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The Mao Cult During China's Cultural Revolution

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The Mao Cult During China's Cultural Revolution Performative Politics and Petrified Image – The Mao Cult during China’s Cultural Revolution Ph.D. thesis submitted by Daniel Leese School of Humanities and Social Sciences, International University Bremen September 2006 Date of Defense: 8 December 2006 Dissertation Committee: Prof. Dr. Johannes Paulmann (Universität Mannheim) Prof. Dr. Nicola Spakowski (International University Bremen) Prof. Dr. Jürgen Osterhammel (Universität Konstanz) II “This land so rich in beauty Has made countless heroes bow in homage But alas! Qin Shihuang and Han Wudi Were lacking in literary grace, And Tang Taizong and Song Taizu Had little poetry in their souls; And Genghis Khan, Proud Son of Heaven for a day, Knew only shooting eagles, bow outstretched. All are past and gone! For truly great men Look to this age alone.” Snow, Mao Zedong (Translation in Mao Tsetung Poems, 1976) III IV Contents Preface VIII Abbreviations IX List of Figures X Introduction 1 Modern Personality Cults, 3 “An Annoying Spectacle”, 10 The Mao Cult: State of Research, 16 Interpreting Modern Personality Cults, 22 Sources and Structure, 29 PART I Coming to Terms with the “Cult of the Individual” Page 33 Chapter 1: The Secret Speech and its Impact 37 National and International Reverberations, 38 On the Historical Experience of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat, 43 Public Imagery, 48 The Eighth Party Congress, 54 Chapter 2: The Dual Nature of Commodities 56 More on the Historical Experience of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat, 60 Contradictions among the People and within the Party, 63 The Anti-Rightist Campaign, 71 Chapter 3: Redefining the Cult 76 The Great Leap Forward, 78 The Sino-Soviet Rupture and the War of Words, 84 Worship and Superstitious Belief: A Quantitative Survey, 91 V PART II Rites and Recitation Page 95 Chapter Four: Living Study and Application 99 Political Education in the PLA, 101 A Shortcut to Marxism, 106 Information Control and Exegetical Bonding, 110 Emulating Individuals and Collecting Experiences, 116 Ritual as Habitual Action and Contemporary Criticism, 118 Chapter Five: The Little Red Book and the Rise of the Red Vocabulary 122 Compilation, 122 Distribution, 129 On Communist Morality, 133 Red Vocabulary, 142 Questioning Loyalties, 146 Chapter Six: Politics of the Performative 151 A twentieth century Zhong Kui, 155 Spreading word and image, 161 Exchanging Revolutionary Experiences, 171 “Waving the Red Flag to knock down the Red Flag”, 177 A Red Ocean, 184 PART III Cult and Discipline Page 187 Chapter Seven: Re-establishing Political and Symbolical Order 190 “Three Supports, Two Militaries”, 190 Monuments of Belief and Cult Anarchy, 196 The Dafang Incident, 203 Positive and Negative Integration, 209 VI Chapter Eight: Everyday Cult 218 Mao Zedong Thought Activist Congresses, 219 Plural Cults, 223 The Language of Flattery, 227 Cult and Commodities, 237 Mango Worship and the Economy of the Gift, 247 Chapter Nine: Curbing the Cult 254 The Ninth Party Congress, 255 Genius Loci: The Second Lushan Plenum, 261 Lingering Poison: Criticizing Lin Biao and Confucius, 267 Preservation and Transformation, 276 Conclusion 285 The Cult as Communicative Space, 286 Performative Politics and Petrified Image, 292 Bibliography 298 Archival Sources, 298 Sources and Literature, 302 VII Preface The present dissertation is the product of an unlikely combination of factors. It is a historical work on modern China written completely from Chinese sources at an institution without a single Chinese book. The topic it deals with like no other is associated with the Cultural Revolution and yet has sparked only marginal scholarly interest. The original idea resulted from an e-mail exchange with Michael Schoenhals (Lund University, Sweden) in early 2003 about a number of obscure documents relating to the veneration of Comrade Men He, one of the Cultural Revolution’s foremost model heroes. As no predefined body of texts existed or, to put it differently, not even the type of sources from which to draw evidence on the cult could be clarified in the first place, the initial research for this PhD thesis has consisted of literally digging through stacks of old documents, stencilled drafts, and obscure objects on flea markets, private collections, and finally archives. Many people have contributed to this work by sharing their ideas, comments, and criticism. I explicitly thank my Dissertation Committee members, Professors Johannes Paulmann (Universität Mannheim), who encouraged me from the earliest stages to pursue the project and offered help in all situations, Nicola Spakowski (International University Bremen) for her helpful advice on various issues, and finally Jürgen Osterhammel (Universität Konstanz), who agreed to join the committee despite an incredible workload. I would further like to thank Jean Hung and Ruth Kwok at the Universities Service Center in Hong Kong that hosted me for several months, Roderick MacFarquhar, Nancy Hearst, and the participants of the Sixth Annual Conference on International History at Harvard in March 2006, and the Historical Department at Beijing University that provided me with valuable support. Thanks further to my colleagues at Munich University, especially Professor Hans van Ess, who enabled me to finish this dissertation while taking on the duties as assistant professor. Michael Schoenhals incessantly encouraged the ongoing work through generously sharing his personal archive of Cultural Revolutionary sources and, even more importantly, his unparalleled knowledge of the period. Financial support was granted continuously by the German National Academic Foundation (Studienstiftung des deutschen Volkes) and International University Bremen. The largest debt, however, I owe to my family, my wife and daughters, who supported me throughout the whole process of research and writing, and endured my frequent absences and absent- mindedness. Munich, 30 September 2006 VII I Abbreviations CCP Chinese Communist Party CCRG Central Cultural Revolution Group CMC Central Military Commission CPSU Chinese Party of the Soviet Union CCRD Cultural Revolution Database GMD Guomindang GPD PLA General Political Department HPA Hebei Provincial Archives NRGM New Red Guard Materials (Song Yongyi, ed., 40 vols.) PLA People’s Liberation Army PRC People’s Republic of China RGM Red Guard Materials (Zhou Yuan, ed., 20 vols.) TASS Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union IX List of Figures Figure 1: Mao woodcut in the Party newspaper Liberation ( 解放), 22 June 1937, p.13 Figure 2: Translations of the “cult of the individual” in the People’s Daily (RMRB) and Liberation Army News (JFJB), p.92 Figure 3: References to class struggle in the People’s Daily (RMRB) and Liberation Army News (JFJB) 1956-80, p.144 Figure 4: References to Mao Zedong’s works and thought in the People’s Daily (RMRB) and Liberation Army News (JFJB), 1956-1976, p.152 Figure 5: Numbers of students travelling to and from Shanghai, August-December 1966, p.176 Figure 6: References to loyalty in the People’s Daily 1964-1972, p.231 Figure 7: Headline of the Sports Battleline (Shanghai) No. 30, 20 November 1967 announcing the invention of the “Chairman Mao quotation gymnastics”, p.240 Figure 8: References to Lin Biao in the People’s Daily , 1966-1976, p.269 Figure 9: Red vocabulary in the Liberation Army News 1962-1976, p.269 X XI XII Introduction At the turn of the twentieth century the Confucian reformer Kang Youwei set out to describe an ideal future world order in his Book of Great Equality . Kang envisioned a society in which emotional bonds had been reduced to a minimum. The creation of a global state was to be realized by overcoming the boundaries of nation, class, or gender, even the distinction between man and animal. Marriage was to be replaced by short-term contracts between individuals while the care for infants and elderly persons was to fall under the duty of specific state institutions. The assignment of work should follow a standard pattern according to age, covering all types of labour within a lifetime. In the Age of Great Equality there would be no personal property or family structures. The differences between the races would have vanished over time through constant crossbreeding, the white and yellow race having proven to be superior. By eliminating all racial, social, and national segregation, Kang hoped to circumvent the dangers of emotion and irrational behaviour which had prevented the rule of peace and harmony in the world so far. Among the few things he feared to have a disruptive impact on the state of perfect harmony were both continuing competitiveness among citizens for individual profit and overt laziness given the privileges of the ideal society. But what Kang Youwei feared the most was the rise of “single worship” ( 独遵), the building of a cult around a religious or secular leader. This kind of worship would threaten the very foundations of the world-state by arousing the passions the new order had tried to overcome. The worship of powerful leaders bore the danger of throwing the world back into the previous turmoil and was to be prevented at all costs. “[I]f some leaders are idolized, inequalities will gradually return, they will gradually develop into autocratic institutions and slowly lead to strife and murder, until the world relapses into the state of disorder. For that reason, everyone who leads large masses of people and is excessively idolized by them must be vigorously opposed, however enlightened or holy he might be, irrespective of his office or profession, and even if it is the leader of a party. For if someone wishes to become emperor, king, prince, or leader in such a time, he sins against the principle of equality and becomes guilty of the most serious breach of morals. For these worst of all crimes, the public council should incarcerate him.” 1 Roughly seventy years after Kang wrote his tractate on the ideal world order the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was to be found amidst the struggles of the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) after having failed to accomplish a different utopia by leaping from socialism to communism during the Great Leap Forward (1958-1961).
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