Chapter 18

SNUNEYMUXW (First Nation)

The single most dangerous action you can take on this tour is failing to pay attention while travelling on the route. Do NOT read the following chapter while actively moving by vehicle, car, foot, bike, or boat. SNUNEYMUXW (First Nation) Driving Tour

David Bodaly is a cultural interpreter for the Snuneymuxw First Nation, working on Saysutshun Island. Simon Priest is a past academic and Nanaimo resident with a passion for history and interpretation.

Totem Pole, carved by Snuneymuxw Chief Wilkes James, outside the Bank of Montreal, in 1922 (moved to Georgia Park in 1949). Originally called Colviletown, Nanaimo was renamed in 1860. The new name was a mispronunciation of Snuneymuxw (Snoo-nay-mowck), which means “gathering place of a great people.” The Snuneymuxw are Nanaimo’s First Nation and one indigenous Canadian member, among many, of the Coast Salish.

Traditional territory of the Coast Salish people

COAST SALISH

The Coast Salish people occupy coastal lands of British Columbia in Canada, along with coastal lands of Oregon and Washington States in the USA. This map shows the traditional territory of the Coast Salish and identifies the location of the Snuneymuxw people on the Salish Sea within that traditional territory.

Coast Salish typically trace lineage along the father’s line of kinship. However, the neighbouring groups outside of Salishan territory, such as the Nuu-chah-nulth (west coast of Vancouver Island) and Kwakiutl/ Kwakwaka’wakw (north island) typically trace inheritance and descent through the mother’s blood line. The latter two groups also speak different languages than the Coast Salish, but share cultural similarities.

The Coast Salish are well known for their use of the soft Western Red Cedar in architecture and art. The longhouse, home to a large and extended family, is built from carved house posts and split planks, with an earthen floor. Canoes, totems, and masks were also carved from cedar. The mask is a prominent part of ceremonial dances that express the spirit power of individuals and the community. Inner bark, stripped from one side of the cedar tree, was woven into baskets and hats, both waterproofed from Douglas fir sap. Some clothing was woven from cedar strips; others were woven from goat or dog wool.

SNUNEYMUXW

Snuneymuxw culture is founded upon a deep connection to… [and] …sacred relationship with all things in the natural world - the land, waters and air, and all of the plants and animals we live with. Respect for the spirit and life in each of these, and the intricate relationships and interconnectedness we are all in together is a key value and principle of our culture. (https://www.snuneymuxw.ca/nation/culture, retrieved April 17, 2019).

Ancestral settlements and place names of the Snuneymuxw

Enlargement of Snuneymuxw settlements in the Nanaimo city area, showing recent decades of landfill

In their origin story, the initial male and female members of this vibrant First Nation came from atop Teytexen (Tay-ta-han), aka Mount Benson, to live at xwsaluxwul (______), or what is now the city harbour. The children of this original couple settled in several villages as extended families and radiated outward from there. Above are maps of those ancestral villages with connections retained to tribal hunting and fishing locations near Qualicum Bay to the north, Barnston Island/Fraser River to the east, and the Gulf Islands to the south, as Snuneymuxw moved in seasonal cycles to hunt and fish.

The Snuneymuxw have lived here for thousands of years. Each settlement had at least one row (and many had several rows) of longhouses. The longhouse is the traditional home for a family. Between the longhouse and water would be collections of canoes, some in canoe houses. Sets of fishing nets and traps would be hung up to dry or be deployed in the currents to catch fish. Other nets were strung high between trees to catch flying waterfowl. Shellfish were harvested from the surrounding sand and mud. Small mammals were hunted in the nearby meadows and plants were gathered from the nearby forests. A midden (garbage heap) was formed off to one side and broken shells remained without decomposing.

The Snuneymuxw speak Island Hul’q’umin’um’ (Hul-k-a-mee-n-um). Their tongue is one out of two dozen dialects within the Salishan language family. First Nation peoples on Vancouver Island to the north (Snawnawas/Nanoose & Qualicum) and south (Stz’uminus/Chemainus, Penelakut & Cowichan) also speak various dialects of Island Hul’q’umin’um’ and share much with Snuneymuxw culture. First Nations on the mainland speak several other dialects organized into the downriver group of Hunquminem (lower Fraser Valley) and the upriver group of Halqemeylem (upper Fraser Valley).

The diversity of these dialects was united through the cross marriage of families as the ancient Snuneymuxw travelled back and forth to the mainland for seasonal hunting and fishing. These dialects were once dangerously close to becoming extinct. At the turn of this last century, only a handful of elders were considered fluent in their language. Island Hul’q’umin’um’ revitalization initiatives are bringing the dialects back to becoming more common in the Snuneymuxw culture. For example, Hul’q’umin’um’ is taught in Snuneymuxw schools and a Voices of Snuneymuxw project aims to capture language in audio recordings and to develop a local language dictionary.

RECORDED HISTORY Halq̓eméylem Halqemeylem UP hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ Hunquminem DOWN The Snuneymuxw keep their history through sacred stories. A few of the common ones are retold in this chapter. However, other stories can only be shared orally by an interpreter. Many remain private.

Documented history begins with the arrival of the Europeans. The first to visit were Spanish explorers in 1592. The British followed later when James Cook landed at Nootka Island and declared all of Vancouver Island to be a British Colony in 1778. The Spanish soon returned with navigators to map the water and land in 1791. The British came back with the 1792 Vancouver expedition and mapped “their” new lands. The dispute with the Spanish was settled in 1819, as Britain controlled the coastline north of California.

Chief Che-wech-i-kan shared the presence of coal with the Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) in Victoria. They sent an agent to prospect and exploit this resource in 1852. Chief Che-wech-i-kan received the nickname Coal Tyee (Coal Chief) from the HBC, but the Snuneymuxw later ostracized him, because he was not at liberty to share this knowledge outside of their community. Touching coal was forbidden.

Coal on the beaches, land and underwater was thought to be connected to the black whales or Quon- as/Qwunus, of which the Snuneymuxw were afraid. So, they chose not to touch the coal, in case this would upset the black whales that might kill them. One day, they had a cooking fire on the beach and they noticed that the smoke had a bad smell that was making some people sick. Investigating by moving the logs in the fire, they found a large black rock that appeared to be burning like wood. The discovery of this pungent smell and a rock that could easily burn reinforced the dangers of touching coal.

In the years that followed the coal “discovery,” the Snuneymuxw played a positive role in the growth and success of Nanaimo as a coal mining town. Without their assistance in mining and loading coal, the city would not have become famous for the quality of its exports. Unfortunately, the Snuneymuxw paid the ultimate price for their generosity. As mines expanded, they were successively resettled in new, less desirable locations to make room for each colliery (coal works where coal was sorted and washed). Since they moved around seasonally, they would often return to find encroachment on their villages.

During the 1850s, smallpox epidemics broke out in BC. In an effort to control the disease, police forcibly removed First Nations people, encamped around Victoria. Unknowingly infected, they left town and returned home to their traditional territories and spread the sickness. On average, half the populations of reserved lands died from smallpox and the act of forced removal was labeled “deliberate genocide.”

During these periods of diminished population, illness, and cultural destruction, several treaties were established, but these have been challenged in the courts, because some terms were left blank, other terms were added after signature, most indigenous people had little comprehension of what they were giving, and the purchase price was paltry in comparison to the vast value of the lands being ceded.

Excerpts of the signed Douglas Treaty with the Saalequun (note most signatures by marking an ‘X’)

For example, the Douglas Treaties of 1854 were written agreements between a few indigenous groups and the British Colony of Vancouver Island. One treaty between the Saalequun (previous name of the Snuneymuxw) and the Colony affirmed the rights of the indigenous population to keep their settlements and maintain hunting and fishing access, in exchange for 668 blankets and an undisclosed amount of money (likely less than $100). Here is an example of the wording used in these Douglas Treaties.

Know all men that we, the chiefs and people of the Saalequun Tribe, who have signed our names and made our marks to this deed on the twenty third day of December, one thousand eight hundred and fifty-four, do consent to surrender, entirely and for ever (sic), to James Douglas, the agent of the Hudson’s Bay Company in Vancouver Island, that is to say, for the Governor, Deputy Governor, and Committee of the same, the whole of the lands extending from Commercial Inlet, 12 miles up the Nanaimo River….

The conditions of our understanding of this sale is this, that our village sites and enclosed fields are to be kept for our own use, for the use of our children, and for those who may follow after us and the land shall be properly surveyed hereafter. It is understood, however, that the land itself, with these small exceptions, becomes the entire property of the white people for ever; it is also understood that we are at liberty to hunt over the unoccupied lands, and to carry on our fisheries as formerly….

This was a unique declaration that established Snuneymuxw rights before the unification of British Columbia, before the Confederation of Canada, and before British Columbia joined the Confederation. Unfortunately, the Crown has failed to uphold the letter and spirit of this document over the decades.

A decade later, six reserved lands were set aside under the label of “Indian Reserve” (IR). These totaled about 266 hectares (per capita the smallest indigenous reserve in BC) and still are numbered as follows:

• IR 1, the “Town Reserve” bounded by Sabiston Street, Eaton Street, the sawmill, and waters of Nanaimo Estuary (split by the railway right of way); • IR 2, the Nanaimo River Reserve on the east bank (split by Cedar Road); • IR 3, the Nanaimo River Reserve on the west bank (northwest half); • IR 4, the Nanaimo River Reserve on the west bank (southeast half); • IR 5, the Gabriola Island Fishing Reserve (at the entrance to Degnen Bay); and • IR 6, the Burial Island/Ma-guala Reserve (sacred space in the middle of Degnen Bay).

Town Reserve is a critically important access point for obtaining food from the abundant resources of the nearby Nanaimo River estuary (tidal area) and delta (adjacent lands). This is also the seat of this First Nation’s government, education, health care, economic, and future development initiatives. The Snuneymuxw are administered by an elected chief and council of five, working with a staff of over 100.

Water, sewage, electricity, and other utility infrastructures are poor in IR 2-4. These are located on the low lying delta adjacent to the estuary and are subject to potential flooding. For these reasons, people have chosen to live elsewhere in greater Nanaimo, rather than within those reserves. The Snuneymuxw population is about 1700, with just over a third living on reserved lands. IR 5 and 6 are unoccupied.

During the 1860s through the 1870s, the Snuneymuxw worked in coal mines, sawmills, and on fishing boats. They sold baskets, shellfish, furs, and salmon. Their strength and perseverance coupled with a dignified work ethic, contributed greatly to local prosperity. They followed their snawayalth (teachings). Today, these sacred principles guide their continuing relationships with others and their environment, inform their future decision making, reflect a rich purpose for the people, and are passed down through art, stories, dances, or celebrations to the next generation, thus honouring the Snuneymuxw way of life.

In 1876, the Indian Act was passed by parliament. It has been amended many times, but still remains in force today. Although it has improved somewhat, the original act was intended to administer native rights in a way that compelled aboriginal people to renounce their indigenous status and integrate into Canadian society. This process was known first as enfranchisement and later as assimilation. In both instances, “Indians” were expected to read and write English, send their children to residential schools, and be governed by federal legislation, but only vote in federal elections by renouncing their status.

By 1885, the potlatch had been banned at the urging of missionaries and government agents, who viewed the ceremony as “worse than useless” and “by far the most formidable of all obstacles in the way of Indians becoming Christians.” The potlatch was a feast with gift giving that formed a bond throughout the Coast Salish territories and within coastal cultures from Alaska to Oregon. Before being decriminalized in 1951, potlatches continued in secret despite the risk of participants being arrested. Today, the potlatch is enjoying great resurgence within Snuneymuxw culture.

In 1900, local Snuneymuxw were forced to burn their baskets. Woven cedar baskets had a special meaning in the culture. ______. Who what why

These acts were some of the first attempts by Canadian society to assimilate indigenous people into the mainstream. Today, the truth of children being taken away from their families is well known. Sent to Indian schools, run by religious missionaries, these children suffered untold physical and sexual abuse. Lesser known are the atrocities and experiments perpetrated on patients at the similar Indian hospitals.

By 1960, the civil rights movement brought action for treaty rights. A Vancouver speech, by Chief Dan George, engendered public awareness toward these issues. By 1970, resistance was organized against the federal government’s efforts to assimilate. A decade later, indigenous groups began to rename themselves in their own languages counter to the labels and boundaries given them by governments. Snuneymuxw were among the first to reclaim their heritage name. Despite a century of assimilation laws and policies, that threatened loss of language, traditions, and beliefs, the trend was being reversed.

In 2013, the Snuneymuxw amalgamated IR 2-4 as one unit and received an additional 877 hectrares of property. These newly returned lands came in three parcels near Mount Benson as partial reconciliation for the past. The intent of the Snuneymuxw development organization, Petroglyph Forestry, will be to selectively harvest timber, employ members of the First Nation, and drive a self-sustaining economy.

In 2017, the Snuneymuxw First Nation received a cash settlement of $49 million as compensation for 32 hectares of land on Stewart Avenue that was taken (c. 1880), violating the Douglas Treaty. These funds will allow the Snuneymuxw to inject money into their growth and buy much needed land for housing.

THE TOUR

This tour takes the driver and vehicle passengers on short route linking 20 points of interest. At each the reader will be able to understand some of the unique traditions and challenges faced by the evolving Snuneymuxw First Nation.

The history of Snuneymuxw since the arrival of the settlers has been one of strength, perseverance, and endurance in the face of injustice, colonial oppression, disease, and prejudice. As a reflection of Crown laws, policies and actions, Treaty promises have been broken, Snuneymuxw villages unlawfully alienated, a foreign system of government imposed through the Indian Act, and family and kin systems interfered with. Despite this, Snuneymuxw continues to thrive and has a growing and increasingly educated population, an ever-diversifying economy, society, and governance structure, rooted in Snuneymuxw values, culture and way of life. A major part of the work of Snuneymuxw is to transform the destructive legacies that came with settlement, into a just foundation for future generations to come. (https://www.snuneymuxw.ca/nation/history, retrieved April 17, 2019).

Emblem of the Snuneymuxw First Nation

Begin in Sti’ilup or Departure Bay village and park in the available spaces along Departure Bay Road. The first four places can easily be visited on foot. Start at the north end of the village near the corner of Bay Street and Departure Bay Road. The triangular patch behind the suspended chains is the grave of ______(#1). Across the pavement on the ocean side of this intersection is the Totem Archway (#2). Walk south, away from the creek and along the seawall, to reach Kinsman Park and the Totem Portal (#3). Cross at the crosswalk and walk north along Departure Bay Road back past the burial grounds (#4). Row of Longhouses at Sti’ilup (Departure Bay), circa 1870

Sti’ilup was the name for the settlement in Departure Bay. It had three rows of long houses, each with its own name: T’iwulhxun (north row), Enwines (middle row), and Yeshexen (south row). MORE _____

Snuneymuxw Chief as drawn by Jose Cardero in 1792

1. Grave of ______: An early Spanish expedition to this region included the artist Jose Cardero, who drew ______, the Snuneymuxw chief around 1792, wearing a cloak of woven cedar bark and mammal fur trim with a detailed headdress of shells and feathers. ______’s daughter is said to be buried behind the chained off area beside Departure Creek. The presence of her grave here ______.

Totem Arch in Stlilup at Departure Bay

2. Totem Arch: Carved by Joel Good in ____, this archway has two 5 metre tall poles and a metal arch. All of these face the sea, as do most Snuneymuxw totems, since this is the direction from which visitors are most likely to arrive. The left pole features the raven, ____, and ___. The right pole highlights the eagle, ____, and ____. ______The metal arch between the two poles is symbolic of the frog.

The Raven (spaal) is the creator and ______. ______. ______. DO WE HAVE SNUNEYMUXW NAMES FOR THIS ARCHWAY AND THE ANIMALS CARVED WITHIN?

Totem Portal in Kinsman Park

3. Totem Portal in Kinsman Park: Carved by Jim Johnny and son James in ____, this portal consists of a pair of eagles, one on each vertical pole, and a pair of orcas joined on the horizontal top piece. The eagles represent protectors of the land, while the orcas signify protectors of the waters. ______DO WE HAVE A SNUNEYMUXW NAME FOR THIS PORTAL?

William McMurtrie watercolour painting of Departure Bay, showing longhouses and canoes, circa 1857

4. Burial Grounds: The land located beside the convenience store was once an extensive cemetery, with other grave sites often on nearby islands. The Snuneymuxw placed corpses into boxes of cedar made by cutting a V-notch to make corners and folding a single continuous plank into a box. These ceremonial coffins were often carved on the outsides and top cover with the representations of people, animals and other creatures. These cedar coffins were often raised one or two metres above ground level on four similarly carved posts. Additional totem poles stood nearby, possibly indicating family lineage.

For a chief, the carvings would be extensive and the box was placed within a small similarly elevated shelter. Great warriors would be identified by carvings of them with their weapons. Occasionally, corpses would be interred beside or within their canoes instead of a box and these might sometimes be placed in trees on an island to be closer to the spirits. Anthropologists determined these methods from examining the separate 1857 watercolour sketches of James Alden and William McMurtrie, who spent several months painting the local scenery. Snuneymuxw have confirmed these interpretations. The remains of 80 bodies were disturbed during commercial development, before this site was protected.

Drive south on Departure Bay Road toward downtown Nanaimo. After the top of the hill, just before reaching the old Island Highway, turn left on Estevan Road, and immediately left on Brechin Road. Go downhill to the ferry terminal and straight across Stewart Avenue on Zorkin Road to the boat launch (#5). From here, you can view Saysutshun (Newcastle) Island: the location of Clotsun (#6), Qulastun (#7), and ______(#8).

Family canoe and individual canoe made from cedar, circa 1890

5. Brechin Boat Launch: At the start of the twentieth century, the Brechin Mine (aka Northfield No. 4) stood on this site and the area to the north beside the ferry terminal. Until 1900, this was a favourite canoe launching spot for the Snuneymuxw, because waters in the passage between here and the island were often calm during storms and Clotsun village was located nearby at Midden Bay across the water.

Canoes were carved from Cedar trees. First, a tree was selected for its size (significant large enough to make a family or individual canoe), straightness of grain, lack of limbs/knots and proximity to the water. Second, following a sacred blessing to the guardian spirit of the selected tree, it was felled, de-limbed, and dragged to the water as a single log. Third, after transporting it to a carving site, the log was hollowed out by a combination of stone tool carving and selective burning. Last, the canoe was finished with exterior carving, paint, and the addition of stern and bow prows to cut through waves, if necessary.

Shell midden

6. Clotsun: Across the channel between the island and the boat launch, but slightly to the left is Midden Bay on the island. This was the location of Clotsun and a significant midden remains there. The midden was the village garbage heap, where food scraps, dead animals, and sometimes dead people were placed. Most of the midden’s plant and animal remains decayed and decomposed over time, so only the mineral contents (mostly shells) can be seen today. The presence of dead materials presents a “bad” or negative energy for the Snuneymuxw. As such, disturbing the contents of a midden, brings residual curses. If you come across middens in the future, please do NOT dig up any remaining debris.

Inside longhouse, circa 1900

7. Qulastun: To the right across the channel and across the island was the village of Qulastun. Meaning “facing backwards” or “the other way,” this settlement had several longhouses and ______.

Unidentified Snuneymuxw couple outside a longhouse in Nanaimo area, circa 1856

8. ______: Beyond Qulastun, furthest across the island, was ______. The single longhouse location is marked by a totem pole today. WHAT WAS THE NAME OF THIS SETTLEMENT / SINGLE LONGHOUSE?

Return via Zorkin Road to the intersection beside the ferry terminal and turn left on Stewart Avenue (also the Trans-Canada Highway). The area between St. George Street and Townsite Road is Lhapqwum (#9). Continue along Stewart Avenue and turn left, following the Trans-Canada Highway as Terminal Avenue, to cross the bridge over the Millstone River. The area beneath the bridge is Tlesleta (#10).

Snuneymuxw beside longhouse, showing overlapped cladding wall planks, circa 1890

9. Lhapqwum (Thlap’Qwum): Lost in the 1880’s, these 79 acres beside the Saysutshun/Newcastle Channel were recently reconciled for $49 million from the federal government to the Snuneymuxw First Nation. ______MORE

Individual houses at Tlesleta near the mouth of the Millstone River

10. Tlesleta: This settlement was located at the mouth of the Millstone River. It ______.

After crossing the bridge over the Millstone River, turn right on Comox Road. After crossing the railroad tracks, turn right on Wall Street, then immediately turn left into Bowen Park on the park road (called the Millstream Parkway). Stop at the parking area on the right before the uphill grade. Walk along the old road for six minutes to reach the Resting Totems (#11), just past the duck pond, but before the waterfall.

Resting Totems in Bowen Park

11. Resting Totems: Laid to rest are several totems that once stood beside the amphitheatre near the bridge at the duck pond. Carved from rot resistant cedar, a pole easily lasts more than one hundred years. However, at some point the totem becomes eroded under its own weight and may need to be retired. Through a special ceremony, these were placed here in 19__, but were originally carved in 18__ by ______. Search among the totems for the following animals: ___ (___), ___ (___),___ (___),___ (___),___ (___),___ (___),___ (___),___ (___),___ (___), and ___ (___).

From Bowen Park, retrace your route on the park road, turn right on Wall and left on Comox to cross the railroad tracks. At Terminal Avenue, continue straight ahead on Comox Road, past Maffeo-Sutton Park (parking place for the passenger ferry to Saysutshun/Newcastle Island), and bend right to become Front Street. Pass the Squamish Canoe (this gift , carved from a single cedar log, is NOT Snuneymuxw, but it does represent a general Coast Salish style), Nanaimo Courthouse (#12,) and the Bastion (#13). Continue following Front Street as it curves right to go around Port Place Mall (#14), previous site of xwsa’luxw’ul.

Squamish Canoe beside Front Street in Georgia Park

Nanaimo Courthouse, circa 1915

12. The Courthouse: In 1963, a landmark legal case reaffirmed the ancient rights of the Snuneymuxw. Earlier that same year, Clifford White (from Snuneymuxw in Nanaimo) and David Bob (from Snaw-naw- as in Nanoose), were charged with hunting deer out of season and without the necessary permits to do so. The two men argued in court that the Douglas Treaty of 1854 afforded them the right to hunt and fish on the surrounding land and water, like their ancestors had done centuries earlier. At the time of the trial, the Douglas Treaty had all been long forgotten by the government. The resurrection of the treaty brought about acknowledgement that the Snuneymuxw were entitled to their ancestral village sites. These ancient rights continued to be pivotal in many situations relative to the Snuneymuxw. Although the defendants were initially found guilty, this verdict was overturned on appeal a year later.

The Bastion, circa 1911

13. The Bastion: The Hudson’s Bay Company (HBC) was exploiting coal resources in the Nanaimo region during a time of tribal warfare. Nervous settlers asked for a fort in case they were placed at risk by the battles. The HBC built the Bastion in 1853, but it was not necessary for defense or protection.

Its basement was often used as a gaol/jail that frequently housed indigenous people who did not understand European laws and customs at that time. ______MORE

Sugnuston (with paddle) and daughter in front of Solexwel longhouse, circa 1858

14. Port Place Mall: Originally the area that is now parking lot and industrial land was once the settlement of xwsa’luxw’ul (______). Also known as Solexwel, this settlement of about 250 people was located on a sandy beach (water since filled in as land) and backed onto Cameron Island (the tall tower nearby). It consisted of a longhouse and about a dozen large houses. Canoes were kept on the sheltered beach. When coal mining started downtown, these residents were moved to Xwsol’exwel: Town Reserve (#16).

Watercolour of Solexwel (Xwsa’luxw’ul) in 1858 by James Madison Alden

Across the water from here is Gabriola Island (see Chapter 6). This was the land of the Tl’eeltxw, who decorated their fence posts with their enemies’ heads, until the start of the last century. Early in the 1900s, a Yukw’ulhta’x raiding party, from ______in the north, approached the Tl’eeltxw village by canoe in the dead of night and slaughtered all warriors in a fierce battle. The settlement was taken by surprise and burned to the ground. The hiding Tl’eeltxw women and children were captured and taken as slaves.

Several managed to escape being found and three warriors were away fishing at the time of the attack. These few left the island and came to live with the Snuneymuxw at this location. Word of the brutal extermination reached the Cowichan people to the south (near Duncan) and they came to the aid of their friends here. In a massive gathering of many war canoes, the Cowichan and Snuneymuxw returned an assault on the Yukw’ulhta’x settlement. They smashed canoes, burned longhouses, killed every man, rescued their enslaved women and children, and took Yukw’ulhta’x women and children as prisoners.

Before reaching the Trans-Canada Highway (Terminal) again, turn left on Esplanade from Front Street. From Esplanade, turn right onto Grace Street, by the Port Way Bridge, and then turn left on Haliburton Street to pass Devrill Square park (#15). Between Farquhar and Woodhouse Streets, the Town Reserve (#16) lies downhill on the left side. Follow Haliburton Street out of town past the sawmill and to the Stone Canoe (#17).

Xulsimalt (aka Harry Manson) in 1903 Nanaimo United in 1903 (Xulsimalt indicated by white arrow)

15. Xulsimalt: Born in 1879, Xulsimalt (______) was a legendary soccer player from the Snuneymuxw First Nation. Here, at Devrill Square Park, in 1897, he made his competitive debut at age 18 with the all- indigenous Nanaimo Warriors. They played a game against the Nanaimo Thistles composed mostly of European miners. It was the first cross cultural soccer match on Vancouver Island. The opposition was so impressed by Xulsimalt’s athleticism and ball handling skills that they invited him to tour British Columbia in 1898 as a member of their Thistles along with another indigenous player: James Wilkes.

Soccer was extremely popular in the British-settled Vancouver Island. The Grand Challenge Cup began in 1891 (before the Stanley Cup in Hockey) and for the initial decade was won more often than not by two local teams: the Nanaimo Rangers or the Wellington Rovers. While Victoria and other cities fielded teams, the best lived and played in coal mining country. Using his European name of Harry Manson, Xulsimalt went on to play for Nanaimo United: an all-star team which won the trophy in 1903. Two other Snuneymuxw players were on this provincial championship team: Louis Martin and Joe Peters.

However, Xulsimalt faced enormous prejudice in his games. The Nanaimo Free Press newspaper reported that, when he and his indigenous teammates took to the field in 1907 against the Ladysmith Football Club, they were greeted by over two thousand opposing coal miners chanting “kill the savages!” Winning goals, and occasionally all the goals for a winning team, were frequently scored by indigenous players, but due to racism at the time, they were not allowed to attend post-game awards banquets.

Xulsimalt means “one who leaves his mark” and Harry Manson certainly made a difference in his sport and culture as a role model for others. He started the Nanaimo Wanderers: an all-indigenous soccer team. He led them to several victories in city-wide and regional championships. In one provincial semi- finals game against his other team of the Nanaimo Thistles, the Wanderers lost, but played an admirable game. He was scouted by teams in Europe and was considered one of the best players of his time.

Xulsimalt died prematurely in 1912 at the prime age of 32. He was searching for medicine for his sick child, when he attempted to hop on a coal train and fell beneath its wheels. His death was front page news in Nanaimo, which was highly uncommon for an indigenous person at that time. For his leadership in breaking down racial barriers and healing issues of indigenous acceptance, he was recently inducted into three notable Halls of Fame: Nanaimo Sports, Canadian Sports, and Canadian Soccer.

Wuqwuxun (Xwsol’exwel) or Town Reserve (IR 1), circa 1900

16. Town Reserve: Please do not go onto the reserve. This land was the site of the original Wuqwuxun settlement with many longhouses. Wuqwuxun was an important place due to providing easy access to the Nanaimo River, its delta, and its estuary. This region was known as the food basket of the Snuneymuxw people. The river provided fish and the delta offered fertile soil for growing potatoes. The estuary gave abundant shellfish and waterfowl. The offshore waters contained a variety of seafood and whales. Nearby forests were rich hunting grounds for deer and elk.

Today, Town Reserve is ______.

Snuneymuxw at Nanaimo Indian School on Town Reserve, operated by the Methodist Church, circa 1942

The Methodist Church at the corner of Haliburton and Needham Streets operated the Nanaimo Indian School on Town Reserve. The school ______PROBLEMS ______. Today, the church houses a social services organization, called the Tillicum Lelum Aboriginal Friendship Centre. The school is long gone and the Snuneymuxw First Nation’s Administrative Offices now reclaim its space.

Stone Canoe and rounded boulder remains of Thuxwum

17. Stone Canoe: Thousands of years old rock carvings (#18) are located at the top of the hill behind you. On the beach is a canoe-shaped rock and round boulders associated with the story of how these formed.

Thuxwum (______) was a great hunter, fisher, and shaman (keeper of spirit medicine). He was especially known for his fishing abilities, such as catching fish, tossing them into the air by their tails, and spearing them through their mouths. He then drove the other end of his spear into the stone and suspended the fish over his cooking fire. He also carved the nearby petroglyphs. Haals (______) was the transformer. He travelled over lands and created the shapes they have today. He formed the islands and hills by turning earth to stone. He gave biodiverse plants and animals to the Snuneymuxw.

One day, Haals met Thuxwum on the beach here. First, Haals asked Thuxwum how he made the rock carvings and Thuxwum shared his methods and reasons. Then, extremely impressed by Thuxwum’s fishing and roasting methods, Haals asked Thuxwum to share his secrets, but he refused. Instead, he encouraged Haals to attempt his own fishing and cooking. Haals tried to replicate these, but he failed miserably. Thuxwum embarrassed Haals and so Haals turned Thuxwum and his canoe into stone. The canoe remains, but the boulders that were Thuxwum have fallen apart and are scattered on the beach.

Haliburton ends at the Trans-Canada Highway. Turn right and go uphill. Near the top of the hill, Petroglyph Provincial Park (#18) is on the right. Exit right and park in the wayside area. Walk the trails to explore the rock carvings and return to the wayside when finished.

Stayacum petroglyphs, circa 1967 (do NOT scrape with stone/metal or accent the carvings with chalk)

18. Petroglyph Provincial Park: This park, accessed via a short uphill walking trail, is the protected land for hundreds of rock carvings. These carvings depict symbols, mythical creatures, sea wolves, fish, people, and other animals relevant to the daily lives of the Snuneymuxw. When the rocks were carved, this area was likely devoid of trees and would have provided an unrestricted and wide view of the surrounding waters of the Nanaimo River Estuary and Georgia Strait beyond. This was clearly “a place of great power…where the forces of nature were…especially strong.” While petroglyphs are found throughout the Nanaimo region, this park has the largest concentration of rock carvings that are easily viewed.

On the trail, the first clearing you encounter is dedicated to rubbing replicas of the petroglyphs. You can view the originals in sandstone further up the trails, but these are rapidly degrading due to industrial and automobile fumes that dissolve the rock. Please stay on trails, enjoy feeling the cement replicas, but avoid touching the true petroglyphs. Once a place of spiritual solitude for the Snuneymuxw, this refuge has unfortunately been crowded by visitors. Please reduce your impact on this national treasure.

Continuing the story of the Stone Canoe (#16), before being transformed, Thuxwum lived atop this hill and brought his daily fishing catch home from the estuary. He would lay the fish on the rock to dry and peck away the rock around the fish in order to record their sizes for his future reference. He also hunted and scratched out the images of the animals he encountered during his journeys. Among these are images of the Stayacum part wolf and part marine mammal. Resembling a dragon, the Stayacum was covered in a combination of scales and hairs, had legs and fins, lived in the Nanaimo River, and ate fish. Thuxwum is said to have seen many Stayacum from this vantage point. Unconfirmed sightings of the Stayacum, also around the Nanaimo River delta, have been reported in this twenty first century.

Exit the wayside and turn right on the Trans-Canada Highway heading back toward downtown on Nicol Street. Turn left onto Needham Street, right on Victoria Road, left on Pine Street, and bend left as this becomes Fifth Street. Take Fifth Street to the Nanaimo Indian Hospital site (#19) and university (#20).

The Nanaimo Indian Hospital, circa 1966 (just before closure)

19. Nanaimo Indian Hospital: The roads and parking areas in the fenced federal lands are all that remain of the indigenous hospital, demolished in 2004. Previously a military facility with 210 beds, it operated from 1946 to 1966 as a long term treatment sanatorium for tuberculosis patients. Tuberculosis is highly contagious bacterial infection of the lungs and other body parts. It requires patients be isolated from the general population to prevent spread of the disease by spitting, coughing, sneezing, or speaking.

This was the second largest of at least 29 such hospitals managed by the federal government. During the Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearings of 2010, several indigenous individuals described their experiences as “prisoners” in all hospitals. Most conveyed the indignity of being tied to their beds, ignored for all but one hour of the day. Many claimed sexual and physical abuse at the hands of staff workers and several recalled forced reproductive sterilizations. A few alleged surgical and drug experiments were conducted without their permission. A $1.1 billion class-action lawsuit was brought against the Canadian government in 2018 seeking compensation for all victims and their descendants.

Shq’apthut on VIU campus

20. Shq’apthut: Across Fifth Street is the university, where you should be able to see the campus indigenous centre and a gathering place for all peoples, along with totem poles. Built in 2009, Shq’apthut provides academic support services for aboriginal students enrolled in courses and serves as a community place for cultural events, recreational activities, social celebrations, and educational workshops. The totems represent the first nations found on Vancouver Island and were carved by Thomas Jones (Snuneymuxw), Noel Brown (Coast Salish), Qwaya Sam (Nuu-chah-nulth), and Tommy Hunt Jr (Kwakwaka’wakw).

From top to bottom and from left to right, the symbolic animals are as follows: DESCRIBE EACH IN SEQUENCE ______

Another totem, created by Snuneymuxw carvers James Johnny Sr and James Johnny Jr, stands in the campus library. DESCRIBE IT ______

FINISH THIS TOUR HERE OR CONTINUE WITH ONE OR TWO OPTIONAL ROUTES.

OPTION 1: Head to Maffeo-Sutton Park in downtown Nanaimo and take the passenger ferry over to explore Saysatshun/Newcastle Island (see Chapter 17). Go downhill on Fifth Street and turn left on Wakesiah Avenue. At the T-junction, turn right on Bowen Road and, after crossing the railroad tracks and Terminal Avenue, turn left into Maffeo-Sutton Park in order to walk to the foot passenger ferry.

OPTION 2: Alternatively, at the top of Fifth Street hill, turn left on the Nanaimo Parkway and follow Highway 19 toward Jack Point and Duke Point to view the salmon petroglyphs described below. Nanaimo Parkway and the Duke Point Highway are both labeled as Highway 19. Stay in the right lanes to more easily access the exit lanes. Stay right toward Victoria, stay right toward the Vancouver ferry, and, after crossing the Nanaimo River and passing under Cedar Road and MacMillan Road bridges, exit right toward the Industrial Park straight ahead onto Maughan Road. After passing the pulp mill and light industrial area, turn right on Jackson Road and go to the end. Park and walk under the tunnel beneath the Duke Point Highway. Continue hiking on the trail to Jack Point. The petroglyphs are located on a single boulder found near the beach/water at the ______.

OPTIONAL: Salmon Boulder facing the Nanaimo River Estuary from the beach along the Jack Point Trail

Other petroglyphs can be found on Gabriola Island, near Harewood Mines, and close to the Duke Point Ferry. On the beach at Jack Point, near the third staircase on the trail, is a large boulder with several salmon carved in the rock. The salmon depicted were (from top to bottom): Spring (with hooked nose), Pink, Coho, and Chum (or Dog Salmon). These four were the Salmon that spawned in the Nanaimo River at different times annually. Today, only the latter two appear with any regularity. Industrial impacts on the Nanaimo River and Harbour have all but eliminated the former two salmon from spawning here. Also, present are representations of a Flounder (flatfish) and Great Blue Heron (bird that eats fish).

Several stories are associated with this spiritual place. Most common is about the Dog Salmon. One day, a Shaman caught an unusual looking Dog Salmon in the Nanaimo River. When he showed it to his daughter, the salmon transformed into a young man, who asked the daughter to marry him. The Dog Salmon man took the daughter away to his home in the Salish Sea. The Shaman went searching for his lost daughter and when he found her, she told him she could not return with him, but would visit in the fall with her husband and his family. When they returned in the very first Salmon run to spawn in the Nanaimo River, they jumped out of the water to be welcomed and then the fish harvest could begin.

To welcome the return of spawning salmon each year, rituals associated with this boulder were led by a Shaman and included singing blessings, painting the rock with red ochre, and presenting offerings to a fire. The first salmon were allowed to pass without fishing, because these were the daughter, son-in- law, and their family. After these sacred salmon passed, those that followed provided food. Once removed by the Nanaimo Museum for 30 years, this boulder was returned to its resting place in 2008. Snuneymuxw elders believe that the river will come back to life now that the petroglyph is back in place.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION

TOURS: Take a tour with a Snuneymuxw cultural interpreter and visit Saysutshun/Newcastle Island.

WEBSITES: https://www.snuneymuxw.ca/ https://petroglyphdg.com/ http://newcastleisland.ca/

BOOKS: ______PICK THE ONES WE LIKE FROM THIS LIST ______

Ashwell, Reg. Coast Salish: Their Art, Culture and Legends. (Saanichton B.C.: Hancock House, 1978). Barnett, Homer G. The Coast Salish of British Columbia. (Eugene: University of Oregon, 1955). Boas, Franz. (Bouchard, Randy and Dorothy, Kennedy, Dorothy, eds.). Indian Myths and Legends From the North Pacific Coast of America. (Vancouver: B.C. Indian Language Project, 2002). Bouchard, Randy. Notes on Nanaimo Ethnography and Ethnohistory. Report prepared for I.R. Wilson Consultants, Ltd. (Brentwood Bay, August 1993). Burley, David V. Senewélets: Culture History of the Nanaimo Coast Salish and the False Narrows Midden. (Victoria: Royal British Columbia Museum, Memoir No.2,, 1989). Carlson, Keith Thor, ed., foreword by Xwelixweltel. A Stó:lõ: Coast Salish Historical Atlas. (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 2001). Cryer, Beryl M. with Tstass-Aya and Quen-Es-Then. Legends of the Snuneymuxw, transcribed and printed in the Victoria Daily Colonist, various issues in series, 1930s. Chechik, Marilyn. “Study on Baskets at the Nanaimo District Museum”. (Prepared for the Nanaimo District Museum, 1993). Cole, Douglas. Captured Heritage: The Scramble for Northwest Coast Artifacts. (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1985). Duff, Wilson. The Impact of the White Man (Volume I: The Indian History of British Columbia). (Victoria: Anthropology in British Columbia Memoir, 1964). Duff, Wilson and Hilary Stewart. Images stone b.c.: Thirty Centuries of Northwest Coast Indian Sculpture. (Saanichton, B.C.: Hancock House Publishers, Ltd., 1975) Epps, Mary-Lynn and Stocker, Debbie. Understanding Our Past … Shaping Our Future: A Coast Salish History of the Sne-ney-muxw and Snaw-naw-as Nations. (Nanaimo: School District 68 Curriculum Guide For Teachers). Gerdts, Donna. Object and Absolutive in Halkomelem Salish. (PhD Dissertation, University of California, San Diego, 1982). Gustafson, Paula. Salish Weaving. (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1980). Hawkins, Elizabeth. Indian Weaving Knitting Basketry of the Northwest. (Saanichton, B.C.: Hancock House Publishers Ltd., 1978). Hill, Beth & Ray. Indian Petroglyphs of the Pacific Northwest. (Saanichton, B.C.: Hancock House Publishsers Ltd., 1974). Hill, Beth. Guide to Indian Rock Carvings of the Pacific Northwest Coast. (Surrey, B.C.: Hancock House Publishers Ltd., 1989). Jenness, Diamond. The Faith of a Coast Salish Indian. Anthropology in British Columbia, Memoir No. 3 (Victoria: British Columbia Provincial Museum, 1955). Lincoln, Leslie. Coast Salish Canoes. (Seattle: Center for Wooden Boats: Seattle, 1991). Lobb, Allan. Indian Baskets of the Northwest Coast. (Oregon: Charles H. Belding, 1978). McNutt, Nan. The Spindle Whorl. (Seattle: Sasquatch Books, 1997). Murray, Rebecca Anne. Analysis of Artifacts from Four Duke Point Area Sites, Near Nanaimo, B.C.: An Example of Cultural Continuity in the Gulf of Georgia Region. (Ottawa: National Museums of Canada, 1982). Olsen, Sylvia Valerie. “We Indians were sure hard workers”: A History of Coast Salish Wool Working. (MA Thesis, University of Victoria, 1994). Porter, Frank W., III. The Coast Salish Peoples. (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1989). Stewart, Hilary. Fishing: Early Methods on the Northwest Coast. (Vancouver: J.J. Douglas Ltd., 1977). Stewart, Hilary. Cedar: Tree of Life to the Northwest Coast Indians. (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1984). Stewart, Hilary. Looking at Indian Art of the Northwest Coast. (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1979). Stewart, Hilary. Stone, Bone, Antler and Shell: Artifacts of the Northwest Coast. (Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre, 1996). Suttles, Wayne P. Coast Salish Essays. (Vancouver: Talon Books, 1987). Suttles, Wayne P. “Productivity and Its Constraints: A Coast Salish Case,” Indian Art Traditions of the Northwest Coast.(Burnaby, B.C.: Archaeology Press, Simon Fraser University, c. 1976.), pp. 67-87. Suttles, Wayne P.. The Economic Life of the Coast Salish of Haro and Rosario Straits. (New York and London: Garland Publishing Inc., 1974). Turner, Nancy J. Plant Technology of First Peoples in British Columbia. (Victoria: Royal British Columbia Museum, 1998). White, Ellen. Kwulasulwut: Stories From the Coast Salish. (Nanaimo B.C.: Theytus Books, 1981). White, Ellen. Kwulasulwut II: More Stories From the Coast Salish. (Penticton B.C.: Theytus Books, 1997). White, Ellen. Legends and Teachings of Xeel’s, The Creator. (Vancouver: Pacific Educational Press, 2006).

A GUIDE TO PRONUNCIATION for the Hul’q’umi’num’ dialect of the Island Halkomelem language used by the Snuneymuxw

The dialect has 10 vowels and 35 consonants. Eight English consonants (b, d, f, g, j, r, v, and z) are not used by the Snuneymuxw unless for an adopted word from a foreign language. Several letters use the glottal stop as indicated by an apostrophe (four examples are found in the name Hul’q’umi’num’ alone).

A glottal stop is a catch in the throat that pops with a sudden start or finish like the example of “uh’oh!” Consider that the word “button” can be emphasized with the “tt” in the first or second syllables: butt-on or bu-tton. These glottal stops could be written with an apostrophe as but’on or bu’ton, respectively.

WRITTEN PRONUNCIATION LETTERS NOTES & EXAMPLES

a Pronounced as in ah, father, car, part, and hard (but not gate, cast, clam, or glad) aa Pronounced like the above (a), but is held longer, as in farther or calm ch Pronounced as in church, but much more like the softer or first “ch” in church Pronounced like the above (ch), but with a glottal stop, so it pops, like the harder or second ch’ “ch” in church Pronounced similarly to the “eh” sound as in bed, ten, and pet (unless found at the end of a e word, or followed by q, q’, x, or ‘unuhw, and then it becomes more like “a” in bad, tan or pat) Pronounced like the above (e) as the longer “ai” sound as in pail, raid, or grain (but never as ee the as the “ee” sound as in peel, reed, or greed) h Pronounced as in hand, hen, hip, hot, and hug (the same as in English) Pronounced much like the “wh” in which and yet not the same as in witch, but emphasized hw more like hwich with lips rounded to add a “w” sound to the “h” sound to get a “hw” sound i Pronounced similarly to the “ee” sound as in beep, meet, feel, or seed ii Pronounced like the above (i) as the “ee” sound, but held longer, as in knee, tree or peewee Pronounced much like in karma, key, king, kooky, and kudos (the same as in English) , but k this “k” sound is produced with the tongue pushed forward rather than held further back Pronounced much like the “qu” in queen, question, quiz, quake, and quick (the same as in kw English) with lips rounded to add a “w” sound to the “k” sound, as that of inkwell (ink well) kw’ Pronounced like the above (kw), but with a glottal stop, so it pops l Pronounced as in land, legs, lips, love, and lulu (the same as in English) Pronounced much like the above (l), while holding the tongue’s tip on the mouth’s front roof, lh and exhaling an added “sh” to make a unique hissing sound close to that of clean or climb m Pronounced as in mall, meme, milk, mother, and mute (the same as in English) n Pronounced as in name, nest, nine, nod, and nurse (the same as in English) oo Pronounced as in too, but held longer, as in noon (the long version of ou below) ou Pronounced like the short “oo” sound in you or soup (but never as the “ow” in loud or hour) p Pronounced as in pat, pet, pipe, pot, and put (the same as in English) p’ Pronounced like the above (p), but with a glottal stop, so it pops, as in wasp or pimp q Pronounced much like the “k” sound, but with the tongue’s back at the mouth’s far back q’ Pronounced like the above (q), but with a glottal stop, so it pops qw Pronounced much like the above (q) with lips rounded to add a “w” sound after a “k” sound qw’ Pronounced like the above (qw), but with a glottal stop, so it pops s Pronounced as in sad, sell, sip, sold, and sum (but never like the “z” sound in hose or goes) sh Pronounced as in shampoo, she, shirt, shore, and shut (the same as in English) t Pronounced as in take, ten, tick, town, and tutu (the same as in English) t’ Pronounced like the above (t), but with a glottal stop, so it pops, as in script or doubt th Pronounced as in thaw, theme, thief, thorn, and thud (but never like then, there, or this) Pronounced much like the “ick” sound while holding the tongue’s tip on the mouth’s front tl’ roof, and adding a clicking sound (to make the glottal stop) by releasing the tongue’s sides ts Pronounced as in tsar or like in pizza (always as a single sound “t-z” and not like “t” and “s”) ts’ Pronounced like the above (ts), but with a glottal stop, so it pops, as in rats, bets, or pits tth Pronounced as in cut thin and outthink (always as a single sound and not like “t” and “th”) tth’ Pronounced like the above (tth), but with a glottal stop, so it pops u Pronounced as in cup, pun, and but (never like the “yu” sound in actual or pure) Pronounced much like the above (u), with lips rounded to add a “w” sound to the “u” sound uw’ and with an additional glottal stop, so it pops w Pronounced as in was, well, wig, wow, and wuthering (the same as in English) Pronounced much like the above (lh + tl’), while holding the tongue’s tip on the mouth’s front x roof, and then raising the tongue’s back to the mouth’s back roof without touching, so as to produce a hissing “hu” sound, that is close to blowing out the start of huge or human Pronounced much like the above (x), with lips rounded to add a “w” sound to the “x” sound xw to produce a hissing “huw” sound, that is close to blowing out the words hewn or clerihew y Pronounced as in yam, yes, yield, you, and yuk (the same as in English)

If you have great difficulty learning some of these sounds, you are not alone. This is a challenging dialect to learn. Imagine what the experience was like for Snuneymuxw who had to learn English a century ago.

Mary Rice, carding and spinning wool, in ______, circa 1942

Billy Yacklum wearing nobility blanket Author’s Statement My story “Ki’et’sa’kun” is based on real events and real people. Ki’et’sa’kun was a real person who was one of the Snuneymuxw people. I am also from the Snuneymuxw band so it made sense to write about an event that they were involved in. He showed Governor Douglas the location of significant stores of coal around what is now Nanaimo on Vancouver Island. This ultimately resulted in the permanent settling of that region by white settlers. The locations used in my story are also real places. Snuneymuxw is now known as Nanaimo, because this is how the settlers pronounced it when told the name of the region. Stth’amus is also a well known city on Vancouver Island. Victoria now occupies the area where Stth’amus once was. This meeting between the First Nations of Snuneymuxw and Governor Douglas was very important because it not only led to permanent settling of Vancouver Island, but it was a main reason the Douglas Treaty for Snuneymuxw was created. This treaty gave Douglas and the white settlers sole ownership of the surrounding land with the exceptions of the village sites and some fields for the children to play in. This was all traded for just 668 blankets. It does not take much thinking to see who got the better side of the deal. And this momentous series of events happened because a young Snuneymuxw man named Ki’et’sa’kun discovered coal in 1849. All in all, the discovery of coal was one of the most important events for First Nations of Vancouver Island and British Columbia. Ki’et’sa’kun A great spray of vapour was released into the air in the distance, followed by a tall black fin which quickly disappeared under the waves. “Never go near those great black fish”, said the chief, his eyes stopping on each child. “They are very powerful, and you would not be able to escape them if they decided to eat you. “ He then pointed to a shiny black rock lying among the pebbles on the beach. “And never touch these black rocks, they are linked to the fish, for these rocks are long and black just like them.” Ki’et’sa’kun watched the chief intently and told himself again and again to not touch the shiny black rock. But one day the tribe decided to make a fire on the beach. While the fire was burning brightly, many people began to smell something terrible. They found that there was some of the shiny black rock burning beneath the logs. The whole tribe became terribly fearful, thinking that the great black fish would come and kill them. So they set sentries all along the shore to keep watch should the fish come to get them. After many years the great fish had not come to attack them. But one day something much different happened. Some men from Stth’amus came to the Snuneymuxw, and told them that there were white men in great ships who had come to trade. The tribe was very excited, and sent a dozen young men in a canoe down to Stth’amus to talk with the white men. Among them was Ki’et’sa’kun. When they arrived on the shores of Stth’amus, everything was just as their visitors had described it. There were peculiar houses and towering ships, with white men walking all around in bizarre clothing. As the young men wandered around, Ki’et’sa’kun and his friend Hwe’o’kwen stopped to watch a blacksmith hammering a slab of red hot metal. After they had watched the blacksmith at the bellows, they returned home with the strange new things they had found. When Ki’et’sa’kun and the other men came back home to Snuneymuxw, they showed their discoveries to the people, who were awestruck by the strange objects. While everyone was preoccupied by these intriguing new articles, Ki’et’sa’kun pulled Hwe’o’kwen to the side. “Hwe’o’kwen”, he murmured so no one could overhear their conversation. “Do you remember the white man hammering the piece of metal in Stth’amus?” Hwe’o’kwen nodded. “Yes.” “Did you notice what he was burning in the fire?” “No. I don’t remember. It looked like wood to me.” Ki’et’sa’kun looked at him even more intently now. “It looked like the black rock that belongs to the great black fish. He was using it to make the fire.” Hwe’o’kwen now remembered. “You’re right!” he exclaimed. Ki’et’sa’kun continued, “Remember when there was a fire here and it ended up that they had burned some of the black rock?” “Yes, yes”, Hwe’o’kwen answered. He now saw what Ki’et’sa’kun was suggesting. Together they made a plan to go visit the white men at Stth’amus again. Some months later, a group of young men planned to travel to Stth’amus to trade with the white men. Ki’et’sa’kun and Hwe’o’kwen volunteered to come with them, as it was the perfect opportunity for their plan. When the men were about to leave, the two friends climbed into the canoe carrying a large blanket between them. “What do you have under the blanket, Ki’et’sa’kun?” a man next to them asked. Ki’et’sa’kun and Hwe’o’kwen just shook their heads in reply. When they arrived in Stth’amus Ki’et’sa’kun and Hwe’o’kwen separated themselves from the group and hauled their blanket over to the blacksmith shop. They walked into the shop, and unfolded their blanket to reveal a pile of black rock. When the blacksmith came into his shop, he was surprised to find the two men sitting next to the bellows with a mound of coal between them. “Where did you get this coal?” he gasped, an astounded look plastered on his face. Ki’et’sa’kun and Hwe’o’kwen just looked at each other, confused. They could not understand what this white man was saying. The blacksmith broke off a piece of coal and threw it into the fire, where it burned intensely. He ran off excitedly, leaving the two friends even more confused than before. When the blacksmith returned he had another man with him, who apparently could speak in their language. “Where did you find this black rock?” he inquired. Ki’et’sa’kun and Hwe’o’kwen were relieved that they could understand him. “In our village on the beach”, Ki’et’sa’kun answered. “How far is it from here?” “A two day canoe ride.” Hwe’o’kwen replied this time. “Come with me”, said the man. “I’m going to take you to Governor Douglas.” So the two young men got up from the floor and followed the man with their blanket of coal carried between them. They soon arrived at a house similar to the others, only slightly larger. They walked through the door and into Governor Douglas’ office. The Governor turned to see them as they burst into the room. “These men say they have lots of coal at their village, only two days’ away by canoe”, said the man eagerly. Governor Douglas’ eyes lit up and his demeanor suddenly changed. He looked delighted. “Which one of you two men had the idea of bringing us the coal”, asked Douglas, which the other man quickly translated into Hul’qumi’num. “I did”, said Ki’et’sa’kun, unsure of what to expect. Governor Douglas brought out some clothes just like he and the other white men were wearing. “These are gifts from me to you”, he said. “And I have a new name for you. You will now be known to us as Coal Tyee. We thank you greatly for showing us this black rock.” He then turned to face the translator and said, “Bring this man home, and make sure he is treated like a king. He will do no work while in our hands.” Then he turned to Ki’et’sa’kun again. “Tell your chief that I will come to your village soon, and we can talk about trading this black rock.” He then strode to his desk and began filling out some papers. “Come with me”, said the translator, and he strolled out the door, with Ki’et’sa’kun and Hwe’o’kwen close behind. They came to the shore where all the canoes of the visitors lay on the sand. The man called over some other young men, handed them paddles, and sat Ki’et’sa’kun down in the middle of the most impressive canoe. “Take this man and his friend back to their village, and make sure he does not work. This is the wish of Governor Douglas.” The men nodded understandingly, then pushed the canoe out into the waves. When the canoe was out in the water they jumped in and began to paddle. Ki’et’sa’kun sat regally in the center of canoe. The men around him were working hard. But he would not paddle. He was Coal Tyee.

Told by Celestine Aleck (Sahiltiniye) of Snuneymuxw First Nation Long ago, there was a time when we never had any sockeye in Nanaimo River, so the Thunderbird, Eagle, Otter, Mink and Beaver all got together to decide how we would get sockeye into our river. Eagle said that they would go to the richest place that has the most sockeye, which is Port Alberni, and that he and Thunderbird would host a fake meeting with the Salmon People. “While we host this fake meeting,” he said, “we know that the children will be somewhere else, because children will want to play and talk.” So Eagle asked Mink, Otter and Beaver to find out where the children were, and said to take one, and then take a different route all the way back to Snuneymuxw. He told them: “When you get to Snuneymuxw River, you go up and down that river as many times as you can, and than you hide the baby and we will catch up to you later.” They all agreed to go and made their way to Port Alberni. Eagle and Thunderbird approached the Salmon People and said: “We need to host a meeting, we had a vision and need to talk to you.”

So all the Salmon People went and brought their children somewhere else, and came back for the meeting. When the meeting began, Eagle told them: “We had a vision of people coming from all around the world to fish you off and kill you for sport. We think that some of you should leave.” All the Salmon People were so worried that they didn’t know what to do. They all looked to the King Salmon and asked: “Who stays and who leaves?” As the meeting was taking place, Mink, Otter and Beaver found the children, stole one child and made their way back to Snuneymuxw. Meanwhile, Eagle and Thunderbird dragged the meeting on as long as they could and Eagle said to the Salmon People: “We just wanted to make sure we shared our vision with you, we will let you decide who is to leave and who is to stay, and we will go on our way.” The Salmon People thanked the Eagle and Thunderbird for taking time out of their lives to share this vision. As Eagle and Thunderbird made their way home to Snuneymuxw, they began carving in the rocks, telling the story of how we got sockeye in our river. There are salmon petrogylphs on Saysutshun (Newcastle Island), Protection Island, Tlaaltxw (Gabriola Island) and up Snuneymuxw River. Eagle and Thunderbird caught up to Mink, Otter and Beaver and had asked if they hid the baby salmon and they said yes. Eagle said: “OK, don’t tell us where the child is, and just split up and go about your day.” Finally, in Port Alberni, all the Salmon People decided who was going to leave and who was going to stay in Port Alberni. They all went to get their children and noticed one was missing, so they had followed the scent of the child all the way to Snuneymuxw River. The Salmon People had gone up and down the river so many times looking for the child that they had lost the scent. All the Salmon People were worried for the child being all alone, that they again looked to the King Salmon and had asked: “What do we do?” The King Salmon said: “We shall lay eggs so that this child has someone to play with, and we will come back every year after so that the child is never alone.”