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The Pennsylvania State University The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts SPORT SPECTACLE, ATHLETIC ACTIVISM, AND THE RHETORICAL ANALYSIS OF MEDIATED SPORT A Dissertation in English by Kyle R. King 2017 Kyle R. King Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy August 2017 The dissertation of Kyle R. King was reviewed and approved* by the following: Debra Hawhee Director of Graduate Studies, Department of English McCourtney Professor of Civic Deliberation Professor of English and of Communication Arts and Sciences Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Cheryl Glenn Distinguished Professor of English and Women’s Studies Director, Program in Writing and Rhetoric Rosa Eberly Associate Professor of Communication Arts and Sciences Associate Professor of English Kirt H. Wilson Associate Professor of Communication Arts and Sciences Jaime Schultz Associate Professor of Kinesiology * Signatures are on file in the Graduate School iii ABSTRACT Sports is widely regarded as a “spectacle,” an attention-grabbing consumerist distraction from more important elements of social life. Yet this definition underestimates the rhetorical potency of spectacle, as a context in which athletes may participate in projects of social transformation and institutional reform. Sport Spectacle, Athletic Activism, and the Rhetorical Analysis of Mediated Sport engages a set of case studies that assess the rhetorical conditions that empower or sideline athletes in projects of social change. The introduction builds a working vocabulary of four key terms—form, style, medium, and genre—that are central to the rhetorical analysis of mediated sports and mobilizes those concepts throughout the dissertation’s case studies. “We’ve Come a Long Way Maybe: Billie Jean King’s Feminism and the Battle of the Sexes” contrasts the bodily material feminism of King’s 1973 victory over Bobby Riggs with the strong emphasis on financial equity that King advocated in interviews and memoirs and notes how King has attempted to leverage control over public memory of the match to position herself as a figure of social transformation. “Three Waves of Gay Male Athlete Coming Out Narratives” considers how the genre compels athletes to reconcile their identities as athletes with their identities as gay men while tracing the evolution of common argumentative appeals for the fitness of gay men in sport since the 1970s. “Black Lives Matter and the Decline of the Decline of the Activist-Athlete” argues that if the Black Lives Matter social movement is viewed only through the prism of athletic activism, some of the central issues that the movement continues to face—its emphasis on horizontal models of organization and leadership, its skepticism toward working through established levers of governance, and its ambivalent relationship to the politics of respectability—are further obscured and refracted by the institutions of sports and sports media discourse and particular instances of athlete-activist protest, even as these athletes iv overturn longstanding assumptions about the political quiescence of elite athletes. “‘Absent Athletes,’ Athletic Agency, and the Sports Documentary” considers how the genre of the sports documentary often gives athletes a sense of social importance while simultaneously stripping them of the agency to make such arguments themselves. Through analysis of the sports documentaries of Steve James and Amir Bar-Lev, I argue that documentary is uniquely positioned as a genre that subverts the spectacle of sports and transforms spectators into deliberative civic agents. The conclusion assesses how sports spectators can act as deterrents of athletes’ civic energies through an analysis of the ideograph and sports media hashtag “#sticktosports.” v TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Figures……………………………………………………………………………………vi Acknowledgments………………………………………………………………………………vii Introduction: THE RHETORICAL ANALYSIS OF SPORT SPECTACLE……………………..1 Chapter 1: WE’VE COME A LONG WAY, MAYBE: BILLIE JEAN KING’S FEMINISM AND THE BATTLE OF THE SEXES ………………………………………………………….24 Chapter 2: THREE WAVES OF THE GAY MALE ATHLETE COMING OUT NARRATIVE ……………………………………………………………………………………………………59 Chapter 3: BLACK LIVES MATTER AND THE DECLINE OF THE DECLINE OF THE ATHLETE-ACTIVIST…………………………………………………………………………..95 Chapter 4: “ABSENT ATHLETES,” ATHLETIC AGENCY, AND THE SPORTS DOCUMENTARY……………………………………………………………………………..137 Conclusion: DO NOT #STICKTOSPORTS……………………………………………………172 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………………187 vi List of Figures Figure 1: LeBron James and Miami Heat teammates 95 Figure 2: Thabo Sefolosha 117 Figure 3: Colin Kaepernick and Eric Reid 121 Figure 4: “Hands Up, Don’t Shoot” at Penn State 124 Figure 5: “Hands Up, Don’t Shoot” with St. Louis Rams 127 Figure 6: 1967 “Muhammad Ali Summit” 135 vii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to mentors, colleagues, and friends within overlapping academic and athletic communities who have provided models of how to think, write, and be. Debra Hawhee has been a patient and proactive adviser, a diligent and generative reader, and a nonpareil model of how to build a life in the academy. Without her guidance, this project would not exist. This dissertation germinated as an essay on the Battle of the Sexes in a course with Jack Selzer. That initial encouragement cannot be repaid; neither can an opportunity he provided to meet athlete-activist John Amaechi in spring 2015. Jaime Schultz pushed me to develop my argument and the range of artifacts I considered in the chapter on Billie Jean King. Cheryl Glenn, Kirt Wilson, and Rosa Eberly will find echoes of their thoughts in various locations throughout this project; as importantly, I find myself constantly drawing upon their models as scholar-teachers in the classroom and during office hours. Anne Demo helped me talk through an early version of chapter four, and Matt Jordan helped connect me with sports documentary director Amir Bar-Lev for some of the background information in that chapter, as well. Over the past year, I’ve been fortunate to add Abe Khan as a frequent interlocutor. He has gone above and beyond the call of duty to introduce me to the growing community of sports rhetoric scholars and convince me that my work has a place in the field. The ideas in this dissertation were tested in two productive and energizing writing groups. I’m grateful to have been a Center for Democratic Deliberation fellow during the 2015- 2016 academic year. Laura Brown, Jessica Kurr, Jeremy Cox, and Claire Griffin were kind and gracious readers, and Brad Vivian provided a model of how to read generously, take arguments on their own terms, and prepare articles for journal audiences. The DHWG—including Debra Hawhee, Kris Lotier, Jo Hsu, Sarah Adams, David Maxson, Megan Poole, and Curry Kennedy— viii has been one of the most consistently fun and inspiring experiences of my graduate career. Kris, Jason Maxwell, and Craig Rood all deserve credit for providing helpful models of various dissertation and job market-related documents, in addition to reliably pragmatic advice throughout my time at Penn State. Outside of work hours, I’ve had the good fortune to participate in a few collectives of stimulating athletic-intellectual energy. Perhaps more than anything else, these opportunities— playing softball, Ultimate Frisbee, basketball, and racquetball—helped me find a home in State College and inhabit a personal-professional identity through which the ideas in this dissertation could begin to blossom. There’s not enough space to thank everyone, but special commendation goes to Brooke Ricker Schreiber, Adam Lupo, Tom Joudrey, Matt Price, Lisa McGunigal, Nate Malenke, and especially John Marsh. Outside of State College, Keith Whittingham, Ken Stitt, and Tom Kolenich remain models of athletic style and reminders of the dual audiences I am always trying to reach. My parents, Dale and Debbie King, have provided endless encouragement and forbearance throughout my life, but especially during my seven years at Penn State. They—in addition to my brother Kendal—have been reliable sounding boards who let me talk through my ideas, and my dad deserves special credit for providing firsthand insights on the state of televised sport in the 1960s and 1970s that led me to develop a point in chapter one. Nicolette Hylan-King has facilitated this dissertation in a variety of material and immaterial ways. My favorite form of support comes in our mutual willingness to drop what we’re doing to help each other find the appropriate word or phrasing to fill out a passage. Nicolette, who helps me find my words, has a devotion and tenderness that has empowered me to complete this project—and which constantly leaves me speechless. 1 Introduction: The Rhetorical Analysis of Sports Spectacle In the spring of 2015, as a graduate instructor in Penn State’s English department, I had the good fortune of teaching an undergraduate course titled “Sports|Ethics|Literature.” The course, which was initially proposed by my dissertation advisor, Debra Hawhee, and formally approved by the Faculty Senate in 2014, was not conceived in such good fortune. Sports|Ethics|Literature was a pedagogical response to events that had cast the university into turmoil. In November 2011, Jerry Sandusky, a former defensive coordinator of Penn State’s football team and a well-regarded member of the local community who founded The Second Mile charity for underprivileged and at-risk youth in central Pennsylvania, was arrested on 40 counts of molesting
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