DOCUMENT RESUME ED 392 086 CS 509 180 TITLE Proceedings of the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (78th, Washington, DC, August 9-12, 1995). Commission on the Status of Women. INSTITUTION Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication. PUB DATE Aug 95 NOTE 188p.; For other sections of these proceedings, see CS 509 173-187 and CS 509 196. PUB TYPE Collected Works Conference Proceedings (021) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC08 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Feminism; Higher Education; Mass Media Effects; *Mass Media Role; News Media; Newspapers; *News Reporting; News Writing; Periodicals; Photojournalism; Pornography; Rape; *Sex Bias; Sexuality; Television Viewing IDENTIFIERS *Gender Issues; Television News; Women Journalists ABSTRACT The Commission on the Status of Women section of the Proceedings contains the following eight papers: "Post-Title IX Gender Bias in Local and National Media: A Literature Review with Recommendations" (David S. Fearn); "Interrogating Desire: Pornography, Sexuality and Epistemic Responsibility" (Robert Jensen); "Women in Southeast TV Newscasts" (Sonya Forte Duhe' and others); "Using the 'F' Word: Feminist Legal Theory and the Rape Vict'',1 Identification Debate" (Kim E. Karloff); "Two Paths to Maturity: The Depiction of Motherhood on Television Shows Popular among Austrian and U.S. Teens" (Myra Gregory Knight); "Coverage of 'Bride Burning' in the 'Dallas Observer': A Cultural Analysis of the 'Other'" (Radhika E. Parameswaran); "Identity and Sensibility in Women Journalists' Autobiographies, 1900-1940" (Linda Steiner); and "Magazine Coverage of First Ladies from Hoover to Clinton: From Election through the First 100 Days of Office" (Liz Watts). (CR) *********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * from the original document. *********************************************************************** PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL MEETING OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR EDUCATION IN JOURNALISM AND MASS COMMUNICATION (78th, Washington, DC, August 9-12, 1995). Commission on the Status of Women. U S DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATION Oece ot Educatichal ROSOWCh and trnp40nernent PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY CENTER (ERIC) fiThIs 60Curnen1 haS been reproduced as ,ece.vecl horn the person Or OrglInaation fq.-LI:J-e Or,ginahng .1 C", M.nOr changes have been made to Improve reproduChOn quallty Potnis ot stew or Oistru OnS slated., Ind doco rnertl do nOt necessanly represent ottIctel TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES 0E111 00stbon 0, 001.Cy INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC).- Post-Title IX Gender Bias in Local and National Media: A Literature Review with Recommendations David S. Fearn University of Akron Address: 145 Harter Ave. NW Canton, OH 44708 Telephone: 216-478-8122 2 Abstract An abundance of research has indicated that women athletes are under-represented and stereotyped by the national media. However, there has been little research applied to gender bias in the local sports media. The purpose of this critical literature review is to examine existing national studies on gender bias in sports media in order to provide recommendations for future research on the local level. 3 Post-Title IX Gender Bias in Local and National Media: A Literature Review With Recommendations Statement of the Problem The passage of Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972, prohibiting discriminatory practices in educational institutions, contributed to a boom in women's participation opportunities in sports (Kane, 1989). With that expansion came an increased interest in discrepancies in media coverage of male and female athletes. It is widely acknowledged that, overall, the media fall well short of equality (Kane, 1989). The research problem presented here is that there has been little differentiation between the coverage of national media and that of local outlets, a distinction that could potentially provide insights into media's gender bias. kor example, if local media are found to be less biased than nationalmedia, it could indicate that some variables exclusive to the local markets, such as civic pride or parental boosterism, have adulling effect on inequitable coverage. Statement of Purpose The intent of this paper is to provide an overview of the existing literature comparing media coverage of male and female athletes in order to provide recommendations for future research, specifically in the area of local print media. Post-Title IX Gender Bias 4 Limitations The research examined was limited to those studies published since the passage of Title IX in 1972. Also, the research focused mainly on the print media, with the inclusion of electronic media studies for perspective. Definitions National media: Of or pertaining to media products or services distributed throughout the country (Ellmore, 1991). Local media: Communication media whose audiences are primarily drawn from the same locality as the media; these media customarily have a preferential rate for local advertisers (Ellmore, 1991). Scholastic athletics: Any sporting events sanctioned by schools (grade school through college). REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE It is often stated that Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972, which prohibited discrimination in educational institutions receiving federal funds, created a dramatic rise in athletic opportunities for girls and women from the elementary school level on up (Kane, 1989; Karr-Kidwell & Sorenson, 1993). Although questions and legal challenges remain regarding Title IX's effectiveness in bringing about total equality in opportunity (Blum, 1994), it is generally accepted that Title IX has put increased focus on gender equity in most facets of athletics. Focus on women's athletics extends past the educational Post-Title IX Gender Bias 5 institutions covered in Title IX into the arenas of professional and Olympic sports. It is assumed that the Title IXlegislation, by increasing opportunities on lower levels ofparticipation, will have a "trickle up" effect and create a climate of success and acceptance that will infiltrate higher levels ofcompetition. Indeed, Kane (1989) cites substantially increased winnings in women's professional tennis after Title IX as an argument for the existence of a new, improved climate. One aspect of equal opportunity is media coverage, which is considered both an indicator and facilitator of gender equity. Kane (1989) notes that media coverage is an index of Title IX's effectiveness; the collective attitude of the population toward female athletes is seen through the media. Murray (1991) contends that frequent and positive portrayals of female athletesin the media will encourage more women to enter sports and eventually become leaders, thus facilitating gender equity. Boutilier and SanGiovanni (1983) note that mass media eonstitute one of the strongest forces in modern society--a major shaper of values and attitudes. Thus, Boutilier and SanGiovanni assert,"Regardless of what is actually happening to the relationship between womenand sport, it is the media's treatment and evaluation of that :relationship that will shape its direction and content" (p.184). Prior to the passage of Title IX in 1972 there were few studies done on the coverage of female athletes. The mid to late 1970's, however, brought a rash of studies on publicity (Miller, 1975; Leavy, 1977; Reid & Soley, 1979) that hascontinued to this Post-Title IX Gender Bias 6 day. Although some modern studies (Kane, 1988; Salwen & Wood, 1994) have included material published prior to the 1972 passage of Title IX, many focus solely on the current state of media coverage. Most of the studies conducted since the passage of Title IX, including works by Boutilier and SanGiovanni (1983), Lumpkin and Williams (1991), Higgs and Weiller (1992) and Salwen and Wood (1994) reach similar conclusions: Female athletes as a whole receive much less media coverage than males and the females are frequently depicted in stereotypical ways. Despite the large body of work related to gender equity in the media and the many research techniques employed, there is a gap. Almost all studies have focused on the national media (Sports Illustrated, Associated Press, Cosmopolitan, Washington Post, etc.), while local media (weekly and small daily newspapers, radio sports shows, cable access channels) have been largely ignored. The lack of research dealing with local media's coverage of athletics and gender stereotyping is troubling. Logically, the local media should be the starting point for analyzing the portrayal of female athletes. After all, by definition, the local media are those primarily concerned with local scholastic athletes, the ones directly affected by Title IX legislation. Therefore, local media should be the first to see any climatic changes Title IX brings. Since Title IX has no direct legislative effect outside educational institutions, changes in national ii Post-Title IX Gender Bias 7 media coverage of professional and Olympic-caliber post-Title IX athletics should be merely a byproduct of change on the scholastic level. If, as widely believed, media coverage is a measure of Title IX's effectiveness, it would be logical to focus on the media that cover the athletes most affected by Title IX. Since the national media must appeal to a wide audience, they usually cover professional and Olympic athletes and include only a small dose of the highest-profile college sports, such as NCAA