Creating Transformational Executive Education Programs

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஽ Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2007, Vol. 6, No. 3, 375–387...... Creating Transformational Executive Education Programs

MANFRED F. R. KETS DE VRIES INSEAD

KONSTANTIN KOROTOV ESMT—European School of Management and Technology

This essay concerns the design of transformational executive programs. A transformational program presupposes a change in behavior of the attending executive so that the latter becomes more effective in personal or organizational change. To understand what influences the transformational process three triangular conceptual frameworks (building on the short-term dynamic psychotherapy tradition) are presented: the mental life triangle, the conflict triangle, and the relationships triangle. The first shows that cognitive and emotional processes need to be taken into consideration to create changes in behavior. The second describes the sources of thoughts and feelings that may prompt anxiety and cause defensive reactions prohibiting change and productive use of talents. The third relationships triangle explains how an individual’s previous experiences create patterns of response that are repeated throughout life and can become dysfunctional. Five major challenges in program design are also examined: selecting participants; identifying the focal issue on which participants need to work; the creation of a safe transitional space that enables the change process; using the group dynamic to foster transformation and to arrive at internalization of the change process; and the educational implications for faculty, facilitators, and coaches......

“Our universe is change; our life is what our development and transformation were the focus of thoughts make it.” many executive development efforts, as exempli- —Marcus Aurelius fied by the T-group methodology (e.g., Bradford, Gibb, & Benne, 1964; Golembiewski, & Blumberg, “It is in changing that things find purpose.” 1973). This approach involved small groups that —Heraclitus provided their own personal data for a facilitated discussion within a safe environment of (usually) OVERT AND COVERT AGENDAS IN EXECUTIVE strangers eventually gave way, however, to more EDUCATION rational, fact-based impersonal knowledge transfer, at least within the context of business schools. Executives frequently join executive education Executive education came to be seen as a source of programs, particularly those focusing on leader- new cognitive content (theories, models, and con- ship or general management, for reasons that go ceptual tools) that would be valuable for the suc- beyond the obvious ones of gaining additional cess of the organization sending delegates to ex- knowledge and insights about the effective opera- ecutive courses. tion of organizations: They often look for support or a push in order to make a change in their behavior Recent literature on management development that allows them to be more effective in their work suggests, however, that many executives enter and life. In fact, in the not so distant past, personal such programs to pursue very personal agendas, in addition to the standard reasons of learning new ideas or refreshing their knowledge of a particular field. As suggested by Long (2004), manag- The authors would like to thank the editors of this Special Issue of AMLE, as well as three anonymous reviewers, for valuable ers often see such programs as an opportunity to comments made on the previous versions of this essay. take stock of their lives and careers, and to deal

375 Copyright of the Academy of Management, all rights reserved. Contents may not be copied, emailed, posted to a listserv, or otherwise transmitted without the copyright holder’s express written permission. Users may print, download or email articles for individual use only. 376 Academy of Management Learning & Education September with personal issues. Our personal experience, af- For example, participants who feel that such a ter many years of research, teaching, and consult- program was a true change opportunity for them ing executives worldwide, particularly in open-en- report subsequently not only having learned new rollment programs, bears this out. By reading theories, tools, and methods, but also having de- application files and conducting admission inter- veloped a belief in their ability to implement those views, we have observed many executives who new ideas in their organizations, and having view such programs as a “chance for self- started behaving in a new way at their workplace renewal,” a “source of new energy,” an “opportu- and beyond (Korotov, 2005). For this to happen, the nity to experiment with and evaluate their plans or program designers need to go beyond pure intel- fantasies,” or “preparation for a new role.” Ibarra lectual knowledge transfer. They need to have an (2003) writes that taking an educational program is emotional impact. In order to have such an impact, one of the ways people can successfully use to educators need to take into account the internal start developing a new work identity. A recent theater of the participants; they need to help exec- analysis of an extended open-enrollment program utives identify the forces that drive their behavior in a leading business school suggests that people, and support or prevent changes in it. Moreover, in addition to gaining new knowledge and finding they need to attend to the intrapsychic and inter- out about latest thinking in particular fields of personal themes that provide stimuli for growth or expertise or interest, look for opportunities to facil- cause conflicts. itate a personal or professional transition, test Participants in executive programs often go back suitability of a new professional or personal direc- to school to explore how to best use their strengths tion, improve their relationships with critical and talents, how to avoid unproductive allocation stakeholders, and develop a foundation for a new of their time and energy, and how not to miss out emerging identity (Korotov, 2005). To achieve those on emerging opportunities. The motivation for tak- goals, participants, it seems, want to get out of an ing the program is often an excitement about one’s executive course more than just cognitive input or capacities and new horizons or, in some cases, pure sensitivity training. anticipatory anxiety of possibly not being success- A quick look at the program offerings at business ful and missing one’s chances. For example, many schools reveals that many of them claim the trans- participants join programs when they are pro- formational nature of their executive education moted to a significantly higher level of executive courses and position consumption of such pro- responsibility or put on a high-flyer or succession grams as a special kind of experience that goes lists. The issues of using one’s opportunities and beyond purely cognitive enrichment. The transfor- potential in full are linked to the inner theater of mational nature of executive programs, particu- the individuals, as their successful resolution often larly general management or leadership ones, as requires giving up something from one’s past and follows from course descriptions, involves identi- gaining something new, repositioning oneself in fying new opportunities for self and the company, the relationships with others (organizational or regaining energy and interest in one’s work, mak- personal stakeholders), and eventually developing ing changes in personal leadership behavior, in- a new representation of self (cf., Ibarra, 2003; Ibarra creasing effectiveness of relationships with people & Lineback, 2005). These tasks often involve devel- around, finding new ways of mobilizing employees oping a new identity which starts with reworking toward goals, developing a new identity of the one’s own view of self. As suggested by Dubouloy executives involved, and so forth. Learning and (2004), the context of executive education allows development professionals are increasingly ask- participants to look for what they consider to be ing for educational interventions that would sup- their true self and develop it further. port organizational change and help leaders trans- Analysis of our experience (Kets de Vries, Koro- form themselves and their companies. tov, & Florent-Treacy, 2007; Korotov, 2005) also sug- What makes an executive program a successful gests that many of the participants in executive opportunity for transformational attempts, and, po- development programs are often struggling with tentially, for a successful change within the orga- several complicated personal and organizational nization that sends participants to executive edu- issues, including conflicted work relationships, the cation? For a program to be truly transformational, management of disappointment related to career at the outcome, participants need to be able to start setbacks, doubts about their managerial capabili- doing something new at work or to change the way ties, feelings of being a fake or a failure, and con- they exercise their management functions. That cerns about boredom and burnout on the job. Ad- requires the executive to make personal changes ditionally, many suffer from narcissistic problems. at the cognitive, attitudinal, and behavioral levels. Executives subject to narcissistic disorders have a 2007 Kets de Vries and Korotov 377 tendency to surround themselves with yes-men courses. Nevertheless, programs that deal with the and -women, creating an environment that reflects functional sides of business, for example, market- their own idea of reality, a kind of narcissistic soup ing, operations, technology, and finance, also that endangers the future of their organizations. need, in our opinion, to take into account the emo- Others may have realized that they have grown too tional and behavioral sides of executive learning comfortable in their current position, and have lost and development, if they are to have a transforma- the capacity for out-of-the-box thinking, making tional effect on the participants. Our colleagues them incapable of dealing with discontinuous teaching in functional executive programs often change in a creative way. Still others, while feel- mention that participants enthusiastically em- ing that they are doing fine in the strategy-making brace new models and ideas on the intellectual process, are failing miserably on the execution side, but lament that implementing those may be side (Kets de Vries, 1989, 2001, 2005a,b, 2006; really difficult in their particular company. Rela- Khurana, 2004; Hamel, 2002). tively frequently participants mention that they In some instances, the executive (and/or others wish their boss had attended the program—a sign in the organization) becomes aware of these dys- of disbelief in the executives’ own capacity to drive functional behavior patterns, and such awareness change. If we truly believe that executive pro- sometimes leads to a recommendation or a request grams help bring about positive change in organi- to participate in an executive program. In others, zations, we should, then, as a minimum, provide although an individual’s dysfunctional behavior the participants not only with good models and may not yet be visible, he or she feels a sense of ideas, but also with the drive and energy to imple- unease, and that some form of preemptive action is ment them. In line with Levinson (2007), we concur needed to forestall future trouble. A leadership that executives often need support in gaining psy- development program is often seen as a possible chological freedom of making choices of their own solution to tackle these issues, with the explicit and being responsible for their own behavior. motivation often expressed in application forms as “desire to refresh my knowledge” or “need to fol- FOSTERING DEVELOPMENTAL NEEDS: low the latest thinking in the field,” “search for THE THREE TRIANGLES new ideas,” or simply “become a more effective leader.” In an executive program, faculty have an opportu- Transformational programs come in handy at nity to help participants deal with the perceived “natural” transition points, such as moving to gen- need to grasp opportunities associated with be- eral management or taking charge of a foreign coming effective in implementing new ideas, to subsidiary, or being included in the succession develop new executive behaviors, or to get rid of plan. There also are various crisis points that can dysfunctional behavior patterns and discover bring the realization that some form of change is ways of setting the stage for their personal trans- needed, typically a loss of some kind (separation, formation process (hopefully also leading to suc- divorce, missed promotion opportunity, or job loss); cessful transformation in organizations). To enable developmental imbalance (certain important life change to occur (i.e., to help participants start im- expectations remain unfulfilled); interpersonal plementing new ideas or experimenting with new conflict; symptomatology reflecting inner turmoil behaviors), in addition to thinking about the func- (eating or behavioral disorders, sexual dysfunctional content side of the program, the specific tion, and insomnia); work–life imbalance; and fun- developmental needs of the participating execu- damental questions about the meaning of exis- tives have to be taken into consideration in the tence and actions (Frankl, 1962). “Taking stock of program design and delivery. In guiding execu- my achievements so far and identifying opportuni- tives through a transformational program of this ties for the future,” “taking some time to think and type, we have found a three-triangle framework reflect,” and “looking at how I compare with other borrowed from the psychodynamic tradition ex- executives” are often the noticeable themes in es- tremely helpful in conceptualizing the process. says and personal interviews that we use for par- These triangles can be described as the mental life ticipant admission process. triangle, the conflict triangle, and the relationships Our direct experience has been primarily with triangle. participants in leadership development and gen- The first triangle identifies the need to take both eral management programs. The issues associated cognitive and emotional processes into consider- with finding one’s true self, exploring career and ation if we want to create changes in behavior. The life options, or correcting for imbalances, seem second describes how psychic conflict arises from pretty legitimate in these types of executive unacceptable feelings or thoughts that prompt 378 Academy of Management Learning & Education September anxiety and defensive reactions. The relationships ing environment within which individuals can triangle explains how an individual’s early life play with their sense of self, stage mental experi- experiences create patterns of response that are ments, discuss behavioral scenarios with people repeated throughout life. around them (faculty and other participants), and even do new things right in the course of the program, and get immediate feedback. The course The Mental Life Triangle becomes a laboratory space where an executive The mental life triangle dictates the script of a “tests” new knowledge, feelings, and behaviors person’s inner theater and links cognition, emo- before taking them to the real world. The notion of tion, and behavior. It is a distillation of peoples’ identity laboratory draws on Winnicott’s (1951) responses to their motivational need systems, and work on “transitional space” and Van Gennep’s it is often the basis on which choice is made (Lich- (1909) concept of liminality that have recently been tenberg & Schonbar, 1992). As change is about brought into work on identity, learning, and man- making new, different choices, whether about agement development (e.g., Ibarra, 2005; Kets de managing people, confronting competitors’ ag- Vries, 2006; Kets de Vries, Korotov, & Florent- gressive attacks, or introducing a new process or Treacy, 2007; Korotov, 2005). system, executives have to be swayed both cognitively and emotionally for any change effort to be successful. People need to understand cognitively Realizing one’s strengths and not being the advantages that a change effort will bring or afraid of working on them is not always the risks of not changing. Cognition alone, how- easy, however. ever, is not enough. For example, Levinson (2006: 92–98) has identified 20 psychological dimensions important for executive functioning, where quali- For those who are motivated by positive oppor- ties that he groups under the “thinking” dimension tunities or freshly brewing ideas, an executive pro- go hand in hand with “feelings and interrelation- gram can provide reinforcement of their fantasies ships” and specific “outward behaviors.” People and ideas, ranging from making intrapreneurial also need to be touched emotionally. Affect and contributions to completely overhauling their de- cognition go hand in hand in contributing to be- partments or organizations. Those executives who havior patterns. Moreover, executives also need to find themselves in a psychic prison, trapped by learn to touch others emotionally in order to get their job or personal circumstances in a life devoid buy-in and facilitate change in their organizations. of learning, playfulness, creativity and pleasure, In designing and running executive programs, may gain an opportunity to explore ways of per- we have wrestled with the question of how best to sonally reinventing themselves in this kind of ex- help senior executives become even more effec- ecutive program. Thus, executives often mention tive, how to help them start developing a new that they start to notice opportunities that are identity that is congruent with new roles or oppor- rather obvious from outside but often invisible tunities ahead, or how to avoid possible derail- from within (e.g., Korotov, 2005). Our challenge as ment. For that purpose our efforts are directed to- program designers is to help executives by guid- ward turning an executive program into a sort of ing them to the realization that they do have op- identity laboratory that provides executives with tions, that they can make choices, and that these the opportunity to “play,” to climb out of the day- options and choices are often within close reach— to-day routine they find themselves in, and help a task, in which according to Levinson (2007) being them to pick up the threads of new opportunities or psychoanalytically informed can be very helpful. stagnated development. A program can help indi- Outside the executive education domain, psy- viduals assess their strengths and explore ways of chotherapists, psychoanalysts, and psychiatrists using them most productively. Recent work on pos- are traditionally known to help people make long- itive organizational psychology put a big empha- lasting personal change. Dubouloy (2004) suggests sis on capitalizing on strengths (Seligman & Csik- that executive education clients can benefit from szentmihalyi, 2000). Realizing one’s strengths and using psychoanalytic methodology, concepts, and not being afraid of working on them is not always insights within the context of executive programs. easy, however. Sometimes people need to spend Borrowing from the psychodynamic tradition has some time discovering their strengths and getting become an accepted way of helping executives in confirmation from others that those are the assets their growth and development, for example, in ex- that can and should be actively used. An identity ecutive coaching (Kilburg, 2000; Peltier, 2001; Levin- laboratory is a psychologically safe but stimulat- son, 2007). In line with this, years of working with 2007 Kets de Vries and Korotov 379 senior managers have made us realize that sign- individual experiences conflict due to unaccept- ing up for a group seminar designed for senior able feelings or ideas that create anxiety and lead executives is seen as an acceptable way of dealing to defensive reactions, including in situations re- with internal issues—both opportunities and chal- lated to one’s managerial effectiveness. Often de- lenges. It is often easier than making an appoint- fensiveness leads to failure of using the opportu- ment with a helping professional, even if he or she nities available. Ironically, defensive behavior is an executive coach. Until recently working with stirs only a vague awareness of what an individ- a coach was seen as a sign of weakness and as ual is protecting him- or herself against, because something being wrong with the executive, partic- the exact nature of the unacceptable feelings ularly in cultures where asking for help with one’s rarely reaches consciousness. In fact, the suppres- behavior or emotions is not that common. Besides, sion of unacceptable feelings can be viewed as the unlike in individual coaching sessions, executive task of defensive behavior: It works to avoid the programs provide participants with the knowledge individual becoming aware of these feelings, or of and professional tools that are often indispensable experiencing them. Indications of defensive be- for their effective executive functioning. We have havior include changing the subject when certain noticed that participants often decide to get a issues are raised, denying that there is a problem coach after an executive program as a source of (or simply ignoring an admitted problem), and ra- further support in implementing their ideas gener- tionalizing questionable acts. When we see these ating from the executive program. Many say that indications in people’s reactions to models, ideas, they wouldn’t have started working with a coach or best practices presented in executive programs, without having experimented with it in the execu- our task, beyond just sharing our knowledge with tive program. Transformational programs, there- them, is to help participants act as psychological fore, offer both factual knowledge and tools and detectives in order to find out against what the resources (such as coaching) for implementing it in person demonstrating such behaviors in response practice. But this does not mean that work with to new ideas is erecting defenses. executives in such a course is going to be easy. It To make the most of the executive education is always a challenge for faculty to create a mean- experience and transfer their learning to real ingful and enduring learning experience, offering changes in their organizations, executives often both stimulating content and very personal explo- need to recognize and overcome defensive barriers ration and experimentation opportunities relating (their own and those of people around them) and the content to the executive’s actions at work. identify the central issue(s) they are trying to deal In helping executives on this journey toward with. Fortunately, in a transformational executive change in their personal behavior, as well as to- program, particularly the one where the role of ward their increased effectiveness as instruments executive as a leader bringing in new ways of of change in organizations, executive education doing things into the organization is given due providers need to find nontraditional ways to over- time and consideration, they are not alone in this come participants’ resistance to looking deeper particular task. We often rely on a process of con- into themselves or seeing their organizational is- frontation and clarification by faculty and fellow sues through the lens of their own development participants through which a greater specificity of and leadership behavior. This often necessitates the problem will be created (Menninger, 1958; Kets making people aware of issues of a preconscious de Vries & Miller, 1984; Etchegoyen, 1991; Kets de or unconscious nature without, however, turning a Vries, 2006). Participants in the programs we have transformational program into therapy. Further- in mind experiment with different ways of interact- more, faculty also need to ensure that changes in ing with others, using the other members of the behavior patterns have a chance to be lasting, to seminar as “mirrors” in a plenary or small group turn into something more than temporary “flights setting. Confrontation takes the form of questions into health”—transient highs of the sort produced about issues and patterns of behavior that the pre- by the pulp psychology of too many self-help senting participant appears to be avoiding or ig- guides and dubious life coaches. noring. These questions, and the kinds of responses they elicit, help to make the participants’ defenses more explicit, allowing a better under- The Conflict Triangle standing of the underlying feelings and conflicts, Part and parcel of the human condition is the “tri- and discovering why certain things work or fail to angle of conflict,” the three sides of which are work in the organization led by the participant. hidden feelings, defensive behaviors, and conflict Positioning an executive program as an identity (Malan, 1963, 1976; Malan & Osimo, 1992). Every laboratory, a safe and stimulating place for exper- 380 Academy of Management Learning & Education September imentation, presupposes that many risky things the group of other executives participating in the can be done within the psychological safety program (e.g., Kets de Vries, 2005). People who are boundaries of this setting. In these workshops, engaged in self-exploration and experimentation many executives reportedly find themselves for the need to feel that other group members, executives first time in an environment where they can be similar to themselves, are going or have gone both genuinely challenged and supported without through similar issues, and are supporting them in hidden agendas or career or personal repercus- dealing with change. And, just as important, ide- sions (Kets de Vries, Korotov, & Florent-Treacy, ally they need to be assured that these people are 2007; Korotov, 2005). What makes the process effec- not there on a temporary basis but could be there tive is that each executive finds him- or herself in for the long haul. Therefore, a transformational a challenging situation, but also one where people executive program should lay the foundation for care. The people around, ideally, are also seen as postprogram interaction of participants, for exam- capable of understanding the executive’s issues. ple in the form of peer-coaching, elements of which The faculty and the other participants can then can be practiced by participants in the program serve as legitimate guiding figures and sparring (Korotov, 2006) or through encouraging postpro- partners who help the executive deal with oppor- gram communication or alumni activities. tunities and challenges. In clarification, the issues brought to the fore The Relationships Triangle through confrontation are analyzed more closely and brought into sharper focus. Clarification helps The relationships triangle points out that all of us, to sort out cause-and-effect relationships and fos- in all situations, have to deal with two kinds of ters an appreciation of the connections between relationships (Freud, 1905; Malan, 1963; Greenson, past and current patterns of behavior, setting the 1967; Malan & Osimo, 1992; Molnos, 1995). First, stage for various forms of interpretation and the there is the “real” relationship between the person creation of greater insight about a specific issue— and the “other”—a relationship between two col- strengths or a weaknesses. leagues at work, for example, or between an em- Generally, the personal resolutions that grow ployer and an employee. This real relationship out of the confrontation and clarification stages lay becomes the context for another, more elusive re- the groundwork for a considered and detailed relationship grounded in the past—what psycholo- appraisal of professional and, at times, life goals, gists call the “transference relationship.” The con- and for experimentation with new alternatives to cept of transference suggests that no relationship deal with organizational and personal issues. Go- is a new relationship, and that all relationships ing through this process also furthers the develop- are colored by previous relationships (Freud, 1905; ment of ideas, refines approaches to their imple- Racker, 1968; Luborsky, Crits-Cristoph et al., 1988; mentation, and sharpens action plans. By creating Luborsky & Crits-Cristoph 1998). Obviously, the re- greater awareness of a person’s inner theater and lationships that have the most lasting potency, his or her responses to actions of others, confron- coloring almost every subsequent encounter, are tation and clarification work to decrease ambigu- those that we have with our earliest caregivers. ity about what an individual really would like to Our adult behavior has its roots in those privi- accomplish, leading to greater peace of mind and leged, early relationships. more focused actions steps. The empathy and sup- As we relive our earlier, primary relationships port expressed by the other participants, the ap- again and again, behavior patterns emerge that preciation that other people truly care, encourages direct the way we act toward people in the present: participants to embrace experimentation and, Although we are now in a very different situation eventually, take greater control of their executive as adults, our responses are still fundamentally behavior. those conditioned in our early childhood. In other While it is important that the faculty leading words, without even being aware of it, we are often these seminars remain empathic, the supportive confused about person, time, and place. Like it or role of the group is critical. We see the group as a not, our past relationships have solidified into or- powerful learning resource for the participants. ganizing themes in our personality structure. In Unlike in individual executive coaching, a power- our everyday life, we experience attitudes, ful developmental tool per se, executive programs thoughts, and emotional responses that, although can offer a combination of content, additional im- appropriate to the interpersonal processes govern- plementation- or behavior-related input from fac- ing our earlier years, may have become maladap- ulty, facilitation by leadership coaches, and, very tive. Anyone hoping to make sense of interper- importantly, significant input and influence from sonal encounters at anything but an intuitive level 2007 Kets de Vries and Korotov 381 needs to understand (and be alert to) these trans- standing oneself and the way we present our- ferential processes, as they sometimes can create selves in interactions with others. An inclusion of a obstacles on our ways to realizing our aspirations. module or workshop that deals with the challenges Executive programs centered on leadership of practical implementation of models and con- sometimes use the relationships triangle—with cepts could become a legitimate addition even to a its three sides of self, present-other, and past- functional executive course that goes beyond the other—to illustrate the effects of transference. It human side of the enterprise. Nevertheless, for a helps participants understand that the earliest true understanding and transformation of one’s feelings they experienced toward others are re- own behavior to take place, a number of chal- peated in relation to people in the present—includ- lenges need to be addressed in the design and ing, for the duration of the program, the program delivery of transformational executive programs. itself, the other participants, and the faculty. This triangle provides a conceptual structure for as- The Selection of Participants sessing patterns of response by pointing out the similarity of past relationships to what happens in The first challenge concerns the criteria for select- the present. It helps explain reliance on certain ing program participants prepared to engage in a behavioral patterns that may or may not be opti- change effort. In order to create a safe environment mal under current circumstances and sheds light where people can play with cognitions, emotions, on certain interpersonal issues that the executive and behavior, participants need to be willing to may be experiencing at work and at home. Trans- engage in self-exploration and self-experimenta- ferential interpretation is a crucial tool in the tion. Given the stress that these programs put on change toolbox. When the link between present their participants, only relatively healthy people relationships and the past is made meaningful—in will have the psychological strength required to other words, when a person understands old pat- participate and, also important, be of help to them- terns of interaction and then learns to assess func- selves and others. Fortunately, many successful tionality or dysfunctionality of these patterns in executives possess a considerable degree of emo- current relationships—the process of transformational stability. In spite of that, however, we need tion and change is more likely to be successful. An to be vigilant in assessing the executive’s capacity understanding of transference allows a person to to gain from such transformational programs. change how he or she superimposes longstanding Among our criteria for acceptance are (1) the past patterns onto current relationships. level of motivation to learn and change; (2) the capacity to be open and responsive; (3) interpersonal connectedness; (4) emotional management When the link between present skills; (5) a degree of psychological mindedness; (6) relationships and the past is made the capacity for introspection; (7) responsiveness to meaningful—in other words, when a observations of others; (8) the ability to tolerate person understands old patterns of depression or anxiety; and (9) flexibility. Although truly assessing all of the above criteria when se- interaction and then learns to assess lecting participants is often impossible, some functionality or dysfunctionality of these proxy indicators for them can be obtained through patterns in current relationships—the a combination of personal interviews with the pro- process of transformation and change is gram faculty and assessment through reflective more likely to be successful. essay writing. The process of application preparation and interviewing gives the candidate a sneak preview of the program he or she is applying for, and the opportunity to evaluate the initial fit be- CHALLENGES OF DESIGNING tween the program and his or her developmental TRANSFORMATIONAL PROGRAMS needs. An in-depth acceptance process also allows Our experience and recent research (e.g., Dubou- faculty to estimate whether the candidate will be loy, 2004; Kets de Vries, Korotov, & Florent-Treacy, able to cope with the psychological demands of the 2007) suggest that a leadership program within the program and whether he or she will fit with the context of a business school creates an opportunity group. This preprogram work may become the first for an executive to look into the patterns of his or step in the change process, as it brings many psy- her behavior and start the process of self-explora- chological issues to the fore. If people are not tion. After all, everybody accepts, at least on a ready to explore their personal responsibility in rational level, that leading others involves under- making things happen in organizations, a program 382 Academy of Management Learning & Education September

EXHIBIT 1 EXHIBIT 1 Laboratory for Executive Change: A Program (Continued) Example Once a year we run an open-enrollment leadership Etchegoyen, 1991; Kets de Vries, 2007). An effort is made workshop that is aimed at creating reflective leaders to prevent the premature closure that results from quick capable of reinventing themselves and their recommendations. Once the feedback session is over, organizations. Twenty very senior executives are the presenter is given the last word, airing any selected to participate from a large number of additional thoughts and commenting on the various applicants from all over the world. These executives, all observations. The presenter concludes by presenting a of whom are successful in their jobs, apply to the proposed “contract for change,” outlining the things that program for a variety of reasons. The guiding theme is he or she will work on in the interim period. often a seemingly insoluble dilemma, perhaps centered During the second week some time is devoted to the around negative feelings about the self, or on processing of a number of feedback instruments. A key perceptions of the world and others that make part of this activity is a 360-degree feedback instrument fulfillment of personal dreams seem impossible. that consists of twelve dimensions contributing to Typically, however, this central dilemma is not clearly leadership effectiveness. In addition, feedback from a articulated in an applicant’s mind when he or she personality audit instrument is conducted. This includes applies to the program. The workshop consists of three information from each individual’s private life through 5-day periods with intervals of approximately 7 weeks feedback gathered from a spouse or significant other. between each one, plus a final 3-day module six months Additional information is collected from other family later. The expectation is that participants will learn members and close friends. This broad information more about themselves during each on-site week; then, provides the basis for a more refined action plan in the based on that knowledge, they agree on a “contract” of hiatus between the second and third periods. The main change that delineates what they should work on at focus of the third week is the consolidation of acquired work and at home during their time away from the insights and the internalization of change. In addition, workshop. Because mutual coaching is part of the a leadership style instrument is introduced (Leadership design of the program, “homework” assignments are Archetype Questionnaire). The presentations continue, monitored among the participants. becoming increasingly multilayered and rich as the Although the basic material of the workshop is the life workshop progresses. The fourth workshop session case study, the first week contains a number of furthers the internalization process. interactive sessions on high-performance organizations, In addition to the plenary sessions, participants spend organizational culture, the impact of mergers and a lot of time in small groups in and outside the class. acquisitions, effective and dysfunctional leadership, the The interactions within these groups are extremely career life-cycle, cross-cultural management, and valuable, because they consolidate newly acquired organizational stress. With that foundation, participants behavior patterns. Whether in subgroups or in the can then move on to the workshop’s central model of plenary, the twenty participants form an intense psychological activity and organization: the personal learning community—an identity laboratory. case history (Spence, 1982; McAdams, 1993; Rennie, 1994; Whenever a group member backslides into a behavior McLeod, 1997). Each participant in the workshop pattern that he or she is trying to unlearn, the other volunteers to sit in the “hot seat” once during the course participants offer constructive feedback. By the third of the seminar. This experience is extremely important. week, many of the participants know each other It is a positive step toward self-discovery, in that better than members of their own family. With that experience and actions become sequentially organized increasing intimacy, the interchange in the plenary as a person tells his or her story, but it also helps other sessions becomes extremely free-flowing. The group, group members, who gain understanding of their own exhibiting considerably more emotional intelligence opportunities and challenges as they hear about the with each new session, turns into a self-analyzing parallel problems of others. community, so that much less intervention is needed During each case presentation the other participants are by faculty. asked to listen carefully with “free-flowing attention,” A follow-up session is held after 6 months to see how and not to interrupt. When a presenter is finished, well the action plans have been dealt with. In many questions can be asked—but purely for the purpose of instances, follow-up sessions are held year after understanding the narrative better. Once the narrative year—which offers participants and faculty alike an has been clarified, it is the turn of the presenter to be opportunity to assess the degree to which certain new silent and listen to the associations, interpretations, and behavior patterns have become truly internalized. recommendations of the other members of the group. A As the above example suggests, a program like this considerable amount of time is devoted to the requires a lot of energy and resources from both associations (fantasies, feelings, and thoughts) that the participants and faculty, and it requires discovering presentation arouses in its listeners. The use of or developing new strengths and competencies in the countertransference observations is essential to the people who design and run such courses. Going the understanding of the salient themes in the presenter’s extra length in making such programs happen is life (Balint, 1957; Menninger, 1958; Greenson, 1967; ultimately very rewarding, as it truly shows that Racker, 1968; Balint, Ornstein, & Balint, 1972; executive education can really make a difference. 2007 Kets de Vries and Korotov 383 that positions itself as a transformational one may opportunities for each participant to take a “hot not be right for them. seat” and present their stories to the rest of the class, or participate in small-group coaching sessions in which participants take turns to present Finding the Focal Issue for One’s Personal their stories, supported by a number of exploratory Change Efforts tools, such as personal self-portrait, a 360-degree The second challenge concerns the identification leadership feedback package, a review of personal of the focal opportunity or challenge that each nonanonymous feedback from work and nonwork participant needs to work on and how to fit this environments, and observations and reflections of into the overall structure and content of the pro- other participants (for an example see Exhibit 1, gram. In order to achieve or change something, and for a detailed description of the methods see executives need to be clear about what it is that Kets de Vries, Korotov, & Florent-Treacy, 2007). they want to achieve or change. They have to iden- Trust is, of course, essential for such programs tify their central issue(s) and need to be able to and the old Hippocratic dictum—“Do no harm”—is formulate explicit, tractable goals. We have no- constantly stressed. As the program unfolds, par- ticed, for example, that when people tell their his- ticipants gradually develop the trust necessary to tory to others (and listen to the stories of the other be able to open up and learn from each other. We participants), they are often able to identify spe- have observed that programs consisting of several cific themes that began in their past and continue modules that give people an opportunity to inter- over time into the present. Their challenge, which act with each other over a longer period of time is also a challenge for faculty and other partici- (both in class and through structured out-of-class pants, is to identify these themes. This means not activities, like working together on assignments or only having a better understanding one’s own participating in personal case-study discussions story but also making sense of other people’s sto- via conference calls) have a significantly higher ries. We have noted that, more often than not, the chance of making a lasting impact on executives stories people tell about themselves center on than the temporary highs created by one-shot seemingly insoluble dilemmas grounded in per- events. Such programs create conditions for people ceptions of their own world and the world of others, to foster longer term relationships with fellow par- or on barriers to realizing their dreams. ticipants, who may eventually form a pool of their As programs are put together, we put a major peer coaches to rely on in implementing their ac- emphasis on the personal narrative of participants tion plans after completion of the executive pro- (Loewenberg, 1982; Spence, 1982; McAdams, 1993; gram. Rennie, 1994; McLeod, 1997). Telling life stories becomes a way of exploring the self, leading to ques- Creating Transitional Space tions like “Who am I?,” “Where am I going?,” and “How will I get there?” Telling stories is a way of The third challenge concerns the creation of a safe working through internal issues and developmen- experimentation environment—some sort of a tran- tal challenges. It is also a way to arrive at mean- sitional space where exploration is allowed and ingful career or personal life integration or at a encouraged (Winnicott, 1951; Dubouloy, 2004; coherent understanding of what happens in the Ibarra, 2005; Korotov, 2005). Exploring oneself, one’s participant’s organization. Additionally, listening emotions and behavioral patterns, even if this to others’ stories is another highly effective way of takes the form of discussing organizational issues understanding one’s self or challenges of one’s through the eyes of the executive concerned, may own workplace, and a powerful tool for managers be a stressful undertaking. Change is difficult, and at all levels. changing oneself is often the most difficult task In order to use the benefits of story telling, op- executives have to handle in their life or career. portunities must be created for people to tell their Even the best-intentioned people rarely manage it stories and for the audience (the other participants) single-handedly. Asking for help is difficult, too, to identify the issues together and talk them especially for successful executives who are through. Stories reveal specific present-day dilem- closely watched by their internal and external or- mas that have grown out of underlying dilemmas ganizational stakeholders. So a major challenge of that often can be resolved by addressing those executive education providers concerned with cre- deeper issues. These dilemmas will be the basis ating transformational programs is how to get oth- for “contracts” for reflection and action between ers involved in helping the executive initiate and the presenter and the rest of the participants. carry through the process of change. Executive programs that we run strive to create To encourage the sense of trust and support that 384 Academy of Management Learning & Education September the holding environment of a transformational pro- ences the person making the public commitment gram requires, executive education providers can (cementing willingness to embrace an opportunity, use various techniques, including positive refram- capitalize on a strength, or confront a challenge), ing, encouragement, and the anticipation or re- but also enlists the cooperation of others—a strong hearsal of difficult situations. Reframing is a cog- reinforcement for change—and creates a network nitive technique used to assist people in diffusing of support. By taking a public stance, the speaker or sidestepping a painful situation, thus enhanc- issues a self-ultimatum: Go through with the oping self-esteem. An essential part of reframing is portunity or change, or lose face. Facetiously, we assessing a person’s strengths—looking at what sometimes say that our major allies in the change has gone right in his or her life (Seltzery, 1986; process are the forces of shame, guilt, and hope. Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Cooperrider & Sometimes people can start the process of Whitney, 2005). Psychological strengths can then change by staging small experiments with their be drawn on to deal with the conflicted areas. potential selves (Ibarra, 2003). Again, a multimodu- Encouragement, which is closely related to refram- lar program allows participants to try new behaving, encompasses reassurance, praise (which, to ior patterns, experimenting outside the class, and be helpful, must affirm something that the recipi- then reporting back to the group on the results and ent considers praiseworthy), and empathic com- learning points of the experiment they staged. Fur- ments (Rogers, 1951). Anticipation allows a person ther clarification of goals then takes place, new to move through new situations hypothetically and alternatives are assessed, and new commitments to weigh different ways of responding. Allowing can be made. someone to become better acquainted with a situation reduces anticipatory anxiety. Rehearsal al- Making Change Last lows a person to practice more appropriate ways of engaging in future events, expanding his or her The fourth challenge is concerned with problems adaptive repertoire (Kilburg, 2000). The purpose of of internalization and lasting change. Once work- all these interventions is to help the person ac- shop participants have identified the focal prob- quire a greater sense of self-efficacy (Bandura, lems and practiced alternative approaches to deal- 1997) and get engaged in thinking through new oping with them, they face the critical task of portunities and discussing them within the program. maintaining acquired gains. They need to arrive at Constructive suggestions about what and how to a state of self-efficacy. They need the skills to edit change are also needed. Within the executive pro- the script for their inner theater, even if they fall gram, those suggestions should come from both short of rewriting it. But this kind of inner transfor- faculty and fellow participants, who can point out mation can only take place once a new way of better ways of doing things, building on what they looking at things has been internalized. have learned both through classroom sessions and Internalization is a gradual process by which listening to each others’ stories (both in structured external interactions between self and others are course activities and during course-related social taken in and replaced by internal representations events, such as dinners). It is no surprise that many of these interactions. In our leadership programs, participants have great problem-solving skills. A telling (and retelling) one’s own story and listening constructive use of the collective mind, heart, and to others’ stories—and recognizing similarities experiences of participating executives requires among them all—are aimed at consolidating this intensive interactions and ample opportunity to process of internalization. Work between the mod- work with one another and faculty. Often a team of ules, conference calls with other participants, and professors, executives in residence, and trained peer coaching sessions held as part of the learning leadership coaches is required to guide and facil- process should also contribute to internalization. itate fruitful interactions among the participants, Again, multimodular programs allow more oppor- who may not necessarily be accustomed to work- tunities for internalization. Once participants ing so intensely on their own and others’ issues, leave the group, they have to try to hold on to the which often involve an emotional component. insights they acquired through the internalization A safe holding environment gives the individual process, even though the group and faculty are no experimenting with change possibilities a great longer there to provide external reinforcement. If opportunity to make a personal commitment about the program experience encourages the partici- what actions he or she would like to take in front of pants to maintain their network for future support, caring fellow participants. This sort of commitment that can also be seen as a sign of internalization. accelerates the personal transformation process, What we consider a good outcome from a pro- because it doubles momentum: It not only influ- gram is getting reports from participants about 2007 Kets de Vries and Korotov 385 what they are trying to implement in the organiza- participants in bringing the learning from the class- tion or in their personal career and life efforts after room to their organizations or personal careers and the course. Very often this involves not only a lives. Obviously, incorporating such approaches into change in the content of what they do, but also new program design is quite different from, for example, processes, new ways of relating to self and others. selecting a case study or a set of slides. Sometimes former participants start a parallel ca- Faculty and facilitators involved in transforma- reer experiment (cf. Ibarra, 2003), get a new respon- tional programs should undertake a process of per- sibility or make a change in jobs—in most cases sonal self-exploration, experimentation, and perceived as a positive step—and they try to im- change themselves before they try to help others. plement the content and processes learned in their Turning one’s executive course into a transforma- new positions. We also hear from some partici- tional program requires a deep understanding of pants that they finally implement the plan that the mental life, conflict, and relationships trian- they had had in their head (or even on paper) for gles described earlier. Someone working in this quite some time, but were reluctant to start work- sort of program will dispense an enormous amount ing on. Yet at times we hear that people fall back of emotional energy engaging with participants, into old behaviors, or fail to gain intraorganiza- challenging them while simultaneously showing tional support for what they try to achieve. What is empathy and care. Last but not least, the time encouraging, however, is that some people even commitment required for these programs from fac- under these circumstances try to use a variety of ulty in such programs is much higher than for more lenses, including their personal inner theater-related traditional programs. one, for analyzing the reasons for their failures and Our recent research efforts dealing with how gaining new insights for success in the future. participants experience transformational programs (Kets de Vries, Korotov, & Florent-Treacy, 2007; Korotov, 2005) strongly suggests that execu- Having the Right Faculty tives attending programs in business schools ben- The final challenge concerns the faculty, facilita- efit not only from the content of the programs, but tors, and leadership coaches who are involved in also from the process to which they get exposed. the process of creating an impact-oriented execu- Transformational programs serve as opportunities tive education program. Managing this sort of pro- to work on oneself, with the structure of the program demands the kind of knowledge, skills, and gram allowing executives experimentation with attitudes that are not typically found in a tradi- their priorities, styles, choices, beliefs, and so on. tional executive educator. One theoretical ap- Effects reported by participants include clarifica- proach that offers considerable promise in accel- tion of goals, prioritization of one’s efforts, increase erating the process of change has come from in self-efficacy, overcoming internal barriers to do- experiments in short-term dynamic psychotherapy ing new things, readiness to try out new things, and group psychotherapy (Mann, 1973; Sifneos, career changes, and even personal life changes 1979; Rosenbaum, 1983; Horowitz, Marmor et al., (Korotov, 2005). We also observe long-lasting ef- 1984; Strupp & Binder, 1984; Yalom, 1985; Gustav- fects of going through a transformational program son, 1986; Molnos, 1995; Groves, 1996; Rutan, & by means of staying in touch with the participants: Stone, 2001; Rawson, 2002). This therapeutic ap- Our participants join our research efforts, become proach provides a different route than long-term protagonists in our case-studies, and come to fol- psychotherapy in helping people acquire insight low-up workshops designed for program alumni. into the way various life events and ongoing expe- One of the observations we make is that partici- riences contribute to their issues. Obviously, goals pants who have been through a transformational of executive education are different from those of program make an attempt to create elements of therapy. Nevertheless, recent thinking on execu- transitional space in their organizations, as a min- tive development suggests that managers need to imum, within the boundaries of their own close be helped to recognize their talents and strengths team of executives and, sometimes, beyond it (Koro- and use them without the feeling of guilt. They also tov, 2005). What is important, then, is that executive need to be helped to recognize their irrational be- educators creating identity laboratories can have an haviors that may lead to negative reactions from impact on the life of organization by supporting or people around (Levinson, 2007). Therefore, faculty rejuvenating their leaders and creating executives’ members and facilitators familiar with therapeutic drive for change and transformation and a true belief approaches find that, when combined with a solid in the possibility of succeeding in such efforts. dose of empathy and psychological support, they This essay reflects on our practice of working often result in remarkable progress of their program with executives from all over the world in leader- 386 Academy of Management Learning & Education September ship development and general management pro- REFERENCES grams. Such programs by definition create more Balint, M. 1957. The doctor, the patient and the illness. New York: opportunities for participants’ reflection and dis- International Universities Press. cussion of how they themselves impact individu- Balint, M., Ornstein, P. H., & Balint, E. 1972. Focal psychotherapy. als, teams, and organizations. 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Manfred Kets de Vries holds the Raoul de Vitry d’Avaucourt Chair Konstantin Korotov is assistant of Leadership Development at professor at ESMT. He received INSEAD, and he is the Director of his PhD in Management at IN- INSEAD Global Leadership Cen- SEAD. His research is on leader- ter. He is the author, coauthor, or ship development, executive editor of 24 books and more than coaching, and career and iden- 250 articles. As an educator and tity change. Konstantin directs consultant he has worked in Leading People and Teams and more than 40 countries. other programs at ESMT and con- sults globally on the issues of leadership development and coaching.