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Political Elites and Foreign Policy : Democratization in Indonesia Wibisono, A.T.M

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Political Elites and Foreign Policy : Democratization in Indonesia Wibisono, A.T.M Political elites and foreign policy : democratization in Indonesia Wibisono, A.T.M. Citation Wibisono, A. T. M. (2009, October 6). Political elites and foreign policy : democratization in Indonesia. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/1887/14035 Version: Not Applicable (or Unknown) Licence agreement concerning inclusion of doctoral thesis in the License: Institutional Repository of the University of Leiden Downloaded from: https://hdl.handle.net/1887/14035 Note: To cite this publication please use the final published version (if applicable). Political Elites and Foreign Policy: Democratization in Indonesia PROEFSCHRIFT ter verkrijging van de graad van Doctor aan de Universiteit Leiden, op gezag van de Rector Magnificus prof. mr. P.F. van der Heijden, volgens besluit van het College voor Promoties te verdedigen op dinsdag 6 oktober 2009 klokke 15.00 uur door H. R.M. Aria Teguh Mahendra Wibisono geboren te Jakarta in 1973 Promotiecommissie Promotor: prof. dr. A. van Staden Co-promotor: dr. Ph.P. Everts Overige leden: prof. dr. J. Melissen, Universiteit Antwerpen prof. dr. J.M. Otto prof. dr. N.J. Schrijver prof. dr. H.N.G. Schulte Nordholt, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam Politieke Elites en Buitenlands Beleid: Democratisering in Indonesië 2 Samenvatting in het Nederlands Onderwerp van deze studie is de rol van politieke elites in de totstandkoming van de buitenlandse politiek van Indonesië, in het bijzonder ten tijde van het presidentschap van Megawati Soekarnoputri (2001-2004). Doel van de studie is niet alleen te achterhalen welke invloed diverse elitegroeperingen op regeringsbeslissingen van het betrokken land hebben uitgeoefend, maar ook om bij te dragen tot de vergroting van het algemene inzicht in het belang van binnenlandse factoren voor het buitenlands beleid van landen die het pad van de democratisering zijn ingeslagen. Na een grondige bespreking van relevante theoretische benaderingen die in de leer der internationale betrekkingen zijn ontwikkeld, wordt hiertoe een analysekader ontworpen. De benodigde onderzoeksgegevens worden geput uit officiële documenten, secundaire bronnen en een groot aantal mondelinge vraaggesprekken. De elitegroeperingen die worden onderscheiden zijn: 1. vertegenwoordigers uit de samenleving (academische deskundigen, nieuwsmedia, niet-gouvernementele organisaties en religieuze groepen), 2. volksvertegenwoordigers, 3. hoge militairen en 4. hoge ambtenaren. Vier gevallen van controversiële besluiten worden onderzocht: 1. de kritische reactie van Indonesië op de Amerikaanse inval in Afghanistan, 2. de spanningen tussen Indonesië en Maleisië over de behandeling van illegale Indonesische werknemers in Maleisië, 3. het omstreden bezoek van de Australische minister-president Howard aan Indonesië (februari 2002) en 4. de – in Indonesië hevig betwiste - aanwezigheid van Megawati bij de onafhankelijkheidsceremonie van Oost- Timor (mei 2002). Een belangrijke uitkomst van het onderzoek is dat de elitegroeperingen die buiten het regeringsapparaat (en het leger) staan, weliswaar invloedrijk zijn in het stadium waarin het beleid wordt geformuleerd, maar weinig gewicht in de schaal leggen wanneer het aankomt op de uitvoering van besluiten. Deze bevinding kan verrassend worden genoemd omdat zij indruist tegen de gangbare opinie van zowel theoretici als beleidsmakers over de betekenis van het parlement en maatschappelijke groeperingen ter verklaring van het buitenlands beleid van landen die nog niet lang geleden hebben gekozen voor de democratie. Een andere conclusie is dat de ideologie van het nationalisme door alle onderscheiden elitegroepen wordt omarmd, behalve door de groep van hoge ambtenaren die officieel met de voorbereiding en uitvoering van besluiten is belast. Ondanks de wisseling van het politieke regime in Indonesië na de afzetting van president Soeharto (1998) blijft deze groep ervan overtuigd dat Realpolitik de beste grondslag vormt voor een buitenlandse politiek die rekening houdt met internationale afhankelijkheden en de machtsverhoudingen in de wereld. 3 Acknowledgements Fully acknowledging each and every one of those who enabled me to complete this book would not do justice to the exercise. Instead I opted to acknowledge those who were formally involved though those whom I left out know who they are. To them I am deeply grateful. And they know that I could not have done it without them. With this in mind I would first like to thank those whom, by archaic university tradition, I am not permitted to thank by name but without their guidance, wisdom, and direction this book would not have come to fruition. I am indeed honored to have worked under their rich expertise in the field of international relations. Secondly, I would like to thank those at the institution from where I am currently serving, the Department of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Indonesia, who made it possible for me to undertake the academic assignment. The initial permission and support to be commissioned on this study assignment came from my then Director for Western European Affairs and current Director-General for Americas and Europe, Ambassador Retno L.P. Marsudi. Ambassador Sudjadnan Parnohadiningrat and later Ambassador Imron Cotan, as Secretary- General, and Ambassador Nadjib Riphat Koesoema and later Darmansjah Djumala, as Head of the Center of Education and Training, ensured that my assignment remained on course. While in The Netherlands I was under the pastoral care of Ambassador Mohammad Jusuf, and later Ambassador Junus Effendi Habibie and the then Minister and current Director-General for ASEAN Cooperation Djauhari Oratmangun. They provided me with guidance, encouragement, warm friendship, and kind hospitality. While preparing for the doctorate defense I was supported by the following individuals in ensuring that I obtain sufficient time to study while returning to active duty at the Foreign Service: Jamil Maidan Flores, Teuku Faizasyah, and Priyo Iswanto. Last but definitely not least, support for the academic assignment would not have been possible were it not been for Foreign Minister Hassan Wirajuda and Deputy Foreign Minister Triyono Wibowo. Not only did the former offer useful advice in relation to the writing of the dissertation while the latter offered support and value added suggestions, they both underlined the importance of human capital investment and made that vision into reality by creating an environment whereby it was conducive for foreign service officers to take up official academic assignments in pursuit of advanced education. Many people helped me tremendously during the field work. I thank Ismid Hadad and Ade Djunainah for the instrumental guidance on whom to interview and for providing me with an office, social network, and 4 technical support. Mahdi Ahouie, Josephine Schrama, R.A. Adriani Kusumawardhani, Sonny Keraf, Ramayanti Olii, Surano Muhasyah, Bambang Witjaksono, Yudhono Irawan, Colonel Ahmad Yani Basuki, Badarudin Bakri Badar, Bandi, Alex van der Heijden, and Jacqueline van Slingerland assisted in obtaining difficult to get materials, liaised with interview sources, and assisted with the preparation of the manuscript. My tremendous gratitude goes to the interview sources for making themselves available to be interviewed. I thank them by the order of our meetings: Hassan Wirajuda, Suryopratomo, Agus Parengkuan, Abdurrahman Wahid, Hazairin Pohan, Eko Hartono, Clara Juwono, Kusnanto Anggoro, Darmansjah Djumala, Yovial Chaniago, Dewi Fortuna Anwar, Salahuddin Wahid, Agus Widjojo, Edy Prasetyono, Bambang Kesowo, Rizal Sukma, Permadi, Mochtar Buchori, Marzuki Usman, Juwono Sudarsono, Albert Matondang, Sabam Siagian, Ali Alatas, Sabam Sirait, Azyumardi Azra, Siswo Pramono, and Jusuf Effendi Habibie. I would like to thank the following institutions in providing me with an atmosphere conducive for study: the law, main, and social sciences libraries at the University of Leiden, the Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies Library, the Koninklijke Bibliotheek (Royal Netherlands Library); National Library of the Republic of Indonesia, Library of the Policy Assessment and Development Board at the Department of Foreign Affairs; Institut Universitaire de Hautes Études Internationales (Graduate Institute of International Relations) Library, World Trade Organization Library, United Nations Office Library in Geneva. I thank my ‘adopted’ grandma for keeping me sharp on my toes and for first suggesting Leiden, her alma mater some fifty plus years ago. I also thank my siblings for their love and support. And I especially thank the love, both moral and financial support of my mother and my father, and later of my wife and my family in enabling me to research, to write, and most importantly, to think, in peace. I dedicate this book to Mom. AW 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 4 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale and Research Strategy 9 1.2 Research Design 18 1.3 Elites and Power 20 1.4 Framework for Foreign Policy Analysis 25 1.4.1 Systemic Level of Analysis 26 1.4.1.1 Assessment of the Systemic Approach 29 1.4.1.2 Applicability of the Systemic Approach 31 1.4.2 Decision-Making Approach 32 1.4.2.1 Assessment of the Decision-Making Approach 35 1.4.2.2 Applicability of the Decision-Making Approach 37 1.4.3 Cognitive or Individual Approach 37 1.4.3.1 Assessment of Cognitive Approach 38 1.4.3.2 Applicability of the Cognitive Approach 41 1.4.4 Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy Approach 41 1.4.4.1 Assessment of the Domestic Sources Approach 44 1.4.4.2 Applicability of
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