperial library—which itself was burned by the assessment that from several perspectives seeks to set his invading Han forces in 206 BCE. Fortunately for subse- ruthlessness of method against his lasting accomplish- quent records of Chinese history, the brevity of the Qin ments as “China’s first unifier.” dynasty meant that after its fall scholars lived on and were Dallas L. McCURLEY able largely to reconstruct the classical texts, which they had memorized. As one might expect, Shi Huangdi lived in fear of at- Further Reading tempts on his life and took great precautions to thwart Bodde, D. (1938). China’s first unifier: A study of the Ch’in assassins. He employed doubles of himself as decoys. dynasty as seen in the life of Li Ssu. Leiden, The Neth- An extensive network of tunnels connected his palaces, erlands: E. J. Brill. and he was said to have moved throughout this network, Kern, M. (2000). The stele inscriptions of Ch’in Shih-Huang: sleeping in different locations each evening. Death was Text and ritual in early Chinese imperial representation. the punishment for anyone who revealed Shi Huangdi’s New Haven, CT: American Oriental Society. whereabouts. Lewis, M. E. (1990). Sanctioned violence in early China. In their compilation The Crimes of Qin Han scholars Albany: State University of New York Press. condemned legalism and the ruler who had embodied Lewis, M. E. (2007). The early Chinese empires: Qin and its tenet stating that the law should be obeyed through Han. Boston: Harvard University Press. Li Xueqin & Linduff, K. (1985).Eastern Zhou and Qin civ- fear rather than through respect. The consensus Con- ilizations (Chang Kwangshih, Trans.). New Haven, fucian view was summarized in an essay entitled “The CT: Yale University Press. Faults of Qin,” written by the statesman-scholar Jia Yi. Loewe, M. (2000). A biographical dictionary of the Qin, In this influential essay Jia ascribes the collapse of the former Han and Xin periods, 221 b c – a d 24. Leiden, The Qin dynasty to the widespread discontent caused by Shi Netherlands, and Boston: Brill Press. Huangdi’s harshness in pursuit of his grand ambitions. Nienhauser, W. H. (Ed.). (1994). Shiji: The grand scribe’s Nonetheless, although the Han replaced legalism with records (Caifa Cheng and Chan Chiuming, Trans.). other ideological systems (Confucianism, Daoism, and Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

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