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ED 056 854 SE 010 425 TITLE Industry and Technology: Keysto Oceanic Development, Volume 2, Panel Reports of theCommission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources. Engineering and INSTITUTION commission on Marine Science, Resources, Wash., D.C. PUB DATE 69 MOTE 319p. AVAILABLE FROMSuperintendent of Documents, U.S.Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 ¶CatNo. PR 36.8:M 33/Pv.1-3, $10.25, Sold in setsof 3 volumes only)

EDRS PRICE MF-$0.65 9C-$13.16 DESCRIPTORS Development; Earth Science;*Economic Development; Environment; *Industry; *NaturalResources; *Ocean Engineering; *Oceanology; ResourceMaterials; Technology

ABSTRACT This document is the secondof a three-volume series of panel reports compiledby the Commission on MarineScience, Engineering and Resources.Contained in this volume are part V, Report of the Panel onIndustry and Private Investment,and part VI, Report of the Panel onMarine Engineering and Technology.Major recommendations presented in part Vrelate to consolidation of federal functions, multipurposetechnology, and attracting entrepreneurial investment. Thefour chapters following the recommendations in part V reviewthe present status ofindustrial activities and investments,policies to accelerate industrial development of marine resources,and the various oceanindustries. Part VI assesses thepresent national effort inmarine engineering and tehnology andincludes broad guidance for theeconomic and tational development of the U.S. capability in t marine environment. (PR) r,fc'

U S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. : EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION rms DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRO C- (:ED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM TILE PERSON OR ORGANIZXOION OHIO [NATINC;IT POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN . 7. IONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY tO. REPRESENT OFT ICIAL OFFICE OF ECU CATION POSITION OR POLICY , ceanic velopment

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For sale by the Superintendent of Documents,U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Sold in sets of 3volumes only Contents

Volume 1Science and Environment

Foreword Members of the Commission Panels of the Commission Staff Introduction PartI Report of the Panel on Basic Science PartII Report of the Panel on Environmental Monitoring PartIII Report of the Panel on Management and Development of the Coastal Zone Part IV Report of the Panel on Education, Manpower, and Training

Volume 2 Industry and Technology: Keys to Oct:anic Development

Part V Report of the Panel on Industry and Private Investment Part VI Report of the Panel on Marine Engineer- ing and Technology

Volume 3 Marine Resources and Legal-Political Arrangements for Their Development

PartVIIReport of the Panel on Marine e-

Part VIII RepotL (tie Intnational Panel Index Part V

Report of the Panel on Industry and Private Investment

4 Contents

B. Programs in Multipurpose Preface V-1 Technology V-10 C.ature and Extent of Government V-1 Major Recommendations Sponsor ship V-i D. Technology Transfer V-1I Need for Advisory Committee I. II. Supporting Services V-13 II. Need for Consolidation of III.Jurisdiction and Leasing Policies . V-14 Federal Functions V-2 A. Definition of State Boundaries V-3 III.Multipurpose Technology and Baselines V-14 IV.Availability of Capital V-3 B. Definition of National Jurk-dictionV-15 V. SeasteadingA Means To Attract C. Exploration and Lease Terms . V-15 . V-3 Entrepreneurial Investment D. Seasteading V-16 IV.Joint Ventures V-17 Chaptar1 Introduction V-4V. Insurance V-17 A. Offshore Installations . . . V-17 I. Panel Objectives V-4 B. Personal Injury to Workers II. Potential for Industrial Growth . V-4 Offshore V-17 III.National Interest in the Ocean . V-5VI.Collaboration in Development IV.Government and Industry Roles . V-5 Planning V-18 A. Consolidation of Federal Fu- Chapter 2 PresentStatus V-7 B. Government-Industry Planr Mechanism v -I S 1. Profile of Present Indus, ial Activities V-7 V-21 II. Value of Ocean Activity V-8Chapter 4 Ocean Industries HI. Industry Attitudes Toward Ocean Investments V-8I. Introduction V-21 V-22 IV. Capital Sources and Requirements. V-9 Petroleum III.Natural Gas V-27 V-29 Chapter 3Policies To Accelerate IV.Ocean Mining V-34 Industyial Development of V. Fishing V-42 Marine Resources V-10VI Aquaculture VII. Sea Transportation V-44 V-46 I. Government Sponsored Research VIII. Instruments V-I 0 and Development V-50 A. Survey Programs V-10Acknowledgments Preface

Early in its history, the Commission organizedwhich this report was b.eing prepared. In addition, seven panels. Each dealt with a major area ofthe panel participated in formal hearings with interest pertinent to the responsibilities assigned torepresentatives from Federal and State government the Commission by the" Marine Resources and agencies,industry,universities, and non-profit EngineerimDevelopmentActof 1966, P.L.institutioo.s. Finally, the help of Charles C. Conyers 89-454. Thus, a means was provided to focus onand J. Stan Stephan was enlisted for particular the basic problems and to recommend solutions inportions of the text. critical areas. This report is the work of the Panel The report has been carefully reviewed by on Industry and Private Investment. consultants and various experts throughout gov- The panel gathered information from manyernment and industry, to whom the panel is people,'including approximately 150 personalindebted. interviews with key figures. A series of conferences Kenneth Drummond, of Texas instruments, was sponsored by the Ocean Science and Tech- servedas Panel Executive Secretary. Of major nology Advisory Committee (OSTAC) of theassistance to the panel in writing the report were National Security Industrial Association (NSIA) tothe following staff members: Timothy J. Coleman, assist the panel. The panel utilized detailed state- Union Carbide Corp.; James W. Drewry, University ments and reports provided by: OSTAC; the of Virginia; Amor L. Lane, American Machine & National Chamber of Commerce; the Oceano-Foundry Co.; and R. Lawrence Snideman II, The graphic Committee of the National Association ofOceanic Foundation. The panel greatly appreciates Manufacturers; the National Academy of Engi-the contributions of these individuals and the time neering, Committee on Ocean Engineering; the made available by their organizations. National Oceanography Association; and various organizations under contract to the Commission Respectfully submitted, and the National Council on Marine Resources and Richard A. Geyer, Chairman Engineering Development. Much information was Charles F. Baird derived fiom symposia sponsored by various tech- Taylor A. Pryor nical societies and universities during the period in George H. Sullivan

1Individuals making primary contributions axe listed in Appendix A.

v-i Major Recommen datim ts

This chapter includes summaries of highlightRecommendation: recommendations which are applicabletotheAn advisory committee composed of representa- broad sector of ocean industries. tives appointed by the President from private industry, States and regions, and the academic community sholld be statutorily created. This I. NEED FOR ADVISORY COMMITTEE committee would participate in the establishment and longhave of Natiwal marine goals and objectives TheGovernment andindustry provide continuing guidance to thz FederalGov- worked together at all levels in marine-oriented activities. To aid in the design and implementationernment. of a meaningful National program future Govern- ment planning should continue to encourageand II. NEED FOR CONSOLIDATION OFFED- anticipate information and advice from industry. The Government also should solicitinformation ERAL FUNCTIONS and guidance from the States and the academic Many Federal agencies have responsibilities in community. This need will iwzrease as ocean re-the ocean, but to date no strong focus and in some source development accelerates with an accom-instances no clear delineation ofresponsibility panying inclease in multiple use conflicts. exist. The present need for closer cooperation has Federal programs andfunctions should be intensified for several reasons: consolidated to:

Development of ocean resources is accelerating.Enable improved planning and direction of This rapid development, accompanied by in-marine programs. creased awareness of the ocean's vast potential andProvide more efficient and meaningful services concern with pollution and conservation,requiresthrough better utilization of Government man- the most efficient mobilization of the Nation'spower, funds, and facilities. capability. Much of this capability already exists both without and within the Government, includ-Permit more efficient conduct of non-military ing extensivefacilities, trained manpower, andresearch znd development req,Lred for expanded experience in the development and use of marinemarine activities. resources. Provide a means for handling special problems The accelerated development of marine resources relatedtosmall,ocean-oriented businesses of has revealed thatitisimperative to achieve critical importance. understanding between multiple users in order toProvide a focus for information and technology define the present and anticipated scope of con- exchange. flicts and to recommend suitable mechanisms for resolving them. Aid in training and education of required manpower. The Commission was charged by Congress to recommend an adequate National marine science program and a Governmental organizationalplan to carry it out. In determining the nature ofthis Recommendation: organization, the panel finds that provision shouldMany marine functions of existing agencies and be made to allow meaningful participation ofbureaus should,whereverpossible, be consolidated industry, the States, and the academic communityto improve the effectiveness of the Government's in planning, execution, and review ofthis program. participation in a National marine program.

V-72 7 III. MULTIPURPOSE TECHNOLOGY indirect incentives directed toward establishment Technology in itself is not a severe limitation to of a favorable business climate should bc em- industry's physical ability to perform an operation ployed where pertinent. intheocean.Cost, however, may often be prohibitive.Consequently, future technological Recommendation: innovations that reduce costs will accelerate theGovemment policy should be to develop and utilizotion of the oceans. Therefore, early develop-mamtain a business cNinate encouraging ocean- rnent of luwer cost technology is required. In related investments. Epecial indirect incentives, addition, other innovations may create opportu-rather than direct fmancial aid, are advised when a nities to develop entirely new industries. welldefined Nationalinterestexists and the Technology and services that benefit a broad private sector's response is inadequate. sector of present and potential users and which are beyond the capability of a given industry tradi- V. SEASTEADING- A MEANS TO ATTRACT tionally have been sponsored by the Government. ENTREPRENEURIAL iNVESTMENT When such programs are necessary they should be oriented to scientific and basic engineering prob- The ocean environment has received much lems. To insure an industrial base capable ofpromot: mal attrntion and many ideas have been supporting accelerating National ocean exploita- conceived for ocean development. At present, tion, itis imperative that development projects,however, numerous jurisdictional bodies have no where practical, be performed by industry underprocedures at ail to convey rights to submerged appropriate contractual arrangements. land. Where procedures exist, they are often in the form of complicated and expensive leases which Recommendation: constitute a particular burden to individuals and small companies. Thus, to stimulate the imagina- The Federal Government should initiate in thetive development of selected underwater areas, the near future a progam to assure development ofStates should adopt a system of simple, attractive basic multipurpose technology that will enhanceleasing, which one might refer to as "seasteading." the capability of a broad spectrum of users toThe term of the "seastead" should be sufficiently perform useful work on and in the oceans. long to justify large investments that 17 Lay be IV. AVAILABILITY OF CAPITAL necessary. Among the possible applications of seasteading would be aquaculture and such recrea- Some ocean industries are so new in areas of ad- tional uses as underwater parks and hotels, but not vanced technology that their potential is not fullydevelopment of petroleum and other minerals. understood by investors. Nevertheless, many concepts of profitably using the ocean are sound, and the investment community has been intriguedRecommendation: greatly by overall ocean endeavors. It is the feelingTo encourageinnovativeusesofthe ocean in this community that raising funds for projectsother than petroleum and hard mineral develop with reasonable profit potential will not be ament,Stategovernmentsshouldinitiateex- problem, and therefore direct Government pecu-perimental programs for leasing submarine areas niary aid will be rarely necessary. ("seasteading") within U.S. territorial waters, con- In view of the National interest in the oceans,tingent on useful employment of the property. and lack in most cases of a need for directSuch programs should be a part of a plan for the Government financial aid, the panel feels thatorderly, rational development of offshore regions.

V-3 Chapter 1Introduction

in terms of regulatory policies,incentives, and I. PANEL OBJECTIVES services to industry? Two objectives of the MarineResources and Engineering Development Act are toaccelerete What impact would a strengthenedGovernment and program in marine science?ild engineering have development of marine environment resources activity in the oceans to encourage private investmententerprise in ex-upon private and industrial ploration, technological development, marine com-and upon the economy as a whole? merce, and economicutilization of such resources. requirements theWhat will be the privay. sector's These statutory objectives hne established for capital in order to realizethe potential for framework for the work of the Panel onIndustry and Private Investment. Thus the panel has pro- ocean development? ceeded from the premise that anincrease inHow can industry collaborateeffectively with commercial marine activityisin the Nationalgovernment and the academiccommunity in the National marine . terest and should be supportedby both theplanning and execution of a truly public and private sector. The panel'sprincipal program? mission has been to determine whatspecific actions are both necessary andappropriate and These questions identify majorproblems to what mutual roles are to be played by thepublic which the panel's efforts have beendirected. From and private sectors. several alternative means to stimulateinvestment The panel particularly wishes to emphasizethe in marine industry, the panel hasselected the most key importance of industry'sparticipationin promising, attempting to weigh theirbenefits advancing the Nation's use of theseas.Itis against possible detrimental effects. industry which under its own initiativehas devel- This report should be read in conjunctionwith oped much of the technology now used in oceanthe Commission report and theother panel re- operations. The know-how of industrialpersonnelports. For instance, the Panel onMarine Resources will be crucial to technological extension.Certainhas reviewed in detail the potentialof marine sectors of private industry alsocommand capitalresources; the Marine Engineeringand Technology resources substantially exceedingthose govern-Panel has proposed a fundamentaltechno;ogy ment is likely to be able toassign to civil oceandevelopment program intended to advancethe projects. Nation's capability to utilize such resources. The larger companies, at least, arecapable of programmed assigning resources to a steady and GROWTH effort that can be sustained over the yearswith II. POTENTIAL FOR INDUSTRIAL greater confidence than a projectsubject to the The potential for greatly expandedindustrial uncertainties of annual Congressionalappropria-activity in the oceans cicarly is present.Within the in the tions. Industry can often sponsor programs next 20 years, the world populationis expected to ocean without fear ofpolitical criticism. Moreover, increase by some 50 percent.' About three-toprivate companies can operate inforeign areas and four times more gas and oilwill be required (such leach agreements with foreign governments annually.2It has been estimated thatoffshorc as those of the oil industry inthe Near East or ofsources will provide in adecade about one-third of mining companies off SouthAfrica, England, andthe world's petroleum.3 It also hasbeen estimated Malaysia) that would be more difficult toachieve at a government-to-governmentlevel. The panel's work has been directed tothe 1United Nations, "World Population Prospects,"Pop- ulation Studies No. 41, 1966, Table A3.2. following major subjects: 2 Weeks, L. G., "The Gas, Oil, and Sulfur Potentials of 43. What are the implications of the statutoryintent the Sea," Ocean Industry, June 1968, p. that marine resource development beaccelerated 3 Ibid.,p. 48. 9 17-4 that world-wide fish catches can be quadrupled,4of proven reserves to meet future needs and a and manyfeelthereisa greatpotentialin diversity of sources to establish a potential for aquaculture forraising marine species of highcompetition. economic value. Ocean mining activities could expand rapidly as technology for economic re-Due to the forecasted demand for natural recovery and processing develops, and an interesting,sources, it is becoming increasingly important for although still very ill-defined, potential exists forindustry to make the best possible projections and deriving new drugs from marine life. concomitantdecisionsconcerningthemost More immediateopportunitiesarepresenteconomical sources of supply. among the non-consumptive uses of the sea and Domestic production of minerals offshore yields coastal zonein recreation, transportation, waste some foreign exchange savings when contrasted to disposal, and scientific inquiry. The demand foran import alternative. The resultantrelatively the major aquatic activities of outdoor recreationmodest saving atthis point may be offset by inthis country will have tripled by the yerIrrepercussions in markets for U.S. exports, but 2000.5 The annual tonnage of internatiopal tradeuntil the Nation's overall payments problem has is expected to double in 20 years.6 eased, the balance-of-payments aspects cannot be Profit-motivated private enterprise traditionallyignored. has provided one of the most potent avenues for growth. Providing a political and economic climate Encouragement of appropriate ocean industries that will allow U.S. ocean industry to meet theseby the Government will contribute to the Na- needs is a challenge to the Nation. tional economy in the form of capital investment, increased employment, and productivity. III. NATIONAL INTEREST IN THE OCEAN Many benefits accrue to National security from Several reasons for Government encouragement industrial competence in the oceans. These include of industrialactivitiesinthe ocean are listedindustrial marine technology, equipment, man- bel.,w: power skilled in ocean operations, an ability to obtain critical natural resources needed during a Expanding population and a rising standard ofprolonged National emergency, and the capability living will consume natural resources at an acceler-to build and maintain an adequate merchant fleet. ating rate. Government and industry must have comprehensive knowledge of both renewable and V. GOVERNMENT AND INDUSTRY ROLES non-renewable resource inventories, both in the ocean and on land, to manage these resources The profit motive is and should continue to be effectively and help determine international tradea dominant factor guiding this Nation's marine policy. industries. With profit a primary objective, industry will have to develop the basic data, skills, and Maintenance of reasonably stable prices andindustrial organization necessary to utilize the sea. marketing arrangements requires an adequate level The purpose of the programs recommended by this panel is to advance the caPabilities of private business to develop ocean resources to a degree 4Bull's, H. R., Jr. and Dr. J. R. Thompson, "Harvest- allowing comparison with onshore techniques, ing the Ocean in the Decade Ahead," Ocean Industry, June 1968, p. 60. products, and services. With this capability, more sBureau of Outdoor Recreation. rational investment choices can be made between 6National Council on Marine Resources and Engineer- land and ocean resources. To that end government ing Development, "Marine Science AffairsA Year ofand industry must work closely together. Plans and Progress," Government Printing Office, Wash- ington, D.C., February 1968, p. 73. 7Other factors justifying the National interest in the A. Government Role ocean are reviewed in some detail in two other reports: "Effective Use of the Sea," repa:t of the Panel on The rate of marine industrial development will Oceanography, President's Science Advisory Committee, June 1966, pp. 1-3; Report of the Commission on Marine be the result of many factors that influence Science, Engineering and Resources. profitability: demand, availability of technology,

V-5 marine resources aswell as ensuring proper conser- capital, manpower, domesticand international competition, and availability ofalternative sourcesvation practices. of food and minerals ashore.Government policy isAid in the advance ofscience and basic technol- in marine marine envi- an additional andimportant factor ogy necessary tooperate within the truly effective unless development but cannot be ronment. supported by other determinants.Government international arrangements policy cannot create, forinstance, a thriving ocean Negotiate acceptable mining or fisheries industryin the absence of an to conduct marineindustrial activity. economically sound market situation. security is given proper Public policy sets the tone forindustrial prog-Assure that National consideration in oceandevelopment policies. ress. The Government,through its establishment and interpretation of thepolitical environment, climatefor industrial determines the ultimate B. Industry Role growth within its jurisdiction.This climate can be promotional or restrictive depending onthe priori- motive, industry is the Government Based on the profit tiesestablished. Many phases of instrument that gives economicvalue to ocean action can be used to promoteocean progress. At of new resource potentials Government has a responsibilityto:8 resources. Discovery a minimum, will be of no benefitwithout the capability to Development of an and objectives con-exploit them economically. Enunciate National policies efficient marine industry, onthe other hand, not cerning U.S. marine interests. only can make the richesof the seas accessible to Assist in planning foroptimum use of limitedthis Nation and to theworld, but also can assist public resources and adjudicationof conflictingU.S. economic developmentand help strengthen international trade. uses of the sea. this Nation's position in The traditional and properrole of industry is which will not dis- Adopt regulatory policies to: courage privateinvestment. and risk capital tocertain marineGenerate the ideas, methods, Provide specialincentives iequired for continued industrial progress. industries in their embryonicphase when in the National interest. Discover, delineate, develop,and market marine resources within theconstraints of proper conser- Undertake and improve thedescription and equitable solutions promul- environment and assessvation practices and prediction of the marine gated to solve multi-userproblems. possibilities of modifyingitforthe ultimate mutual benefit of all usersof the sea and coastalProvide capital equipmentand services funda- zones. mental to ocean operations. Initiate, support and encourageeducation andContribute to the supportof scientific research training programs to providecompetent manpowerand technologicaldevelopment. on all necessaiylevels for marine-related activities. Parpcipate in developmentof manpower for Provide for protecting life andproperty at sea. ocean operationsthrough in-house training pro- education and research withinthe Sponsor programs to obtainbasic informationgrams and aid to universities. for industry's delineationand development of

8 The Government role defined here is substantially in agreement with the role statedby the President's Srierice Advisory Committee, Panel onOc,.,anography, in "Effec- tive Use of the Sea," p. VIII,June 1966. 11 V-6 Chapter2 Present Status and Outlook for Marine Industries

I. PROFILE OF PRESENT INDUSTRIAL AC- Table 1 TIVITIES PRESENT STATUS OF DOMESTIC OCEAN INDUSTRIES The ocean industries are a heterogeneous group withamultitude of interests. In size, the activities Type Examples vary from a major petroleum company operating many largeoffshoreoil and gasfields to anExisting Industries independent fisherman earning less than $2,000 Mature, healthy, Continental sh, per year. and growing and gas Chapter 4 reviews inr(--Iter rail the staais Chemical extra :tion and peculiar problems of s ti :rIstriesengaged from sea vvate- inoce_n resource recovery use thesea. Mining of sand gravel, Ths; following table depictth.-laths of domes- sulfur tic ocean industriesintwcb ad categories Shrimp and tuna fishing existing and future. It lists or IN, tse that use the Surface marine -ecrea- ocean directly, as contra,teci vHth such support tion industries as diving or instrument manufacture. Early stage of Desalination Table 1 also takes into account that some seg- growth Bulk and container ments of an industry fall into different categories. transportation systems Thus, mining offshore sand, gravel, and oyster shells and associated termi- represents a mature segment of an ocean industry. nals On the other hand, offshore placer mining is a Aquaculture, fresh near-term, promising industry and sub-bottom water and estuarine mining (mining of deposits within the bedrock) is Underwater recreation not envisioned until much later. Mature, but static Most segments of fish- There are tremendous differences in present or declining ing and anticipated rates of growth of ocean indus- Merchant shipbuilding tries. Although all categories of ocean enterprise Merchant shipping share common problems, distinct differences exist (U.S.-flag vessels) in their operating requirements, investment, degree of competition, and relationship with Govern-Future Industries ment. Moreover, the needs of some industries such Near-term promis- Mining of placer min- as fishing, vary in nature and degree from segment ing (where near- erals to segment. term is up to 15 Oil and gas beyond the Government action to foster development of years) continental shelf specific industries must be flexible enough to take Long-range Sub-bottom mining this heterogeneity into account. Thus, certain (excluding sulfur) existing Federal policies and programs may need Aquaculture, open no more than minor adjustments for industries ocean that are mature and have a healthy growth rate; Deep water mining for example, little or no direct aid is needed to Power generation from boost oil and gas production on the Continental waves, currents, tides, Shelf. On the other hand, where a technology with and thermal differ- great potential has just begun to advance, such as ences desalination, the Government's assistance in research and development and participation in pro-positive action of afiscal, legal/regulatory, or totype construction might be decisive in maintain-technological character might be needed, as in the ing the industry's initial momentum. Occasionally,steadily deteriorating groundfish fishery in view of

V-7 the greatest the National interest in rehabilitating domesticventures offering the likelihood of he on shore fisheries. Finally, there are U.S. ContinentalShelfreturns on investment, whether they Howe 'r, industry's industries, such as hard mineral mining,that are ,)r at sea, at home or abroad. still in their infancy but whose economicpotential evaluation of the prospects of profit in we oceans and importance to the Nation justifiesremoval ofis influenced substantially by regulatory restraints, legal and regulatory obstacles and creationoflegal uncertainties, and the possibility thatthe special indirect incentives to attract initial explo- ,,vemrnent will sponsor a major ocean program. tion. ''-4e other hand, the element of exciteine,t in 'ria new industry maystimulate ent inrest be and the prospect of im- II. VALUE OF OCEAN ACTIVITY retur Many public and private studies have been 13.)tt the 'tensityof interest and re ,ed made to assess the overall scale of oceanbusiness, of in'.;tment in this field arc evide: ed f acquisitions and me:gers a: Jur- using a variety of techniques to describethe size of tumbc of these in o.en-oriented industries. Smalltn- the investment and the market. A survey a:- i a studies ievealed that no estimate is satisfactoryfor pankin theTeld with limited capital all purposes. Many are defective becauseof redun- proc et line Of service frequently find it dancies, oversights, and inaccuracies of component a:va neous :c merge with larger firms. In some figures; inconsistencies in methods ofcompilation; i1ist s the3.L-e, forced to terminate operations, and disagreement of essential definitions.Further, a typic L: of young industries. results have sometimes been oriented tosuch Te offshopetroleum servic,e industry is an conflicting objectives as showing the magnitude ofel-,Icellent example of the diversification trend. In market opportunity, supporting advertising ex-particular, the offshore drilling companies, origi- penditure, or showing the need for greater private nallycharacterized by wide-ranging cycles of investment or further Governmentexpenditures.business activity, are now large, established firms. While estimates have been as high as$50They have stabilized successfully their level of billion, the panel believes that the truevalue ofbusiness by diversifying into such areas as ocean ocean activity in terms ofcontribution to Grossengineering, exploration, diving, mining, construc- National Product is between $15 and$25 billion.tion, pipelaying, and even fish processing. As a all natural result, the Nation's largest drilling companies have This includes recovery and processing of during resources, the sea transportationindustry, themore than quadrupled their gross revenues marine recreation industry, Governmentexpendi-the last five years. tures, and net export of marine goods and services. Ocean industry, in general, is not looking for The panel commends the National Council onsubsidization, which in this report is defined as direct financial aid. Instead, industry is mking Marine Resources and EngineeringDevelopment various indirect means to minimize risk. Such for the progress in quantitatively describing many certain phases of areas of ocean activity. An urgentneed exists,means usually are peculiar to however, for more comprehensive statisticsthateach industry, and include definition of jurisdic- will further identify the areas ofredundancy,tional boundaries, environmental prediction, fiscal improve comparability, and take into accounttheincentives such as accelerated depreciation, ocean surveys, and such Government contractingpolicies statisticsreflecting suchfactors as investment, sales, and contribution to GNP. The Government, as cost plus fixed fee. working with industry, should develop amethod For example, the mining industry has identified to compile the data necessary tothe periodicthe need for reconnaissance surveys to guide publication of the required statistics. further delineation of deposits; a petroleum operator would like longer-range scheduling of offshore ATTITUDES TOWARD OCEAN leasesales; and a fisherman would sometimes III. INDUSTRY desire the opportunity to use foreign-built vessels. INVESTMENTS 7_12- fewe-f the uncertainties and the less reetrictive Because the United States has a free enterpris re reguhtion, the sooner capital andtec:inology system, capital and -effort aredirected towar: w be,_mailable for new ocean opporlunities.

V-8 IV. CAPITAL SOURCES AND REQUIREMENTShelp meet its special capital needs is provided in the fishing section of the ocean industry chapter Many ocean industries in areas of advancedof this report (Chapter 4). technology are so new that they are not fully During t'- few years, several large aero- understood. Investors ?re concerned with suchspace firms (h as Lockheed, North American- factors as obsolescence in a technology develop-Rockwell, Geral Dynamics, and Grumman) and ing at an accelerating rate. Nevertheless, manyother large c ipanies, (suchas Westinghouse, concepts of profitably using the ocean are sound,General Ele, Alcoa, Reynolds Metals, and and the investment community has been intriguedUnion Carbide))ave invested millions in ocean greatly by ocean endeavors. This enthusiasm hasventures. They -ravetended to emphasize the beenindicated by considerablepublicity andheavy hardware -lid systems approach required for advertisinginthe popular press and businessspecial ocean wcrk. Several of the Nation's largest journals, the creation of two ocean mutual fundsshipyards now arecontrolled by aerospace or inthelastyear, and numerous symposia andconglomerate firms intent upon instituting new publications sponsored by brokerage houses. and more efficient shipyard parctices. In general, capital has not been lacking to Risk capitalinthe hands of entrepreneurs finance current industrial ocean projects, despitefmances a variety of ocean ventures. It is very high economic risks. Further, it is anticipated thatdifficult to estimate the actual investment from capital will remain available for projects judged by thissource. However, the reservoir of venture the investment community as having profit poten-capital potentially available for raw investment tial. opportunities, both land and ocean oriented, has Capital for ocean projects is derived from manybeen estimated at $3 billion.2 The availability of sources. The petroleum industry has in generalso much risk capital is a very important character- been able to generate and/or obtain finids readilyistic of the Nation's ability to enter new iields and to meet its very substantial capital requirementsdevelop new technology. In summary, the panel for bonus bids, new technology, exploration, andfinds that capital usually has been and is expected drilling. A substantial portion is raised from the to be available to finance industrial ocean projects public based on an individual firm's credit, a factorwith profit potential. constituting one of the great strengths in offshore In view of the National interest in the ocean, growth. To date, about $18 billion has beenand lack in most cases of a need for direct invested world-wide by the offshore petroleumGovernment financial aid, the panel feels that industry, about $13 billion by U.S. firms.' It isindirectincentives through establishment of a expected that by 1980 the world-wide cumulativefavorable business climate are essential. investment will reach $55 billion. A large portion of this will have to be raised through borrowing or public subscription. Capital for expansion and modernization of theRecommendation: U.S. fishing fleet has been far less plentiful due inGovernment policy should be to develop and large part to high economic risks and legal re-maintain a business climate encouraging ocean- straints. In addition, many fishing vessels arerelated investments. Special indirect incentives, owned by small entrepreneurs having only limitedrather than direct fmancial aid, are advised when a access to capital markets. A detailed analysisofwell defined national interest exists and the private this industry's situation and recommendations tosector's response is inadequate.

Richard J. Howe, "Petroleum Operations in the 2Panel on Invention and Innovation, "Technological Sea-1980 and Beyond," Ocean Industry, August 1968, p.Innovation:Its Environment and Management," U.S. 30. Department of Commerce, 1967, p. 42.

V-9 Deve!Dpment of Marine Resources Chapter 3Policies To Accelerate Industrial

This information will provide thefoundation I. GOVERNMENT SPONSOREDRESEARCH for more detailed exploratory workby industr AND DEVELOF .4iENT and a fir Optimum u_ilization of ocean resourceswill Derailed exploration will be expensive, extensive initia: require a very ,_,Ibstantial increasein knowledge ofengaging in the work will require survey data to recuce costsand risks. Furthe ocean characteristics anddevelopment of new technology. The propriety of Governmentassist-reconnaissance surveys are expected to uncover opportunities.' ance to scientific andtechnical advancement com-host of new industr:_al and industrial Precedent for thi,; work has been set byonshore' mensurate with the National interest become end. is well established and widelyaccepted.mapping. Survey programs must not needs objective: Furthermore, this means of acceleratingindustry'sin themselves but should support many marine effort is cost-effective,impartial, and can including those of industry. be terminated as objectives areattained. B. Programs in Multipurpose Technology A. Survey Programs Technological innovations that reduce an ocean Far more information and greaterresearchoperation's cost will improve profit outlooks and efforts are necessary if potential ocean uses aretoaccelerate marine resource development.Conse- stimulate the effort they merit. Forexample,quently, a basic technology programoriented programs are needed to generatesurvey data ontoward reducing costs relevant to a widevariety of the timetable for livingresources,reconnaissance-scalegeologicaluser interests will compress features, and environmental characteristics. Attheutilization of the seas' resources. same time resP-ich activitiesmust be undertaken The Panel on Marine Engineering andTechnol- to advance the ability tointerpret these data;ogy states that a 10-year programof intensive interest without this ability the survey programscould notundersea development is in the National immediately, em- be effective. and recommends that 3t begin Experience has demonstrated that suchresearchphasizing fundamental, multipurposetechnology. is andsurvey activity can stimulatedevelopment of Government sponsorship of such a program technical capabilities, make existingoperationsappropriate if the effort concentrates onsuch more efficient, and accelerateinnovation. basic and widely applicable areas asdevelopment The panel has found that industrytoday willof data on materials performance,concepts for readily use additional bathymetric andgeophysicalsimple tools,andhyperbaric physiology. In most surveys and geological analysisof the Continentalinstances, large-scale projects thatbenefit only a Shelf, slope, and rise. This is of particularimpor-specific industry more properly shouldbe carried tance to the mining industry,but also would beout by that industsy. The processof selecting helpful to the petroleum industry,particularly in specific projects must take into accountneeds of deeper waters and in remote areaswhere eventhe Government, scientific community,and indus- general geological characteristics remainunknown.try, and must avoid competitionwith private These surveys should be reconnaissancein nature;industry, detailed exploratory surveys shouldbe conducted Recommendation: by industry. The Federal Govenment shouldinitiate itthe Recommendation: near future a program to assuredevelopme.It of Bathymetric base maps overlaid withgeophysical will enhance prepared to abasic multipurpose technology that and geological information should be the capability of a broad spectrumof users to shelves, scale of 1:250,000 for the continental perform useful work on and in the oceans. slopes, and rises of the United Stateswithin 15 to 20 years. Selection of areas tobe surveyed should be based on priorities that takeinto account user 1Additional discussion of survey needs is found in the Report of the Marine Resources Panel. needs.

V-10 15 r Nature and Extent of Government Sponsorship One function of Government ,moting of Selected objectives wherever possible should be technology should be to enhanc firms to react to new teclinc-ogy arly stage. undertaken by the private sector under contract. cos, lereby, this This will permit private industry as well as theAside fromAwing publi,_ ability increas'es the varietyf effo . and ensures Government to be familiar with the objectives, that econom, _ considerations :-.re inIducA early characteristics, problems, and opportunities thatin the appraisal and develo3 72nt new tech- become apparent during planning and implementa- nology. tion. Under these circumstances, we can expect Since circumstances will eiffer 1'ject by .:.)ro- that industry will aggressively seek commercial ject, the Government's arrangeme' for ind ;try application of new technology. participation should continue to be 1, flex ble, Experience over the last 20 years clearly dem- consistent withthe premi ctt G werrmient onstrates the very great advantages that follow should seek maximum utilization of?rivate capa- from the participation of numerous organizations bilities. In some circumstances, join:participation in the pursuit of technological objectives. The usein a development project, includi g sharing of of contractors in research and development pro- lustry has jects demonstrates its advantages both for thecosts, would be appropriate. WheI acquired the capabilities to pursue arbctive, the Government and private organizations. For ex- Government should withdraw. ample, the success of civil aviation followed in Ind control Government's reliance on Withdrawal of Government supp very large measure from at the earliest time that private fin assmne private firms to develop military aircraft. Tne prol7 ability private firms were able to draw upon this experi-responsibility will greatly increase t that innovations will be carried in-Lo the market ence to design civilian aircraft. A similar processis place. Industrial groups are usually eager to assume applying nuclear energy to civilian use. complete sponsorship of technical projects as soon Another example of sponsored research and outweighs remaining development is the extensive investigation by theas the probability of success risk and a reasonable return on investment can be Office of Saline Water of methods to recover fresh water from the sea. The program is conductedexpected. largely through contracts with industry, causingRecommendation: wide diffusion of knowledge and experience andWhen Government research and development pro- stimulating private efforts- grams are required in the National interest,they Business firms in oceanographic industries, as inshould be planned and administered to permit others, differ enormously in their relationship toprivate industry to assume responsibility for fur- new technology. There are a few firms whosether technology development at the earliest possi- business is primarily that to perform research andble stage. development and hence to generate new technology. A larger but stillsmall group of firmsD. Technology Transfer undertakes to develop new technology only in A recent Congressional report defined technol- order to support their principal activities. Theseogy transfer as follows: 3 two groups constitute the Nation's R&D industry. Most firms are receptive to new technology emerg-Technology transfer !s the process of matching ing from outside of their own organizationssolutions inthe form of existing science and though the receptivity differs widely. Many firmsengineering knowledge to problems in commerce lack the competence, capital, or interest to reactor public programs. ...The Federal Government to new technology except in immediately usable"controls" (sponsors, directs, is responsible for) a form and are dependent upon others for whateverlarge reservoir of technology ranging from research changes occur. The conceptual problems and theresults,to practical techniques and devices, to absence of data make exact analysis impossible.2patents. 2Amore complete discussiort or this subject is found 3Areport of the Subcommittee on Science and in "Basic Research, Applied Research, and DevelopmentTechnology to the Select Committe:, on Small Business, in Industry, 1965," The National Science Foundation, U.S. Senate, "Policy Planning for T ..-hnology Transfer," 1967. April 6, 1967, p. 1.

333-091 0-69--2 16 Accurate information available on atime13, transfer the new knowledge to potential users. Person-to-person contact is an extremelyeffective basisisessential toall users whether industry, method of transfer, although slow andexpensive. Government,oruniversityoriented.Despite markcd progress by all concerned in the pastfew Considerable know-how gained in technology years, problems of adequatedissemination havedevelopment lies in a grey area betweenscientific grown faster than generallyrecognized. information and natentable inventions.5If this Another report summarizing a detailed study ofexistsin industry because of Government con- technology transfer conducted for theNationaltracts, transference already has beenaccomplished Commission on Technology, Automation andto at least one user, and themarketplace; will Economic Progress stated:4 provide further transfer more effectively thanif the information were held within theGovernment. Devising means of channeling new technologiesin As an example, the Atomic EnergyCommission promising directionsand bringing about theutili-provided financial assistance to develop new tech- zation of new technology for significant purposesnology directly related to civilian use of nuclear other than thc immediate use for which it wasenergy. But knowledge of nuclear energyacquired developedhas become an activity ranking amongby private firms as contractual performersof the most intellectually challenging of our time. ... Government projects made possible therapid The transfer and utilization of new technologytransfer of this technology to civ"ian applications. offer immense opportunity to the Nation. There is widespread agreement among those who haveRecommendation: studied the issue that the knowledge resultingPerson-to-person contacts should be encouraged from the public investment in R. & D. constitutesbetween groups working in relatedtechnological a major,rapidlyincreasing, and insufficientlyfields. Such contacts could be achievedthrough exploited national re..3ource. Its effective use cahcontract programs, special informationexchange increase the rate of economic growth, create newprograms, and reciprocal arrangementsbetween employment opportunities, help offset imbalancesindustry, government, and the academic commu- between regions and industries, aid the interna-nity whereby their scientists and engineerswould tional competitive position of U.S. industry, en-be exchanged. hance our national prestige, improve the quality of life, and assist significantly in filling unmet human Patents constitute another important form of and community needs. It is recommended thattechnology transfer. The panel notes that the more effective use of this technology resourcepatent policies of all agencies of theFederal become a national goal established at the highestGovernment have been under review, thatthe levels. Presidential memorandum of Oct. 10, 1963, was intended as a general Government policy state- The panel endorses the findings and recommen-ment, and a major review of such policy wasto be dation quoted above. published in late 1968.6 The panel further recognizes the subject's complexity and notesthat Recommendation: many procedures of the variousagencies constitute Budgets of marine-related Federal agencies shouldserious inhibitions to the effective participationof be augmented in order to ensure proper documen-private enterprise in advancing new technology. tation as well as satisfactory dissemination of data An intense controversy exists over the policy of and technology. some agencies of the Government regardingrights in patents evolving from work supported partially While it is important that new technology be documented and disseminated, publication of the 5 Senate Select Committee on Small Business, April 6, information is not always sufficient toeffectively 1967, op. cit., p. 1. 6Harbridge House, Inc., "Government Patent Policy Study, Final Report," Volumes I-Ill, Federal Council for 4 Richard Lesher and George Howick, "Assessing Science and Technology, Committee on Government Technology Transfer," National Aeronautics and SpacePatent Policy, Government Printing Office, Washington, Administration, 1966, p. 5. D.C., 1968.

V-12 or fully through Federal grants and contracts. Themajor reason for this is that it is frequently found magnitude of the problem is such that it cannot be in reports associated with classified subjects. In ignored. Federal R&D expenditures now exceedaddition,ithas been stated in Congressional $16 billiona year. For the past decade, thetestimony that an important Larrier in information Government has provided by grant or contract releasearises from adiverse interpretation of more than one-half the R&D money spent inmilitary security regulations.7 Classified reports industry, thus tending to stimulate invention. frequently containimportant contributions to However, the basic principle of some agenciesmarine technology and should be reviewed periodi- of the Government is that titles to patents on callytoidentifythose portions that can be innovations arising from use of public moniesreleased for public use. The panel recognizes that should be assigned to the Government and thethe Department of Defense is making a concerted information contained therein made available toeffort to make available results of military research the public without payment of royalty where and development. consistent with National security. On the other An important function to be performed within hand, industry, university, and other private inter-the Commission's Governmental organizational ests contend that this policy tends to impairplanis developing cool- aative arrangements intechnology transfer and reduce innovaticn, as itvolving DOD and thecivil marine agencies to deprives the inventor of initiative and discouragesassure that all Government data are made available investment capital. to the private sector at the earliest possible time The paradox is that the Government at one andconsistent with National security. Special atten- the same time stimulates invention through its vasttion should be given to the criteria with which R&D expenditures, yet it apparently impedes itsDOD assigns classification to ocean-related data as spread into commerce through certain of its patentwell as to employment of the "need to know" policies. A new equitable patent policy is neededrequirement for certain classified and unclassified urgently to renew the stimulation of inventivenessmaterial. The Atomic Energy Commission Advi- while protecting the taxpayers' interests. sory Committee on Non-Nuclear Technology has Withholding scientific and technical data fromperformed an important service in this area. The the public because of security classification, orpanel believes that this service should be extended because of restrictions under the Mutual Securityto the oceanographic field. and Export Control Acts, is another source ofRecommendation: difficulty. The panel commends the work of theThe Department of Defense and civil marine Senate Small Business Committee in calling atten-agencies should be directed to review and modify tion to the practical difficulties encountered bytheir procedures to ensure that the private sector industry in obtaining Government-generated scien-has timely access to all classified and unclassified tific and technical information. The overall prob-Govermnent data as soon as possible consistent lem is serious, and applies to all Federal agencies,with security considerations. Particular attention although the Navy is of prime iniportance withshould be devoted to the information exchan ge respect to marine technology since the largestproblems of mnall business. percentage has been developed under Navy spon- An advisory committee should be charged with sorship. The Oceanographer of the Navy has estimatedperiodic review of the effectiveness with which all Govermnent marine agencies are able to identify that more than 90 per cent of the Navy-developed and disseminate information to potential users. raw oceanographic scientific information is unclassified and therefore should be made available to the public. Nevertheless, as indicated earlier, there II. SUPPORTING SERVICES are insufficient funds to disseminate such informa- The Federal Government provides many serv- ...ion except for standard charts and publicationsices directly and indirectly affecting ocean indus- '..ntendedfor the maritime indushy. A much greater percentage of oceanographic technological 1Senate Select Committee on Small Business, April 6, information is not available to the public. One1967, op. cit., p. 27.

V-13 allows exploita- services depth of the superjacent waters tries. Other than the resource management under the by many Govern-tion, the seabed and its resources are and scientific research provided Although ment agencies, several additional areasare ex-jurisdiction of the Federal Government. submerged lands beyond 200 meters indepth have tremely important to industrial oceanoperations. chartingbeen leased to private industryby the Govern- These include weather forecasting and officially claimed work of thement, the United States has not operations of ESSA, geological survey the seabed of navi-jurisdiction over natural resources in Department of the Interior, maintenance line.U.S. gable waterways by the Corpsof Engineers, andand subsoil beyond the 200 meter jurisdiction over fisheries extends out to12 miles. navigational aids and life and propertyprotection services of the Coast Guard. The Navyalso providesA. Definition of State Boundariesand Baselines important services in salvage,environmental pre- The boundaries dividing seabed areasof Fed- diction, and mapping and charting.The Nationaleral, State, and local jurisdiction;those dividing Oceanographic Data Center provides thefunctionprivately-owned areas from the publicdomain; and of soliciting and disseminatingthose marine datathose dividing the area appertainingto the United capable of being machine processed. States and the ocean bedsfalling beyond U.S. services are Although the many Government jurisdictionarebeset with ambiguities. These not discussed in detail inthis report, they areuncertainties already are troublesomefor business considered important. Indeed, thepanel findsoperations and appear certain to grow moresevere. Government support services assist a greatvariety The problems are complex andvaried. In many of ocean operations and often arecritical to thelocations the definition of theshoreline itself is success of industry efforts. unclear duetothecharacter of theterrain; Some specific recommendationsaffecting pres-marshlands, floatingislands,tidaleffects, and ent and future needs for theseservices are found inmigrating sand barsallcomplicate boundary prob- other sections of this report.Supporting serviceslems. Many instances arerecorded of private are discussed in moredetail in the report of theproperty washed aw. y orsubmerged by storms, full Commission. In general, it isessential thatwhere resulting doubts abouttitle must be re- support services provided by theFederal and Statesolved in court.Inother cases, the uncertainty of governments for a variety of oceanoperations beshoreline location and the mannerin which base- continued and increased wherever growingactivitylines should be drawn across baysand between warrants. The effectiveness ofthese services can be islands creates an ambiguity in locatingthe bound- increasedbyimproved coordination and in someary between State andFederal jurisdiction. cases consolidation of effortand facilities. A second major source ofuncertainty is the the III. JURISDICTION AND LEASINGPOLICIES historicalclaim for States' rights beyond three-mile limit.Jurisdiction of three leagues Government and industry interests are inti- has been public(more than nine miles) from shore mately involved in the terms under which recognized by the Federal Governmentfor Texas lands are assigned for private use. and the Gulf of Mexico shorelineof Florida.Inthe Almost all ocean mineral resources arelocated case of Florida, the lackof a definitive boundary on public lands. The seabedand its resources fall Coasts at the south- along thebetween the Atlantic and Gulf within the sovereignty of the States further complicates the issue. miles except in twoern end of Florida coast out a distance of three Maine, citing a pre-Revolutionary Warcharter as States.8 Most of these lands have been retained dis- instancesjustification, recently claimed jurisdiction as under State ownership but in some has sold oil development rights have been ceded tocounties,tant as 200 miles from its coast and and natural gas exploration rights withinthis zone, townships, and private individuals. Federal Government is ex- Beyond the ..one of State jurisdiction and outan action which the 100 meters or beyond to where the pected to challenge. to a der!: A myriaof local arrangements to develop shellfish, has aOff Texas and the Gulf Coast ofFlorida the distance nearshore ,ources, particularly is three leagues (about nine miles). Itshould be noted that caused furrier confusion. Among theStates there the boundary is not always precise dueto a lack of regarding agreement as to the coastal base line. is a great variety of legal conventions

V.14 19 ownership of shoreline properties and rights withinnations, many problems arise, other than area the tidal zone. There is confusion regarding theaccess, that affect U.S. companies. A company seaward extensions of the boundaries betweenmining,forinstance, off the coast of South States. A clear agreement between Federal andAmerica in an area of disputed jurisdiction will not State governments as to responsibility for man-only find that it must pay U.S. import duties, but aging and developing fisheries within the three-to-thatit may not be allowed an investment tax twelve mile zone also is lacking. credit or _edit fortaxes paid to the nation Theunsatisfactorystatusof theNation'sclaiming jurisdiction. International agreement on marine boundaries and the Federal Government'snational jurisdictions will eliminate uncertainty responsibility to take the lead in its clarificationand permit U.S. companies operating in such areas has long been recognized. The problem can beto take advantage of many fiscal incentives nor- deferred no longer. A waiting policy operates onlymally available to domestic companies. to discourage private investment and to complicate Companies considering offshore oil and mining resolution of claims in areas where investmentsventures will be reluctant, and in some eases have been staked. restrained, from making sizeable investments un- The panel endorses the recommendation forless the Continental Shelf's limits are precisely solving marine boundary problems proposed in thedefined and a new international legal-political Panel Report on the Coastal Zone. It recommendsframework is agreed upon to govern exploration formation of a National Commission to create newand exploitation beyond these limits. Until this is criteria for fixing shore boundaries, establish theseaccomplished, the United States should encourage limits for each coastal State, and negotiate withcontinued exploration and exploitation beyond Federal and State interests regarding the limits.the 200 meter isobath. The intent is to establish fixed boundaries for domestic purposes only, breaking from traditionalRecommendation: reliance upon the principles of common law. The U.S. Government should take the initiative in proposing a new international framework for Recommendation: exploiting ocean mineral resources to: A National commission should be established Defme clearly the limits of National jurisdic- immediately to clarify the marine jurisdictionaltions. limits of the U.S. coastal States. Govern operations beyond these limits. B.Definition of National Jurisdiction C. Exploration and Lease Terms The legal problems presently hindering orderly industrial ocean development arise primarily from Oil,gas,and sulfurarethe only mineral State and Federal laws and regulations. However,resources being recovered from the outer Conti- this concern with laws affecting activities withinnentalShelf under Federal jurisdiction. Phos- National boundaries also includes clarification ofphates, gravels, sand, shells, and certain placers are the National boundaries and the internationalbeing taken from inshore waters under State aspects of exploiting resources beyond them. Thisjurisdiction. Petroleum exploration and drilling subject is discussed in greater detail in the Reportconducted in both Federal and State regimes of the Commission's International Panel. clearly dominate these activities. As an example of the difficLIties encountered, The terms under which mineral rights in outer two companies have acquired from two differentContinental Shelf lands may be assigned to private nations the oil rights of the same section of seadevelopers are specified in the 1953 Outer Conti- floor off the Grand Banks. Canada believes it hasnental Shelf Lands Act.9 jurisdiction over the mineral wealth of the Banks, The Act requires that rights to minerals be but France, which owns the islands of St. Pierresubject to competitive bidding. This system has and Miquelon, also claims a portion. Because the United States has not officially 9This subject has been under extensive review for recognized the jurisdictional boundaries of somesome time by the Public Land Law Review Commission.

20 V-15 workedeffectively fx theoilindustry.But the present legal and regulatory framework does the mining industry believes strongly that con-not encourage individuals and small companies sidering the risks and very high costs associatedwith innovative ideas to develop such real estate. with exploration and proving hard mineral re-Where procedures exist, they generally are limited serves, the potential profits are not now suffi-to oil, gas, and mineral rights and require payment ciently attractive to support competitive bidding. of sizeable legal fees and bonuses. The problem is presented in detail in the Ocean The person or company having an innovative Mining section of Chapter 4 in this report and inidea often is unable to devote the time and money the report of the Marine Resources Panel. At a to obtain exclusive ocean rights. Initially, projects minimum, development of outer Continental Shelfusually are high risk, and uncertainty in obtaining hard mineral resources will require amendment offavorable leases often compounds the economic the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act to take into risk, making the expected value of the return too accountdifferencesbetweenpetroleumand low to justify the capital investment. mining operations. The State governments should seek to devise "seasteading"arrangementssimple,attractive Recommendation: leasing procedures specifically for the innovative The Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act should beuse of theseafloor and water column. Great benefits are to be gained by encouraging entrepre- amended to give the Secretary of the Interiorneurial investment. For example, the States should additional flexibility in assigning rights for mineralponder the increase in tourism likely to spring development. from such underwater attractions as parks, hotels, and restaurants. In addition, aquacultural projects There also are barriers to assigning rights in for shellfish and fin fish could be quite profitable areas within State jurisdictions. For economic and and a source of tax revenue. technologicalreasons,sea bottom mining can The procedure most attractive to both govern- generally be expected to begin in the shallowerment and the entrepreneur probably will be a waters, which are usually in State rather thanlong-term, renewabk lease conditioned upon use- Federal jurisdictions. Because of little actual ocean ful development. The lessee should be allotted mining, State laws generally do not provide for it,sufficient time to make a profit on his investment. although several along the coast now have correc- The seasteading approach also is fully consist- tive laws under consideration. This situation makesent with the need for the orderly, rationaldevelop- it very difficult for a company to evaluate ament of marine areas. Leases can be carefully potential mining venture, becausethe leasing and total costs cannot bedrafted so that each seasteader's operations will procedures,rights, mesh with the desired pattern for overall develop- determined readily. ment. Moreover,ifdecided that a particular seastead subsequently is more suitable for another Recommendation: use, perhaps petroleum or hard mineraldevelop- The States should enact procedures that willment, the specific termination date of a lease encourage hard mineral exploration and exploita-enables a change at a time anticipated by the tion on their submerged lands. seasteade r. The leases should be established so as not to Several guidelines for such procedures are dis-conflict with the more complex procedures al- cussed in the Ocean Mining section of Chapter 4.ready used to allocate sectors of the ocean bottom forpetroleumexplorationand development. Indeed, petroleum and other mineral rights should D. SEASTEADING be expressly excluded from the leases. The panel believes that entrepreneurs' acquisi- In addition to many difficulties not yet fore- tion of rights to submarine areas would stimulateseen, interference with such uses as navigation and many facets of ocean development.There arefishing would pose special problems for seastead- countless ways an imaginative entrepreneur coulding. An obvious way to avoid conflict with other develop the seabed and water column. However,uses would be to select locations where such

V-16 21 activityislight. The same purpose could behad difficulty obtaining adequate insurance cover- achieved by limiting development projects toage. Many aspects of the problem are being solved certain parts of the water column. by underwriters, but several remain, impeding prog:ess. Two unsolved areas are discussed below. Recommendation: To encourage innovative uses of the ocean otherA. Offshore Installations than petroleum and hard mineral development, At one time, U.S. insurance companies insured State governments should initiate exprimentalsuch offshore items as rigs, platforms, pipelines programs for leasing submarine areas C'seastead-and small submersibles. However, business became ing") within U.S. territorial waters, contingent onso unprofitable to the few companies in the field useful development of the property. Such pro-that U.S. underwriters vacated the market and left grams should be a part of a plan for the orderly,Lloyds of London as the sole insurer. Now the rational development of offshore regions. gross annual premiums on offshore installations have climbed to an estimated $80 million and U.S. Although the panel recommends seasteadingcompanies are showing signs of renewed interest. only within territorial waters, such a concept willFor instance, several participate in reinsurance have increasing merit in waters farther offshore asthrough Lloyds, while at least one U.S. company ocean activities expand in new uses of the sea. Justrecently has written a direct policy in this area. as in the territorial waters, seasteading will be a In 1968, several underwriters attempted to means of providing investment protection to inno-form a syndicate to cover this phase 'of offshore vative users from multiple use conflicts. Therefore,industry but the proposal had not been effected at the Government should consider the advantages ofthe time of writing this report due to considera- specialleasing arrangements beyond territorial tions of profitability and possible anti-trust implica- waters. tions. The panel encourages the efforts of tl:e insurance companies to pool their resources to IV. JOINT VENTURES undertake the high offshore risks. In time, various factors will improve the insurability of offshore Joint ventures probably will allow many ocean installations, including: ventures not otherwise possible considering investment size and high risk involved. Companies mustImproved actuarial statistics. be alert to such opportunities as: A lower rate of damage and loss due to improved Collaboration in research and development oftechnology. ship design arid shipbuilding methods, as practiced A broader insurance base resulting from acceler- in competitive countries, may be fruitful. ating offshore investments. Consortia for ocean mineral exploration and Until the insurance companies fmd the business development may prove necessary in certain casesmore profitable, it appears that the companies to attract sufficient risk capital. operating offshorewill continue to pay high premiums or in some cases resort to local pooling Joint ventures in expensive deep ocean research or self insurance arrangements. may shortentheperiod necessarytocollect essential data in many fields. B. Personal Injury to Workers Offshore Insurance pools covering offshore equipment and The panel finds the insurance cost for personal allowimprovedcoveragefor structures may injury in the offshore areas extremely high and for marine operations. some small companies prohibitive. A major reason for this is that by law many offshore workers may V. INSURANCE choose between compensation and litigation when From large petroleum companies to small sup-seeking recovery for injury; thus the underwriters ply and diving businesses, offshore operators havehave no sound basis to evaluate premium ratings.

v-17 At present, insurance companies cannot predictturn, the plans of industry have a critical c ;ect on whether litigation or compensation procedures willmeeting National objectives. Clearly ocean devel- be followed in each case of accidental injury to anopment must be a total National enterprise in offshore worker. Litigation awards are determinedwhich government, industry and the academic by juries and are often extremely high; yet, thecommunity plan and work together on a contin- injured worker may receive a substantially reduced uing and effective basis. amount of recovery, perhaps nothing at all,if he is The consequences of uncoordinated action are proved negligent. Recovery under compensationeasy to foresee. For example,installations located law;, on the other hand, is automatic, but the in areas of doubtful sovereignty might be rendered amounts fixed by compensation schedules for theworthless should international agreements change; various kinds and degrees of injuries are generallyexpensive port developments might be circum- much lower than litigation awards. vented by new modes of transportation; invest- The dilemma relates to the coverage of thement in recreation facilities might be jeopardized Federal Longshoremen's and Harbor Workers' by changes in the environment. Act, which sets rates of compensation for injuries Yet the difficulty of achieving effective collab- occurring upon navigable waters to maritime em-oration in development planning should not be ployees other than seamen. The Act provides anunderestimated. Oceanic activities inherently in- administrative procedure to eliminate the need forvolve great risk. No one can forecast accurately the redress through litigation in this specific area. rate of technological development nor die manner However, it has not been modernized i o accountin which international law will develop. There are for such equipment as manned submersibles andadditional uncertainties which constrain partici- mobile drilling rigs. Thus, employees on mobilepants from commitments necessary to an effec- equipment at sea are able to seek recovery eithertive plan. The Government, for instance, inhibited through compensation under the Longshoremen'sby political circumstances from committing funds Act or by litigation on the theory that they areto multiyear projects, usually stipulates that its "seamen." plansarecontingent upon theavailability of When a claimant has such a choice, he can electappropriations. Many industries, then, hedge their the method that maximizes his recovery. Thus theplans to protect themselves against changes in probable claim liability is higher, resulting in largercosts and markets. premium costs to 1hoffshore operator. If only one means of recovery were available,the claimA. Consolidation of Federal Functions liability would be reduced. Consequently, the panel recommends enactment of legislation to The Panel finds there is no single focus within be used tothe Government for fostering industrial develop- ensure that only one method can ment of ocean resources. Many Federal agencies determine claim liability. Since it is simpler, less have responsibilities in the ocean, but to date no time-consuming, and establishes greatei certainty strongfocus and in some instances no clear in predicting liability, the compensation proceduredelineation of responsibility has occurred. Consoli- is preferable to litigation. dating some existing functions would have many Recommendation: beneficial effects. Planning and implementation functions have in In order to reduce insurance costs, the Longshore-the past been less than optimum due to the variety men's and Harbor Workers' Compensation Actof interests and the fragmented responsibility for should be amended so it will be the exclusiveocean endeavors. Improvement is needed in re- method to determine clahn liability for injuries tosearch planning, budgeting, and administration of offshore workers. funds. A means forbettercoordination and directionisimperativeas ocean development VI. COLLABORATIONIN DEVELOPMENTaccelerates and conflicts of use multiply. This PLANNING could best be achieved if a number of Government In today's economy, industry finds its opera-functions were consolidated. Industry is not only tions affected crucially by Government actions. Inperplexed with the number of agencies that must

V-18 2 3 be satisfied in conducting marine-oriented opera-13. Government-Industry Planning Mechanism tions, but is seriously impeded in its own planning and The Federal Government, industry, the States, process when, as often happens, uncertainty and the academic community can make better conflict arise in the plans of various agencies. This is particularly true for service oriented Govern-decisions if fully aware of each other's plans and activities.Bettercommunication between the ment agencies. public and privatesectors would help ensure Many agencies that influence ocean operationsorderly development of a National marine pro- do so by providing such services as weathergram. With the diverse nature of private oceanic forecasting, charting, and collection of a variety ofendeavors and the size of private spending, it is oceanographic data. Itis believed that uninten-essential that effective liaison be established be- tional duplication could be minimized drid supe-tween Federaladministrators and the private rior service could be provided for industry if somesector. The Government's need for information of these functions were consolidated. Not onlyand advice from industry, States and regions, and could priorities be better determined, but greaterthe academic community is becoming increasingly efficiency could be achieved in the use of man-essential as development of ocean resources accel- power and facilities, improving assistance toindus-erates with an accompanying increase in multiple try without increasing expenditures. use conflicts. Numerous civilian agencies with ocean interests Marine operations are replete with examples splinter non-military research and development.where joint planning is needed or must be im- Failure to clearly assign responsibility for oceanproved: work often results in program oversights in important areas or frequently contributes to unnecessaryThe National Projects proposed in the Report of duptcation. The fragmentation of effort and lackthe Marine Engineering and Technology Panel will of effective coordination and planning often resultrequire especially close collaboration in planning, in priority and funding assignments at the projectas much of the multipurpose technology devel- level that are inappropriate to the total Nationaloped will be of value to industry. program. A far better base for conducting research and developing multipurpose technology wouldConsultation is important in development and result from consolidation of some functions ofmarketing of products and processes. Items being existing agencies. developed under Government sponsorship should not be competitive with those produced solely Consolidation of some Government functionsthrough the private sector. would provide greater visibility for ocean development, giving a great impetus to industrial develop-More effective Government and industry consul- ment in the marine environment. A unified grouptation is needed in projecting schedules for leasing can serve effectively as an information distributionoffshore lands. center. Private organizations wishing to obtain or exchangedataor information and to submitThe need to plan coastal zone use and resolve unsolicited proposals could make fewer contacts.conflicts presents an especially important chal- A focus within the Government would provide onelengeto Government and industry. The Panel strong voice rather than many uncoordinated smallReport on Management and Development of the voices.It would be extremely valuable to theCoastal Zone has recommended the establishment President, the Congress, all the Federal agencies,of coastal zone authorities on the State and local and the entire Nation. government levels.10 The role of these authorities would include Recommendation: planning for multiple use of coastal and lakeshore Many marine functions of existing agencies andwaters and lands and resolving conflicts of mul- bureaus should, wherever possible, be consolidated to improve the effectiveness of the Government's 10Panel Report on Management and Development of participation in a National marine progyam. the Coastal Zone, Chapter 10.

v-19 statutorily created. This Industry and Privatecommunity should be tipleuse. The Panel on committee would participatein the establishment Investment concurs in thisrecommendation. These and objectives and authorities would solve routine casesof userof National marine goals provide continuing guidance tothe Federal Gov- conflict, leaving only problemsof National scope to be resolved throughFederal executive, legisla-ernment. tive, or judicial procedures. Additional details concerningthe nature and advisory committee Recommendation: proposed functions of such an composed of representa-are given in theReport of the Marine Engineering An advisory committee and Technology Panel and areendorsed by this tives appointed by thePresident from private industry, States and regions,and the academicpanel.

V-20 25 Chapter 4Ocean Industries

I. INTRODUCTION approximate value of chemicals extracted from the water column adjacent to the United States is The panel has placed major emphasis on re-estimated at $127 million.' source industries (oil, natural gas, mining, fishing, and aquaculture), recognizing, however, that such B.Seaweeds other users of the ocean as the recreation and transportation industries also are immensely im- Domestic harvesting of vat-1,ms seaweeds portant. Sea transportation is discussed in thisextraction of many derivatives has evolved into a chapter in general terms. A detailed discussion ofbusiness with annual activity estimated by the recreation is found in the Report of the Marinepanel in excess of $25 million. Algin, carrageer_Ln, Resources Panel. and agararethe7-nostimportant commercial Since healthy and growing primary user andderivatives, but there are many others. They are resource industries should foster sound supportingutilizedin many chemical processes, often in industries, each support and service industry hasconjunction with the manufacture of food and not been discussed individually. Instrument pro-cosmeticproductsincludinggelatindesserts, duction, petroleum drilling, pipeline laying, diving,jams, baby foods, and toothpaste. In addition, salvage, and weather prediction are among thekelp and other seaweeds have been used as many support and service activities. To illustratefertilizer in an unprocessed form. Most seaweed the problems faced by one such industry, theharvested is brown kelp from California. panel has included a section on instruments since In addition to har-ipsting natural seaweed, it is the need for instruments pervades all other indus-anticipated that aquaculture techniques will sup- tries. plement the supply by growing some types of Several resource activitieschemicals from seamarine algae. There is, for example, a potential for water, seaweeds, and marine pharmaceuticalsareraising and processing seaweed in ponds and rivers mentioned only in this introduction. for ultimate use as animal feed.

A. Chemical Extraction from Sea VVater C. Pharmaceuticals Chemical extraction from sea water constitutes The properties of marine bioactive substances a successfulindustry with no major problemshave attracted widespread interest and appear to requiring Government action.' Salt, bromine, mag-pose considerable promise regarding the preven- nesium metal, and magnesium compounds are thetion, treatment and cure of human ills.3 Although only major inorganic chemicals presentlyex-the pharmaceuticals industry has sponsored some tracted. These industries, well-established in theresearch there is littie expressed interest in the United States, compete favorably with land-basedmarine pharmaceutical segment Industry spokes- operations. For example, magnesium metal ex-men have stated that most drug companies have tracted from sea water accounts for over 90 permany more research opportunities than theycould cent of total U.S. production, while brominepossibly undertake, and the most promising of represents approximately half. These large shares of the market are produced in a single facility in 2This represents the combined annual value of sea Freeport, Texas. Salt production from sea water iswater production of salt ($8 million), magnesium metal centered in California. In addition, eight domestic($57 million), bromine ($30 million), and magpesium compounds ($32 million). In addition, desalination of sea plants rely on the ocean as a source of rawwater in this country yields $8 million of potable water. material to produce magnesium compounds. The W. F. McIlhenny, "Chemicals from Sea Water," Proceed- ings of the Inter-American Conference on Materials Technology, May 1968, p. 119. 'Such extraction is discussed in greater detail in the 3Report of the Panel on Oceanography, President's Report of the Panel on Marine Engineering and Technol- Scicnce Advisory Committee, "Effective; Use of the Sea," ogy. June 1966, pp. 52-54.

26 V-21 :)rld petro- these are not associated with marinebioacz ;ye consumes about 45 per centof free leum production but has only about1: -er cent of subs tances. To discover a new compound may costtens ofthe proven reserves.4 thousands of dollars, either by synthesis orrefine- Hence a major problem facing thepetroleum Those who ment from nature. However, once adrug is found,industry is to prove additional reserve: be running out it usually cc-'millions of dollars to produce itforecast that the world soon would commercially. Only one of every two tothreeof oil and gas suplies havesee:-advancing thousand compounds investigated becomes mar-technology employed to find new reserves,and prognostications. ketable.Be1/4,anseof corlsiderabledevelopn-nthave had to revise their original costs, a drug 2ompany must have some assur: :iceToday the oil industri is developing newtechnc - to evaluate and of exclusive-hts (patent or license) before it willogy that 1411 enable companies spend the mcney, and it is often moredifficult tohopefully develop not only offshore :'1 deposits, rightstonaturally ocm-ringbut tar sands, oil shale, coal conversio-_ processes obtainexclusive not now products. and other sources on land that Neverthels, drug companiescontinue to tookeconomically recoverable. of supply, inc1udi2g the ocear_. If a Petroleum producers are turnit, the sea in to new sour: quantities found te:ontalri _ newthe hope of finding and Leveloping ai marinespc,- 7:_enis than they i drug potential, the pharma_Lticalof new reserves more economical_ substance r ough oper- ay find it more economicaleier topresently can on lam:. Thus, even companies cests are high311shore, the synthesize:.teactive ingre4ient, or culture theating and capital creature in the laboratory. In many cases,there-companies are hoping fields nt yet discov- for a givenered in the comparatively virgin ma-me areaswill fore, the sea may be an initial source be highly drug, but not a continuing one. be sufficiently large and productive to competitive with land sources.

II. PETROLEUM B. Investment and Sales A. Present Status and Outlook The petroleum industry producedabout $1.0 1967 from the U.S. Demand for oil is expected to increaserapidlybillionof crudeoilin in the next 20 years. Much ofthe new domestic Table 1 supply to meet this demand will be fromoffshore DOMESTIC OFFSHORE EXPENDI- areas because a high percentageof the large, easily TURES located accumulations on land alreadyhave been (Billions of Dollars) developed, while comparatively few havebeen Cumu- found offshore. 1968 lative includes (Est.) (Through The Marine Resources Panel's report 1968) recent projections of free world energydemand. It indicatesthat during the next 20 years the Lease Bonus and the Rental Payments $1.25 $ 4.00 cumulative demand will be about three times 0.25 1.85 duringRoyalty Payments . total produced throughout the free world Seismic, Gravity, and 1.10 the last 100 years. Moreover, it isestimated that, Magnetic Surveys . 0.10 between now and die year 2000, three-fourthsofDrilling and 3:10 domestic energy needs will be met by oil and gas, Completing Wells . 0.35 despite increasing reliance on nuclear powerand Platforms, Production Facilities, and Pipelines 0.25 1.85 other new sources of energy. 0.15 0.85 has Operating Costs Although U.S. production of oil and gas TOTAL $2.35 $12.75 domestic consumptionhas increasedrapidly, Source: Richard J. Howe (Esso Production Research Co.), grown even more dramatically,contributing to a"Petroleum Operations in the Sea-1980 and Beyond,'" steady decline in the ratio of provendomesticOcean Industry, August 1968, p. 29. reserves to annual productionfrom about 13 in 1950 to 10 in 1967. In addition,North America 4 Oil and Gas Journal, Dec. 25, 1967, p. 119.

V-22 2 7 Table 2 FREE WORLD1 Category EXTENT OF OFFSHORE CONTINENTAL SHELF ACTIVITY IN THEYear UnitedStates Canada America Latin Europe Africa Mideast Far East WorldFree Countries with Offshore 1 1 5 2 6 5 4 '..,A Activity2 196719641960 1 1 1518 98 2621 1412 11 8 8066 T`..D Offshore Concession Acreage(Millions of acres) 196419601966 97 202154 125 87 4869 127 56 5334 760422 1,3454 8073003 CO Geophysical Crew Months (Marine seismograph) 196619641960 273461 93 2622 5 1218 6 103133 334531 4726 140 35 8285546135 Crude-Oil Production (Thousand b/d) 196719641960 870449190 775925 10 8 i tib 65 1,184 684181 60 7 z,obu ,272396 Proved Crude Reserves (Mill;on bbl) 196719641960 4,1002,2001,700 330260220 220100 3,1501,050 43,35032,30014,750 1,400 100 35,91052,55016,770 2Excludes Does not take into account the activity in such protected waters as Venezuela's countries where onshore concessions extend into offshore areas and where there is no rich Lake Maracaibo. of t 43Source:s Oil andDataBreakdown Gas asfor of 1967Journal, Jan. not not available.1, Mayyet1967 available. 6, nnt 1968, yet available.p. 77. Continenra_ Shelf,' repisenting approximately 12will be affected by costs of offshoreproduction, value of crude oilalternativedomestic sources, and U.S. import per -on t t2 total This Panel has not attempted to extrz th,2 United. States. restrictions. ,-.Toduction accounts for 16 per centanalyze the oil industry in detail but has concen- on problems of the U.S.offshcreoil of-3tai v production.6 Comparing U.S. pro-trated duction oi' $1.0 billion with the estimated1968industry and desirable adjustments to the present investment of :2.35 billion shown inTable 1, theregulatory framework in light of higher offshop2 offshore yield has yet to match the verylargerisks. ocean e:Ipendnures by oil companies.Of die $4.0 Much capital is involved in recovering oil from the Gulf billion of )onus and rental payments foroffshorethe ocean bottom. Existing platforms in $1and $6 million site:-.aid TO date, $3.3 billion were paid to theof Mexico cost between U.S. ..7reemment and $0.7 billion to theStates.depending on water depths and location,whereas site preparation costs on land areminimal. In TheS. 55billionof royalties paid todate, howeve7, .7Jas divided equally between theStatesaddition, costs of operating over water are two to pipelines and '1 S.-Government.' Table 2 indicates thefour times those on land, and offshore relative .o )sition of the United States inoffshoregenerally cost two to four times those onshore. One recent analysis of the costs of producing in oilactivity throughout the free world and also reveals the industry's rapid growth since 1960. a model field under actualconditions off Louisi- ana indicated that present-valuenet profit (using a only nine C. Nature the Industry nine per cent discount rate) dropped to cents per barrelat ocean depths of 400 feet The number and character of the companiesin compared to 33 cents at 100 feet and 50 cents the industry defy concise description.At least 30 onshore.8 No finding or bonus costs were included to 35 U.S. oil companies areinvolved in offshore in this example because of variationsfrom field to production, supported by hundreds of contractors field. Moreover, a field of better-than-averagesize who provide services for a large portion of thewas assumed. It should benoted that the profits work done at sea. A small percentage ofthesegenerated in deep water (nine cents) are not contractors is controlled by the oilcompaniesgenerally sufficient even to pay for either explora- through majority stockholdings. Because of hightion or bonus costs. This example suggeststhat operating risks and the large capital outlays re-additionalattention may be required for the quired, most companies producing oiloffshore areproblems related to the greater offshoredepths in large corporations. However, several small com-order to insure a continuing and healthy rateof panies have formed groups to operatejointly activity in exploration and production. offshore. Unlike offshore gas, the transmissionof oil through pipelines is usually performedby the 1. Timing of Federal Lease Sales prodwtion companies. The system of offshore lease sales is a complex subject now under intensive study by thePublic D. Problems and Recommendations Land Law Review Commission and theDepartment Oil economics is a complex subjectnot onlyof the Interior. The competition in recentoil lease from the standpoint of domestic production butsales indicates the system is workingreasonably also in regard to world production and importwell, but some aspects of the present policy should restrictions. Thepriceof oilhas been ata be altered. relatively stable level in the United States in the The timing of Federal lease sales has been past.In the future, however, as demand ap-erratic. Notice of sales well ahead of time would proaches conventional supply capability, the price greatly aid industry budgeting, would enable the industry to improve itsutilization of capiW 5 U.S. Bureau of Mines. 6 Richard J. Howe (Esso Production Research Co.), 8.1. E. Milson (Shell Oil Co.), "Economies of Offshore "Petroleum Operations in the Sea-1980 and Be: ono.," Louisiana," presented before the Louisiana-Arkansas Divi- Ocean Indus Atipmt9, 29. sion of the Mid-Continent Oil and Gas Assn., Sept.12, 7Ibid. 1967.

V-24 29 or, and equipment, particularly with re-Government for application to offshore areas in exploration and development activity, and the Gulf beyond State jurisdiction. oermit the gathering of more data to Removal of restrictions on production from the property to be leased. Federal leases triht wdll make Federal tracts, deeper and further offshore, more attractive to oil aendation: companies. However, this would result in loss of severance tax revenue to Texas and Louisiana alease sales for oil and gas development jn the outer Continental Shelf should bebecause of reduced onshore output and might :ced further in advance than is currentcause the States to respond in kind, thus upsetting the existing economic and political stability. Past arguments in support of restrictions have included: :al Lease Sales for Deep Water Restrictions are useful to balance supply and )68, there was a $600 million lease sale indemand and to improve conservation. ntaBarbara channel. Thus,severaloil inies ventured into very deep waterover 60Fields with marginal economics would be unable ..mt of the acreage is below 600 feet and theto compete with large efficient fields if the supply cc_-ier of one lease is in water more than 1,800were not prorated. Thus, it has been reasoned that restrictions help maintain a standby production feet deep. The Santa Barbara sale involved special capability that could be mobilized quickly in times circumstances that compensated somewhat for the of need such as the Middle East crisis. disad' antagesinherentingreater depths. The trac: ae very near the shore; the oceanographic .eteorological conditions are mild when The subject of prorationing involves political and and economic ramifications related to the varying compared to the Gulf of Mexico; oil is in short densely populated coast ofinterests of large companies, small companies, and supply along the consumers. These extremely complex issues pres- Southern California; and there are no restrictions ently are being reviewed by the Public Land Law on rtes of production. The degree to which the Review Commission. deep:Santa Barbara leases will allow economicai The percentage allowable is continuing to rise proc_-ion will depend greatly on technology yetdue to ever increasing demand for petroleum. to be developed or perfected and on finding large This increasewill probably continue until the pet-oteum accumulations. The OCS Lands Act now limits the primarycapacity of all wells is attained. Many expect this point to be reached in the next 5 to 10 years. for exploration and development to a maxi- of five years. Continuing the trend toward er.Dioration and development in deep water, as4. Environmental Prediction weI as hostile areas such as Cook Inlet, Alaska, The offshore oil industry operates in a hostile may make it desirable to lengthen the primaryenvironment, particularly in hurricane areas. For lease term. operations under normal climatic conditions, the oilcompanies and theiroffshorecontractors 3. Production Rate Restrictions receive adequate environmental forecasts from the The Gulf region produces most of the domesticU.S. Weather Bureau and many private meteoro- offshore oil and has the most proven U.. offshorelogical companies. Nevertheless, improved data reserves. Texas and Louisiana have set limits on and forecasting techniques would provide im- nroduction rate of each well in accordancemediate cost savings. In view of substantial added percentage allowable. In order to offsetcosts during the hurricane season in the Gulf of co: operations over water, both States use theMexico, better hurricane data and prediction eqt. allowable ratio to permit companies to would be beneficial. prc....u.:e oil from nearshore and offshore areas at a The cost of shutting down during a hurricane -apid rate than on land. State ratios tradi-threat in the Gulf of Mexico can be considerable.

--. lave been followed closely by the U.S.Off-Lore operations are sh.it down to varying

V-25 30 degrees depending on the type of operation,acquired by various Government agencieshas information and degree of control and automation, and strength reached offshore operators. Such Ithas been technology could benefit all offshore operations, and proximity of the hurricane. Exploration, Hurricane Inezin1966 costespecially the petroleum industry. estimatedthat where Louisiana operators $1.5 million in expensesand drilling, and production in deeper waters hurricane did nottechnology must be more advanced makein- lost production even though the needed come near enough to cause anyproperty damage. creased oceanographic knowledge more Property losses, as differentiated from shutthan ever. The responsibility for information exchange downs, have been even greater.Hurricanes Hilda offshore shouldnotfallexclusivelyonGovernment (1964) and Betsy (1965) each caused by virtue of million. agencies. The petroleum companies, property losses exceeding $100 operating Improved hurricane path prediction willreduce their many research efforts and ocean Greater experience, have accumulated considerableknowl- thedegree and length of shutdowns. genuinely knowledge of the wind, wave, andsubsurface edge on their own. Much of this is not allow im-proprietary and could be of great value tothe forces associated with hurricanes will inter- proved design and construction techniquesresult- Nation if disseminated among other private property losses, ests and Government agencies. ing in savings in construction cost, Unfortunately, greater exchange of information and insurance premiums. customarily in Modification of intensity or path ofhurricanes will not be easy. The knowledge, is rarely well would have obvious advantages notonly to thethe sole possession of a few experts, and documented or advertised. Consequently,because petroleum industry but all other marine been ineffi- coastal interests. However, progressin hurricane person-to-person transfer generally has cient, enormous effort will be necessary toachieve research has been disappointinglyslow; accurate prediction,modification, and perhaps controlgreater interchange. remain hopes for the future. Tohelp in this There alreadyhave been some cooperative Ad- efforts by Government, uMversities, and the petro- problem, the Environmental Science Services transfer in ministration recently has intensified research atits leum industry to improve technology such subjects as environmental prediction,plat- National Hurricane Center. materials Very little is known about the size,shape, speed, form design, underwater completion, and destructive power of hurricane waves.The studies, and welding techniques. Forexample, one in under- morethan1,000 existing offshore platforms company with considerable expertise sites to measure water oil well completion gave a course onthe represent potential instrument at environlnental conditions and their effects.Several subject. Seven petroleum companies signed up offshore operators have indicated willingness to$100,000 each, while the U.S. GeologicalSurvey cost. On abother make their platforms available for datagathering. was invited to participate at no by occasion, a joint Navy-industry researchproject In addition, the use of laser or radar altimeters a aircraft may have potential for studyinghurricane for measuring hurricane waves was established on waves, and the study oftheir feasibility deserves a cost-sharing, information-sharing basis. high priority. 6. Multiple Use Conflicts Recommendation: The U.S. Government, togetherwith industry and Conflicting uses of coastal and offshore marine the academic community,should intensify currentareas is becoming anincreasing burden to oil efforts to improve understanding ofhurricanes andcompanies. Delays in offshore operationsresulting their destructive effects. front uncertainties brought about by suchconflicts have cost the petroleum industry substantial sums. 5. Technology Transfer' There is urgent need to bring private interests A disappointingly small amount of the oceano-together with representatives from U.S., State,and graphic and ocean engineering data andtechnologylocal governments to develop a mechanismfor rationally resolving the conflicts. The advisory 9 Oil and gas technology is discussed in the Report ofcommittee recommended in Chapter 3 ofthis the PaneLon Marine Engineering andTechnology.

V-26 31 report could be helpful indeveloping such aproduction, transmission, and distribution. Petro- mechanism. Further discussion on multiple useleum companies normally explore for and produce conflicts is also found in Chapter 3 with a morethe gas. Transportation is handled by the trans- detailed discussion in the report on the Coastalmission companies regulated by the Federal Power Zone. Commission (FPC) inall matters of interstate commerce. Distribution to consumers usually in- 7. Major Oil Spills volves a separate group of independent companies The Nation is well aware of the deleteriousregulated at the State level. Although the three effects of the grounding of the Torrey Canyon andfunctions commonly are carried on by iildepend- other tankers. The subject of prevention andent companies, a combination may be performed control of major oil spills is presently receiving aby one company through subsidiaries. Both the great deal of attention such as the joint pollutiontransmission and distribution industries are among study conducted by the Departments of Interiorthe 10 largest U.S. industries in terms of capital and Transportation. A major part of the research isinvestment. being done by petroleum companies. Nevertheless, Sales of natural gas are expected to increase at the problem is far from solved and Governmentan annual rate of about four per cent in the next and industry attention is encouraged to developdecade. In fact, the percentage of total energy technology to prevent, detect, and nullify theconsumption represented by natural gasisex- effects of oil spills from offshore production andpected to increase slightly, in spite of the growth transportation operations. of new competitive primary sources of energy, Government regulations and enforcement areparticularly nuclear. As with oil, the offshore areas necessary to define responsibility and liability, andoffer great potential for new reserves, and gas to ensure equitable distribution of costs of preven-producers as well as transmission companies are tion and cure. Because the problem is complex,making heavy commitments here. In 1967,over and great knowledge of the subject is held by$300 million was paid to petroleum companies for industry, such technology development and legisla-natural gas produced offshore. tive action must be worked out by a combination Occurring in the same environment, offshore oil of Federal, State, and industry experts. Emergencyand natural gas operations share many technical plans should be established to permit rapid actionarid regulatory problems. But beyond that the gas to contain and clean up major oil spills. industry faces a special set of constraints associated with FPC regulatory policy. The growth of 8. Other Problem Areas gas supply is closely tied to such policy notonly Because of detailed treatment in other sections throughFPCregulationof gastransmission of this report and in other panel reports, sur-companies, but also regulation of the production veys,' ° technology programs,' I jurisdictional clar-companies to the extent of controlling the maxi- will not be ification," and insurance problems' mum price at which natural gas can be sold to the discussed here. However, all these areas are of transmission companies. interest and importance to the petroleum industry. B. Problems and Recommendations III. NATURAL GAS 1. Reserves A. Present Status The National reserve-to-product'on ratio (RIP) The sequence of operation in bringing naturalof natural gas has been declining steadily since gas to the consumer involves three functions:1950, falling from nearly 27 years to slightly less than 16 years in 1968.14 The optimum level of ioSee Chapter 3 of this report and the Report of the Panel on Marine Resources. reserves cannot be authoritatively stated. Some I ISee Chapter 3 of this report and the Report of thecompanies believe that the national R/P ratio can Panel on Marine Engineering and Technolo3y. 1 2See Chapter 3 of this report and the Report of the 1 4 The R/P ratio is the proven reserves divided by the International Pane). current rate of annual production, a level of reserves 13See Chapter 3 of this report. stated in years.

V-27 333-091 0-69--3 Under current procedures a gas transmission continuetodeclinefor an additional period without causing undue concern, resulting in acompany will receive permissiono construct a lower level of idle development capital for pro-new pipeline to a production areaif it can prove to ducers. However, individual companies alreadythe FPC, that, among other things, sufficient re- problem is there- have felt the pressure of declining reserves, anditserves are in the area. A circular doubtful thatit would be in the Nationalfore created. Transmission companies are unwilling is to firmly commit themselves to the purchase of gas interesttoallowmuchfurtherreduction. Although the R/P ratio for oil is about 10 years,from undeveloped reserves, and producers are valid reasons exist for maintaining natural gasreluctant to make the considerable expenditures without prior reserves at a level above 10 years. necessary to develop the reserves At some point the R/P must stop declining orassurance of buyers. Furthermore,producers are the question of future ability to meet demand willunwilling to have their proven reserves revealed to disclosure would cause concern to natural gas usersand the financialthe FPC when such public community that provides funds for growth. Whenseriously hurt the companies in competition for this point is reached, and certain companiesfeel offshore lease bids. that it has been, the National RIP ratio must be This problem does not lend itself to a simple stabilized; with growing demand this implies asolution. The panel recommends that the FPC much greater rate of exploration and developmentstudy every possible solution, including the accept- than presently exists. Although conventional and ance of sound business judgment asrepresented by perhaps completely new types of land sources willsuitable contractual commitments in substitution provide some supplies, it appears that the offshore for geological evidence of reserves. The FPC also policies to determine the areaswillbe of vital importance for severalshould examineits decades. extent to which efforts to establish proven reserves Before thereserve ratio can be stabilized,resultsin disclosure adverse to a company and incentives to production companies will have tomethods by which such impact, if any, can be increase. Two areas of FPC regulatory policycouldlegitimately minimized. be modified to provide part of this incentive. The maximum price a transmission company2. Technology can pay for gas at the wellhead isFPC regulated. The natural gas industry is faced withincreasing The FPC recognized the importance of incentivescompetitive pressure in the energy marketfrom for discovery of new supplies by adopting anew, high-technology energy sources.This, com- two-price system in the Permian area rate case and bined with increasing cost of gas supply,should Louisiana, a location a multi-price system in South provide astrong incentive to the transmission with great potentialfor offshore reserves. Al-companies to reduce pipeline costs through im- though differences between offshole and onshore proved technology to prevent increasing costs to operations were mentioned in the South Louisianathe ultimate consumer. Despite this incentive the rate opinion,'S the rates do not appear to reflectgas transmission indusuy has anextremely low Ldequately the increased costs associated withlevel of expenditures for research and develop- offshore operations. As a result, the petroleumment. companies believe there is little financialincentive The industry lacks confidence in the present for them to search for offshore gas exceptin accounting procedures approved by the FPCfor unusual circumstances. R&D. It is believed that lack of clear-cut definition Recommendation: places expenditures for some R&D activities in a The Federal Power Commission shouldre-examinevery high risk category and therefore these are its tufferential price concept for natural gas pro-held to a minimum. When research is successful duction and make whatever adjustments are advis-and results in improvement to a specific pipeline able to reflect adequately the increased cost ofproject, it is clear that the transmission company offshore production. can capitalize the cost. If research is not successful, or if of a general is 1,ecleral. Power Commissior, Opinion No. 546,Docket A.R. 61-2, Sept. 25, 1968. nature, the accounting treatment of the cost is not

V-28 asclearlydefined.In many casesitcan berecently assumed the responsibility to assure that capitalized or allowed as an operating expense, butadequate planning exists for natural gas transporta- some projects may not be so treated. In the latter tion. Although a major proposal submitted by a event, failure of a major R&D project would be aconsortium for sharing larger and more efficient financial risk incurred by the company's owners.pipeline systems was denied by the FPC in 1967, This increased business risk would not be offset everyindication,includingpolicystatements automatically by a compensating potential forissued in 1968, is that future offshore pipeline increased profit since the mechanism of regulateddevelopments will require a joint industry planning returnassuresthatthe economic benefits ofapproach to receive FPC approval. It is hoped that successful R&D now are largely passed on to thecooperation of producers, pipeline companies, and customer or in some cases the producer. The netthe FPC will lead to expediting the planning and result is an extremely low R&D expenditure in theprocessing of joint-use proposals; contribute to the industry and a reluctance to undertake the large,more orderly development of offshore areas; en- uncertain R&D expenditures necessary for techno-courage exploration efforts; and provide econo- logical breakthrough. rnies of scale of benefit to both the industry and To account for an R&D expenditure after theits customers. fact in terms of "success" or "failure" appears to be an accounting practice inconsistent with theIV. Ocean Mining basic premise of researchitself.Even if initial hoped-for results are not achieved, the research has A. Present Status closed out one option and provided a great deal of No hard mineral mining of practical significance useful information in the process. Consideration ofis being conducted on the U.S. continental shelves this principle could resolve the lack of agreementexcept sulfur, sand, gravel, and oyster shells. There between the gas transmission industry and the FPCis no mineral mining in the deep ocean. Discussion concerning accounting treatment for research ex-of offshore mining, therefore, becomes largely a penditures. discussion of its potential, of ways to assure that Recommendation: the potential will be realized as soon as economics and technology allow, and of its importance to the The Federal Power Commission should review itsNation. Successful ocean mining is being under- accounting regulations for research and develop-taken in other parts of the world where favorable ment activities to determine whether such regula-business climates in combination with adequate tions are consistent with the legitimate need of thegeological deposits make such ventures economi- gas transmission industry for clear and realistic callyattractive.Most suchoperationsarein guidelines. comparatively shallow water. A thorough discussion of marine mineral re- With appropriate encouragement, he gas trans- sources is found in the report of the Marine Re- mission industry could foster new technology that would increase the economic feasibility of gassources Panel. That report notes that with some production and transmissiou further offshore andexceptions (gold, silver, and uranium) the supply of in deeper water and also be important to theland-based hard minerals appears sufficient to National oceanographic effort. For example, im-meet projected demands to the year 2000. This finding, how ever, must be. qualified. The proved techniques for laying large diameter pipe- process of projecting demand for mineralsand of lines in deeper waters may well depart from the extremely complex and concept of the traditional lay barge and involve estimatingreservesis new seafloor construction techniques using newsubject to many interpretations. Such a finding does not reflect the cost of alternative resources tools, habitats, submersibles, etc. and is based only on known uses and metallurgical processes. Tlie effect of new uses and thesubstitu- C. Planning tion of new materials is difficult to predict and can In recognition of the vital role of the offshorecause considerable error in forecastingmineral areas as a source of gas for theindustry, the FPC demands.World-widepopulationgrowth and

34 V-29 hi,' ,lering industrial accelerating industrialization, however, pointto anpriate regulations presently ever increasing demand.Indeed, total demand forparticipation. metals between 1965 and the year2000 is expected to exceed the total of allmetals con-B. Investment and Sales sumed prior to 1965,16 and for somespecific statistics on ocean A similar No authoritative overall metals the increase will be manyfold. mining are available but the order ofmagnitude of estimate applies to many non-metallicminerals. existing operations can be sensed fromthe follow- Predicting sources of supply is perhaps evening estimates: more difficult thanpredicting demand, due to Excluding sand, gravel, and oyster shelldredg- many geological andeconomic unknowns. Thising, the world-wide investment in oceanmining is problem is magnified in the case of oceanmineral about $60 million, mostly in operationsin south- resources because solittleis known about theeast Asia and off England andSouth West Africa. geology and the technology of recoveryand proc- estimated in the produc-The annual rate of investment is essing that valid comparisons with present order of $10 million and is rising. tion from land sources are almostimpossible. About $200 million of minerals wastaken Both accelerating demand anddepletion ofworld-wide from the ocean floor in1967,17 known mine,-1resources indicatethatif theexcluding coal and iron presentlymined from Nation isto enjoy a rising standardof living,onshore openings and chemicals extractedfrom particularly inthelight of an ever increasingsea water. Common sandand gravel accounted for population, great attention must be paidto futuremore than half the total; sandsbearing tin, iron, supplies; andallindications are that over theand other heavy minerals about20 per cent; shells long-term the ocean will become animportant15 per cent; sulfur 8 per cent; anddiamonds 5 per source of supply. of ocean minerals is strategiccent. World-wide production With the possible exception of certain growing rapidly. minerals, the ocean resouizes will berecovered by At least a handful of U.S. companies noware private industry only wheneconomically attrac-involved to some extent in foreign offshoremining tive. For such minerals as sulfur, thispoint alreadyoperations. Dozens more have collectivelyinvested has been reached. For others, timingis uncertain.several million dollars in studies andexploration, It is not necessary to develop mosthard mineralindicating the degree of interest andthe potential ocean resources immediately;thus no crash pro-for rapid growth from today'srelatively modest imperative, however, that gram is required. It is base. the Nation begin now an orderly programto gain a available and of better understanding of resources C. Industry Structure basic ocean technology required toexploit them. Even with such basic knowledge, thetime required Offshore mining in the United Statesis pursued on land to advancefrom early exploration toin shallow water by relativelysmall companies actual production is oft,...n 10 years or more,anddredging sand, gravel, and oyster shellsin response due to the environment it probablywill be evento unique local supply anddemand situations. greater for most ocean minerals. Sulfur, on the other hand, minedtluough a drill Because of growing demand fatminerals, thehole, is related to petroleum in itsexploration and inadequate knowledge of the oceans as a source,recovery techniques and in itseconomic and legal and the lead time required togain an adequateproblems. understanding, the panel concludesthat the Fed- Many diverse companies are showing interestin eral and State governmentsshould take appropri-future operations due to the varietyof potentially ate action now to stimulate oceanmining activity.profitable situations. Some companies are oriented This should include reconnaissance surveysand removal of some of the uhcertaintiesand inappro- 1 7Charles M. Romanowitz, Michael J.Cruickshank, a.-id Milton P. Overall, "Offshore Mining Presentand Future," presentedatNational Security Industrial Association- Ocean Science Technology Advisory Committee(OSTAC) 1 .5 Statement by Stanley A. Cain, Assistant Secretary of Francisco the Department of the Interior, to the HouseCommittee Ocean Resourceo Subcommittee meeting, San on Merchant Marine and Fisheries,Sept. 21, 1967. area, April 26, 1967.

V-30 solely to entrepreneurial opportunities in oceanfor allocation of mining rights at the current mining, but many are corporations well established development stage for two reasons: so little is in land mining or petroleum. Offshore e:Iplorationknown about hard mineral resources or the tech- and drilling companies, aerospace firms, and ship-nology for exploration and exploitation that in- building companies are among others involved. Itformed bidding is effectively precluded before a is not yet clear what kinds of corporations willgreat deal of exploration; second, exploration is constitute the offshore mining industry of tomor-inhibited by the financialrisk thatis greatly row, but the industry need not be restricted tothe increased when a chance exists that exploitation traditional mining companies. rights may not be granted to the explorer. Until Nearshore operations, such as placer mining forthere is sufficient knowledge of the ocean's min- gold, could be undertaken by small companies. eral resources, the panel recommends adoption of Deep-sea mining, however, probably will be con-a method of property allocation that encourages ducted by large corporations or consortia becausethe maximum private investment in exploration; of high capital requirements. It has been esti-namely, a method that awards exploitation rights mated, for instance, that recovery of manganeseto the prospector who makes a discovery. nodules on a scale large enough to be economically One reason that hard minerals from the ocean feasible will require a capital investment of aboutare not more actively sought is that little is now S100 million. The traditional mining industry hasknown about them. This points up tv, -) major one of the highest capital asset-to-employeeratiosdifferences between petroleum and bard minerals of any industry, exploration techniques and costs. Initial exploration for oil is based on the extrapolation of known D. Problems and Recommendations geological information and relatively inexpensive geophysical surveys. In contrast, the complexity Industry has stated, in effect, that it is willingand cost of exploration for hard minerals to to take the substantial risks required by oceanestablish confidence in an exploitable discovery miningent;neif Government will provide wellare many times greater.'B Therefore, by the time defined and :ez-s3onable laws relative to propertythe prospector has gained sufficient knowledge to rights, crev.' regulations, import duties, and taxes.arouse his desire for more detailed exploration In addition, Government-sponsored services, espe-(hopefully leading to exploitation), he has made a cially surveys, and equitable treatment hi manyconsiderable investment. He will be reluctant to potential multiple use conflicts will be required ifmake this investment if, in spite of his initiative, tais new industrial potential is to be reali7ed in theexclusive rights may be awarded to another party. near future. The panel feels that the highest priority should be given to encouraging hard mineral exploration 1. Leasing Procedures through private initiative and that every consideration should be giventoasystem that will In accordance with the Outer Continental Shelfencourage this exploration by teducing investment Lands Act of 1953, the Department of Interior isrisks. The prospector who has made alarge responsible for the management of the mineralinvestment leading to an exploitable discovery resources on Continental Shelf lands within Fed-should be guaranteed the right to exploit it. eral tnrisdiction. Rights to utilize these petroleum Whatever method is finally adopted for assign- and hard mineral resources are awarded through aing hard mineral rights on the outer continental competitive bidding and leasing procedure defined shelf, the following should be considered: by the Act Many State laws for assigning the resources of submerged lands follow tne principlesThe method should provide an atmosphere that incorporated in the Act. will attract many searchers. Competith n is desira- This rystem has worked well for oil, gas, andble from the standpoints of stimulating explora- sulfur because of the great demand for utilization rights and the bidding system allocates public 18Acomplete discussion of 6he differences in methods and cost for petroleum and hard mineral exploration is resources justiy under such circumstances. The found in the Reports of the Marine Resources Panel and present bidding system, however, is inappropriate the Marine Engineering and Tr-chnoiogy Panel.

V-31 tion and maintaining our traditional ;onomic however, will allow this freedom while principles. still permit- frig Interior to carry out itsresponsibilities as The method should relyon the stimulus ofmanager of the resources. A system thatinhibits private initiative. However, in earlyreconnaissanceexplorationshouldbe rare cases it r y be avoided. in the National interest for theGovernni .it to If the prospector's interest sponsor exploration. Since there would beno is kindled by his private investment in such exploration, preliminary explorationor by other means, he leasingshould be able to obtain procedures similar to those in the OCSLands Act exclusive rights for appear appropriate. further exploration convertibleto exploitation rights. A concessionsystem similarto those A degree of flexibility inmanagement must besuccessfully practiced in severalforeign countries allowed, because solittleis known about theappears to be a suitable method for awardingsuch pattern of future developments andbecause therights while protecting the publicinterest. Such a potential resources areso different in character.concession system should: Thiswillenablepoliciestobe adjusted for different minerals or for specialsituations; how- Assignexclusiveexplorationrights for hard ever, the policies must be clear and certain. minerals that could be convertedto exploitation rights at the prospector's option. The higb risk inherent in hard Normally conces- mineral explora-sions are awarded to the first qualified tion should be mitigated byassuring that pros- applicant. pectors may exploit their discoveries, Clearly define the terms ofexploration and exploitation before exploration begins. The method should providea reasonable economic return to the public for theuse of public Discourage speculltive holding ofoffshore lands lands and data, but its primaryobjective shouldthrough various abinations of such require- not be to maximize income fromrents, royalties,ments as: an initial fee; minimuminvestment in or bonuses, but rather to maximizeocean miningexplorationordevelopmentwithinspecified activity. A greater ultimatereturn to the Nationperiods of time; rentalpayn.its increasing at will result from the developmentof a healthyperiodic intervals during theexploration phase; industry contributing toemployment, tax rev-a7d stipulation thata given acreage be returned enues, foreign exchange, and the Gross Nationalperiodically until exploitationcommences. Product. Provide for rentalor royalty payments during The method should recognizethat the Bureau ofthe exploitation phase. Land Management, the lessor of U.S. outer Conti-Provide for return of nental Shelf lands, facescompetition with other any portion of the conces- nations offering development sion acreageat the option of the concession rights to their off-holder. shore lands on terms attractiveto U.S. capital. Recommendation: The preceding discussion hascentered around the Federal lands on the When deemed outer continental shelves. necessary to stimulate exploration,The State methods for assigning the Department of the Interior should property rights to be permit-submerged lands are of equaland perhaps greater ted to award rights to hardminerals on the outer importance, since early miningactivity probably Continental Shelf withoutrequiring compAitive will bidding. take place predominantlyinthe shallow waters close to shore. Some coastal States The panel recommends chatany U.S. citizen or now have a reasonable system for assigning explorationand exploitation company should be free to conduct preliminaryrights. Most States, however, exploration on the continental shelves have no laws at all or for mineralshave inappropriate lawsdrafted for other pur- on a non-exclusive basis. A requirementto give theposes. It is recommended that Department of the Interior notification the States adopt of intent,methods to assign offshoresolid mineral rights

V-32 37 that will encourage industrial exploration. It isway for eventual utilization of the offshore min- further recommended thatsuch a system beeral resources. similar to the type of concession system described Earlier in the report a survey program was above. Uniformity in State laws is not considered arecommended to provide new bathymetric, geo- necessity at this time, but efforts to work towardphysical, and geological information on the Conti- uniformity are highly desirable. When changes innental Shelf, slope, and rise. Completion of tb is the Federal system are adopted, they could servetask was suggested in 15 to 20 years, but because readily as a model law for the coastal States. certain areas are of more immediate interest, it is The panel does not believe that the lack ofrecommended that priorities be carefully selected international agreement as to sovereign rights overto reflect user needs and that the survey of these deep sea mineral resourcesisa major factormore important areas be completed much sooner. preventing mining operations at this time. How-Except in special cases, the surveys should remain ever, a clearer definition of the limits of National reconnaissance in scope, and the actual delineation jurisdiction and an international agreement for the of commercial deposits should be left to private deep ocean will be needed asconflicts arise.industry. A significant portion of the survey work Accordingly, the panel concurs with the Inter-should be contracted to qualified organizations in national Panel inits recommendation that thethe private sector in order to build a National United States take the initiative in proposing acapability and speed up data acquisition. new international legal-political framework for exploring and exploiting the mineral resources underlying the high seas. 3. Other Recommendations Only with strong U.S. participation can the best Before a thriving offshore mining industry can interestsof domestic industry and the worldexist, an enormous capital investment will have to community be served. Due to the length of timebe made. The resultingrisklevelsare within normally needed to establish such a complex andboundaries acceptable to industry, but the pace of important framework, the panel recommends thatinvestment will be slow in the early stages. There the United States take this initiative immediately.are several ways the Government can assist indus- Until such a framework is established, the U.S.try in facing the initial risks: Government should encourage and protect private investment in the deep ocean. Nominal rentals and low or non-existent royalty payments have been mentioned as ways to encour- 2. Surveys age ocean mining. In addition, there are precedents inforeigncountriesforencouraging mining Geological knowledge of the U.S. continentalthrough special tax incentives. The panel has not shelves is insufficient to provide a basis for wisemade a recommendation for a specific type of tax management of themineralresources and isincentive, but urges consideration of one or more insufficient to assist industry in selecting targetof the following: areas for detailed exploration. Obtaining an adequate understanding of the(a)A tax moratorium for a specified number of geologic structure and composition of the conti- years. nental margins is a vast job. Companies expect to(b)Extremely ,-apid depreciation for ocean min- spend large sums of money conducting surveys to ing equipment, which can be justified on the delineate deposits, but first need some indication basis of rapid technological advances and on where to concentrate their efforts. Broad, recon- swift deterioration from the harsh environ- naissancescalesurveys are too expensive for ment. individual companies, considering the vast area to(c)Longer periods, perhaps 10 years, to carry net be covered and the low probability of discovering operating losses forward for tax purposes. economically exploitable minerals. Yet these sur-(d)Implementation of a special tax differential as veys are a critical first step in determining the presently applied to some high-risk mining basic character of the shelf and in pointing the operations in South America.

V-33 (e) Extension of the investment credit against precision is required. Perhaps this degree of preci- income tax. sion is more properly obtained byinstallation of private systems; however, there is moregeneral Such incentives would encourage industry toneed for a National system that will allow survey undertakeinitial,high risk ventures and alsodata to be obtained with much more accuracy and makeenterpriseonU.S.continentalshelves that will be economic for many u.rs. more competitive with that offoreign countries Three other topics important to offshore min- providing such incentives. Special tax compensa- ing have been discussed at length indifferent tions should be discontinued gradually asthe places:theindustry'stechnological needs are offshore mining industry becomes self-sustaining. found in the report of the Panel on Marine Engineering and Technology; the importance of Minerais mined by U.S. companies in inter-environmental data and predictionservicesis national waters should not be subject to import discussed in the petroleum section of thischapter; duties and restrictions. To consider such mineralsand the need for clarification of jurisdictionin to he of foreign origin would impose an undue offshore areas is emphasized in Chapter 3 ofthis burden on the infant industry. report, in the Panel Report onManagement and Development of the Coastal Zone, and inthe The existence of multiple use conflicts poses a International Panel Report. possiblebarrierto ocean mining. Because no strong industry represents offshore mining activi- V. FISHING ties,establishedinterests probablywillvoice strong objections to such ventures. Problems will A. Fundamental Position arise not only from existing regulatory policies, Fishing as an occupation is asoldas mankind. but from traditionalusersof the ocean forIn this country it has evolved throughthe years navigation, fishing, and recreation, from conserva- with the Nation's economy and politics.Two tion groups, and from owners af pipelines andimportant U.S. fisheries, tuna andshrimp, are communication cables. economically strong and healthy; severalother Encouragement from Federal, State, and local segments of the industry are ahnost asvigorous; governments will be needed in a varietyof suchand still others are marginal. The industry often multiple use conflicts. For example, water qualityhas been calledsick, but this descriptionis standards now being set by States rarely considermisleading. It is not a single 'ndustry, but a group the possibility of offshore mining operations. Aof diverse industries, each with its ownpeculiar time may arise.in the future when pollution problems and economic situation. regulations inadvertently prevent a company from hese industries have some serious common carrying out a profitable offshore mining ventureproblems which probably will lead to progressive simply because mining was not considered whendeterioration if not checked. Some are world the law was formed. problems, common toallsea-fishingnations. Others are strictly domestic problems which place The Coast Guard should review its requirementsthe U.S. fishing industry in a weak international for operation of special vessels at sea. Indicationscompetitive position. In some areas the industry is are that the present regulations,particularly with subject to international treaties as well as a maze regard to minimum crew size, are unrealistic where of U.S., State, and local regulations. applied to offshore mining operations. The regula- Fish are a freely available, renewable resource. tions may burden the operator with an additionalAlthough found at all depths and throughout the and perhaps unnecessary cost. world's oceans, most desirable species are concentrated near coasts." Even the coastal fisheries, Navigation systems sponsored by theFederal Government, although extremely useful tooff- 19The ratio of U.S. catch beyond coastal fisheries to shore mining companies, do not provide sufficienttotal catch is about 10 per cent in tonnage with about 15 per cent in value. If statistics on U.S. flag tuna landed in accuracy for some types of exploratory surveys.In Puerto Rico were included, the percentage would be many types of delineation or recovery, extreme somewhat higher.

V-34 39. however, may be impaired by operation of foreigncraft of which 12,000 are over 5 tons. Unfortu- vessels in adjacent waters because fish migratenately, about 60 per cent of the vessels were built between zones. The definition and protection ofover 16 years ago. There arcabout 12f n00 U.S. rights within various fisheries constitute afishenr m the United States. major responsibility of Government. The law requires fishermen to use U.S.-built A second major Government obligation is tovessels to make domestic landings. Capital invest- establish measures to develop and conserve fish-ment in the industry has been low in spiteof a eries resources. Often this requires difficult choicesvessel subsidy program, a Fisheries Loan Fund, between the rights of groups of commercial andand a Mortgage Insurance Program (under which sport fishermen and between fishing and other usesthe Government guarantees repayment of fishing of the marine environment Within coastal waters,vessel mortgages). abatement of pollution and preservation of natural Widely disparate trends exist within this diverse habitats are matters of major concern. industry. America's large integrated food compa- To further orderly fisheries development, U.S.nies are able, within the present legal/regulatory and State governments for many years haveenvironment, to manage highly efficient opera- conducted programs to locate and definefisheriestionsforprocessing and distributing fish for understanding of marinedomestic needs. On the other hand, many U.S. resources, improve basic independent companies, and life, and improve catching, processing,and market-fishermen,small ing technology. The budget of the U.S. Bureauofsmall cooperatives operating U.S.-flag vessels off Commercial Fisheries for these activities totaledthis Nation's coasts have not participated success- $50.5 million infiscal year 1969. In addition,fully in the growing u.S. demand for fish pro- State and local governments spend sizable amountsducts. This has diminished employment opportu- on fisheries development. nities and placed a drain on foreign exchange. The In some fisheries, conservation legislation haspanel urges that the domestic industry be assisted been used to curtail competition and stifle innova-in achieving a higher K efficiency to enable it tion such that an excessive effort is required toto compete more effectively and serve a larger take the available catch. The efficiency of someshare of the U.S. market. fisheries subject to potential depletion could be improved by establishing in advance the rights of participants to shares of a given fishery, enablingB. Investment, Sales, and Production each to take his share inthe most efficient1. Investment and Sales manner. Fishing is an international business. Many U.S. The total domestic investment in fishingvessels processors depend heavily on foreign sourcesofandprocessingplants isestimatedat$1.5 fish, permitting economies which would be un-billion."In addition, U.S. corporations have available if the industry were forced to operatesubstantial investments in fishing vessels and plants within the strictures of a high tariff or nontrans-in foreign countries. ferrable national quota system. However, foreign The U.S. commercial catch at dockside was competition in domestic markets has contributedvalued at approximately $438 million in 1967 to the diminishing proportion of the totalworldwith shellfish (primarily shrimp), tuna, and salmon catch taken by U.S. vessels. comprising about 70 per cent. This compares to Ten years ago the U.S. ranked second in the1966's $472 million and 69 per cent. The 1967 world in tonnage of fish landings. Currently itretail value in the United States of allfishery ranks sixth behind Peru, Japan, Red China, theproducts (both domestic and imported) was al- Soviet Union, and Norway. Even though U.S.most $2.6 billion.21 fishermen concentrate on high value species,the United States still ranks only third or fourth in value of fish landed. 20Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. The United States has the world's second 21 Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial largest fishing fleet, consisting of 76,000 poweredFisheries.

40' V-35 )duc OIL .fersus U.S. Consumption canbegintotake advantage of the --nwing of ila Profound changes have occurred since Worlddemand by fully utilizing the w War II in the utilization of the world's fishery resources. resources. World catch has tripledfrom 43 billion pound to 125 billion pounds,22 yet catch by *he 3. Foreign Trade U.S. industry has remained relatively stable, be- In 1967 the United States imported $708 tween 4 and 6 billion pounds (round weight)million of fish and exported $84 million, for a net despite U.S. consumption nearly Tripling in thedollar outflow of $626 million.' Seventy-six per same period. Fishing activitiesby many nations,cent by value of the fish produ,!mporiA ate especially Japan and Russia, have been extendedfood fish, most of which comes from Canada, to U.S. coasts. Total foreign catch in waters fished Japan, Mexico, and South America. by U.S fishermen now far exceeds the U.S. catch Many U.S. processors depend heavily on foreign from these waters and is expected to increasesources of fish. In fact,fish processing in the considerably. United States increased the import product value Imports to meet the rising U.S. demand haveby $430 million last year. Thus any analysisof the increased dramatically from 26 per cent of totalforeign trade problem should consider thevalue supply in 1960 to 71 per cent in 1967. Yet, theadded to the food product within the United U.S. coasts are adjacent to some of the mostStates as well as the price paid to foreign fisher- productive and abundant fishery resources in the men. world and the U.S. market is the largest and most The U.S. fishing industry is expandingforeign- lucrative in the world. Expectations are that U.S. based operations. Some reasons for this include consumption will grow steadily, reaching 21 bil-diversification, better profits than at home in lion pounds by 1985 and 31 billion pounds by the many cases, and encouragement byforeign govern- year 2000.2 3 ments. Statistics on fisheries supply available to domestic fishermen are not generally well known because C. Nature of the Industry the research required for reasonable stock assessment has been done on only a few species. 1. Components of the Industry Conservative estimates indicate that fishery resources off the U.S. coast are adequate to support The industry consists of several segments, in- a total annual sustainableyield (available to allcluding fishermen, vessel owners, wholesale dealers fishermen) of about 30 billion pounds, includingand brokers, ant]. processors. The fishermen crew marketable species not being fished now. Depend- the vessel. Particularly when small vessels are involved, the captain may also be the boat owner. ing on the definition nf marketable species, some estimate this total to be as high as 45 billion With larger and more expensive vessels the owners usually will not be the fishermen. The processors pounds. The production and consumption statistics forusually do not own their own fleet and are not industry are compiled in tending to become boat owners. The wholesalers the domesticfisi, and brokers handle a great deal of imported fish Table3,covering.,the period back to1945. isas follows: annualand often add some processing, functioning as Summarizing, the picture distributors and merchandisers. In general, the production of four to six billion pounds, static for fishing industry is substantially fragmented into nearly 30 years; market for about 14 billion firms in pounds, growing at a much more rapid rate thanmany fishing, processing, and distributing population; and resources available for a totalport cities with a number of merchandising firms catch of at least 30 billion pounds per year. Thein the interior as well. Processing companies often question then arises as to how the domestic fisheryextend credit to selected fishermen to purchase gear, construct new vessels, or renovateold ones.

2 2/bid. 23Department of the Interior, "Commercial Fisheries Federal Aid to States," Circular No. 286, Washington, 24Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial D.C., February 1968, p. 8. Fisheries.

V-36 Table 3 UTILIZATION OF FISHERY PRODUCTS IN THE UNITED STATES, SELECTED YEARS, 1945-67 1967 Population, Millions' 129.11945 150.21950 Edible Fish (round weight) 162.31955 178.21960 191.91965 195.7 Domestic Catch, Million lbs.Imports, Million lbs. Total, Million lbs. 3,8473,167 6803 4,4351,1283,307 2,5793,9111,332 4,2641,7662,498 5,1622,5762,586 5,0682,6832,385 Per Capita Use, lbs. (meat weight)2 29.8 (9.9) (11.8) 29.5 Industrial Fish (round weight) (10.5) 24.1 (10.3) 23,9 (10.9) 26.9 (10.6) 25.9 Domestic Catch, Million lbs. PerImports, Capita Million Use, lbs.lbs. Total, Million lbs. 1,4311,462 11.3 314 2,2331,594 14.9639 3,2102,230 19.8980 3,9592,4441,515 22.2 5,3723,1822,190 28.0 9,1197,4421,677 46.6 Domestic Cmch, Million lbs. Imports, Million lbs. 4,598 711 4,9011,767 Total Fish (round weight) 4,8092,312 3,2814,942 5,7584,776 10,125 4,062 Source: Compiled by the Office of ProgramPer Capita Planning, Use, lbs Bureau . of CommercialTotal, Million Fisheries. lbs. 5,309 41.1 6,668 44.4 7,121 43.9 8,223 46.1 10,534 54.9 14,187 72.5 43Estimate2Computed based EstJulyper i capita 1mate onpopulation 1946 basedconsumption relationship oneating 1946 onfrom ratio edibleof civilianround of orround to meatsupplies, imported weight weight excluding to product basis industrial with weight.armed allowancesproduct forces weight. overseas:for exports beginning and changes 1950-50 in beginning States. and end-of-year stocks. industry from thc There is no National organization representingtotal integration of the fishing distributing, and ocean to t'ie supermarket. all the interests of the processing, Na- marketing sections of the industry, although most The trend to emphasize products having Fisheriestional distribution is increasing. The fishproducts firms are members of either the National from Institute or the National Cann m-s Association, orinvolved must be obtainable in large volume occasionally both. A number of local trade organi-a sound resource base andalso must have broad zations are in the larger fisheries, such assalmon, customer acceptance. tuna, shrimp, menhaden and lobster. Vessel owners group together in local associa-D. Problems and Recommendations tions, mostly on a port or regional level,organized The Marine Resources Act sets among its under the Fishermen's Cooperative Act of 1934.objectives the "rehabilitation of our commercial Functions of such associations vary greatly fromfisheries." The panel believes that in attempting to marketing to the provision of such benefits asachieve this objective the Nation should build on discounts through group purchasing. Several at-strength. However, the panel also believesthat tempts have been made to create a Nationalvessel steps taken to solve critical problems canyield owners association, but without success. substantialgainsfor weaker segments of the industry, enabling them to take a larger portion of 2. Recent Trends the available catch off U.S. shores. As recently as 1960 only one U.S. firm engaged1. Access to Fisheries Resources in the fish trade with as much as $100million of business per year; a few had $50 million per year; Fish are treated in both National and inter- the majority had $10 million or less per year.national law as a common property resource.The first Around1960 foodfirmsbegandiversifyinclaw of the industry has been: "First come, through purchase or amalgamation with fish firms.served." Action taken to moderate the illeffects Today principal firms in the fish trade have salesof this situation has often been aimedtoward between $0.5 and $1.5 billion ayear.25 Thesemaintaining the position of large numbersof developments are giving the U.S. fishing industry a individual fishermen by restricting fishing tech- new charactermore adequate accessto capital;niques.Consequently,excessive, uneconomical National and international scale thinking; mer-harvesting effort now is applied to manyspecies. chandising rather than production orientation; and A more rational approach to achieving reason- better management. able competition in taking common-property re- Large U.S. fish firms customarily have avoidedsources is recommended in theResources Panel ownership of fishing vessels, although the practicereport.Inthat report an effort to apply the has differed in various sections of the industry.Alllimited entry principletothose U.S. fisheries segments, however, extend credit to fishermenforsubject to potential depletion isrecommended. seasonal operations, vessel acquisition, new vesselPolicies should be adopted to restrict fishing units construction, and other purposes. The changingto a certain number, each of maximumefficiency. character of theindustryisdiminishing thisControlling entry of fishing vessels should per..sit practice. more effective management ofthe resource. Over Many large firms now beginning to predominatethe long term, production costs should bereduced in the fish trade have extensive holdings inforeignand earning power improved. This panel concurs in operations. They buy raw material to their qualitysuchrecommendations.Mechanismsthrouglli standards from that source having the optimumwhich shares of the resource could be assigned combination of cost and reliability. However,include license fees and bidding for rights. rccent history does not indicate a strong'..end to Recommendation: A quota or limited entry principle shouldbe pilot 2 5 Examples: Castle and Cooke acquired Bumble Bee, tested in selected fisheries. The U.S. Government Inc.; H. J. Heinz bought StarKist Foods,Inc.; Consoli- should provide both opportunities and incentives dated Foods bought Booth Fisheries;-Pidston Purina bought Van Camp Sea Food Company. for States and regions tc carry out these tests.

V-38 4a 2. Fleet Renovation facilities should be introduced. This modernization may particularlyaidindeveloping the much Inefficiency of the present fleetis a seriousunderutilized speciesas Alaska 4-irimp, tanner industry problem. Although the U.S. fishing fleetcrab, and Pacific hake. is the world's second largest, about 60 per centof the vessels are over 16 years old and 27 per centRecommendation: have been in service over 26 years.26 Advances inU.S. and State Government policies should be fishing technology during the past few years haveaimed at upgrading the U.S. fishing fleet througlo made most of the U.S. fleet economically, if notintroduction of vessels with modern equipment. physically, obsolete. In the heterogeneous U.S. fishing industry, 3. High Cost of Vessels and Gear some fisheries, such as tuna and shrimp,have fairly modern fleets. Some fleets are antiquated and An important legal barrier in several fisheries is rapidly declining for several reasons. - Federal legislationrequiring U.S. fishermen to The reduction of profits due to reasons ofuse U.S.-built vessels to land fi,. at a U.S. port. foreign competition and/or a declining resouiceUntil 1948 the law was not of major consequence stands out among the various reasons for thebecause the U.S. fisherman often had tariff protec- decline of some segments of the fleet. The pricestion and rarely competed in the domestic market U.S. fishermen must charge to make a profit canwith foreign fishermen. be undercut by ibreign fishermen for one or more By 1948 domestic inflation contributed to the of the following reasons: lower labor costs, moredrastic change in the competitive situation. Tariff advanced technology, and subsidies from theirprotection became inconsequential in many fish- governments. In the case of a decreasing resource,eries and foreign policy prohibited increased pro- overfishing and reduced yields soon result fromtection. Imports of fish from allies were encour- the inability of vessels and fishermen to adapt toagedtobolstertheir dollar earning capacity. other, underutilized species. This reduction ofLower shipyardcosts abroad accentuated the profits tends to diminish the ability of those in thevessel cost difference. Rapid rebuilding of war- fishery to afford technological improvements ordestroyed fleets, often financed through U.S. aid new vessels or greater utility. programs, resulted in new, more efficient vessels in Where U.S. fisheries are overfished, considera-principal competing countries. Improved freezer tion should be given to retiren ent of old vessels asfacilities made long distance shipment practical. new ships are introduced. 'lite newships, in turn, Because of the domestic vessel construction should be designed for ready conversion to otherlaw, most U.S. fishermen could not buy an fisheries whose stocks are not being depleted.efficient new vesselatprices paid by foreigi Obstacles to this goal are State laws limiting thecompetitors. The tuna and shrimp industries, an length of vessels for a particullf fishery, possiblyexception, have introduced new technology and reducing the vessel's adaptability to other fisheries.purchased new vessels in sufficient quantity to S-ch laws should be reconsidered. enable domestic shipyards to become competitive Application of better vessel and gear technol-with those of foreign countries. ogy to overfished stocks will result in a greater rate Congress has grappled with the problem of of depletion. Fishermen taking such stocks can beforeiai hull restrictions for many years, but varied helped far more through biological research. Suchinterests have vigorously opposed repeal of the old research can help ensure that conservation lawslaw. A vessel subsidy bill was passed to attempt to and treaties are based on scientific findings andalleviate tht- problem but proved ineffective; hence can assist in determining more abundantstocks. the 88th Congress passed a more practical bill that Where fisheries are not in danger of depletionremains in effect until June 1969. more modern gear, vessels, and vesselaccessories The present vessel subsidy act still has short- such as detection and navigation equipment, newcomings. Statutory limitations on annual expendi- propulsion systems, and processing and storagetures prevent subsidy ly.lyrne1L1:s all qualified applicants.Although the!awrequires thata 2 6 Bureauof Commercial Fisheries. vessel's operation will not cause economic hard-

V-39 ship to efficient operators already engaged in theamong the worst handicaps tofisheries develop- fishery, no provision exists to retire an older vesselment. replaced by the subsidized vessel. Thus, the law Congress recognized this and by 1956 began to problem through generates inequities as it corrects others. ease the fishing industry's credit The law ha; worked to the disadvantageofU.S. Government loan programs. The Fisheries some aspects of the workof the Bureau ofLoan Fund Program has been a veryeffective Commercial Fisheries. In addition, the Bureau hasincentive for U.S. flag fishing at a nominal cost to fishing not had much control over which fisherywouldthe Government. It also has removed the receive subsidy funds. The long-range solution tovessel owner from dependence on his customers the vessel cost problem probably will comefromfor capital. increased use of advanced technology and mass This program is supplemented by a Mortgage Loan production techniques. Insurance Program. Whereas the Fisheries Regarding the subsidy program, the Govern-Fund enables a direct cash loan to the fisherman, ment should develop guidelines to establishpriori-under the Mortgage Insurance Program theGov- ties in handling subsidy applications. For example,ernment guarantees mortgages used tofinance a major portion of the programshould be directedconstruction, reconstruction, and reconditioning to those fisheries not in danger ofdepletion. Itof fishi g vessels. The program provides a vehicle also should help those in overfished fisheries movethrough which the Government can extend assist- into underutilized fisheries. When appropriate, theance without making a directc;.1.-,ital outlay. subsidy should be applied to distant-water fish- The fisherman ordinarily will seek a loan from eries. In all cases modern technological develop-his customer or from a bank under the Mortgage ments should be incorporated into the subsidizedInsurance Program. If reasonable financial assist- vessels and gear. ance applied for commerciallyis not available, U.S. fishermen should be permitted to buyfinancial assistance may be provided under the equipment anywhere in the world where they canFisheries Loan Fund. The existence of the fund find the best combination of price and perform-thus provides a fisherman with an alternate source ance. At present, import duties often preventof credit. acquiring such equipment. The fund has been very helpful to hard-pressed fishermen. Some in the industry contend thatthe Recommendation: fund is so popularitfrequently "runs out of money." Authorization for the fund is $20 mil- Restrictions on the purchase of fishing equipment however, $13 million was appropriated in abroad should be removed. Legislation shouldbe lion ; enacted to permit U.S. fishermen to purchase1968. On various occasions lending has been vessels in foreign shipyards; if it is decided not torestricted to an even lesser amount because of repeal the restrictive laws, the vessel construction overali Government expenditure limitations. Both the Fisheries Loan Fund and the Mortgage subsidy program should be expanded and modified Insurance Program should be retained. Favorable to provide for -etirernent of older vessels. consideration should be given those fishermen who involved with underuti- 4. Availability of Capital and Credit are or intend to become lized species having commercial potential. The credit problems of fish processing, distributing, and marketing are no different than those of5. Legal/Regulatory any other industry and the norm7-1financial instituticns have ser7ed these segments well. How- Among the most serious problems facing the ever, the fishing segment of the industry has notU.S. fishing industry are the laws and regulations been so fortunate, witnessing a relative scarcity ofthat prevent increases in efficiency. These restric- capital since World War H. Following the war,tions have resulted from a combination of at- bankers everywhere became reluctant to financetempts at conservation, competition among fisher- fishing vessels. During the low-profit period frommen for limited supplies of particularspecies, and 1948 through 1960, and still existing in several competition between commercial and sport fisher- fisheries, fishing vessel financing problems weremen for certain species.

V-4 0 Except for fisheries managed under interna-are caught each year (U.S. and foreign) and the tional convention, U.S. fisheries are regulated bymaximum sustainable yield is at least 30 billion the States under a maze of regulations adoptedpounds per year. Some estimate the potential yield over the years, many for reasons long-forgotten.of underutilized res:Airces as high as1.5 billion Numerous State and local laws and regulationspounds annually. G; .oper incentives, within were designed to protect established small-boatthree years the industry should be able to increase fishermen by restricting the use of efficient de-its present annual catch by 20 per cent and within vices. 10-20 years by several hundred per cent. Much of Such laws increase fish production costs in thethe increased yield would include species presently United States. For example, laws and regulationsused and close 'elatives not yet utilized. Examples forbid the use of traps to capture salmon; prohibitof underutilized species include Alaska shrimp, the taking of herring or anchovy for reduction scallopsandtannercrab;Pacificand Gulf purposes; limit the size and nature of nets; and tchovy; Gulf and Atlantic thread herring; Pacific forbid the use of sonar to detect fish schools. Suchhake; and Tropical Atlantic and Pacific skipjack restrictions must be eliminated. The States' in-tuna. terest in the problem is beginning to grow and These fish could be exploited more econom- must be encouraged. ically if comprehensive surveys were initiated and Several avenues are available to foster repeal ofkept up to date to establish the parameters of the ,utmoded State laws and regulations. One is toresource. Rapid action and strong financial sup- oevelop improved knowledge and understanding ofport are required. The last survey was authorized the ocean and its living resources to guide Stateby Congress in1944 and completed in1945. legislators and administrators in improving conser-Depending upon the fishery stock in question, the vation regulations. The Sea Grant Program shouldnew surveys proposed may review existing knowl- help augment the technical capabilities of Stateedge and/or study the resource itself to acquire fisheryofficials,throughsupportoffisherynew knowledge. Sport fisheries also should be sciences and education in State universities, which,included because of theecological interaction in turn, should provide better advice regardingbetween all stocks in a given area. fisheries regulations. Recommendation: Problems of conservation and preservation ofThe Government should initiate and sponsor con- natural habitats are not always local, but rather aretinuing surveys of U.S. coastal and distant-water often interstatein scope. As indicated in thefishery resources, including sport fisheries. Marine Resources Panelreport,the tendency toward parochialism in the individual States has7. Pollution led to fragmented solutions to fishery problems. Pollution of the Great Lakes, estuaries, bays, For example, the East Coast States are unable toand certainoffshore areas has aserious and agree on a management program in the menhadenincreasingly critical impact on domestic fisheries. fishery despite evidence of depletion. In such casesThe panel endorses the pollution abatement pro- a comprehensive unified management plan is re-posals made in the Panel Report on Management quired. and Development of the Coastal Zone and in the Accordingly, this panel recommends that aMarine Engineering and Technology Panel Report mechanism be established under which the U.S.and emphasizes that these actions can help to Government can require the development by theachievethegoalof rehabilitating commercial States of coordinated management measures forfisheries. interstate fisheries subject to potential depletion if8. Information Exchange2 7 and when the States fail to meet the responsibility Before scientific research and discoveries can themselves. Similar Federal-State mechanisms have become anoperationalpartof an industry's been established in the past. knowledge and capability, the industry must be 6. Surveys 2 7The subject of fishing technology is discussed in U.S. coastal waters contain some of the richestfurther detailinthe Report of the Panel on Marine fishing grounds in the world. Seven billion poundsEngineering and Technology. able to use the technology. Thisability may beaquatic plants and animals in a controlled environ- as lack of technicalment or a modified ecological system.Modifica- limited by suchfactors due to knowledge and capital, marginality of profits,lack tions to the natural ecology include those for of available peripheral equipment,environmentaltempernture, artificial feeding, use of barriers andcontainment or predator control, and selective and institutional peculiarities, obsolete laws prevailing concept of regulations, and tradition. breeding. Although the In the past 20 years, and increasingly so inthe aquaculture is growing selected species of fish in last few years, new materials and techniqueshave fresh-water ponds, opeiations exist in rivers, estu- been incorporated in a few fishing vessels,includ-aries, and marshlands, and there is definitely a ing improved propulsion units, greaterrefrigera-potential for the open ocean. tion capabilities, better location andcatching gear, In the United States the present level of activity China and better sea-keeping qualities. Thesummation ofis low compared with that in Asia, especially and all these new discoveries could havehad a revolu-and Japan, but nevertheless a variety of plants tionaryeffecton the construction offishing animals is being cultivated. Reliable and compre- vessels and the reduction in the cost per tonof fish hensive statistics on sales of aquaculturalproducts production had they entered the fishing industryin the United States are available onlyin a few more rapidly. selected instances. The governments of such countries asRussia, The panel estimates that the total U.S.whole- adaptsale value was in excess of $50 million in1967, Japan, and West Germany have programs to of new technology to fishingindustry needs whichbut this can vaxy widely with the definition have helped their industries thrive. Onlyminimal aquaculture. Sale:- of farmed trout and catfish in bait programs have been sponsored bythe U.S. Govern-1967 each exceeded $7 million wholesale, ment. However, the panel notes andcommendsminnows exceeded $8 million, and oystersfrom the recent exchange agreement betweenthe Navymanaged, private lands exceeded $13 million.'8 and the Department of the Interior tostudy In addition, a variety of operationsinvolve advanced acoustic technology in fishdetectionsalmon, black bass, pompano, mullet, clams, and adapation of fleet environmentalprediction scallops,prawns,lobsters,shrimp, and other techniques to forecast fish location The panel animal species, as well as several kinds ofseaweed. urges that similar steps betaken, within the Statistics on capital investment in U.S. aquacul- constraints of security, to accelerate theadapta-ture projects are elusive due to the greatvariety of tion of other pertinent military researchto thesituations and the often proprietary nature of the domestic fishing industry. information. Both expanding research efforts and In addition, much informationgathered byreduction of labor costs in commercial operations scientists in work in biological and conservationwill result in a sharp increase in the demand for research has potential to reduce fishermen's pro-capital. The companies involved aregenerally duction costs substantially. There is,however, nosmall, but the situation is changing rapidly as some satisfactory mechanism to readily translatetheof the largest companies in the United States now results of Government technology orscientificare beginning to explore aquacultureopportuni- information to the fishermen. tie: This trend will bring some needed capital as One Recommendation: opportunitiesfor profitare discovered. A field service mechanism should beestablished byState recently estimated that several companies the U.S. Government analogous to thecooperativehave considered investments in fixed facilities in State-Federal extension service administeredbyexcess of $100 million in differentaquaculture order to facili-projects; the commitment awaits favorable out- the Department of Agriculture in removal of tate transfer of technically usefulinformation tocome of present research efforts and barriers.' 9 fishermen at the local level. some political, legal, aril regulatory VI. AQUACULTUR E A. Present Status 28Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. Aquaculture in the United States today consists 29 -, Hon-da Development Commission, Tallahassee, Flor- of a small, scattered but growingeffort to raise ida, October 1968.

V-42 The panel's interest in the growth of aquacul-third dimension that can improve productivity per ture is from the standpoint of its potential forunit of surface area. profitable industrial ventures. It has been stated Aquaculturealso has some advantages over frequently that aquaculture can help solve theconventional fishing that enable it to supplement world hunger and malnutrition problem; however,the catch of fish and shellfish. Since most areas in the United States early emphasis will be on thedesired for aquacultural use are within U.S. juris- most profitable species, clearly the high-valueddicti^n, there is no foreign competition for the finfish and shellfish. resource as in some fish stocks. Because a degree There is a rapidly growing demand for scafoodof exclusive rights can be assigned to the "aqua- in general, but the greatest growth is for the highfarmer," and thus he need not rely on a common priced species. As the demand grows, some tradi-property resource, the incentive is increased to tional fisheries are declining, and many of theimproveprofitsthroughgainingproprietary natural grounds for shellfish are being destroyedknowledge leading to greater efficiency. In addi- by such other uses as waste disposal, land-fill, andtion, in aquaculture there is a potential to harvest dredging. At the same time, research has shownmore frequently, to harvest in seasons that do not many areas where vast naprovements are possiblecompete with the marketing of natural stocks, and in the technology of aquaculture. Examples in-to control the environment, assuring greater relia- clude genetic control to improve the quality,bility in the quantity and quality of the supply. growth rate, and adaptability of various species toB. Problems and Recommendations different environmental conditions, and the possi- The growth of this industry is influenced by bility of using presently wasted sources of nutrients and heat to effect economical cont ol of localmany factors, many of which center around a widely-scattered and insufficient knowledge of an environments. extremely complex ecological system. Thus, with E. ,vrowing demand for seafood, an Lack of thorough understanding of ecological uncertain naturl 711-ply of some species to meetsystems is usually the first problem. Research in this demand, ar.'-:(..,tential for vast improvementsmarine ecology is expensive, and its performance in aquacultural technology, prospects for profit-Loquires trained personnel and considerable time. able ventures are increasing. The task's magnitude and the unknown probabil- Aquaculture has many advantages for foodity of finding commercial applications generally production. A major impact of aquaculture lies inplaces this research beyond the limits of industry s its extreme productivity per acrea capability thatrisk tolerance. There are many exceptions to this, can lead to considerably larger yields of high-gradebut developing sufficient ecological knowledge to animal protein than fertile dry land. stimulate commercial interest remains an appropri- The advantages of aquaculture for food produc-ate area for Federal and State government support. tion arise in part from readily available nutrientsAn important parallel lies in the large amount of and water. A basic problem, however, is properpublicly supported agricultural research. Govern- management of these resources. Research hasment funds for basic research, -hanneled mostly shown that the combination of these ingredientsthrough the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, are can be very productive due especially to the factnot adequate to truly stimulate this industry. The that there i,; inherently a constant supply of water.paneltherefore recommer isthatthe modest If nutrients are in the water, marine organi...znsfunds3 0presently available for aquaculture re- have a continuous opportunity to use them assearch be increa: A. several fold within the next contrasted to most lanC organisms that can absorbfivc. years. nc,trients only when carried to them intermittently Industry is much more willing to undertake by water. In addition, most marine animals areapplied research programs, and many are in prog- poikilotherms (cold-bloods), and because less en-ress. Often they are funued by a combination o, ergy is wasted in heat production, they are oftenindustry, university, State, and U.S. Goveinment more efficient in conversion of 4-heir food intake to edible weight. Finally, forms of aquaculture 30Bureau of Commercial Fisheries budge. devoted to that use the water column obviously have added aaquaculture was $2.7 million in FY 1968.

V43 333-091 0-69-4 4 8 Foundation's Seatantson the ecology ofnearshore areas and money. The National Science harmful factors are Grant College Program, in fact, has reviewed many stronger efforts to control the applied aquaculture researchurgently needed. Vigorous Government support more applications for is clearly than it could fund. The panelrecommends thatthrough studies and provision of controls be given greater necessary. Water is often pollutedbecause the cost the Sea Grant College Program measured funding to enable sponsorship of a largerpercent-of abatement is greater than the readily aquaculture applications. economic value of alternative uses; as age of qualified increases in importance, it may providemuch of Work in estuarine or ocean areas encounters counter another serious obstacleownership orrights tothe positive economic impact needed to seabed. pollution. 3xclusiveuse of the water column or for Exclusive rights usually are essential to any aqua- Some forms of aquaculture have existed the potential, aquacul- culture project, but often difficult to obtain.Themany years, but relative to juris-ture is a new and exciting field. Inthe United problem is acute within waters under State not only in diction and will in time become so in wate,sunderStates the effort is widely -..cr States with seacoasts but 0 Jut the Nation. U.S. Government control. Few provisions or prece-At present there is no strong centil.,effort for dents assign exclusive rights to the seabed or water aquaculture either within the industry orwithin columnforsuchuses, and many established of such a focus interests, such as fishing, recreation, and conserva-the U.S. Government. The creation conflicting use of isessentialto improve communication among tion, regard aquaculture as a academic ctiniu- several casesgovernments at all levels, the givenareas. The panel identified Itwillassist guidance of where investments in aquaculture werethwartednity, and industry. research efforts and documentation anddissemina- orpoliticalreasons although foreitherlegal tion of tecunology, and prevent unnecessarydupli- conflicts of use were minimal. In these casesthe cation of effort. degree of exclusivity required was not greatand (BCF) compared to The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries the area involved was infinitesimal would be theappropriatefocus inthe U.S. total water resources available. research FederalGovernment. BCF already pert orms some It is recommended that the State and and provides funds to States for extension pro- governments encourage the use of naarine waters do not inter-grams under theCommercial Fisheries Research for aquaculture projects when they and Development Act of 1964.However, BCF fere with more important uses. Seasteading(see projectsnever has been in a positionto fund a strong Chapter 3) is a means to encourage such responsi- provisions foraquaculture program because its primary in U.S. territorial waters by making indeed, granting exclusive use rights. bility was for commercial fishing which, requires much attention. Inadequate technology also is a deterrent to panel recommends that the many types of aquaculture.Mechanical, physical, Therefore, the chemical, e' biological methods of containment ,I3ureau of Commercial Fisheries be given more have not specif;'.: responsibility for investigatingaquaculture of excluding predators, and of harvesting backed with sufficient been developed to the point of being economicallyprograms; this must L funds as recommended earlier. Pilot projects to acceptable in many proposed aquaculture systems. establish research facilities and develop basictech- Many of these problems will be solved in conjunc-niques appear warranted, and BCF wellmight tion with the basic and appliedecolo.Ocal studies, throughcontract such projects to industry oruniversities. and others will be solved by industry the com- engineering development programs when basicWithout increased support of this type, specificmercial potentialfor aquaculture may not tie research indicates potential and identifies realized as soon as this penel considerspossible needs. Pollution threatens or already has destroyed and desirable. many attractive sites foraquaculture as well asVII. SEA TRANSPORTAT natural spawning grounds. However, poss- ly some present-day forms of chemical and thermalpollu- A. Prevant Status ,cstually enhance certain programs. In- The prirnaf;, .)nenLs of theU.S. sea tion n: marine .:reased knowledge of the effects of variouspoll_i transtortation industry are tU merchent

V-44 and the private shipyards. Merchant marine opera- Furthermore, although ships under the flags of tions are augmented by such activities as portPanama, Honduras, andLiberia, theso-called cargo handling. Annual revenue accruing to the"flags of convenience," are deemed within effec- U.S. merchant marine, which encompasses U.S.-tive U.S. control, the international political impli- flag vessels operating in coastal and world trade,cations of U.S. attempts to wrest these ships from amounts to approximately $1.5 billion. If U.S.-their sponsor nations during peacetime emergen- owned, foreign-flag vessels were included in thecies are great. Therefore, the panel believes that definition, the revenue figure would be increasedthe rapid decline of the U.S.-flag merchant marine by as much as $4 billion, the bulk attributable tohinders the Nation's iity to support overseas tankers owned by U.S. oil companies.31 military operations and maintain vital imports in The other main segment of the sea transporta-time of war. tionindustry,theU.S. shipbuilding industry, It is important to rc.1:-.- 'J.S.-flag shipping includes conversion, repair, and construction ofin the foreign trade is an e. <1. commodity. The both naval and merchant vessels. The yearly valueU.S. balance of tradeis reduced every time a for this activity exceeds $2.2 billion.32 Variousforeign-flag ship carries trade from a U.S. port shipyards also have been engaged in designing and Snipbuilding alsoisessential as a domestic constructing oil rigs, mining vessels, dredges forindustry during a National emergency, since the the Corps of Enginec Ind oceanographic vessels,need forships increasesrapidly. In terms of cutters, and other shies for the Coast and Geodeticemergency needs, many believe the Navy building Snrvey and the Coast Guard. program, constituting more than 75 per cent of Ovel the past 5-10 years, the small volume oftotal construction inprivate yards, keeps the cargo carried un_ler U.S. flag and the decreasingdomestic shipbuilding industry sufficiently active number of merchant vessels built by domesticto maintain the needed industrial base. In addi- shipyards have been the subject of considerabletion, the unused potential Au U.S. shipyards can be concern. Several highly respected study groupsmobilized readily in Cme of war. have analyzed the problems of the U.S. merchant marine, especially such questions as operating and construction differential subsidies and foreign con-B. Trends struction of U.S.-flag vessels. These problems are extremely complex and deserve more careful, Shipbuilding in the United States is a sizable concentrated thought than the panel was able toindustry, becoming more technologically-oriented contribute inlight of the broad scope of thebecause of the complicated equipment and design Marine Resources and Engineering Developmentrequired for naval vessels which are more complex Act. than merchant ships. However, the industry does The panel unequivocally believes that strongnot operate at peak capacity or optimum effi- U.S.-flag shipping and private shipbuilding indus-ciency because most types of vessels are ordered in tries are vital to the National interest. The impor-very limited numt,2rs. Thus, the pace of capital tance of domestic shipping and shipbuilding be-investments in updated ship construction facilities comes paramount during times of emergency orhas beeninalmost direct proportion to the National crisis. In such circumstances, heavy reli-available level of crders. ance J nforeign-flag shippingisnot advisable However, the recent Navy trend toward multi- though many of the ships may be under nominalyear, multi-ship procurement already has stimu- U.S. ownership. ,ted capital equipment improvement in shipyards. If contracting practicesjr merchant ship construction also followed this oattern, further mod- 3 1 Laird Durham (A.D. Little, Inc.), "The United States ernization could be expected. When a shipyard Ocean Industries," April. 1966. p. 13. receives an order for several ships of a particular 32This fiL:tirc flects the value of work done during a design, the experience and learning acquired in year. Because must shipbuilding contracts extend overconstructing thefirst few vessels of the series several years, "value u. work done" is considered superior to "total cost of ships delivered" as an indicator ofgreatly reduces costs and improves efficiency for shipyard productivity. Shipbuilders Council of America. the remaining vessels.

50 V-45 One U.S. shipbuilding company has followedsuccessfully in international shipping. The concept the lead of Japan by successfully marketing itsinvolves technology no more complicatedthan control. Its own standardizeddesignforamedium-sized computerized inventory and traffic tanker. As of mid-1968, this company had ob-most outstanding feature issimplicity. Prior to tained nine contracts for nearly identical vessels. containerization, a typical overseas cargo shipment The de5ign-marketing practice has been adoptedwas handled at leasteight times before secured by at least one other major shipyard. aboard ship. Containerization has resulted inmuch Other ways to minimize costs in sea transporta- less handling, which inturn has led to lower tion are to build larger ships and utilize nuclearhandling costs and less pilferage. power. The total energyrequired to carry a ton of Containerization also enables a new systems cargo at a given speed decreases as avessel's cargo approachtoglobaltransportation. Truck and capacity increases, reducing cost per ton-mile.railroad ilatcar scheduling can be coordinated with Although huge tankers and bulk carriers of morescheduling for containerized ships, thusallowing than 100,000 deadweight tons are moreefficient largecontainerstobe quickly unloaded and on the high seas, manyharbors around the worldtransferred. By minimizing the time a ship spends are incapable ofaccommodating such immense in port, containerization results in greatsavings to vessels. In fact, programs to deepen ports now are the operator and permits ports tohandle more encountering serious physical obstacles, such asships and a much greater volume of cargo. bedrock or highway and railroad tunnels that limit The impact of containerization can be seen in dredging depth. Where a harbor cannot be adaptedthe fact that 12 per cent of all 1968foreign to handle superships, it may be necessary tobuild commerce handled at New York's piersis contain- remote terminals offshore or relocateharbor com-erized, compared to 3 per cent only two years ago. plexes. Furthermore, the Port of New York Authority Nuclear powerisanother potential way toestimates that hy 1975 half of all cargobrought increase operational efficiency at sea, especially into New York Harbor will be handledvia contain- )r long-distance, high-speed travel.One big advan-ers. In view of this projectedboom in contain- tage of nuclear power is that snips can operate eri port facilities will have to be much lotmer without refueling. Thus, during nor-updated. mal conditionsnuclearshipsbenefit intime savings from less frequent stops, and under war- VIII. INSTRUMENTS time pressures they need less logistic support for continued operations. A. Present Status In addition, nuclear vessels require much less space for the combination of fuel and powerplant The operation, as well as the monitoring of the operation, of oceanographic platforms, test ranges, and thus haveagreater percentage of their displacement available for cargo. Some nations are vipment, and data systems (in fact, all aspects of not yet willing to receive nuclear vessels intheirmarine science and technology) depends on the ports for fear of radiation, but it is believed thatavailability of diverse types of instrumentation this will be only a temporary deterrent to thewith adequate cost-performance and reliability progress of nuclear merchant shipping. characteristics. Most important, much of the Na- Construction of nuclear-powered passenger andtional investment in ocean programs now and in cargo ships can be accomplished readilyby U.S.the foreseeable future will be devoted to meas- shipyards. The industry has considerable expertise uring the characteristics of the marine environ- from building nuclear submarines, cruisers, guided ment. Reliable, accurate instruments that canbe missile frigates, ard aircraft carriers for the Navy,maintained in proper caliLfation Al La vital factor not tolention the first nuclear-powered merchant in the ultimate usefulness of data obtained from ship, the N.S. Savannah. ocean survey programs. At present, the most heartening recent develop- Recognition of the importance of reliable oc-!an ment in the shipping intaistry is containerization. data resulted in the establishment of the National Two non-subsidized U.S. companies ha-. a set the Oceanographic Data Center (NODC). The data are pace in this a. and have been able to competeavailable to the academic, industrial, and govern-

V-46 ment sectors and data exchange also has beenLack of a common instrument performance "lan- established with certain foreign countries. Concernguage" and satisfactory communciations between over proper data processing, archiving,and re-instrument producers, procurement agencies, data trieval also should be applied to its collectioncollectors, and data users. botl. to instrumentation and methods employed to--Present ocean instrument procurement policies. gather data. Most ocean programs have been limited in both staff and budget. As a result, specific program objectives are often compromis.:d and only limited1. LanguagearylCu,.....-,[unicationsNet-dfor instrumentation is procured, Unlike conditions in Specification Guidelines many other non-oceanographic programs,such as Producers, procurement agencies, and users the space program, ocean instrument specificationsrequire standards and specification guidelines en- are ofteniinirnized, meaningful quality assurancecompassing the following: programs are largely nonexistent, and serviceand maintenance manuals and other documentation (1) Performance requirements,(2) environ- are often inadequate to meet basic userneeds. In it,ital conditions, (3) test procedures, (4) quality addition,statistical information defining condi-assurance requirements, (5) design requirements, tions of use, maintenance and repair cycles, and(6) interfacing and/or installation requirements, modes of failure are seldom documented and made(7) terminology, (8) formats for specification and available to the manufacturer. This, in turn, slowsdata, and (9) documentation. down the correction of problem areas and prevents Performancerequirementsshouldindicate the upgrading of performance and reliability in atypes of functions an instrument must perform logical manner. and how well these functions must be carried out. Past experience shows that user demand for aThus, tests will have to measure such items as particular type of ocean instrument is generally forrepeatability, stability, data rate, accuracy, and a limited quantity of highly complex instruments,precision. often requiring custom design.In suchcases, Additional specifications should be related to manufacturing does not lend itself to mass produc-an instrument's interaction with variousenviron- tion,onefactorthat has allowed the small,mental conditions during operation, storage, and teulically oriented firm to compete favc..,:blyshipping. Therefore, testing would have to ascer- with large corporations. Although large capitaltain the instrument's ability to withstand such facilitiesarenot always essentialto produceenvironmental aspects as terb-Jerature, shock and marine instruments, expensive facilities are oftenvibration, pressure, noise, salt spray, and humidity. necessary for development and qualification test-Case histories. have been compiled showing the ing. seriousness of time 'lost through equipment failures from such sources as ct-rrosion and shock and B. Specific Problem Areas vibration, Developing laboratory tests to simulate environmental conditions is difficu quite com- The most valid complaints about oceanojaphicplex. and expensive. instruments are their lack of reliability and lack of For a test procedure specification, for example, user confidence in the data gathered. Manyarticlesit is necessary to define precisely what constitutes have beer written and symposia sponsored toan acceptance test to determine if each pct-form- examine the diverse sources of unreliability. Oneance and environmental specification is met satis- recent meeting identified two primaryfac.tors:"factorily by the manufacturer. Furthermore, oceanographic instruments and important components should be classified by 3 3 Government-Industry-University Symposium on In-type. -Aid standar_ specifications should be devel- stnimentReliability, May 6-7. 1968, Miami, Florida, sp on s o re d bytheNationalSecurity Int:It:stria: oped for each classification. A ssociation-Ocean Science and Teclmaloay Committee The foregoing indicates types of specifications (OSTAC) Ocean Platform and Instrumentation Subcom- mittee. that could be standardizrd by Federal agencies

V-47 frequentlyover- responsiblefor procuring oceanographic instru- Procurement policieshave ments. However, it is imperative that thespecifica-emphasized initialcost because no dependable tions be reasonable. Current militaryspecifica-economic and operational performance criteria tions, for instance,wouldoftenrequireexist to determine the quality and usefulness of a instruments that are overdesigru'd or overpricedgiven instrument. In addition, proctr..ement specifi- for commercial applications. Thesespecificationscations often fail to take into account the total should provide technical guidance and should noteconomic implication of e:'1specification. A restrici or freeze a design. Rather, such specifica-typical example is the requirement for a much tions should simplify communications among seg-higherdegree of instrument accuracy thanis ments of the oceanic community. required. A large number of independent organizations Under present conditions, instrument manufacturers frequently do not have adequate incentive gatherand contribute oceanographic datato NODC. Often substantially different experimentalto (1!---,-'np equipment or systems that will be more results are submitted because their instruments, orcost, .;five to the user. This need not be, since sensors, while similar, may have beencalibrated toindustry can produce reliable equipment at costs different standards, operated in a different man-commensurate with high quality. Until procure- ner, or their output data mayhave been processedment policies are changed, many instruments of inherent poor quality will continue to be procured differently. Some specification guidelines already in exist-on a low-bid basis. ence can be applied, with orwithout modification, In summary, many instruments perform poorly to ocean instruments. However, theestablishmentunder operational conditions and thus cause need- of standard ocean instrument specifications is alessrepairs and delays. This latter expense is major problem that will require considerable effortgrowing rapidly due to ever increasing vehicle in man-hours and money over a long period untiloperating costs.In addition, these instruments agreement is reached on the acceptabilityof suchoften are not designed to minimize the total specifications. Voluntary groups have attempteddata cost. to write specification g-iidelines, buthave generally failed due to the enormity of the task. C. Recommendations The panel recommends establishing a permanently staffed and adequately funded focal point1. Guidelines intheGovernment, preferablyinamarine- To foster Government procurement of reliable, orientedagency, to recommend measurementcost-effective ocean instruments, the panel recom- standards, prepare standard specifications, andmends: perform tests on oceanographic instruments. Some efforts of this kind are in progrcs in the Navy andFederal procurement policies should emphasize the Bureau of Standards. lifetime cost, recommend reasonable performance standards, and require complete, adequate quality 2. Procurement Philosophy assurance programs by instrumentproducers. Measuring characteristics of the marine environ-General guidelines should be developed for pre- ment absorbs a major part of the National invest- pa ;ng technical specificationsfor instrument pro- ment in oceanography. The preselt Federal policycurement, taking into account each category of for devei . oing and acquiring oceanographic instru-the specifications listed earlier. mentation appears to minimize initial capital cost rather thantotal data cost. Thus, inadequateThe Government should recognize the cost impli- consideration has been given to the total cost ofcations of particular technical specifications for obtaining required data, namely the cost to thedata collectors, data processors, and data users. data collector, processor, and user. It ha., often been demonstrated that a more expensive instru-Continuing, effective communications should be ment, by virtue of its versatility and reliability, canestablished among the data users, procurement effect reductions in the ultimate cost of data. agencies, and ii.strument manufacturers, encom-

v-48 53 passing full exchange of information on opera-lead role in this area, it is recommended that their tional economics, performance, reliability, androle be strengthened and broadened. The panel testing procedures. encourages the Navy, working in conjunction with the Bureau of Standards, to act as an interim focal 2. Implementation point i.or tests and standardization activity. The need for oceanographic instrument specifications is urgent. Since the Navy purchases a large--This ft,71ction should ultimately be transferred, if number of such instruments and presently has anecessary, to a civilian marine ageiicy.

V-o 9 Appendix A Acknowledgments

Many persons were contacted by panel and staffmembers during the preparation of this report. The following list includes those who made importantcontributions through interviews, conferences, submission of written materials, and review of reportdrafts.' There may have been other persons who made such contributions, and the panel apologizesfor their inadvertent omission. Although the report reflects in part these contributions, its recommendations arethose of this panel and are not necessarily the views of any specific individuols or organizations.

Organization Name Organization Name Connelly, Will Marine Acoustical Seivices, Abel, Robert B National Science Foundation Kelco Compacy Adams, C.F. Raytheon Company Conner, Don E Litton Industries Conyers, Charles C Management Consultant Allan, Robert M., Jr. . Bull Head Manna Allen, Louis Allen Weather Corporation Cornell, Mel .... AmericanHull Insurance Allen, Sheldon Freeport Sulphur Company Cornwell, C.C...... Shell Oil Comnany Syndicate Arnold, K ny Cotton, Donald 13 D B Cotton & Associates Asp lin, L.I. Shell Oil COE Marine Acoustical Servi_es, Inc. Barrow, Thomas D. ,_ .) Humble Oil & Refining co. Crapo, Stanford T. Inc. Crawford, John E Crawford Marine Specialists, Inc. Bascom, Willard (R) .. Ocean Science & Engineering Consolidc 2c1 Edison Company Baner, Robert V Global Marine Exploration Co. Crawford, W.D Yachting Publishing Cretzlcr, Don J Bisse-t-Berman Corporation Bavier, Robert N., Jr. Cullison, James S. II (R) Florida Development Corporation Commission Beckman, Walter C Alpine Geophysical Associates, Inc. Danforth, Peter Payson & Trask Eli Lilly & Co. Danhof, Clarence (R) .... George Washingi:on University Beesley, E. Davidson, William H., Jr Transcontinental Gas Benoit, Richard (R) General Dynamics Corp. Pipeline Corp. Bissett-Berman Corporation Berman, Bernard Davis, Berkley General Electric Company Boatwright, V.T . General Dynamics Corporation Dean, Gordon (R) .. Bureau of Mines, Department ofthe Bolin, L.T. Brown and Root, Inc. Interior Botch, F.J. General Electric Company Dean, Robert University of Florida Bowen, Hugh M. Dunlap and Associates, Inc. De Norme, Roger .. Belgian Mission to the United States Bram tette, W.A Humble Oil & Refining Co. Den, Earl D. Royal Globe Insurance Companies Briggs, Robert 0. The Dillingham Corporation Doan, H.D. Dow Chemical Company Britain, Kenneth E Tennessee Gas Pipeline Co. Dockson, Robert R. University of Southern Brockett, E.D Gulf Oil Corporation California Brown, Fred E. Tri-Continental Corp. Lockheed AircraftDoig, Keith (R) Shell Oil Company Brown, Herschel Dole, Hollis (R) Oregon Department of Geology and Burden, William Wm. A.M. Burden & Co. Mineral Industries Kennecott Copper Corporation Burgess, Harry C. Dorsey, B.R. Gulf Oil Corporation Burk, Creighton (R) Mobil Oil Corporation Joy Manufacturing Company Callaway, Samuel R. Morgan Guaranty Trust Co. of Drain, J. New York Duncan, C.0 American Telephone & Telegraph Co. Divcon, Inc. Dunlap, Jack W., Jr. Dunlap and Associates, Inc. Campesi, Nick S . Dunlap, Jack W., Sr. Dunlap and Associates, Inc. Carney, Thomas G D Searle Company E C &G., Inc. Carsola, Alfred Lockheed Aircraft Corp.Edgerton, Harold Irving P. Krick Associates, Inc. Ensign, Chester (R) Copper Range Company Caubin, Paul J. Felando, August American Tunaboat Association Cawley, John H. (R) A D Little, Inc. Sinclair Oil and Gas Co. Chamberlin, Theodore (R) Ocean Science andFisher, Frank R. Engineering Co. Flowers, W.W. Sinclair Research Company Fortenberry, Jerry P. (R) Tennessee Gas Chambers, Leslie A Allan Hancock Foundation Transmission Co. Chambers, R.R Sinclair Research Company Dunlap and Associates, Inc. Foster, William C. (R) Ralston Purina Company Channel, R.C. CompanyFox, Joseph M. Merck and Company, Inc. Chapman, W.M. (R) ..... Van Camp Sea Food Sippit.:an Corporation Charles, Raymond A. Prudential Insurance Co. ofFrancis, Thaycr, Jr. America Franklin, J.M. U S. Lines, Inc. CM2, Inc. Frautschy, Jeffery D. Scripps Institution of Cima, Norman E. Oceanography, University of California, San Diep Clark, Robert Hayden, Stone incorporate Tenneco, Inc Clarke, Williain D Westinghouse Electric Corp. Freeman, N.W Aqua-Chem, Inc. Frensley, Herbert J. Brown and Root, Inc. Cleaver, John C. Bendix Cc4poration Clements, William P., Jr. Southeastern Fuller, Richard C. DriL ig Co. Fulling, Roger W. E I. duPont de Nemours & Co. Clewell, Dayton Mobil Oil Corporation Clotworthy, MI. ....National OceanographyAssociation Coates, L.D. (R) Lockheed-California Company 1(R) deno tes those persons who reviewed portions of Coene, G.T. (R) Westinghouse Electric Corp. preliminary drafts of panel material. Collyer, James Raytheon Company Conant, M-thin Standard Oil Company *Deceased,

v-s0 Name Organization Name Organization Gaden, Elmer L., Jr. Columbia University Ludwig, Daniel ii National Bulk Carriers Gagnebin, A.P. International Nickel Co. Luelurnann, W.H Teledyne, Inc. Ga [erne, Andre International Undcrwater Lynch, John Sea-Land Service. Inc. Contractors Maloney, Walter E. - Bighorn, EngJir, Jones & Houston Gaul, Roy D Westinghouse Electric Corp. Maness, Irving Small Business Administration Gentry. Robert C . Environmental Science Services Menzel, Daniel Battelle Northwest Administration, Department of Commerce Martin, George North American Rockwell Corp. Gerstacker, Carl Dow Chemical Co. Martin, William R Aquasonics Engineering Co. Gheardi, Walter R Chubb and Son Maton, Gilberi L. John I. Thompson Co. Gilman, Roger H. Port of Ncw York Authority May, T.P. The ln.ernational Nickel Co., Inc. Ginzton, Edward L_ Varian Associates Maybcck Edward B Thc Chase Manhattan Bank Gordon, William G. (R) Bureau of Commercial Mayer, Raymond W. CM2, Inc. Fisneries, Department of thc Interior McDonald, CapL C.A.K., USN (R) Department Gottwald, F.D. Ethyl Corporation of the Nir.y Graves, C.L. J Ray McDermott McDonald, Joseph Public Land Law Review Hait, James M. tiMC Corporation Commission Ha llamere, R.G. Lear Siegler, Inc. MeIlhenny, W.F. (R) Dow Chemical Company Halstcci;since W. World Life Research Institute MeKeen, John E Charles Pfizer Company Harden, ".L Standard Oil of NJ. McLean, Noel B. Edo Corporation Hastings, Charles E Hastings-Raydist, Ir.c. Mcro, John L. Ocean Resources, Inc. Houghton, Dan Lockheed Aircraft Corpon m Miller, Leonard A Columbia Gas System Heath, Wallace G. (R) Western Washington Service Corp. State College Miller, O.N Standard Oil of California Henry, Vernon J., Jr. University of Georgia Miller, Paul First Boston Corporation Hills, R.C. Freeport Sulphur Company Milliken, Frank R Kennecott Copper Corp. Holden, Donald A. Newport News Shipbuilding & Mole, Harvey U.S. Steel Corp. Dry Dock Co. Montgomery, W. Saxe Geodyne Corporation Honsinger, Leroy V. Todd Shipyards, Inc. Moody, John D., Sr. Mobil Oil Corporation Hood, Edwin M. Shipbuilders Council of America Moore, J. Jamison Modern Management Horrer, Paul L. Marine Advisors, Inc. Moore, John North American Aviation Howc, Eugene E Merck, Sharpe and Dome Moore, W.T , Sr. Moore-McCormack Lines Howe, Richard J. (R) Humble Oil and Refining Co. Morris, W.T., Jr. Lykes Brothers Steamship Hydrick, Gardner Scudder, Stevens & Clark Co., Inc. Isaacs, John Scripps Institution of Oceanography,Morrish, Thomas M. (II) Oceanic Foundation University of California, San Diego Muys, Jerome C. Public Land Law Review Isbrandtsen, Jakob American Export Isbrandtsen Commission Lines, Inc. Nemec, F.A. Lykes Brothers Steamship Co., Inc. Jamieson, J.K Standard Oil of N.J. Nickerson, Albert L. Mobil Oil Corporation Jenkins, George Metropolitan LifeOberle, Frank Murphy-Pacific, Merrit Salvage Jobst, Louis F., Jr.. _ .....City and Port of Long Beach Divizlon Johns, Lionel S. /R) Ocean Science and Ochacher, Donald M. Columbia Gas System Service Engineering Co. Corp. Jones, Albert Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Officer, Charles B Alpine Geophysical Department of the Interior Associates, Inc. Jones, Robert E. National Association ofO'Keefe, Bernard J E G &G., Inc. Manufacturers O'Leary, John F. ...,... Burtau of Natural Gas,Federal Jordan, Arthur Cape Fear Technical Institute Power Commission Jordan, S.A. Westinghouse Electric Corp.O'Malley. Hubert J ESSO Exploration, Inc. Jorgenson, John H. (R) National SecurityOppenheimer, Carl H. Florida State University Industrial Association Orlofsky, S. (R). ...Columbia Gas SystemServke Corp. Joyner, H.H. American Telephone & Teleg;raph Co. Osborne, William Lehman Brothers Jurow, Irving H. Schering Corporation Paige, John Internafional Nickel Co. Kahl, Joseph Kahl Scientific Tinstrument Corp. Paine, F. Ward (R) Ocean Science Capital Corp. Kane, Eneas D. Chevron Research Company Palmer, R.B Texaco, Inc. Kaufman, Alvin (R) Bureau of Land Management, Pearson, A.S Consolidated Edison Company Department of the Interior Peterson, C.E. (R) Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Kaufman, Otto Aetna Life Insirance Company Department of the Interior Kennedy, Joseph B. Sinclair Oil Corporation Phillippe, G.L.* General Electric Co. King, Lyle Port of New York Authority Phillips, T.L. Raytheon Company Kirby, George F . Ethyl CorporationPower, John J. Charles Pfzer & Co., Inc. Kirkbride, Chalmer G. (R) Sun Oil Company Prior, William W Trunklint. Gas Company Knowlton, Hugh Smith Barney i.. Co., Inc. Purdon, Alexandria U S. Lines, inc. Kushner, Harvey D. (R) ('-ie '-ins Research Inc. Ramo, Simon TRW, Inc. Laborde, Alden J... ,.. Oce and Exploration Rebikoff, Dimitri I Rebikoff Underwater Co. Products, Inc. LaQue, Francis L. (R) International Nickel Richardson, William S. NOV2 University Co., Inc. Ricker, J.B., Jr Marine Office of America law 7- y, wilin J. The Sippican Corporation Rolfe, Briney Sinclair Research Company Lera Thomas H The Ford FoundationRoot, L. Eugene Lockheed Aircraft Lenz, Vv...throp C Men:.' ench Pierce FennerRorer, Gerald F. Willior.-. H. Rorer, Inc. & Smith, Inc.Rudiger, Carl E. (R) Lockheed Missiles & Lesser, Rober i M. Lockheed-California Company Space Co. Lockwood, Will.O.m First National City Bank Rutledge, Carleton (R) ...... Westinghouse Electric (New York) Corp.

V-5I Name Organization Name Organization Kennecott Copper Corporation Ryan, William R. Edo CorporationSwan, Dave Tenneco, Inc. Salladay, Steve Insurance Company of NorthSymonds, Gardiner AmericaTajima, George (R) Bissett-Berman Corporation Freeport Sulphur CompanyTaylor, J.F., Jr. . Decta Systems, In,- Sampson, Charles M Thayer, Stuart Lykes Brothers Steamship Co., Int.. Sated, L.H Merck & Company, Inc. Sun Oil Company Schafersman, Dale A. Natural Gas Pipeline Co. ofThomas, Charles (R) AmericaThornberg, Russell B. .. .Global Marine Exploration Co. Tibby, Richard B. Catalina Marine Science Center Schenck, Herbert H. U.S. Underseas Cable Corp. Tishman Realty Corp. Schmidt, Benno C. J H Whitney & Co.Tishman, Robert Morgan Stanley & Co. Tonking, W.H Brown & Root. Inc. Schoales, Dudley N. (it) Topping, Norman University of Southern California Scott, John Mobil Oil Corporation North America Ethyl CorporationTorrey, Thomas ..Insurance Company of Shapiro, Hymin Treadwell, Capt. T.K., USN Navc1 Oceanographic Sheets, 11.E General Dynamics Office Payson & Trask Shepard, Hardy Turman, S.P Lykes Brothers Steamship Co., Inc. Shephard, Robert I. (R).. _WestinghouseElectric Corp. Tuthill, Arthur H. (R) International Nickel Co., Inc. Sherwood, Robert International Nickel Co., Inc.Vance, Jack 0 McKinsey and Company Shigley, C. Monroe (R) Dow Chemical CompanyWake lin, James H., Jr. (R) Ryan Aeronautical Co. Shykind, E.B. (R) CMREF, National Council on Walthier, Thomas N. (R) Occidental Minerals Corp. Marine Resources and Engineering Development Ward Associates Shell Oil Company Ward. David M. Siebenhausen, C.H. (R) Ware, T.M. .... InternationalMinerals & Chemical Corp. Simons, Merton E. (R) .... PhillipsPetroleum Company Warm, W.F MariLL, Office of America Singleton, Henry E Teledyne, Inc. Warner, Arthur J... Bureauof Mines, Department of the Smith, A.0 Ocean Systems, Inc. Interior Smith, Warren Lee ...Kidder, Peabody &Company, Inc. Warner, R , Jr Mobil Oil Corporation Snodgrass, James (R)Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Waters, Rear Adm. Odale D., Jr., USN Department Univers,cy of California, San Diego of the Navy Snyde.r, A.E. Colt Industries Weber, Erncst M Charles Pfizer & Co., Inc. Snyder, Capt. J. Edward, USN ..Department ofthe Navy Wedin, John (R) ....Staff, Senate CommerceCommittee Soloman, Herbed L. Uris Building Corporation Weiss, A.M. Natural Gas Pipeline Co. of America Spanghrs, Miller B National Planning AssociationWheaton, Elmer P (R) Lockheed Missiles and Stephan, Charles R Florida Atlantic University Space Co. Stephan, J. Stan First Bank and Trust Company,White, N.C. International Minerals and Chemicals Bryan, Texas Williams, L.M Freeport Sulphur Company Stewart, Harris B. ESSA, Department of Wilson, Roger W J Ray McDermott Commerce Wingate, H.S. International Nickel Co. Stoddard, George A. Scudder, Stevens & ClarkWright, Donald L. Jersey Enterprises, Inc. Stoddard, George E. Equitable Life AssuranceWright, Edward W. Dillingham Corporation Society of the United States Zimmerman, Edwin M. Anti-Trust Division, Stowers, H.L. Texas Gas Transmission Co. Department of Justice Strohmeyer, D.D. Bethlehem Steel Corporation Zimmerman, Jack .... Hydrospace ResearchCorporation Sutton, Paul A. Alpine Geophysical Associates, Inc.

57 V-52 Part VI

Report of the Panel on Marine Engineering and Technology Contents

Influence of Technology on the Preface VI-1 VI. Law of the Sea VI-22 Chapter 1Introduction and Summary . VI-2 Chapter 4 Organization VI-23 I. Program and Goal VI-2 VI-23 IL Major Objectivts VI-2 I. National Perspective ilLMajor Recommendations VI-3 National Organizational Structure VI-23 W.Ten-Year Program of Marine A. General VI-23 Development VI-4 B. National Advisory Committee A. Fundamental Technology VI-4 for die Oceans (NACO) VI-23 B. National Test Facilities VI-5 ILL US. Government Organizational VI-25 C. National Projects VI-5 Structure VI-25 D. Costs VI-6 A. General B. New Civilian Ocean Agency VI-25 Chapter 2 Major Findings and C. Interagency Coordinating VI-25 -Recommendations VI-7 Mechanism D. Navy Role VI-25 A. General VI-7 W.Focal Point in the Legislative Branch VI-26 B. Fundamental Teclmology. . . VI-9 VI-27 C. Test Facilities VI-9 Chapter 5 Multipurpose Technology D. Special Deep Ocean Considerations- . VI-28 E. Special Nearshore Problems VI-10 I. Fundamental Technology . . VI-11 A. Survey Equipment and F. Great Lakes Restoration VI-29 G. Industrial Technology . . VI-11 Instrumentation VI-11 B. Power Sources VI-33 1. Fishing and Aquaculture VI-33 2. Oil and Gas VI-12 1,A*C.Inmica1 Batteries VI-34 3. Chemical Extraction and 2. Fuel Cells VI-34 Desalination VI-12 3. Thermal Conversion VI-35 4, Ocean Mining VI-13 4. Nuclear Reactors VI-35 5. Power Generation VI-13 5. Isotope Power 6. Conclusions VI-36 Chapter 3 Factors Affecting Technology C. External Machinery Systems an Development VI-15 Equipment VI-37 1. Power Application.. . VI-37 I. Opportunities for the Future . VM 5 2. Electrical Distribution. . VI-39 Importance, Urgency, and Rationale 3. Buoyancy and Trim Control VI-39 for U.S. Leadership VI46 4. Conclusions VI-40 M.Trends Influencing Marine D. Materials VI-41 Development VI4 7 1. 1-figh Strength Steels . VI-42 . .VI-42 IV.Interrelationships Among Particular 2. Nonferrous Metals . - VI-43 Segments VI18 3. Nonmetallic Materials. A. Government-Industry-Academic VI48 4. Supplemental Buoyancy. "1-44 B. Civilian-Military VI49 Material C. Relationships Among Nations VI-20 5. Secondary Materials . VI-45 VI-45 V. Technical Interrelationships. - VI-20 6. Conclusions VI-46 A. Science-Engineering-Technology. .VI-20 a Navigation and Communications VI-49 B. Outerspace-Hydrospace . . VI-21 F. Tools G. 'Mooring Systems, Buoys, and F. Future Needs VI-129 Surface Support Platforms . VI-51 G. Institutional Arrangements . VI-133 H. Biomedicine and Diving H. Conclusions VI-133 Equipment .. VI-55 I. Environmental Considerations VI-62 I. Sea Floor and Bottom Strata -VI-62Chapter 6 Industrial Technology . VI-135 2. Bottom Composition and Engineering Properties. VI-63I. Fishing VI-136 3. Physical and Chemical A- Fishing Vessels and Gear . VI-137 Properties of Seawater VI-64 B. Hunting and Harvesting VI-144 4. Dynamic factors VI-67 C. Processing VI-150 J. Data Handling VI-71 D. Government Role VI-153 IC life Support VI-72 E. Conclusions VI-154 IL Test Facilities ..- VI17II. Aquaculture VI-156 A. Simulation Facilities VI-77IROffshore Oil and Gas VI-161 B. Hyperbaric Facilities VI-79 A. Scope of Offshore Industry. VI-161 C. Ocean Test Ranges VI-80 B. History of Offshore Activity. . VI-163 D. Conclusions . VI-82 C. Exploration VI-164 HI.Deep Ocean Activides VI-83 D. Production VI-167 A. Undersea Systems VI-83 E. Pipelines V1-169 1. Submersible Vehicles . VI-84 F. Subsea Operations VI-172 2. Unmanned and tethered G. Government Role VI-176 Vehicles VI-87 H. Conclusions VI-177 3. Transport and Support IV.Ocean Mining VI-179 Submarines . . VI-88 A. Introduction 4. Military Submarines . .VI-89 B. Hard Minerals vs. Oil and Gas - VI-180 5. Conclusions VI-91 C. Exploration and Evaluation.. VI-182 B. Deep Ocean Installations VI-92 D. Recovery VI-183 1. Sea Floor Habitats. .VI-93 E. Processing and Transportation VI-186 2. In-Bottom Habitats .VI-93 F. Forecast VI-187 3. Conclusions VI-94 G. Government Role VI-187 C. Safety, Search and Rescue, and H. Conclusions VI-188 Salvage VI-95V. Chemical Extraction VI-190 1. Safety and Certification VI-95 A. Introduction VI-190 2. Search and Rescue . VI-96 B. Present Techniques for 3. Salvage and Recovery VI-98 Extraction VI-194 4. Conclusions VI-99 C. Future Extraction of Other IV.Nearshore Activities VI-99 Chemicals VI-195 A. Pollution VI-100 D. Conclusions VI-196 B. Coastal Engineering VI-106VI Desalination VI-197 C. Shelf Installations VI-110 A. lEstory and Trends W-198 D. Transportation and Harbor B. Techniques of Desalination . VI-203 Development VI-115 C. Projection of Water Costs. . VI-207 V. Great Lakes Restoration VI-121 D. Desalination Problems . . . VI-209 A. Current Situation VI-122 E. Government-Industry Roles VI-211 B. Causes of Pollution and F. Conclusions VI-211 Accelerated Aging VI-123VII.Power Generation VI-213 C. Preventive Measures VI-126 A. Power Generation in the Ocean D. Restorative Measures _ VI-127 Environment VI-213 E. Other Measures for Water B. Power from Ocean Energy. . VI-216 Quality Improvement .VI-128 C. Conclusions VI-219 . Great lakes Restoration Chapter 7 National Projects forMarine 7. Program VI-237 and Undeisea Development VI-221 8.Resource Assay Equipment Development Program. .VI-238 Relationship of National Projects .VI-221 9_ Coastal Engineering and to the Development Cycle . Ecological Studies Program. VI-241 A. Fundamental Technology . .VI-222 VI-222 10.Fisheries and Aquaculture B. National Projects VI-242 C. Subsystem and Component Program Development VI-222 11.Experimental Continental VI-222 Shelf Submerged Nuclear D. Operational Systems VI-245 E. Expected Benefits VI-222 Plant 12_ Large Stable Ocean Platform -VI-246 VI-222 II. Description of National Projects . 13-Long-Endurance Exploration 1_ Fixed Continental Shelf Submersibles with 20,000- VI-224 Laboratory Foot Capability. . VI-248 2.Portable Continental Shelf 14.Prototype Regional Pollution Laboratories VI-224 Collection, Treatment, and 3.Mobile Undersea Support Processing System .. .VI-250 VI-229 Laboratory 15.Prototype Harbor Develop- 4.Seamount Station VI-230 ment Project V1-253 5.Deep Ocean Stations . VI-233 Appendix A Acknowledgments VI-254 6.Hot Buoy Network . .VI-234

61 Preface

This report assesses the present national effortStates and regions, private enterprise, the academic in marine engineering and technology and providescommunity, and the US. Government. broad guidance for the economical and rational The material presented in this report represents development of a strong U.S. capability in thethe effort of the panel Commissioners, staff, and marine environment. the beneficial guidance of many consultants during Thefollowingobjectives,statedinsub- thecourseof thepanel's deliberations. The paragraphs of Section 2(b) of the Marine Re-Panel Executive Secretary was: sources and Engineering Development Actof 1966, were felt to be applicable in establishing the Lincoln D. Cathers scope of activities of the panel: Under sponsorship of the Oceanic Foundation (1 ) The accelerated development of the resourcesadditional staff was assembled to support the panel. This staff, the Marine Commission Support of the marine environment .... (4) The preservation of the role of the UnitedGroup, was comprised of: States as a leader in marine science and resource development .. .. Arnor L. Lam (6 ) The development and improvement of the Carl E. Rudiger, Jr. capabilities, peiformance, use, and efficiency Carleton Rutledge, Jr. of vehicles, equipment, and instruments for Robert J. Shephard use inexploration,research, sumys, the R_ Lawrence Snidernan II recovery of resources, and the transmission of Robert M. Lesser (part-time) energy in the marine environment. A special note of thanks is made to the (7)The effective utilization of the scientific and engineering resources of the Nation, with closeagencies and companies who generously provided cooperation amon,; all interested agencies,the time of the Commissioners, Executive Secre- public and private, in order to avoid unneces- tary, staff personnel, and consultants. sary duplication of effort, facilities, and equip- The panel contacted.existing organizations (the National Security Industrial Association, the Na- ment, or waste . ... tional Academy of Engineering, numerous technical societies, universities, commercial and de- The panel has endeavored to delineate thefense industries, regional authorities, and non- Nation's future course in the marine environmentprofit organizations) to solicit and involve the in terms of engineering and technological feasi-private sector in defming problems and recom- bility, to assess its present structure, to point outmending solutions. Coordination was maintained inhibitions to progress, and to relate the necessary withotherpanelsthroughpersonalcontact, input to the obtainable output. It stresses areasmonthly Commission meetings, and distribution of where engineering and technology have a bearingdraft materials. on the growth and development of industry and In Appendix A is a complete listing of indi- the solution of defense problems. viduals and organizations contributingto the The panel was particularly cognizant of thedevelopment of this report. need for national participation as opposed to a predominantly government approach, in future John H. Perry, Jr., Chairman ocean activities. Achieving a strong marine engi- Charles F. Baird neering and technology capability can be accom- Taylor A. Pryor plished best by the cooperative efforts of the George FL Sullivan

VI-1 333-091 0-69-5 Chapter 1Introduction and Summary

depths are reason- I. PROGRAM AND GOAL the state of technology. Bcth able targets. The two major objectives areworkable The development of the ocean as a resourceis afor U.S. ocean activities and maybe mried out major concern closely linked to thesolution of thewithin an acceptable internationallegal framework. problems of urban development,transportation, hunger. public health, foreign aid, and world Figure 1 Key Definitions An essential element of the nationalcommit- ment to the oceans is thetechnology to explore Ocean, engineeringTheapplicationof and utilize them, to occupy theU.S. territorial sea, describe the of the U.S. science and engineering to and to utilize and manage the resources marine environment and todevelop and Continental Shelves. This country'sposition of technological leadership requires it totake an operate systems for its utili7ation. active role in developing theearth's resources, Marine technologyThe totalcapability to especially those of the undersea frontier. utilizethe ocean environment, including Technological development has beenthe foun- equipment,techniques, and growth. Its knowledge, dation of U.S. strength and national facilities. extension into the oceans is necessary tocontinue national development, includingcreation and pro- OccupyTo inhabit a volume of ocean or an tection of employment, a moreenjoyable way of area of seabed toobserve, make decisions, life, and maintenance and improvementof the and take action. Occupationincludes the national environment for thefuture. Economic element of permanence. continuing acquisition of and socialbenefits, and chart scientific knowledge, and militarynecessity justify ExploreTo search, probe, map, systematically the ocean environment, in- the commitment. cluding the water column, floor,and sub- floor features for the purposeof enhancing II. MAJOR OBJECTIVES subsequent action. The panel proposes, as the majorobjectives of ManageTo direct effort to conservedeplet- an increased nationalcomniitment to the oceans, able resources, achieve continuedand im- that the United States shoulddevelop the tech- proved yield of regenerative resources,mod- nological base and capability to: ifytheenvironmenttofacilitatethese efforts, and resolve multiple useconflicts. Within 10 years: occupy the U.S.territorial sea; Shelf and slope to UtilizeTo carry out a useful purpose or utilize the US. Continental benefit by depths of 2,000 feet; explore the oceandepths to operation; to obtain profit or 20,000 feet. using. Within 30 years: manage the US.Continental Shelf and slope to depths of2,000 feet; achieve depths to The earth's continents arefringed by shallow, the capability to utilize the ocean sloping shelves varying in width from afew yards 20.000 feet.' to hundreds of miles. Theshelves and a limited 20,000 feet forarea of the steepercontinental slopes beyond lie The depths of 2,000 feet and within the 2,000 foot contour, an areatotaling technological development of theundersea frontier bathyrnetry of the oceansand nearly 10 per cent of the earth's oceanfloor are dictated by the approximately as large as North and SouthAmer- is within Key definitions are given in Figuie 1. ica combined. The 2,000-foot depth

V1-2 1-G2 reach of present U.S. technology and closely A. General relates tocurrent estimates of diver working 1. A National Advisory Committee for the Oceans potential. As a primary technological goal it is to +guide national marine efforts. realistic, attainable, and immediately rewarding. 2. An oceanicagencyconcentratingin one The continental slopes, especially beyond the agency appropriate U.S. Government groups 2,000 foot contour, are quite precipitous. For with primary roles and missions in the oceans example, the next four 2,000 foot increments to and including a technology development group. the 10,000 foot contour each provide only about 3. A 10-year program ef intensive undersea three per cent more bottom area. For depths from development. 10,000 down to 20,000 feet, increased depth 4. National Projects to accelerate progress into capability is rewarded with access to an additional the undersea frontier. 75 per cent of the total ocean bottom area, while 5. A strong Navy undersea mission and an depths beyond 20,000 feet (two per cent of the improved program in deep submergence and total) are found only in a few trenches. Therefore, development ocean engineeering. a natural deep ocean technological 6. An effectivenational commitment to the goal exists for 20,000 feet. (See Figure 2.) ocean requiring understanding and cooperation The promisingcharacteristicsof advanced from all segments of the national economy. structural materials, new concepts of external machinery and equipment, and better engineeringB. Fundamental Technology rnalce operations at 20,000-foot depths a practical is a logical, 7. A program to advance fundamental marine objective. Twenty thousand feet engineering and technology. realistic, yet challenging goal for technology. 8. Development of engineering design handbooks, technical memoranda, and other design data with a system for continually updating this information. III. MAJOR RECOMMENDATIONS C. Test Facilities The panel's report is summarized in this list of 9. A program to increase the number and quality recommendations: of test facilities and to reduce testing costs. 10% 13% 75% 2% 2,000

10,000

us1 us

lz 20,000 w

Trench

Per cent of ocean bottom Figure 2. Per cent of ocean bottom that can be explored by various operatingdepth capabilities_

VI-3 3. Chemical Extraction andDesalination D. Deep Ocean 20,000-foot ocean 25. Development of new chemicalextraction tech- 10. A program to expand desalting research. engineering capabilities. nology in conjunction with sources, free26. Government participation inadvanced desalt- 11. Technology priorities in power its entrance flooding machinery, equipment, andmaterials. ing technology projects without vehicles, search into the business of supplyingdesalted water. 12. Systems priorities in survey desalination vehicles, transfer vehicles, mannedstations,27. A balanced program advancing technologytoconvertseawater,inland and support systems. brackish water, and waste water intousable E. Nearshore supplies. 13. A program of pollutionmonitoring and water 4. Ocean Mining complementthe qualityrestorationto exploration essential goal to halt effectively thepollution 28. A program to advance undersea technology to enable timely delineationof of nearshore waters_ offshore reserves and provide growthof off- ofcoastalbiologicaland 14. A program shore mining. engineering efforts. 15. A program to improve portand harbor de- 5. Power Generation velopment technology_ 16. A Coast Guard research anddevelopment 29. A developmental programforsubmerged program leading to improvedmaritime safety. commercial nuclear power.

F. Great Lakes 17. A restorationtechnology National ProjectIV. TEN-YEAR PROGRAM OFMARINE DE- tailored to the immediate needsof Lakes Erie VELOPMENT and Ontario and southernlake Michigan. 18. An actual restoration projectundertaken as panel is to soon as technology isavailable. The concept supported by the advancemarineengineeringandtechnology G. Industrial throughcooperativeparticipationbyState, 1. Fishing and Aquaculture Federal, academic, and industrial groups. 19. Development of greatly improveddomestic fish production capability. A. Fundamental Technology 20. Surveys of promising undenit0i7edcommercial base for and sport fisheries. Fundamental technology is an :.ssential development future Tr.ql-i-Tte endeavors. Particularcategories, by 21. A progam to pursue aquaculture interrelated vigorously. defmition, have numerous multiple applications. The quality and scopeof funda- 2. OH and Gas mentaltechnology must beexpandedcon- optimum informationtinuously to assure new developments,reduce 22. A mechanismfor reliability, and exchange between the Governmentand thecosts, increase capability, improve afford new ways to solve problems. petroleum industry. criti- 23. Government furnished information onfunda- Elements of fundamental technology most andcal for effective commercialdevelopment, scien- mental undersea technology, biomedicine, listed reconnaissance mapping and charting,andtific exploration, and military oneration are pre- in Figure 3 in approximatedescending order of increased development of environmental parentheses are to diction and modification technology. importance. References in Chapters 5 and 6 of this report where pertinent 24_ A program directed towardreduction of oil spills and combating their effects. detailed discussion may be found.

V1-4 85 C. National Projects

A series of national facilities, programs, and Figure 3 projects, generically called National Projects, is Elements of Fundamental Technology recommended for consideration during the 10-year program to support technological progress in the (a) Survey equipment and instrumentation oceans. These projects, many having strong inter- (5-I-A) relationships, are listed in Figure 4. (See Chapter 7 (b) Power sources (5 1-13) for details.) (c)External machinery systems and equipment (5-I-C) (d) Materials (5-I-D) (e) Navigation and comMunications (b-1-E) (f)Tools: diver and vehicle (5-I-F) (g) Mooring systems, buoys, and surface support platforms (5-I-G) Figure 4 (h) Biom'Aicine and divingequipment National Projects (5-1-H) (i)Environmental considerations (5-I-I) (i)Data handling (5-I-J) (k)Life support (5-I-K) National Undersea Facilities (I)Coastal engineering (5-1V-13) 1. Fixed continental shelf laboratory (m) Extractiun techniques (6-V1) 2. Portable continental shelf laboratories (n) Services: certification, inspection, and 3. Mobile undersea support laboratory recovery (5-I II-C) 4. Seamount station (o) Coastal ecology (control and modifica- 5. Deep ocean stations tion) (5-IV-A and 5-V) Continental slope Midocean ride Abyssal deep National Marine Programs 6. Pilot buoy network 7. Great Lakes restoration program 8. Resource assay equipment development program B. National Twt Facilities 9. Coastal engineering and ecological studies program The marine environment is not well known, 10. Fisheries and aquaculture program and with today's technology it is a hostile and National Marine Projects difficult operating area. History has borne out that 11. Experimental continental shelf sub- adequate testing is required to utilize a foreign merged nuclear plant environment effectively. Thus, in developing the 12. Large stable ocean platform capability to occupy and manage the offshore 13. Long-endurance exploration sub- areas and explore and unlize thedeep oceans, it mersibles with 20,000-foot capability will become evident that test facilities will be a 14. Prototype regional pollution collection, national resource as important as any other single treatment, and prog-sing system factor. 15. Prototype harbor development projt There are two prime elements of the national testfacility needs(1) those to test systems, equipment, components, and fundamental developments and (2) those to test man as a diver in the sm. (See Chapter 5, Section II for details.)

06 VI-5 Figure 5 D. Costs Cost for 10-Year Program The result of the nationaleffort will be to =tablish the technology neededfor access to the Ten Year Cost economical, and reliable oceans itt a convenient, Category (billions of manner with a taxpayerinvestment of less than dollars) of new funding per year over one billion dollars 2.0- 3.0 the next decade. Fundamental Technology1 Figure 5 is a breakdown ot theestimated costsTest Facilities 0.4- 0.6 for the 10-year marinedevelopment program. Simulation facilities . Biomedical chambers 0.1- 0.2 Ocean test ranges 0.3- 0.4 National Projects Undersea facilities 0.6- 1.0 - 0.5 Marine programs (13 0.7 Marine projects 0.4 Operational Support 1.0- 1.5 TOTAL 5.1- 7.9

1See Figure 2_

67 VI-6 Chapter 2Major Findings and Recommendations

The major fmdings and recommendations ofengineering and technology development program the Marine Engineering and Technology Panel are over the next 10 years could provide the United summarized under the following categories: States a wide range of industrial, scientific, political, and military technological options. A_ General Without such an accelerated undersea explora- B. Fundamental Technology tion and development program, a critical national C. Facilities technological deficiency will develop. Moreover, D. Special Deep Ocean Considerations instead of an orderly development, a crash reac- E. Special Nearshore Problems tion would become necessary should some other F. Great Lakes Restoration nation demonstrate an internationally important G. Industrial Technology undersea capability. The goals stated in this report will not be These categories relate directly to the report'sachieved unless a much greater national commit- major marine technology discussions, most ofment to the oceans is made_ US. ocean activities which are concerned with surface or relativelypresently include substantial private, State, and shallow operations to 2,000 feet. Such operationsregional efforts. Therefore, the oceans deserve a are expected to dominate national ocean activitiesdifferent approach than military and space endeav- during the remainder of this century. Within eachors which have been strictly Federal responsi- group, fmdings are presented first, followed by bilities. recommendations. This chapter summarizes the Overall undersea capability could advance more current state of marine technology, its p -tential,rapidly if affirmative efforts were made to publish and a valid approach to advancing the nation'sgovernment-developed technolou. Unclassified re- capability to explore and utilize the oceans fully.search and engineering data are sometimes not released because funds are insufficient to prepare A. General public reports, manpower limitations hamper extraction of unclassified technological data from The oceans are the promise of future genera-classified documents, or the U.S. Government tions: they are the arena for achieving a major(especially the military) chooses to withhold un- advancement in world goss product. Ocean devel-classified data from general distribution_ opment is a major concernmore compelling to today's national interest than space development integral to the solution of urban, transportation, Recommendations: health,foreignaid,andworldnutrition problemsand vital to national defense_ L A National Advisory Committee for the Oceans The present overall undersea capability of the(NACO) should be established with representation United States is extremely limited relative to thefrom the States and regions, private enterprise, the potential of marine technology_ Given a funda-academic community, and the U.S. Government. mental technology program and a commitment toIts principal functions would be to (1) advise all the oceans,the United States could produceU.S. Government agencies with missions in the systems in 10 to 15 years that would duplicate onoceans on the planning and implementation of the the continental shelves many productive terrestrialnational marine efforts, (2) inform the Congress, functions while attaining substantially improved(3) assist the States and private interests, (4) guide operating capabilities throughout the oceans at allthe fundamental marine technology development depths_ program, and (5) submit a periodic report assessing Industrial,scientific, and military underseathe national ocean program. Advice should.. be technology are closely linked. A properly man-given in such areas as national goals and long-range aged, balanced, comprehensive, dynamic marineplans,facilities, manpower, National Projects,

68 V1-7 scientific investigations, and oceanographic opera-industrial, academic and scientific, andmilitary tions. and civilian government. 2. A new, adequately funded oceanic agencyGeneral Public Requirements: should be established within th:.'; U.S.Government efforts of to concentrate in one agencyappropriate civilianTotal national involvement including groups with primary missionsand roles in theStates, regions, and private enterprise. oceans. An important partof the new agencyAn awareness by the Americanpeople of the should be a technology development group re-importance of the oceans to the Nationand the funda- sponsible for conducting and supporting a world. mental marine technology program andproviding operating engineering support to the agency's Industrial Needs: p-oups. Extensive survey information on marine re- 3. A 10-year program of intensive underseadevel-sources on which to base investmentdecisions. opment should be undertaken. Such aneffort would give the Nation the technological baseand Sufficient Government ocean engineering devel- capability to: (1) occupy the territorial sea, (2)opment funds to stimulatesubstantial private utilize and manage the resources of theUS.investment in operational systems. Continental Shelf and slope, (3) exploreand and forA better appreciation of the complexities utilize deep ocean resources, (4) meet needs costs of operating in the oceans. undersea military operations, and (5) determine intelligently future national undersea programs. A solid base of fundamental technologyand operating experience. 4. A series of National Projects should be established to support advancement into the underseaA legal and political framework thatfosters frontier of industry, the States, the academicocean exploration and productionactivities. conununity, and the U.S. Government agencies in an economic manner. Theseprojects should re-Academic and Scientific Needs: ceive government support and, whereapplicable,Sufficient funds allocated to scientific projects reimbursement be available to all users on a cost to provide improved engineering supportof at-sea basis. Principal use of these National Projectswill scientific operations. be to test and evaluate the economic and technical feasibility of advanced marine developments. A close interaction between scientistsand engineers in applying engineeringcapabilities to the 5. Navy undersea development efforts indeepconduct of scientific projects. submergence and ocean engineering should be increased. The program outlined by the DeepMore emphasis in engineering institutions on Submergence/Ocean Engineering Program Planningocean problems. Group appears to reflect realistically future Navy needs. In addition to this program, an expandedMilitary Needs: Navy mission in support of the applicable nationalEstablishment within the Department of Defense technology goals should be recognized to takeof a strong primary military mission inundersea maximum advantage of existing capabilities andtechnology to meet present and future threats. facilities. Cooperative efforts between the Navy program and the civilian programshould beA clearly stated Navy mission in supportof pursued to the fullest extent. national marine programs evoldng support of the Congress, civilian leaders, and the general public. 6. An effective national commitment to the be oceans will require understanding andcooperation A recognition of the contribution that can from all sectors of the economygeneral public,made by use of Navy capabilities in international,

VI-8 6.9 economic, political, scientific, and technologicalthe undersea frontier parallels the history of fields. strategic test facility needs for development of high altitude, supersonic, and space flight. Ocean Funds in addition to those required for militarytest facilities are a national resource as important commitments sufficient to allow use of Navyas any other single factor in the development of capabilities and management expertise in supporttechnology_ of the overall national goals. Insufficient and often unsuitable test facilities today are seriously impeding advancements in Civilian Government Needs: submersible, habitat, equipment, and instrumenta- A concentration of agencies having ocean rolestion development. Facilities for physiological research, medical and missions. training, diver equipment development, and satura- A marine and undersea technology developmenttion diver training are grossly inadequate. capability. Recommendation: B. Fundamental Technology 9. A national program should be initiated to increase the number and capability of undersea Critical advances in fundamental technology areresearch, development, test, and evaluation facil- required to improve undersea operating capabil-ities and to oversee efforts to improve facility ities and reliability. Examples include: reliable,design technology to reduce costs. A two part efficient, compact power sources; machinery andapproach is needed for systems and equipment equipment capable of ambient operation; corro-development and biomedical development. sion and fouling resistent, high strength-to-weight materials; subsurface navigation and precise posi-D. Special Deep Ocean Considerations tioning devices; underwater communication and The bathymetzy of the world's oceans is such viewing systems; and biomedicine_ that approximately 88 per cent of the ocean floor Knowledge of ocean environmental variables,lies between the 2,000 and 20,000 foot contours, particularly such features as temperature, salinity,with 10 per cent less than 2,000 feet deep and depth, biological effects, bathymetry, acousticonly two per cent greater than 20,000 feet deep. properties, bottom and sub-bottom geology, is Marine life and high grade mineral resources insufficient to establish valid engineering designexist at 20,000 feet. Sedimentary deposits which criteria for undersea systems. may containoil are known to exist on the continental rises at depths from 6,000 to 14,000 Recommendations: feet. 7. A fundamental marine engineering and tech- The deep sea is of great interest to scientists nology program should be vigorously pursued toconcerned with such fields as ocean circulation, expand the possibilities and lower the costs ofclimatolou, nutrient supply, marine biology, geo- undersea operations. physics, and geology. A technological deficiency in systems designed 8. Handbooks, technical memoranda, and otherto operate below 2,000 feet exists because of the engineering design data should be developed,lack of a national commitment to understand, continually updated, and made available to theexplore, and utilize the deep ocean. Deep ocean ocean engineer to provide critical information onoperations in general are restricted severely by undersea environmental conditions and the behav-equipment failures and the lack of ability to do ior of systems, materials, and components in theuseful work. environment. Military systems with deep operating capability will prOvide such advantages as better conceal- C. Test Facilities ment, improved location for acoustic systems, expanded tactical coverage of systems operating The necessity for adequate test facilities toabove, and larger absolute margin of safety during permit safe, orderly, and rapid advancement intodives and submerged maneuvers. Deep operating

VI-9 fish and wildlife, systems would be requiredfor undersea armsastrous effects on recreation, water supplies, natural beauty,co-nmercial devel- control inspection and enforcement. opment, and scientific study.Pollution in some Recommendations: areas is so critical that the useof nearshore waters undertake immedi-for additional waste disposal cannotbe tolerated. 10. The United States should produce more effec- ately a dynamic andcomprehensive advancedA technology base exists to greatly ex-tive waste treatment techniques,monitoring de- development program leading to a and restorative panded ocean engineering capability.The deep-vices, and to intrcsduce preventative measures. ocean goal should be setat the working plateau of has been lost 20,000 feet to gain access to98 per cent of the So much critical U.S. coastal land with the pro-tothe seathat improved coastal engineering world's oceans. This is consistent Ex- technology. Develop- technolou becornas increasingly important. jected status of deep ocean erosion protection projects havebeen ment of 20,000-foot systems toexplore and utilize tensive rational than toundertaken, but due to a lack of basicunderstand- the ocean as a whole is more often have been both overall cost. ing of shore processes there advance incrementally at greater unexpected failures and undesirable results. leading should Progress in marine transportation is 11. The deep ocean development program rapidly to larger, deeper-draft bulkcarriers and give highest priority to: high speed ships with suchimproved cargo han- Compact power sources forvehicles and habitats.dling systems as containers andlighters. Contain- erization is growing especially fast. TheNew York Reliable free flooding externalmachinery, elec-Port Authority estimates thatby 1975, 50 per trical systems, and equipment. cent of its general cargo willbe containerized and only 3 per Materials for low wei0t-to-displacementratiocompared to 12 per cent at present and foulingcent in 1966. structures; high-strength, corrosion desigi will pace resistant components; andsupplemental buoy- Port desim in addition to ship future progress. Deepening of harbors to accom- ancy. modate large bulk carriers is encounteringsuch barriers as bedrock, manmade 12. The United Statesshould undertake a pro-severephysical knowledge and experience in thetunnels, and long shallow approaches.In general, gram to gain shipping must deep ocean, focusing on technologyto develop: terminals for bulk and containerized be totally new. Utilization of landmade available Efficient lon-endurance explorationsubmers-by obsolete facilities can makevaluable contribu- ibles and associated instrumentation. tionsto urban development.Increased ocean require government emphasis on vehicles for crewactivitywill Logistic support and rescue safety and regulation. Nearshoreactivities place transfer and resupply. prime relianceon dependablenavigation and Manned stations capable ofsubmerged supportcommunications. by deep submersibles. Recommendations: Submersible mother ships andstable surface13. Disposal of wastes in coastal watersmust not platforms to support undersea operationssafelybe considered an acceptable alternative topollution and efficiently. abatement and control without full prior knowledge of its effects. A goal shouldbe set to halt E. Special NearshoreProblems' substantially any further pollution and toimprove goals of this Pollution is the most serious problem inthethe quality of nearshore waters. The by joint State-Federal nearshore area, having detrimentaland often dis-program should be enforced ultimate standards to be fixed immediately.These standards should be tailored for incrementalfuture iln this panel report, the emphasis is on the engineer- at- ing and technology to supportactivities in the coastal andcompliance until the desired standards are estuarine zones. Another panel reportdeals with thetained. In addition, detailed researchand develop- overall problems of these zones_

VI-l0 ment programs should be pursued to improvetion abatement is required to make restoration technology of monitoring devices to help deter-efforts effective. mine pollution sources and distribution. Recommendations: 14. To increasethe quality ard quantity of17. A National Project tailored to the immediate usable coastal land, a program of coastal biolog-needs of Lakes Erie and Ontario and southern ical and engineering efforts should be pursuedLake Michigan should be funded to test such vigorously and adequately funded to perform suchpromising restoration schemes as artificially in- tasks as: diked destratification. Existing facilities should be used to the fullest extent. Coastal process studies. Prototype developments of new erosion preven-18. A restoration project for Lakes Erie and tion systems. Ontario and southern Lake Michigan should be undertaken as soon as the technology is available. Applied research on nearshore ecolor. The program should complement the implementation of effective pollution abatement teclmology 15. Port and harbor development should be basedin all the Great Lakes and must be managed to on a total systems approach to marine transporta-accommodate Federal, State, community, and tion. Such development should concentrate onprivate interests. design of offshore bulk cargo terminals and improved methods of intermodal (air-land-sea) transfer to allow more effective use of coastal land. G.Industrial Technology 16. To protect life and property better, the Coast1. Fishing and Aquaculture Guard should pursue a research and development program to strengthen mpabilities for traffic con- The total annual production of the U.S. fishing trol, monitoring, and search and rescue (includingindustry has been static at four to six billion underwater divers, submersibles, and habitats). Apounds for nearly 30 years, although the U.S. study should be made of present and potentialmarket is three times the U.S. catch and is growing underwater acoustic requirements. Frequency andrapidly. Further, the sustainable yield adjacent to power level allocations should be established andthe United States is estimated to be greater than enforced. 30 billion pounds. The U.S. fishing fleet is mixed in qualitypartly antiquated, such as the New England ground fish fleet, and partly modern, as F. Great Lakes Restoration the West Coast tuna fleet and parts of the Gulf Coast shrimp fleet. The major problem faced by the Great Lakes is Fishermen spend an average of half of their aging (eutrophication) accelerated by water pollu-total time at sea hunting fish, and in some fisheries tion leading to: considerably more. Nevertheless, government efforts to assist the industry have given greater Over-enrichment of the Lakes emphasis on biological science, and less on search, Build up of dissolved and suspended solids in thelocation, and harvesting technology development. Lakes Freshwater aquaculture of catfish and trout and estuarine aquaculture of oysters are examples of Oxygen depletion of the Lakes and tributaries successful local U.S. industries with good growth potential. A strong market exists in the United Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and 'southern LakeStates for quality sea food products many of Michigan are in the worst condition of the fivewhich are adaptable to aquaculture. Open sea Great Lakes, but none is beyond restoration_aquaculture, however, does not yet exist commer- Technology can reverse the aging process. Po llu-cially.

72 VI-11 operation. Mainly because of powerrequirements Recommendations: exploration and production wellswill continue to 19. Fisheries productiontechnology should bebe drilled from the surface. Anincreasing number developed through greater emphasis onengineeringof production wells and fieldswill be completed to permit U.S. fishermen tosupply a much greaterbeneath the surface, making increasinguse of fraction of the domestic market. Anexpandedacoustically controlled underseaequipment. program should beundertaken to improve vessels, Technology has so advancedthat specially fish catching gear, and methods.Laws governingdesigned barges can weld, X-ray,externally coat, fisheries management should focus oncontrollingand lay pipelines. Five,thousandmiles of pipe, the total catch rather thanrestricting the use offrom small 2-inch flow lines to 26-inchtrunk lines, improved equipment and harvestingmethods. Fornow traverse the floorof the Gulf of Mexico. To overfished stocks, emphasis shouldbe placed ondate, pipe laying has beenlimited to 340 feet in technical support of biologicalresearch and onmedium diameter (12 inch) pipeand 100 feet in modifimtion of existing fishing equipmentfor uselarge diameter (48 inch) pipe. in other fisheries. For stocks notin danger of Major oil spills from tankers havebeen a costly depletion, efforts should beconcentrated on gearhazard, in some cases disastrousand causing development, vessel design, survey, andfish loca-international repercussions. Even suchlesser oil tion technology. A substantialshare of the pro-discharges as cleaning tanks or pumpingbilges on gram budget should beused for contract studiesthe high seas have detrimentaleffects on beaches by industry and private institutions. and coastlines. contin- 20. The U.S. Government should sponsor Recommendations: uing surveys of promisingcoastal and distant fisheries, to22. A mechanism should beestablished to ensure fishery resources, including sport between the U.S. determine the potential of under-utilizedspecies,optimum information exchange Government and the petroleum industry. to provide informationfor fish location and harvesting equipment design applicableto these of inter-23. Results of such Governmentundersea tech- species, and to support negotiation support ad- national fisheries agreements and treaties. nology programs as biomedicine to vanced diving, fundamental underseatechnology, and charting should 21. The promise of aquacultureshould be pursuedand reconnaissance mapping selective breed-be available to the petroleumindustry to help with such development efforts as and reduce ing, control of temperature andnutrients, andexpand operations to deeper water operation risks and costs.Technology efforts containmenttechniques. Aquaculture projects Government serv- should be established, in existinglaboratoriesshould be expanded to improve engineering appli-ices in environmental predictionand modification, where feasible, to emphasize sediment cable to freshwater, nearshore,and open seaparticularly regarding hurricanes and behavior and transport. systems. 24. The government must ensuredevelopment of 2. Oil and Gas improved methods to minimize thepossibility of Offshore oil and gas industryinitiative hasoil spills, optimize clean-up measures,and identify developed a major nongovernmentalmarine sci-theresponsiblepolluters.Contingencyplans ence and engineering program.Much of the result-should be prepared to permit immediateaction to anttechnologywillbe applicableto future contain and clean up major oil spills. Government and other industry oceanprograms. Offshore production continues to moveinto3_ Chemical Extraction andDesalination progressively greater depths. During1969, explora- depths of 1,300 Magnesium metal, magnesium compounds,and tory drilling is expected in water bromine are extracted from sea water commer- feet and production established in asdeep water as remote cially, supplying 90, 34, and 50 per cent respec- 400 feet. Within 10 years, such systems as effluents control undersea core drilling rigs maybe intively of the U.S. market. Desalination

VI-1 2 and high concentration anomalies, such as the Red4. Ocean Mining Sea hot spots, may make it practical to extract other elements of even lower average concentra- Solid minerals exist in the form of deposits on the seafloor and within the bedrock. In each cate- tions. Worldwide,saltis the most important product extracted, with almost 30 per cent of thegory the resources are extremely diverse in nature total world production being derived from seaand value. Bottom deposits include shells, sand, phosphorite and manganese nodules, and gold and water. tin placers. Bedrock deposits include coal, sulphur, Desalination processes can be used for multiple purposes including the conversion of sea water andand iron ores. Technology for exploration and brackish water and for purification of pollutedrecovery of each is substantially different. water. No single process is optimum for the The only mineral recovery operations on the divergent types of input water and output quan-U.S. Continental Shelf are sand, gravel, and oyster shell dredging plus sulfur extraction. Deep ocean tity and quality needed. Energy and capital investment costs dominate the economics of desaltedmanganese nodules are known to contain substantial concentrations of nickel, copper, and cobalt. water. The technology for commercial nodule mining, however, has not yet been demonstrated. Future Recommendations: ocean mining ma t. require submersible exploration vehicles and dredges; seafloor production, boring, 25. The present program to develop alternateand drilling rigs; ocean accessible installations in desalting methods for differhig applications shouldthe bedrock; and high capacity vertical and hori- be expanded. Attention should be given to newzontal transport systems. chemical extraction technology which can be used with concentrated brines. Recommendation: 28. Although the worldwide supply of land based 26. The US. Government's prime objective in itt.mineral resources may be sufficient to the year saline water program should continue to be the2000, it is essential for U.S. indusvy to make an advancement of desalting technology, in contrastearly start in offshore exploration and production. to the business of supplying water. The final stepTo delineate offshore mineral reserves and provide in developing promising new or improved pro-the fundamental technology for future growth, the cesses should be based on two major approaches,US. Government should establish a program to (1) both in cooperation with private industry: (1)prepare and publish reconnaissance scalebathy- :ponsorship of construction and operation ofmetric, geopWsical, and geologicd maps of U.S. prototype or demonstratiun plants and (2) partici-Continental Shelves and deeper areas, (2) establish pation with water supply agencies in constructingfavorable legal, political, and economic incentives and operating such plants. Thus, State, municipal,to encourage industry to delineate further exploit- and private water supply agencies would have anable deposits and develop its own extraction opportunity to utilize new desalting technology inteclmology, and (3) cooperate in developing un- a first-of-a-kind plant wherein the risk is shareddersea mineral exploration devices emphasizing through Government financial support. more rapid geophysical exploration toolsand improved deposit sampling equipment. 27. The Government's desalination research and development program should be balanced to develop techniques to supply large-scale regional5. Power Generation water needs, including metropolitan coastal facilities and ultimately agriculture; to develop more Tides, waves, currents, and thermal differences reliable and efficient small plants for beachfrontare theoretically feasible sources of power in hotels and islands and for small inland communi-certain locations. Although some developments ties which must make use of brackith or pollutedshow promise, as yet no plant in the world is water supplies; anc to develop systems to permitprofitably generating power from these sources. industrial and municipal re-use of waste water. Principal use of the sea in power generation

7 4 VI-13 probably will continue to be for dissipating waste would permit later construction of relatively heat from fossil or nuclear fueled power plants. small (5,000 to 10,000 kw) power sources to support undersea operations. A possiblesubse- Recommendation: quent development would be huge stationary 29. The Atomic Energy Commission and the newelectric generating facilities (thousands of mega- oceanic agency in cooperation with privateindus-watts). Such large facilities will become increas- try should sponsor development andconstructioningly important as coastal land grows scarce and of an experimental continental shelf submergedexpensive and as it becomes necessary to shift nuclear power plant. The technologydevelopedthermal pollution loads from the nearshore areas.

VI-14 Chapter 3Factors Affecting Technology Development

This chapter presents a number of importanttionship of the civilian and military sectors of non-technical aspects that will influence the coursesociety has problems relating to planning, informa- of marine technology in the United States. Thesetion exchange, and security classification. Ocean include (1) opportunities for the future, (2)activities will stimulate new international relation- importance, urgency, and rationale for U.S. leader-ships; they can benefit this Nation and others. ship, (3) trends influencing marine development, Current law of the sea relates only to the (4) interrelationships among economic segments,ocean's surface. Inevitable technological progress (5) interrelationships of technical influences, andwill compel new legal codes when present surface- (6) influence of technology on the law of the sea.oriented laws fail to satisfy the needs of the Experience shows that forecasts of the nearundersea activities. future tend to be overly optimistic and forecasts The rise and fall of great nations has invariably of the far future lack boldness. A look at theincluded a period of territorial expansion and distant future and the benefits of a national oceanacquisition. Nations failing to extend frontiers program envisions communities working and livingoften fell victim to neighbors who pursued policies in the oceans. of expansion. The United States originated with The importance, urgency, and rationale for US.13 colonies on the Eastern seaboard and through leadership in ocean science and technology requirepurchase and settlement spread the American that a national program be pursued vigorously.culture from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Although timing is critical, a crash program is not Except Antarctica, no important land area today needed. The complexities of the undersea frontierremains for peaceful expansion and settlement. require a modern store of knowledge for opera-Overpopulation and undernourishment are rapidly tions both on the continental shelves and in thebecoming a specter of the future, and man will deep oceans. In the progress to the shelves andturn to the sea for additional nourishment, mate- the deep, science and technolou will be con-rial resources, and perhaps living space. Future stantly challenged. Well conceived and executedgenerations may dwell on continental shelves, endeavors in science and technology have provedgoing ashore only to market the products of their worthwhile in the past. National security, waterundersea community and to procure items not pollution, and international affairs are importantavailable in the ocean. Atlantis may become not a motives for U.S. leadership. myth of the past but a civilization of the future_ Several influences strongly pressure the Na- Complete, well planned exploration and inten- tion's advancement into the waters of the conti-sive utiliz2tion are needed to establish firmly this nental shelves and deep ocean. Just to maintain,new frontier. The United States should proceed nonetheless to improve, living standards of annow with this planet's fmal peaceful expansion. increasing world population requires progressively more food, shelter, water, energy, and recreational resources. National needs include areas for furtherI. OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE FUTURE peaceful expansion, new opportunities to earn profits and establish new tax bases, reliable mili- The engineering and technology program rec- tary security, and means for assisting developingommended is aimed principally at opening the nations to become self-supporting. undersea frontier. Particularly important is the Although not always distinctly defined, science,element of economical and continuous access, engineering, and technology have interrelationswith strong emphasis on reducing the costs of essential to the national program, and they requireat-sea operations to make ocean resources more reinforcement. There is an important interrelation-available. ship among the government, industry, and aca- From the first, the Commission was directed to demic communities which requires an exchange ofpioneer, experiment, and look to the future. Its information and skilled personnel. The interrela-mandate was to outline activity for the foreseeable

7 El VI-15 placement of heat generatingoperations at sea future and to giveguidance to the U.S. Govern- where adequate coolingcapacity is available. Mov- ment. plants to sea will free Fulfillment of technological potentialsis aing large stationary power high value urban landfor other use. difficult task. It is hoped thatthe following two knowledge will be the guidelines to During this same period the mission objectives will provide establish reasonable water should developacquired upon which to achievement. The United States both commercial and capability: quality standards satisfying the technological base and recreational interests. Beaches onceclosed because of pollution may bereopened, and coastal engi- Within 10 years to occupy theU.S. territorial be available to restore U.S. Continental Shelf and slope to neering technology will sea, utilize the damaged beaches, constructartificial islands, and depths of 2,000 feet, and explorethe ocean depths otherwise enhance theusefulness of coastal lands. to 20,000 feet. Improved technology willbenefit greatly scien- Within 30 years to manage theU.S. Continental tific effort, perhaps allowingbasic discoveries to Shelf and slope to depths of2,000 feet andutilizebe made that willprofoundly affect the future. the ocean depths to 20,000feet. The scientist will haveconvenient and economical access to entire oceans. The two objectives areinterrelated. The first Finally, the stage will be setfor a new period of provides the improved understandingand capabil-21st century seapower, aperiod characterized not development. Theonly by a powerfulNavy in the military sense,but ity basic to ocean systems Nation. If second, during the period 1980 to2000, visualizesail internationallystrong and respected extensive use of new techniques onU.S. Conti-the Nation accepts thechallenge of this report, nental Shelf areas. In the deep oceansdevelopmentthere will be established anincreased opportunity of of long-term operating capabilitywill be stimu-to solve some ofthe difficult social problems malnutrition. The United lated by needs formulated fromexploration. population, poverty, and By the year 2000, colonies onthe sea floor willStates should lead in meetingthe challenge of the be commonplace becauseindustries will operateundersea frontier. profitably at sea and people willbe there to support them. It is notdifficult to conceive of fish 11. IMPORTANCE,URGENCY, AND RATION- harvesting systems or perhaps open wateraquacul- ALE FOR U.S. LEADERSHIP ture. Much of the offshoreoil and gas industry will sithmerged, and very There is little question thatmankind eventually be operating completely of the oceans for natural possibly mining will have overcome oceanexploi-will make massive use resources, transportaiien_recreation, and national tation problems. Chemicalprocessing plants may is neededa conditions compatible withsecurity. A well-conceived program well find deeper ocean national progam that isthoughtfully scheduled, the needs of high pressure processes. balanced with overestimatecarefully executed, and wisely Althoughit may be easy to other national interests_ Therate at which man near-term progess, it isequally easy to under- involved with the oceans estimate the long term potential.By the yearbecomes economically may be debated,but the need for his involvement 2000, the U.S. industry withthe highest sales United States must learn well be isa certainty. The volume, employment, and earnings may to court the oceans,eliciting responses which one intimatelyassociated with the oceans. aesthetic, and social ends of a com-reinforce the material, Beyond the economic considerations achieve. tremendousthe Nation is striving to mitment to the oceans, there are Offshore oil has demonstratedits viability. With social, political, scientific, andmilitary implica- initialsuccess, the industry canlook forward tions for the 1980-2000 period.Water pollution industry contribu- quality restorationinitiallyconfidently, and an increasing can be checked; water tion to the economy canbe expected. Although in fresh water areas and laterin coastal regions mineral resources on land will have a firm beginning.Although during thisthe world supply of pollution willappears generallysufficient to the year 2000, period the problem of thermal leadtimes require an early start.Offshore explora- become fully apparent, technolouwill permit

V1-16 7 tion and pilot production are required to delineatemore ocean resources to be harvested economi- the more accessible reserves and to develop thecally. technology base to meet accelerating needs. A stable and predictable legal environment will Gradually ocean industries collectively will gen-be required. Technology should be considered in erate a larger and larger fraction of the grossframing laws to ensure their enforceability and national product and will help the United Statesrealistic applicability to prospective activities. The maintain its competitive position in the worldlatter quality is particularly important because marketplace. It is easier and cheaper to maintain adevelopment and utilization of ocean resources position of leadership than to regain lost initiative.involve major capital investment. More intelligent stewardship of resources will In some cases, the most vahlable assistance the be required as utilization of the oceans increases.United States can give less advanced nations is the This implies improved knowledge, best achievedtechnological knowhow to develop their own through an aggressive basic marine science pro-industry. Technology can be expanded to support gram. Improved scientific understanding oftheprofitable ocean exploitation and meaningful in- oceans also is needed to support a continuingternational scientific programs. advanceintechnology,to make longer-term National security is much more than classic weather predictions, to realize food productionmilitary mightsubmarines, missiles, aircraft car- potentials, and to determine future military useful-riers, and destroyers. In its broadest sense, it is the ness. Science has returned dividends in the past,action a nation must take to maintain its position and will in the future. in world affairs. The United States does not and Now isthe time to reverse the trend ofshould not fulfillallits needs from resources degradation of the environment. Beaches havewithin its boundaries. More than 98 per cent of been closed on Lake Erie; ocean beaches have beenU.S. international commerce is carried by ships. rendered useless by oil slicks; oyster beds haveControl to assure free use of the seas is basic to been condemned; and city water front areas havenational security. But such control of the sea is beenblighted by raw sewage and chemicalsrelative, not absolute, applying equally to friend dumped into harbors. Technology should be ex-and foe_ tended so these problems can be solved economi- Seapower is best built on a sound base of cally. industrial and commercial ocean development, The state-of-the-art is such that it is possible toproviding knowledge and trained manpower for consider a law requiring municipal and industrialtimes of military need. This emphasis would intakes to be installed downstream from theirminimize Navy expenditures for in-house develop- outfalls, in effect putting the water aser in thement, yet would provide a viable foundation for same position as others downstream.There is nothe future. The Navy must keep informed con- reason why a user cannot return water of a qualitystantly of non-military ocean activity. Its develop- equal to that which he takes from a stream ment program should emphasize long range items The world's richest Nation need not live in itsnecessary to national security, such as deep sub- own filth, but should set an example by directlymergence systems, which do not now attract a facing these problems rather than leaving greaterlarge--arrrowit of commercial ac.tivity. problems to future generations. The technology should be developed to eliminate the economicIII TRENDS INFLUENCING MARINE DEVEL- penalty of waste treatment, making it possible for OPMENT many activities to profit by reprocessingwastes into marketable products. This quantitative bene- The marine environment will become increas- fit would be in addition to the qualitative valuesingly important, and national interest in and of beauty, clean water, and recreation_ emphasis on the exploration and utilization of the The net effect of modern communication andundersea frontier will increase accordingly. Effec- transportation has been to deny the oceans theirtive planning of technology development must be historic role as natural barriers_ Interaction be-based on estimates of future trends and needs tween nations will increase as technology allowsinduced by both natural and man-made influences.

V1-17 333-091 0-69-6 78 accelerate the need Barring a major war, world requirements forsuchmore leisure time. These will basics as water, food, housing, and energy canbefor additional coastal recreation areas. estimated reasonably well to the year 2000. Impairment of activities by pollution will be- motivate increased However, itisdifficult to make long-rangecome more obvious and will projections of such qualitative factors as consumerprograms of abatement, enforcement, and restora- tastes, political and legal arrangementsand eco-tion_ Pollution, Rice inflation, goes relatively un- technologyheeded for a time but has enormous long term nomic progress. It is essentially today's implications. Before the end of the century, a that will be employed to meet suchrequirements during the next 10 years. Beyond thatperiodsignificant amount of national energy must be planning becomes more difficult becauseof thedirected to protecting and enhancing the environ- unpredictability of technological advancements,ment. Technolocal knowhow incorporated in most especially real breakthroughs. Yet, whennational interests have dictated the need for bothadequateU.S. products gives the United States a great funding and high priority emphasis, solutions toadvantage in the world market. To retain this difficult technological problems havebeen moreadvantage the United States must commit itself to visualized. the development of the technologyneeded to rapid than most conceptual planners source of Technology can provide a better way oflife. Aopen the undersea frontier as a new higher standard of living for a doubledworldproducts and materials. population in the year 2000 will require morethan twice the power, fresh water, and rawmaterialsIV. INTERRELATIONSHIPS AMONG PARTIC- consumed today. The material demands ofhigher ULAR SEGMENTS living standards are vividly illustrated bythe fact that the United Stats1 with five per centof the Technology development must be accomplished world's population consumes almost half thein a realistic environment subject toeconomic, power and raw materialsproduced by the entiresocial, political, scientific, international, andmili- world. So that the United States cannotbetary pressures. Decisions on programactivity accused of taking a disproportionate shareofshould be preceded by objective discussions care- world resources, it is prudent to encouragedevel-fully weighing technical and policy features.Im- opment of technology for newoffshore peto-portant areas of interrelationshiphave been iden- leum, mineral, food, and other resources,in effecttified aniong economic segments: (1) government - greatly expanding the world resource base. industry - academic, (2) civilian - military, and (3) For the near term, national securitywill be therelationships among nations. most compelling influence forcingadvancement of marine technology. However,offshore petroleumA. GovernmentIndustryAcademic expenditures are growing more rapidlythan defense expenditures. A large portionof the effort Government's traditional role in industrial de- will have both civilian and militaryapplication,velopment has been to provide protection for suggesting a need for strong cooperationbetweenbusiness investments and information of a scien- the two. tific or technical nature. The State Department, The quest for wealth and profit willhelpDepartment of Defense, US. Coast Guard, Depart- Office advance marine technology. Advancedtechnologyment of the Interior, and the U.S. Patent will provide the key to more economicutilizationprovide protection for marine industries in many of the undersea environment. Such assetsof theforms: physical survey data pertinent to mineral sea as buoyancy, sound transmission,and a limit-deposits, general environmental information, and less heat sink will influence technologicaldevelop-statistical data. Protection of business investments is ofparticu- ment. interested in ex- Technology development has allowed concur-lar concern to those industries explora- rent achievement of a shorter workweek and aploiting the continental shelves. Because tionandsurvey information mustprecede higher standard of living. As this trend continues, of the Americans will earn higher disposable incomesandexploitation of the shelves, broad surveys

VI-18 74' 'elves must be given high priority in any nationalcomponents technically advanced to maintain a Dean program. Legal rights of industriesoperatingcompetitive position and (2) applying technical n the continental shelves are particularly vague.skills and experience to solving known military onfiictsover jurisdiction among individuals,problems_ Military technology developments often tates, and the U.S. Government and between theare applicable to civilian endeavors_ railed States and foreign nations over sovereignty Often a simple solution to a technical problem n the shelf have created a climateof legalcan open the door to major systemsapplications. ncertainty hindering private investment and tech-However, because of security classification, ad- withheld from ological development. vances in the state-of-the-art can be Various agencies of the U.S. Government haveother potential users. Overclassification unneces- rograms in ocean research anddevelopment_ Insarily slows communications and can cause unin- articular the Navy has recently increased itstentional duplication of effort when civilian indus- fforts through establishment of the Deep Submer-try is not apprised of military developments_ ence Systems Project and theDeep Ocean Tech- Devising means of transferring technology and underbringing about utilization of that technology for ology Program. The Sea Grant Program, it was ray in 1968, is expandingFederal Governmentpurposes other than those for which apport of applied marine sciences. developed have become activities of national importance requiring continued high level attention. The present relationship among the govern- the nent, industry, and academic world in marineThe transfer problem can occur within either civilian or military sector as well as between them. Irograms needs strengthening. Expanding interests If industry in the ocean environment and the Research and development in the marine sci- liportance of these interests to the economicences constitutes a rapidly increasingand relatively vell-being of the United States argue for a strongunexploited resource. Effective transfer of tech- ton-military Government ocean services programnology can increase the rate of economic growth, aid the nd a guarantee of offshore protection. Govern-create new employment opportunities, and nent-sponsored technology development effortsinternational competitive position of American hould emphasi7eimproved and lesscostlyindustry_ nethods, thereby enabling ocean industries to Furthermore, technology is a tool that the Terate profitably and also provide increased taxUnited States can use to aid other nations striving to improve their standards of living.Ocean tech- avenues. Fundamental technology development cannotnology is particularly suitable to technology trans- ie effective without close coordinationwith thefer..First, marine activities are global in perspec- ndustrial and academic sectors. A continuingtive and application_ The Gulf Stream thatwashes nechanism should be established through whichFlorida shores eventually influences the climate he industrial, fmancial, and academic conunu-and ecology of England, Norway, and the North titles readily can advise on marine science, engi-Sea. Second, marine problems are relatively new to the community of advanced science and engineer- teering, and technology. Advice is needed in been lindamental technology, facilities, manpower, anding, and few institutional barriers have tarional goals and projects. More specifically, aerected. elationship similar to that which existed between Traditional means of transferring technology he National Advisory Committee for Aeronauticsinclude the movement of knowledgeable people ;NACA) and its advisory panels would be de-and technical literature coupled with the normal activities of libraries, technical journals, profes- drable. sionalsymposiums,corporations, and governments. These are key activities, but becauseof the 3. CivilianMilitary extreme technical diversity of the oceansand the Effective civilian-military interchange of tech-large numbers of present and potential usersof nology is obviously useful to both parties.Inde-marine data, more is needed. It is necessary to pendent research and development programs con-construct and implement channels ofdistribution ducted by defense contractors normally have twoand methods of retrieval of these technical data, objectives: (1) keeping a company's productsandparticularly from government to industrial users- 0 V1-19 A special problem exists with smallbusiness As a basis for harmonious international marine obtaining exploration and resource development, certain which historically has had difficulty and security clearances and need-to-know onclassified premises should underlie national policies often lack generalprograms. Excellence, experience,and capabilities programs. Small companies in several knowledge of information sources of theFederalin marine science and technology exist Government. Progressive companies prepare unso- nations and cooperation can be beneficial to the licited proposals to demonstrate their expertise. United States. However, unless industry is aware of projectneeds, In the development of ocean resources, major time and money may be wasted insubmittingcapital investments must be protected. Uncertain- existing proposals for duplicative efforts. ties in interpretation and application of The U.S. Government role in technology trans-international law may result in conflicts between fer must be based on (1) a positive policy thatthenations, particularly with regard to the width of release of marine science and technologyis aterritorial seas, rights of innocent passage, and the legitimate function and (2) an implementationofexploitation of ocean resources. A legal framework the policy in the agencies concernedwith funda-is required to prevent conflicts and to preservethe mental technology, ocean explorationand survey,traditional freedom of the sea. and ocean services. For example, the National U.S. marine technology developments should Aeronautics and Space Administration has accom- consider both international competition and coop- plished the transfer of technical data by establish-eration. Where consistent with the nationalinter- ing technology utilization officers atits variousest, programs should encourage increased coopera- and activities, placing responsibility in anidentifiabletion and data exchange among ocean scientists office or individual. However, great care mustbeengineers of all nations. The U.S. should consider taken in the treatment of patentable data to assureadvanced marine technology as a prime export an incentive throughownership for the developerproduct and as a foreign aid tool to assist who risks funds in furthering his invention. developing countries to strengthen their capabili- The Navy role in dissemination oftechnicalties for using the ocean and its resources as a of themeans to economic progress.The International data is particularly important because for magnitude of its ocean research and developmentPanel proposes an international framework program. It should be recognizedthat there areocean exploration in its report. penalties to both under- and over-classification. What is most needed is a consistent classificationV. TECHNICALINTERRELATIONSHiPS policy directed toward optimizing thetechnical and military superiority of the UnitedStates. In addition to economic, social, political, international, and militm.--y pressures, interrelated tech- Since only the Navy can judge the implicationsof its data, it must can-y out this functionwith thenical areas also influence marine technology development.Includedarethose among science, utmost care. engineering, and technology and those between C. Relationships Among Nations outerspace and hydrospace development. From the earliest times the oceans have sup-A. ScienceEngineeringTechnology ported bonds of commerce and culture.However, historic relationships are changing, acceleratedby Using modern technology, man can exploreand advances in marine technology, enabling nations to understand increasingly greater portions of the conduct activities farther from home and in deepermarine environment. Improvements intechnology water. Multinational communication is necessarylead to an ability to monitor, measure, andpredict to the beneficial utilization of the seabecause ofenviromnental phenomena more accurately. De- the international character of marine science, thesigns for and operations of such complexundersea sheer magnitude of the unexplored undersea fron-military systems as those employed in an anti- tier, and the free use tradition of open ocean areas.submarine warfare and undersea commandand The size, complexity, and variability of the marinecontrol are dominated by acoustical conditions.In environment emphasize the importance of interna-fact, almost all undersea activities areheavily tional cooperation. influenced by enviromnental considerations.

V1-20 81_ A great scientific effort is needed. There shouldsolutions to problems. Aerospace talentsand be close interaction of the scientist withthephilosophy of approach can and are being applied engineer to facilitate the effort. The overall devel-to ocean problems, especially infundamental opment of marine science has suffered from thetechnology, systems engineering, and systems man- lack of communication between the two, and theagement. Although many problems such asnavi- present relative paucity of knowledge stems ingation and communicati,,a have technicalsimilari- large measure from the past lack of adequateties, actual hardware solutions are often very equipment Essential in studying or exploiting thedifferent ocean for any purpose are the necessarytools. Operational designs cannot be assessed without Despite the need for improved marine engineeringenvironmental data_ Instrumentation, sensor, re- and technology support, engineering institutionscording, storing, and processing systems are essen- have not emphasized problems of the oceans. tial for environmental profiling. For example, Oceanographic research operations are costly indetermining effects of marine life on acoustical terms of manpower, especially consideringtheproperties requires special marine test equipment limited number of oceanographers. In 1966, theBottom bearing strength, shear and plastic flow United States graduated only 24 doctorate levelstrength, core samples, turbidity susceptibility, oceanographers compared to 100 for the Soviets.bottom stability, and seismic activity data are Since manpower resources are limited, improvedneeded to establish design criteria_ Space ins-au- tools and equipment should be emphasized. Bothmentation cannot serve these needs. Also, space parties, the scientist and engineer, are responsiblesimulation facilities which emphasize low pressures for better cooperation in the future. have little application to the high pressure needs of Insufficient funds allocated to scientific proj-hydrospace. ects have generally made impossibleimproved Aerospace power source needs have, brought engineering support It is probable that the scien-fuel cells out of the research laboratory and tist will demand the better tools and equipmenttransformed them into practical devices. They technology can provide. This is underscored by thehave advanced considerably thestate-of-the-art fact that scientists at the Woods Hole Oceano-and have provided impetus to the fuel cellindustry graphic Institution waited in an almost endless linefor lower cost construction, standard sizes,and These advancements to use the Alvin submersible. mass production techniques. The science-engineering interaction also workshave provided a technological base from which the other way. Although Sir John Baker may havedevelopment of undersea power systems can pro- been correct when he said, "Science earns noceed at a greatly reduced cost. However, special- dividends until it has been through the mills ofized development is still necessary to adapt this technology," development of new technology of-basic development to the marine environment. ten waits for scientific breakthroughs_ For ex- Aerospace technology has contributed struc- ample, aquaculture will benefit from scientifictural design techniques, high strength-to-weight metals, and composite structures. This technology advances in fish genetics. Deep sea nodule mining of will benefit from understanding the ocean mineralhas been applied to design and fabrication precipitation process. submersible pressure hulls and hard tanks, outer hull or fairing structures, and flotation spheres. Advanced pressure hull design entails the useof B. OuterspaceHydrospace detail stress analysis, shell buckling theory, and Much has been said about the fallout of spaceexperimental stressanalysis techniques largely technology applicable to the ocean environment_developed in the aerospace industry_ Rocket Meteorological satellites continuously observingmotor technology involving flaw detection,alloy- global weather patterns obtain critical forecastinging, and processing of materials has been used in data from unpopulated oceanic regions. Communi-development work for deep submersibles. cations satellites have spanned vast ocean areas. Titanium is an example of a high-strength metal Unfortunately, observations are limitedtodeveloped by the aerospace industry, but it re- ocean surface features. Thetotally different sub-quires substantial modification before application surface environment usually meanstotally newto deep ocean vehicles. Space technology has not 82- VI-21 concerned itself with the unique ocean needs ofguidance system from the Polaris program in the resistance to stress corrosion and crack propaga-Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle. tion. Fabrication and welding techniques for thick A parallel is readily appirent between space and sections, critical to deep submergence programs,undersea life support requirements. Work in sub- have not been an aerospace requirement. marine non-regenerable life support systems served Deep ocean vehicles are limited in pressure hullas the basis for the original systemsfor spacecraft, volume, requiring many electrical componentsresultingin advanced non-regenerable systems. mounted externally. Those retained inside theThis knowledge is now being used to provide pressure hull must conform to strictrequirementssophisticated life support systems for small deep on heat generation, size, weight, andelectro-submersibles with comparable volume and power magnetic interference. Aerospace technology inlimitations. the areas of solid-state devices and switches, Space technology can contribute little to the miniaturization and packaging design, circuit de-special certification requirements and procedures sign, and reduction of interference effects isneeded for undersea vehicle pressure hull mate- applicable to ocean vehicle problems. However,rials, hard tank structure, penetration fittings, and space technology does not provide answers to suchpiping. However, common safety requirements electrical system requirements as penetration ofexist for crew protection from toxic fumes, fire, pressureliulls and water-tight electrical connectors.smoke, and atmospheric contaminants. Frequently, aerospace-developed hydraulic Indeed, aerospace technology has been useful in pumps, motors, and valves have been utilizedsolving ocean systems problems. However, the directly off-the-shelf, but usually these have beendegree of applicability should not be over stressed unreliable in the undersea environment. Aerospacesince vnce the undersea environment is penetrated, technology has led to advances in viscosity index,new technological solutions are usuallyneeded. oxidation and corrosion inhibition, long term storage, and high and low temperature characteristics bearing on thesuccessful application ofVI. INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY ON THE hydraulics to marine systems. However, there are LAW OF THE SEA no hydraulic systems or qualified hydraulicfluids currently functioning at high pressures up to the Although the trends and relationships discussed 16,500 psi required for deep ocean systems. above will affect technology development, prob- Reliable communications is critical to effective ably the reverse will be true in the law of the sea. diver and submersible operations. Unlike radio and Society tends to move as an organic whole and the telemetry methods and equipment available world-advancement of technology is inevitable. wide for surface communications, undersea op- Laws must be tailored to the needs of society erations depend upon acoustics and cables as the and to the technology which is integral to their primary means of information transfer. Under-enforcement. The technology of the sea will water sound transmission suffers from refraction,undergo drastic change and that change has barely attenuation, and limitations of spectral range. begun. Saturation diving, submersible vehicles, and For rendezvous and mating of submerged vehi-undersea habitation will become commonplace. cles, six degrees of freedom are involved, just as forThe essence of the change will be the replacement a Gemini-Agena docking. However, anadditionalof present ocean surface technology with totally complication under water is variable ocean cur-submerged technology. rents. Controllers have been developed from les- There will be critical problems to solve, but sons learned in aircraft and spacecraft toprovidewhen they are solved, the ability to work in the submersible pilots with controls for rotation insubsea environment will become increasingly easy. pitch, roll, and yaw and translation in surge, sway, In the undersea area, law must respond to a and heave. Aerospace technology has led to therapidly developing technology. The law will be use of a modified computer and a modifiedinertialgreatly challenged to keep pace. Chapter 4Organization

The following ideas on organization representdate all U.S. Government activities associated with the input to the Commission from its Panel onthe oceans into one organization. Rather, it is Marine Engineering and Technology. An effort hasnecessary to take advantage of the competence been made to emphasize only comments thatthat presently exists and to selectively cluster relate to the organizational needs to promote andwhere appropriate to provide additional strength. encourage progress in marine engineeringandRegardless of the amount of clustering, the Navy technology. However, it is recognized that severalshould remain separate to support its military thoughts would affect much broader areas ofobligations. In the civilian sector several organiza- future marine programs. tions have limited interests in the ocean and therefore could not fitlogically into a single I. NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE civilian marine agency. The panel feels two basic principles must be Overall national management of ocean resourcesatisfied to respond to the diverse character of development and the related supporting marinemarine activities and the critical need for advanced engineering and technology need strengthening.technology to support future activities. First, a Because of the decentralized character of oceanmechanism must be established to provide national activities,the important contributions of theperspective and guidance to the Nation's engineer- States and regions, private enterprise, and theing and technolou efforts. Second, recognition academic community must be recognized. Thesemust be made of the necessity of continual complement the well-established role of the U.S.additions to fundamental technology. This latter Government. principle leads to the importance of assuring that To date major Government contributions infunds to support fundamental technology develop- marine engineering and teclmology have comement are adequately distinguished from agency from the Navy, chiefly because of its requirementsgeneral operating funds so that a steady and for knowledge and skilLs associated with thecontinuing fundamental technology program can oceans. However, the past two decades have seenbe assured without interruption. efforts of the private sector, led in this area by the petroleum industry, expand such that their expenditures are greatly in excess of non-militaryB. NationalAdvisory Committee for the Oceans Government efforts. (NACO) The need for national participation as opposed to a predominantly Government approach to It is essential that a mechanism be established marine programs became clearly apparent duringthat can ensure orderly development and execution the panel's investigations. The States and regions,of a national ocean program. Such a mechanism private enterprise, the academic community, andshould be responsible for providing advice on the the U.S. Government all have vital roles to play.planning and coordination of a national program These roles can be responsive and coordinztedincluding oceanscience,technology, environ- only if they are provided with a- means formental services, and ocean resource development. cooperative long-range planning and National guid-It would be concerned with the marine programs ance. of all US. Government agencies,States and reglons, private enterprise, and the academic com- 11. NATIONAL ORGANIZATIONAL STRUC-munity and would provide a continuing statutory TURE means for furnishing a representative inputfrom all sectors. Specifically, the panel recommends a A. General National Advisory Committee fOr the Oceans. With the diverse scope of national activities inRegardless of action taken to consolidate Federal the ocean it is unwise and impractical to consoli-Government agencies, this committee is needed.

.84 VI-23 1. Functions Serve, when appropriate, as a channel of communications and a focal point in the plans and The panel believes the committee could mostarrangements for international programs. usefully focus its advice in such areas asthe following: Submit to the President and the Congress an assessment of the national ocean program,includ- Review and advise on updating the10-yearing a review of the activities of the oceanic agency. objectives of national ocean programs. The report is to be made at intervals notless frequently than every two years. Assess current levels of activityin terms of accomplishing the 10-year objectives. Generate pertinent activities on its own consistent with its overall responsibilities. Identify deficiencies and recommend assignment of responsibilities to rectify them. As can be seen from the above list, a primary function of this organization would be to advise Recommend means to eliminate unintentional(1) the new oceanic agency, (2) the Navy, (3) the duplication of effort_ Army Corps of Engineers, and (4) otherUS. Review and offer a national perspective totheGovernment agencies with marine interests. Advice funda- plans and budget requests of the U.S.Governmentshould be provided on such matters as National agencies by taking into account efforts outsidethemental technology, facilities, manpower, Projects,scientificinvestigations, and oceano- Government. graphic operations. The unique feature of the Recommend lead agencies for marine programscommittee will be the ease of reciprocalinforma- having multi-agency interests, and recommendtion transfer among the US. Government,States whether specific marine programs can best beand regions, privateenterprise, and academic undertaken by the Navy, by the new consolidationinstitutions. of appropriate existing agencies, or by an agency not included in the civilian consolidation. 2. Membership Offer guidance and recommend important new ocean programs and facilitiesfor the overall It is recommended that this advisory committee national program, making effective use of theconsist of 15 official members representing private competence of both private andGovernmententerprise, the States and regions, and the aca- organizations. demic community. The chairman should be selected from outside the U.S. Government. In addition to Promote means for collecting, processing, andthe 15 official members, U.S. Government repre- disseminating pertinent technical information. sentatives should be designated official observers. Recommend an adequate level of programsandThis would assure that the committee was awareof facilities for marine education and training- the programs and problems of the U.S. Government marine agencies. All members would be appointed -Anticipate, focus attention on, discuss,andby the President with the advice and consentof recommend the resolution of multiple-user con-the Senate and would serve fixed overlapping flicts- terms. This committee would be supportedby a full-time executive director and appropriate staff. Presi- Respond to requests for advice from the The members from industry should be drawn dent and U.S. Government agencies withmarineprimarily from the users of the sea such as those activities. ergaged in the transportation, petroleum, fishing, Help to ensure that the national program hasmining, desalination, and recreation industries. proper and continual visibility to Stateand munic-Those industries that supply hardware and services ipal governments, private enterprise, theacademicalso should be represented. community, and especially to the Congress and the The State and region members should be drawn public. from the Pacific, Atlantic, Gulf Coast, and the

VI-24 .85 Great Lakes areas. The members from the aca-B. New Civilian Ocean Agency demic community should be drawn from universi- A new, adequately funded civilian oceanic ties with ocean programs. The U.S. Governmentagency should be establishedwithin the U.S. members shouid be chosen to represent its diverseGovernment to concentrate in one agency appro- marine interests_ priatecivilian groups with primary roles and 3. Structure missions in the oceans. A new civilian technology development group The advisory committee should be supple-should be created within the agency to support mented by as many subcommittees or panels asfundamental technology. The fundamental tech- might be required to deal with specific topics ornology program should be managed by this new areas of national concern requiringspecializedmarine technology group and should utilize when knowledge. It is recommended that the parentappropriate the resources and facilities of existing committee form an executive board comprised ofagencies and the private sector. the chairman, and one member from each of the four groupsindustry, U.S. Government, StatesC. Interagency Coordinating Mechanism and regions, and the academic communityto expedite operations between the formal full com- To complement and support the efforts of the fact that mittee meetings. agency and NACO and to recognize the The advisory committee should be establishedmany marine activities would still belocated by statute and provided with funds for its admini-outside any consolidation, it is recommended that strative operations and for accomplishing thean interagency coordinatingmechanism be estab- functions listed above. lished and chaired by the head of the new civilian The panel considers the formation of thisagency. This mechanism would ensurethe inclu- committee a critical requirement. The recommen-sion of the interests of all Federal agencies with dation is intended to enlist a cooperative relation- marine programs not included in the proposed ship between all sectors of the economy and is consolidation. characteristic of programs utili7ed in opening new frontiers. Indeed, it is intended to include keyD.Navy Role characteristics of the historic programs so success- The Navy is in a position to contribute greatly ful in developing the American railroad, agricul-to advanced marine engineering andtechnology ture, and aircraft industries_ related to a national ocean program. It is recommended that the Navy be given an expanded role III. U.S. GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATIONALrecognizing the support it can provide to the STRUCTURE national program in areas closely related to its competence, facilities, and experience. A. General Even with an increasing involvement of non- To ensure optimum and continuing contribu-military users, the Navy is the logical organization tions from the U.S. Government to the develop- to support many of the overall nationalneeds of ment of a national program, a stronger non- marine engineering and technology. The following military input is needed. A new marine program statements of high ranking leaders of the Depart- would be advanced and strengthened, if it could ment of Defense and the Office of the Secretaryof build upon a consolidation of those appropriate the Navy reinforce this conclusion: existing agencies with primary missions and tasks in the ocean. This consolidation would support the If national oceanographic objectives require it, the very important new civilian technology develop-Department of Defense is willing to request funds ment group and would complement the Navy deep from Congress for work only malginally related to submergence and ocean engineering programs. In defense needs, but for which the Department of many cases the existing competence, facilities, andDefense is in the best position to manage because experience of the Navy should be drawn upon to of technical skills, facilities, or organization. The support missions of national importance_ direction for utilization of these funds could come

6 technology with organization ifadvantage of Navy programs in from a non-Department of Defense realistic concern for national securityneeds. this is judged to be the bestcourse.1 Therefore, to capitalize onthe assets of the The Navy is proud of the role itplayed in leading should be as- and of the indis-Navy, selected national missions the revolution in oceanography should be allocated to pensable support it has given so manyof thesigned and adequate funds programs directed byother federal and private the Navy. . agencies. The Navy believesthat a vigorous, wellIV. FOCAL POINT INTHE LEGISLATIVE defzned, and multifacetedoceanographic program BRANCH interest. It, therefore, is is clearly in the national The U.S. Government's ocean programis within prepared and expects to participatein all areas and subcom- facilities may be ofthe scope of numerous committees where Navy experience and mittees of the Congress,4 eachconcerned with a value to the nation.2 portion of the oceanographicprogram. Thus, In my mind these programs(undersea technologyoceanography and ocean engineeringhave lacked a programs) can best be described asthe develop-clear cut channel of effectivecommunication with ment of technology leadingtoward the occupationthe Congress. Many committeesof the Congress and exploitation of the oceanbottom and thereceive fragmentary information onthe ocean deep ocean. Although our primaryobjectives areprogram, usually small partsof the presentations military exploitation, the technologicallcnowhowof the many departmentsand agencies having developed by these programs isidentical for allsome ocean responsibilitiesand missions in addi- zypes of exploitation.3 tion to other large responsibilities. used to guide the The situation is even worseregarding Congres- The above statements were appropriations. Engineering Pro-sionalconsideration of ocean Navy Deep Submergence/Ocean Ocean appropriations are a verysmall part of gram Planning Group.This group recommended a AEC, and other undersea efforts.Defense, Cormnerce, Interior, substantial increase in the Navy Usually, no spec- fully responsivedepartment budget requirements. It is also apparent that a more the Appropria- Navy contribution to the nationaleffort in theific ocean program is presented to tions Committee, but when it is,the description is oceans requires: disjointed. Establishment within the Departmentof Defense The unsatisfactory Congressionaloverviews of of a strong primary militarymission in underseathe ocean program probablywill become worse technology to meet present and futurethreats. unless changes are made. It is necessaryto create a A clearly-stated Navy missionto support na-Congressional committee or a JointHouse-Senate tional marine programs whichwill evoke theCommittee for Marine Affairs to hearthe entire support of the Congress,responsible civilian lead-national programincluding the partsof the ers, and the generalpublic. States, industry, and the academiccommunityas A recognition of the contributionwhich can bewell as the total U.S. Government programwith made by the use of Navy capabilitiesin inter-emphasis on its role in the national program_The national, economic, political, scientific,and tech-Congress should be asked to authorizethe Govern- the total national nological fields. ment program and endorse requirements that willprogram_ Presentationsshould be made to a new A dermition of security House Appropria- enable the civilian sector toderive maximumoceanic sub-committee of the tions Committee. available by the Statement of the Honorable John S. Foster,Jr-, Di- The reports and advice made rector of Defense Research andEngineering, Feb. 24,proposed National AdvisoryCommittee for the 1967. Oceans should assist inthe development of a 2 Statement of the Honorable Paul R. Ignatius, Secre- tary of the Navy, to the Navy LeagueConvention,clearer focus in the Congress. Honolulu, April 26, 1968. 3 Statement of the Honorable Robert H. B. Baldwin, 4For detaiLs, see chart between pages 32 and33 of Under Secretary of the Navy, at theFourth U.S. Navy Oceanography Washington, D.C.,hearings of House Subcommittee on Symposium on Military Oceanography, National Oceanographic Program,1965, Serial No. 82-83. May 11, 1967. 87 VI-26 Chapter 5 Multipurpose Technology

Seapower, defmed by Admiral Mahan manytechnology to occupy new territory and modify years ago, encompasses all elements contributingworld geography would give a nation the potential to national strengthnatural resources,industrialto make valid and defensible claims with an capacity, manpower, economic power, geographicexcellent position to counter claims by those not situation, and cultural status. These many dimen-having the technology. A technology base must be sions serve a nation in both peace and war. established for the United States to enter the The United States stands on the threshold of aundersea frontier. rekindled interest in the oceans. A new age of seapower, important to the United States and theEconomic power. New technology determines world, can be achieved by technological readinesswhich country will be the world source of various to utilize the sea. products. U.S. domination of the world aircraft and computer markets is an excellent example; Odtural status. National prestige is an image ofJapanese strength in fishing and shipbuilding is strength or lack of it in the eyes of other nations.another. New industries have been created in a This is of major concern, because (1) no nationshort time by such technological breakthroughs as wants to be a loser, (2) as a nation's prestige falls,xerography, polaroid photography, solid state elec- other nations begin to suspect it of weakness, (3)tronics, offshore drilling, and desalination. Tech- other nations do not want to be associated with anology and the economics of production and loser, and (4) as other nations progressively with-exploration are inseparably linked. A strong tech- draw their adherence and support, the trendnology base willblcelylead toIle w marine toward becoming a loser accelerates. This is aindustries. vicious circlestrength begets strength and weakness, weakness. Manpower_ An improved technology requires the continual upgrading of the manpower necessary to A nation's prestige or cultural status adheresfabricate, operate, and maintain the systems utiliz- dosely to the vigor of its research and technologi-ing the undersea frontier_ Manpower of various cal activities. The world community is well awareskills and interests will be required. Some will find that today's scientific and technological strength isemployment in the actual marine environments the direct source of tomorrow's economic andwhile many more will provide critically needed military strength. Space activities have illustratedsupport functions that can be accomplished only thistruth. However, activities in the marineon the land_ The requisite manpowerwith the environment inherently promise far greater eco-tools and equipment provided by technology will nomic, military, and prestige rewards than inrapidly alter the ocean from an area of dreams to a space. A great nation ignoring this runs the gravesite of action. risk of falling into weakness. Industrial capacity. Volume production can work The geographic situation. Over 70 per cent of thewonders in reaucing costs. American industrial earth is covered by water. The last major dry landcapacity has met great challenges. A highly refmed frontier was discovered in 1492, when the worldautomobile can be bought for less than $2,500. population was 350 million. Today with 10 timesShould it not be possible to build a class of ex- the population, the world is forced to turn againploration vehicles with 20 horsepower propulsion to the sea for new sources of food, minerals,andsystems, life support, and unsophisticated com- energy. munication electronics for $50,000 each? In the undersea frontier, many nations withNatural Resources. Low-cost underwater vehicles widely divergent geographies, needs, and techno-couldopen a prospecting eraeclipsingthe logical capabilities are involved. Achieving theCalifornia gold rush. Exploring and mapping the

VI-27 8 8- sea bottom might be accomplished inmuch lessthe undersea frontier and improve the U.S. world time than now thought necessary. Support of acompetitive position. A solid program to advance technology base for low-cost, reliable systemsfundamental technology is needed for developing development could hasten the exploitation of theelements and processes that can be combined into natural resources in the undersea frontier. useful ocean components, subsystems, and systems. Technology plateau. Much has been expressed in While an excellent base already existsso much the popular press about a technological plateau.so that the panel is convinced that the United To the contrary, the panel agrees with the remarksStates can achieve the goals set forth in this by Dr. John S. Foster, Director of Defense Re-reportmany categories require further develop- search and Engineering, before Congressional hear-ment, a lesser number require extensive effort, and ings in early 1968: others require little advancement. This section concentrates on the most critical fundamental There is no technological plateau now nor is onetechnology needs, to which the panel has assigned about to be created. We are convinced thatthe following order of priority: research and exploratory development effort requires increased support during the next few yearsSurvey equipment and instrumentation. The to ensure many optionsa margin of safetyNation's most urgent needs in undersea develop- against any technological challenge ment are for knowledge of the ocean's living and non-living resources and the technology to de- Dr. Foster also warned against relying too heavily on technical forecasting instead of sound researchtermine quickly and efficiently their potential. and exploratory development. He noted that thoseWhat is generally available must be known before it is utilized, ignored, wasted, or deeded away. predicting the future of science have usually been far too conservative. Power source& No single power source will meet In the sections of Chapter 5 which follow, anall the power level and endurance requirements of assessment of the current situation and some ideasundersea tasks. A variety of power sources is on future marine technology needs arepresented.needed. Recommendations are made at the end of eachExternal machinery systems and equipment. subdivision. In most cases, the recommendationsUndersea technology will be abundantly rewarded are those the panel would like undertaken in theby developing systems that can operate in the near future. Longer-term recommendationsreflectenvironment without the need for encapsulation. judgments on potentially rewarding advanced tech- nologynotnecessarilyrequiredfortoday'sMaterials. Materials advancement can lead to operations. large undersea payloads and more reliable ocean The potentials discussed throughout this reportsubsystems and components. are critically dependent on the discoveriesand knowhow generated by ocean science and technol-Navigation and communications. These are prime ogy. A substantial investment to extendandrequisites to safe and successful operations on and consolidate this fundamental knowledge promisesin the oceans. handsome rewards in terms of sufficient resources,Tools. Improved diver and vehicle tools are enhanced economic vigor, improved strategic posi-required to do useful work in the oceans. tion, a better way of life, and a stronger national defense. All this is the promisethe threat is thatMooring systems, buoys, and surface support it will be underestimated or overlooked. platform&Surface supportis used for many undersea activities. Stable surface platforms and I. Fundamental Technology reliable long-life buoys must be developed. Step one in the capability development cycleBiomedicine and diving equipment-. Man can for marine technology is base-building to establishoperate in the sea safely and efficiently only if the knowledge and means to explore and utilizesupported by a biomedical program determining

V1-28 89,,, physiological limits, medical treatments, and mini-of surveys whether they be scientific, industrial, or mum decompression times. militaryeach having special requirements. This diversity plus the complexity, vastness, and general Environmental consideration& Environmental in-inaccessibffity of the ocean volume make surveys, formation iscritical to the design of reliable,especially of the continental shelves and suspected efficient, and economic equipment for use in theanomalies, a first step toward undersea utilization. oceans. Bathymetric measurement systems have been improved markedly in accuracy, speed, and con- Data handling. Data are the product of scientificvenience through advancements in echo sounding. and exploration missions. Technology applied toFor detailed studies in deep water, however, marine data handling can vastly improve at-seaexisting systems are not adequate. Measuring and operations. recording profiles of the ocean bottom along Life support. Extended underwater manned op-selected courses traveled by the survey ship, plane, erations require advanced life support systems. or satellite omits knowledge of intervening areas that can be compensated only by increasing the number of courses (survey lines). High endurance submersibles with side-scan A. Survey Equipment and Instrumentation sonar and short range echo sounders offer a method for detailed bathymetric mapping essen- I. Survey Equipment tially independent of subsurface visibffity and surface weather. Major obstacles are the lack of precisenavigation and limited endurance and a. Cunent SituationSurvey functions requiredpayload. for undersea operations result from needs for (1) Acoustic profiling with high energy sources, measurement and sampling of ocean and sub-mechanical vibrators,air guns, gas exploders, bottom parameters for geophysical, chemical, andelectric arcs, and explosives can be used for deep biological analysis, (2) knowledge of position, andreflection and refraction work. Detailed shallow (3) communication of data among undersea sta-water geology can be defmed with high resolution tions,surface support locations, and onshoreprofiling utilizing low energy sources. centers. For several years, general surveys of limited The current approach to undersea mappingocean areas (as parts of the Gulf Stream) have involves use of surface methods almost exclusively.been conducted from aircraft. Some data are being Ocean surveying is limited in accuracy by the lackgathered on the sea surface now by weather of precise long-range surface positioning systems.satellites, and steps are being taken to establish The advent of satellite positioning constitutes anglobal surveys of the ocean surface by satellite improvement, but does not approach the accuracy(Figure 1). Aircraft and mtellite mounted auneras, required to perform undersea construction andinfrared radiometers, microwave radiometers, and geological evaluation surveys. similar instruments are capable of gathering valu- The same type of basic reference systemsable data on ocean surface temperature, sea state, provided by the usual geodetic methods on landice conditions, current and water mass movements, ultimately of compardble accuracyare requiredschools and congregations of fish, phytoplankton undersea for mapping ocean bottom and sub-blooms, water pollution, and other important bottom features and for recording the location ofprocesses. physical, chemical, and biolo*al measurement taken in the water column. The technology ofb. Future Needs The study of ocean processes navigation and bathymetry, mapping magnetic andand marine species on more than a very small mle gravitationalfields,and primarysub-bottomwill require the availabffity of data on an auto- tectonics can be combined to synthesize regionalmatic or rapid retrieval basis. Ocean engineering geology. efforts will profit greatly from the existence of Technological aspects of ocean surveys cannotrapid access to data on the environment. Predic- be considered separately from priorities and typestions of fish production and migration to optimize

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, - 2. Instrumentation craft have been an important aid to such measurements as sound velocity in sediments. a. Current Situation The measurement of under- Only chemical parameters of very general inter- water physical, chemical, geological, and biologicalest, such as salinity, pH, and dissolved oxygen have parameters is accomplished predominantly withbeen measured with other than sophisticated devices lowered from surface craft or suspendedlaboratory instrumentation or methods of volu- from floating or submerged buoys (Figure 2).metric analysis. Some application has been made Such measurements are limited generally to basicof fluorescence, spectroscopy, radioactive tracers, parameters required to identify water masses andand neutron activation analysis in tracing sediment determine their movement or to provide grossand water movement. Little has been done to identification of biological activity and nutrients.adapt instruments for analysis in geochemical Limited measurements from submersibles havesurveying, pollution monitoring, nutrient assess- includedstereophotographyfortopographicment, and other ocean activities of growing inter- studies, temperature, salinity, and on-site soundest and concern. yelocity measurements in upper sediment layers. Biological measurements are completely infer- ential, consisting of chemical and physical measurements that can be correlated with biological concentrations, movement, and activity. Biologi- cally important properties such as oxygen, total organics, salinity, Eh, and pH' plus the physically important parameters can be compared with biological observations and bioacoustic measurements to predict response to environmental factors, productivity, and migration. New developments by the Atomic Energy Commission and the Navy include a deep water isotopiccurrent analyzer, a nuclear sediment density probe, and an in situ oxygen analyzer.

b. Future Needs New instrumentation is needed to study biological species, their distribution, feeding habits, reproduction, and migration as a function of chemical and physical parameters. In addition, assistance to the biologist in the acquisition of field data can be provided through (1) development of automatic discrimination of acoustic signals generated by marine species, (2) obser- Figure 2. Meteorologic (left) and oceano- vation of movement of species by acoustic net- graphic (right) sensor packages of ODESSA works, (3)counting marine species migration system, which gathers data fi-om unmanned buoys over wfde ocean areas. (ESSA photo) through fish passes or other constrictions, and (4) other survey techniques. Submersiblesshouldbeparticularlywell adapted to on-site measurements of physical prop- Measurements by divers in the water mass haveerties of sea Ni,ater and sediment. Sediment meas- been limited to a few physical parameters, such asurements are needed for basic design criteria for distance and temperature, requiring only suchbottom emplacement, construction, tunneling, and rudimentary devices as bulb thermometers, mag-laying of pipelines and cables as well as for netic compasses, and measuring sticks or cbrds. In situ measurements have been made of sediment shear strength. However, diver monitoring and 1Eh and pHare defined in the subsection on manipulation of instruments lowered from surface environmental considerations of this section. 9 2 VI-31 resource surveys. Instruments andprocedures forfacilities should be provided on a reimbursable on-site measurement of engineering propertiesofbasis to service the manufacturers and users of sediments is needed. both military and non-military equipment. While great progress has been made in develop- Properly operating survey equipment is critical ing instrumentation having digitalcapabilities,to the exploration and development of ocean further progress is essential before long-rangerapidresources. Separate groups using similar equip- often oceanenvironmentalsurveillancebecomesa ments not calibrated to the same standards reality. obtain substantially different results. At present Much instrumentation available has been crit-no mechanism exists whereby uniformstandards icized as being unreliable and unsuited for service atof measurement can be established. Such standards sea. Instrumentation developmentwill flourish toare essential to efficient evaluation andanalysis of the extent of the commitment to utilize the seaa data obtained under various conditions. commitment in part dependent on the state of Recommendations: undersea technology. It follows that initial efforts in opening the vastHighest priority should be assigned to develop- economic potentials of the ocean may be investedment of survey equipment for detailed mapping of best in developing precise, rugged, seaworthybathymetric, geological, and ecological features; measuring instruments. Calibration and evaluationhigh-speed, wide-path width bottom scanning; and of new instrumentation is needed to provide thethree dimensional plotting. Realtime2 digital recording and processing systems adopted to oceanic proof-testing leading to dependable use. instrumentation should be pursued. Improved equipment should be developed to perform high- 3. Conclusions speed surveys of (1) shape, thickness, and extent Increased knowledge of the oceans can beof sediment layers, (2) depth and shape of rock obtained through better survey equipment andsurfaces, and (3) spatial distribution of engineering mapping techniques. Technology and scientificproperties of rock sediment layers. study can provide information for proper explora- Technology should be advanced in (1) rapid tion and development of ocean resources. Newat-sea analysis of chemicals in ocean andestuarine equipment is needed for precise measurementofwaters and in sediments for pollution monitoring, the ocean environment both for single in-placenutrient evaluation, corrosion control, and geo- measurements and for high-speed continuouschemical exploration, (2) on-site measurement of measurements of variable water and sedimentmicrogradients of salinity, pH, Eh, and water and properties. sediment densities, and (3) magnetic and gravi- Except where abrupt topographical changesmetric survey instruments for use at depths. occur or where a need for detailedstudies in deep Consideration should be given to observation, water exists, the accuracy of verticaldimensionmmsurement, and sampling functions as integral measurements by current systems is adequateforcomponents of a system including navigation, mapping. However, surveys are limited in speedcommunications, observation platform, and han- and economy, partially due to the lack of rapiddling equipment. data collection and processing capability. Programs involving mapping, surveys, explora- Platforms, equipment, data systems, and suchtion, research, and preconstruction engineering other tools of undersea technology as test rangefunctions will be most cost effective by applying a operations depend inherently on instrumentationsystems approach and automation. The ultimate capable of adequate performance and acceptablegoal should be to return to shore with data reliability. A primary deterrent to equipmentreduced, plotted, and ready for interpretation, or development is the inadequacy of facilities forto relay realtime data via synchronous satellites to evaluation and calibration. data processing centers ashore. Ocean simulators and laboratories to evaluate and calibrate equipment are not only scarce,but 2Realtime refers to the capability to process data simultaneously with the event being observed, permitting are not generally available to eithermanufacturersconclusions to be drawn and corrective action to be or users.Because of high capital costs, test implemented immediately.

VI-32 9 3 Because of lack of facilities for equipmentouter space. Considerable expenditures will be evaluation and calibration a coordinated program required, however, to redesign these systems for should be established immediately whereby cali- manned undersea applications. bration services and development of essential Divers usually will be able to obtain electrical standards and specifications can be made available energythroughumbilicalcords.Butfree- to all users on a cost-reimbursement basis. swinuning saturated divers working appreciable To permit standardized development, fabrica-distances from base will need reliable, high capa- tion, and calibration of ocean instruments and city, portable energy packages. Power demands for sensors, studies should be undertaken to determine tethered operations may extend upward to the realistic accuracy requirements. multikilowatt range to fulfill life support, illumination, work, environmental protection (especially B. Power Sources suit heat), and other demands. Thisnation must develop better undersea power sources. When submersibles with adequate1. Chemical Batteries endurance are developed, they need only submerge and surface in the sheltered waters of a harbor.a. Current SituationDeep submersibles have This will provide great cost reduction for futureused lead-acid batteries as a primary energy source submersible operationsthe elimination of surfacebecause of their low cost, established reliability, support_ and adaptability to sub=_rged operation. Silver- Within the foreseeable future undersea vehicleszinc batteries have been used in a few applications and habitats will be limited to the utilization ofwhere improved performance was mandatory and presently known and identified prime energyincreased cost acceptable. Bottom installations sources including (1) nuclear energy systemswhichsuch as Sealab have relied on power generated on require only occasional maintenance and refueling, support ships or ashore. (2) chemical energy systems replenished by sup- Small vehicles with limited mission require- port ships, and (3) ship- or shore-generated electri-ments employ batteries because of their relatively cal energy transmitted by cable. low cost, although payload is reduced by battery A portable undersea support laboratory at aweight. Because neutral buoyancy must be main- depth of 2,000 feet and the continental slope ortained, the low overall energy availability per midocean ridge station at 8,000 feet with crews ofpound of battery system limits greatly the endur- 15 to 25 and possibly 100 to 1,000 will requireance of most vehicles. Weight-to-energy ratios large amounts of energy, many thousands ofrange from 75 to 125 and 25 to 40 pounds per kilowatts. When the laboratory is relatively nearkilowatt hour for installed lead-acid and silver-zinc land, the energy can be generated best on shorebatteries, respectively. and transmitted to the habitat through cables. For remote locations a self-contained underseab. Future NeedsUse of new battery reactants power system probably will be required.Submers-such as fluorine may offer a two-to-three-fold ible vehicles and underwater construction machin-improvement in weight-to-energy ratios, but the ery will incorporate nuclear power systems orprojected costs of such developments are high. refuelable or rechargable chemical energy plants,Further, the weight-to-energy ratios will be chal- because electrical cables impose serious entangle-lenged seriously by improved fuel cells and ther- ment and vulnerability hazards. mal conversion systems.Battery development Extensive work in the space program on theshould concentrate on adapting to undersea use SNAP 2, SNAP 10, and SNAP 8 power systemssuchother known highenergy systemsas (Space Nuclear Auxiliary Power developed for 2,mercury-zinc or nickel-cadmium. 500, and 30,000 watts) may fmd application in the Methods of recharging submersible battery undersea frontier. Reactors and conversion sys-systems at ambient pressure in the deep ocean tems that meet the initial power requirements ofwould enable battery powered submersibles to anticipated fixed bottom habitats and future deepachieve greatly enhanced endurance. Such tech- submergence vehicles have been developed forniques would allow the battery powered submers-

VI-33 333-091 0-69-7 94 b. Future NeedsFuel cells appear essential to ible torival and nerhaps to exceed the endurance fuel. cell powerer d submersibles. efficient undersea operations. Hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells for undersea use require hard tanks for both the fuel cell module and the fuel- Thefuel 2.Foe' Cells could be stored cryogenically as aliquid, but a.Current SituationDeep submersible vehiclessubstantial insulation would be required. habitats power requirements in the 10 to Tankage, designed to withstand ambient pres- cells in the weight 100lc110;vatt range rnaY Well use fuel sure at operating depth, adds considerable cooing uecade. The hydrogen-oxygenefnutel to the power system. If a fuel cell couldhe by farthe inost extensivedevelopm developed capable of pressure-balanced ambient fbr highly specialized and costly spaceoperation without hard tank protection, system albeit applications. weight would be independent of operating depth, type being considered AhotherIlaajorfuel Cell and a weight-to-energy ratio of six to eight pounds for nilersea use,hYdrazine-hydrogen peroxide,per kilowatt hour might be achieved.This could hasreceived relativelY less attention but is in anresult in important weight improvement in power development for terrestrial operations. advance!state of systems for 20,000-foot submersible applica_fris by theU.S. Army. It is a much less expen91/e device probably inpart beuseca of less stringenL qualification and documentationrequire-3. Thermal Conversion Like the battery, the fuel cell is a static merits' a- CurrentSituation Thermodynamic power energY converter producingelectrical energy from chernical enerv. systems may range from the simplest,using jet fuel IJOlike the batterY, the fuel cell can produceand an oxydizer with a reciproCating engine, to long fuel and oxidant are supplied.very advanced systems, using such high energy energY as sources as the reaction of sodiumwith seawater. l's Producewaste products(heat and water Fuelel andApplication of thermodynamic cycle systems most from ule a cell or heat, water, nitrogen frozn thhYdrazine-hydrogen peroxidelikely will be in the shallow zero to 2,000-foot zone, thereby allowing wastes to beexhausted Ighich nlay be of use. cell)The basic concept of the fuel cell has receiveddirectly to sea. For covert operations, it would be necessary to condense the exhaustand store it much conceptualdevelopment during the first half of this centnry.Nevertheless, it took the impetusaboard so no trail would be left, and neutral the expenditure of over $100buoyancy maintained. of the spate° race and An extensive engineering effort wasdevoted to milli0n r":1 providethe operational hydrogen- oxygen luel cell systems usztd in the Gemini andclosed cycle thermodynamic power systems inthe accelerated technology de-early 1950's. A complete evaluation wasmade of Apoll° projects. Such tiltimatelY may have applications inlong-termsubmergedoperations, and several permit sub- antorrobiles,recreationalboats,and underseausable concepts were developed to merged operations of days or weeks. The pressur- wsteins- --' A fuel oeuis planned as the power sourceforized water nuclear reactor development in 1955 supplanted the thermodynamic power conceptfor the14avY's Deep Submergence Search Vehicle (DSS"' The 34-hourDSgy mission time andfleet submarines, and little additional work has power consumption rate demand peak powerofbeen done since. 50lcil°Za..tts d a I,O00-kilowatt-hour energY including required buoyancyb. Future Needs Few undersea applicadonswill supPlYL 'lsystern, /natal'', Mil weighabout 10,000 pounds, or 10require a nuclear reactor energy source.Chemical pounds Per kilatowt hour. A sflver-zinc batterydynamic sYstems (operating on the Brayton, systelti Providing the same energYwould weighRankine, or Sterling cycles and utilizing a re- electrical bout 30,000 polulds' The additionalvehicleciprocating engine or a turbine driving an generator) could produce electrical energy atmuch weiglIt and size required toutilizesilver-zinc eries less cost and weight than a nuclear plant and batt vvonid seriouslY affect the performance rosSV should receive renewed development attention.

vi-34 7".: Encapsulation quickly raises the specific weight Three factors will influence decisions to build a of chemical dynamic systems for operations belownuclear power plant at an underseasite:3 (1) cost 2000 feet. Important weight reduction for mobileof electricity supplied by a nuclear plant at the site systems could be achieved by employing systemscompared with cost of long cable transmission in which the fuel and effluent were maintained atfrom land or from surface floating plants,(2) the ambient pressure with only the engine and genera-character and priority of the undersea operation, tor enclosed in hard tanks. Ultimate developmentand (3) the leadtime for nuclear power plant of a system with conversion equipment and fuelconstruction and operation. maintained at ambient operating pressures might Reactor technolov considerations will not achieve power sources weighing around 25 poundsgreatly influence the decision at shallower depths. per kilowatt hour. For missions at 20,000 feet, there are severe design and engineering problems, partic alarlyin the structural design of the condenser. 4. Nuclear Reactors Remaining problems may include a variety of materials and operating difficulties. Maintenance, a. Current SituationThe nuclear reactor provedfor example, would be virtually impossible at to be a dramatic success on Navyfleet submarines.depth. It would be difficult and expensive to raise Units delivering tens of thousands ofkilowatts area plant for repair and maintenance.Maintenance in reliable service for main propulsionand auxil-requirements might be minimized if static eneru iary loads of submarines andsurface ships. Theconversion systems such as thermo-electric conver- recent launching of NR-1 is a majormilestone insion were incorporated in place of dynamic adapting nuclear power to much smallervehicles. turbine-generator systems. Several conceptual de- A concept developed for the Naval Civil. Engi-signs for such power plants have been developed. neering Laboratory of a five man, 6,000 foot Unfortunately, the much smaller power require- undersea station includes a nuclear reactor forments of current saturation diving habitats are not main power. A unit recommended for a powercompatible with the characteristics of existing demand of 38 kilowatts was the TRIGA Oceano-nuclear reactors. Technolou derived from devel- graphic Power Supply with a steam turbine genera-opment programs to supply small nuclear reactors tor power conversion system. Total weight of thisfor space applications may be adapted to the plant (maximum capacity 100 kilowatts) wasundersea power problem, particularly for manned estimated at145,000 pounds, more than halfunderwater stations at limited ocean depths. shielding. The Navy and the Atomic Energy Commission are working to develop yet more5. Isotope Power suitable nuclear reactors for other future deep ocean applications. Power up to 10 kilowatts is considered achievable via radioisotope-dynamic conversion power systems, in which the heat of radioactivedecay b. Future Needs There are attractions to placingproduces steam to drive a conventional turbine- a nuclear power plant on the oceanfloor where itgenerator or power a thermoelectric converter. would be away from population centers. If the Isotope materials with halflives ranging from plant were operated unmanned with most systemsfour months to 458 years exist in varying quanti- at ambient pressures, external pressure mightbeties and costs. One most promising for long used to reduce some wall thicknesses. Waste heatmissions, cobalt-60, has a halflife of over five years removal problems would be reduced in the limit-and an energy density of 1.7 watts per gram in less heat sink of the ocean. If the power plant werecompound form.Forshortermissions, remote from manned habitats, shielding mightbepolonium-210 with a halflife of 138 days might be reduced by relying upon seawater, an excellent sele cted. shielding material itself. Except for power plant maintenarce problems and some materials devel- 3There are also reasons to locate power generating opment, current technology is adequate toprovidestations offshore to serve land needs. See Chapter 6, submerged nuclear power plants. Section VII, Power Generation.

VI-35 Since radioisotopes are the product of reactor small vehicles. Until fuel cells,small nuclear plants, operations or separation of spent fuel, careful con-and other power sources can bedeveloped for sideration must be given to selection and avail- deep ocean service, submersible capabilitieswill be ability of isotopes when considering themforseriously limited. Figure 3 is a generalpresentation electric power production. Some isotopes areof approximate ranges of useful outputsfor submersible systems completelyunavailable.With others, priceis various power sources for changeable and reflects many factors, some un-illustrating the point that no one type would related to actual isotope demand. A careful survey satisfyallmissions. Figure 4 summarizes the of information supplied by the Atomic Eneru comparative usefulness potential for various power Commission regarding cost and availabilityis sources. The diversity of advantagesand disadvan- mandatory before planning to utilize such systems. tages of each also enforces the needfor pursuing Isotopes are expensive. With a somewhat opti- diverse approaches in power sourcedevelopment. mistic 25 per cent engine cycle efficiency, power output of 15 kilowatts would require 60thermal kilowatts with an expected cobalt-60 isotope cost of $390,000. As with reactor systems, radiation and waste heat must be considered. The advantages and -- 10 disadvantages of deep ocean reactors are similar to isotope systems. The transportation of a radioisotope system is difficult due to the necessity of continuous shielding and heat rejection. Assuming acceptable weight characteristics and cost considerations, radioisotope systems canpro-

vide small-power supplies having low maintenance 1 1 1 1 and high reliability for a number of relatively min min hr doy week month DURATION constant power consumers (such as fixedenviron- FROM HERE ON buoys, LIFETIME & mental monitoring systems, transponders, RELIABILITY wellhead controls, and communications and navi- LIMIT CONTROL gation systems). Figure 3.The range of useful outputs for various power sources. 6. Conclusions Reliable, cost effective, high energy per unit weight and volume power sources are a primary Figure 4 requisite for a wide variety of undersea applica- COMPARATIVE USEFULNESS OF tions. Existing power sources in various develop- VARIOUS POWER SOURCES' ment stages for other applications arepotential Ambient Criteria candidates for underwater service, but each re- Low High Endur- Pressure Power ance Capa- quires considerable adaptation to the ocean envi- TypeN. Power ronment and to specific underwater applications. bility Clearly, no single candidate is preferable over the Lead Acid 5 5 1 entire energy spectrum in which submersibles, Battery. . - 3 habitats, and other undersea systems may operate. Silver Zinc 4 4 1 The current need for suitable power sources for Battery. . . 3 Fuel Cell. . 2 3 3 3 submersibles is urgent. Excluding combatant sub- Chemical marines, only rechargable batteries have been Dynamic . 4 2 3 4 1 3 employed for main power in manned, selfpro- Isotope . - 1 5 pelled submersibles_ The NR-1 will be the fust Nuclear 1 5 submersible with nuclear power. Batteries impose Reactor . 5 1 severe weight, payload, andendurance penalties on 11 is best; 5 is poorest. 97 VI-36 Recommendations: little undersea component development has been While it is not realistic to presume that any onedirected toward external machinery. Yet small submersible hulls generally enclose only the man power source will be adequate for all underwater requirements, the design, development, testing,and the electronic equipment, and in unmanned and certification of each new source is both timesystems itis desirable to utilize as little heavy consuming and expensive. Therefore, it is alsopressure-resistantstructureas possible. Conse- unrealistic to conceive of a program wherein allquently, efficient design requires the use of new ubsystems exposed directly to the ocean environ- power sources will be developed simultaneously. A ment. more rational approach dictates that development The attempt to use off-the-shelf or slightly efforts be directed initially to low-cost adaptions modified equipment in submersible systems beof existing power sources to systems specificallycause of cost has in many cases proved unwise. designed for the ocean environment. Few items have worked as planned, and modifica- Development of compact, deep ocean powertion has been expensive. The use of off-the-shelf sources ranging particularly between 50 and 5,000 equipment in effect has led to in situ testing, often kilowatts for deep submergence vehicles and habi-a costly and wasteful procedure. A few hours of tats is most urgent and should receive first priority.operation without any equipment malfunction is Engineering criteria, standards, and perform-the best expected from vehicles in initial stages of ance and qualification specifications for poweroperation. systems (including components) must be estab- The Circular of Requirements issued in late lished for nonmilitary underwater applications.1965 as part of the procurement specification for Applied research and component improvementthe Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) programs must be supported. The development ofspecified the use of off-the-shelf equipment. But a low-cost 50 kilowatt power source for submer-many subsystems proposed would not operate sible operations of several days is an example. when tested in ihe deep environment, requiring Fuel cells should receive priority to meet the 10added efforts to develop, test, and qualify suitable to 100 kilowatt demand of small submersibles, aequipment for the vehicle. requirement that can be met by the DSSV fuel cell Safety and progress in the undersea frontier project if carried out as planned. Development ofnecessitate testing, evaluation, and certification of both hydrazine and hydrogen-oxygen systemsequipment for external operation prior to installa- should be supported. Cryogenic underwater tech-tion. Because the use of equipment exposed to the nology should be emphasized because of itsenvironment promises great rewards in the effi- potential application in fuel cell and thermalciency of undersea systems, external machinery conversion systems. In the range for resourcesystems and equipment development should re- utilization on the continental shelves, thermal ceive emphasis in the fundamental technology conversion systems should receive renewed devel- development program. opment support.

C. External Machinery Systems and Equipment 1. Power Application The sea environment imposes entirely new operational requirements on machinery systems.a. Current SituationA key element of mobile Mechanical and electrical equipment have beenundersea platforms will be the propulsion system. developed for operation in the atmosphere or inNeutrally buoyant vehicles may have to have the vacuum of space, but the ocean's high pressuremobility in all six degrees of free dom(l) heave and corrosiveness impose more severe demands(up and down), (2) surge (fore and aft), (3) sway than have been encountered in most previous(right and left), (4) roll, (5) pitch, and (6) yaw. applications. For docking or mating, very precise maneuver- Military submarines operate at relatively shal-ability is required. For many activities speeds of low depths with most machinery systems insidefive knots or less are acceptable, but in such cases the pressure hull and a minimum of equipmentas chasing tuna or potential enemy submarines exposed to the ocean environment. Consequently,much higher forward speeds are needed_

V1-37 The choice of propulsion systems for submer-Characteristics of hydraulic fluids change at sible vehicles depends on their mission.Typicalextremely high pressuresviscosity mayincrease usesscientific studies, site survey and inspection,100 times while operating a system from zero to object recovery and light salvage, transportof20,000-foot depths. men and equipment, ormobile tool operationsWaxes may form in hydraulic oils andclog the generally demand precise maneuverability, nor- lines. mally more important than high speed. Other challenges to propulsion system designGases may accumulate and block the system. include protection from entanglement,minimum disturbance of bottom sediments (especiallyfor The mechanical parts of pumps, actuators,and bottom-sitting vehicles), and creationof largemotors normally designed for3,000 pound per forces and moments at zero speed.Propulsionsquare inch (psi) operation inatmospheric systems system selection will involveweight, volume,must be redesigned for deep submergence. simplicity, efficiency, reliability,maintainability, Most underwater propulsion systems and virtu- and mechanical endurance. ally all hydraulic and seawater pumps aredriven The state of development and features oftheby electric motors. Several methods forcondition- most common propulsion systems are: ing motors to resist the operating environment have been developed. These include oil-filling, Screw propulsion. Well defined, withdesignsencapsulation in pressure-resistant housings,and available for almost any application. Systemshavesealing principle parts such as rotors and stators utilized conventional propellers, ductedthrusters,with plastic compounds. None is yetcompletely maneuverability in all or rotatable pods. Precise satisfactory. degrees of motion requires no less than three screw Most undersea electric power sources provide propellers. directcurrent. Since no power conversion is necessary, direct current motors(especially for Tandem propulsion. In early development, notconstant-speed applications) promise high effi- progressed beyond the analysis andtank-testciencies. However, problems of commutationand stages.Has promisefor highly maneuverablebrush wear under high Pressure or in oilhave vehicles. restricted their use. Alternating current motors have the advantage Cycloidal (vertical axis propeller) propulsion.Inof being brushless, but require DC-to-AC inverters use for years on tugs andferries which require highfor power conversion and speed control. Although thrustat low speeds and directedthrust formodern inverters have no moving parts,they do maneuvering but not three-dimensionalcontrol. not operate reliably in ambient pressures,and their Only a prototype glass submersiblepresently electrical complexity adds weight. employs cycloidal propulsion. b. Future NeedsPropulsion system reliability for advanced Water jet propulsion. Uses pumps toexpel waterand efficiency must be improved Currently in use onundersea system& The tandem propeller concept at high velocity for propulsion. foreseeable future. at least two commerciallyoperated deep submer-appears feasible within the sibles. One uses rotatable jets for primarythrust;Reduction of vehicle drag to reduce power con- the other uses jet thrusters formaneuveringsumption and increase propulsion systemperform- ance holds limited promise. control. Solution of the DC motor brush problem Many submersible functions and habitat opera-appears imminent. The Navyhas been testing 3 by hydraulicand 17 horsepower DC motors of a uniquebrush tions require power transmission motors are pumps and actuators. In theory,complete hydrau-concept with favorable results. I Arger lic systems placed externally to the hull atambientyet to be developed. AC motorinverter-controllers and weight im- pressures can be operated at stillhigher workligare being refmed, but reliability operation, pressures. However, such operationshave oftenprovements, including possible ambient failed for one or more of the following reasons: should be pursued.

VI-38 Entirely new hydraulic equipment designs aremal variations, abrasion, and chemical, electro- needed for deep submergence. Pumps, motors,lytic, and biological attack. Extreme pressure actuators, and such power conversion equipmentchanges cause cable insulation to squeeze and as fluid speed reduction gears that usecorrosive,withdraw from between conductor strands and to nonlubricating seawater asthe working fluidbe pinched and chafed. Voids formed in cable would be a real breakthrough. Entirely newduring manufacture can result in air bubble accum- concepts for pump and motor constructionandulation under pressure, subsequently causing rup- new working fluids may prove a veryfruitfulture due to gas expansion during ascent. alternative. Molded distribution boxes and oil-filled junc- fion boxes have been utilized to distribute electrical power. In a molded distribution box, cable, 2. Electrical Distribution connectors and wiring are mated in solid rubber or a. Current SituationElectrical power must beplastic. Inaccessfole connecting points are fully distributed within and outside the pressure hull ofprotected from the outside environment. undersea systems.Signalstocontrol external Oil-filled junction boxes, although heavy and machinery must be transmitted through the pres-bulky, are reliable in undersea systems. Pressure is sure hull, and outside information must enter forcompensated by an electrically insulating fluid processing, interpretation, and storage. On a rela-(usually silicone oil) and a flexible diaphragm. tively simple vehicle, a thousand or more wiresWhen pressure increases, the diaphragm transmits may pass through the hull. The DeepSubmergencepressure to the fluid in the box, thereby support- Rescue Vehicle will require more than 1,400 suching thebox's walls. The diaphragm may be penetrations. A large bottom habitat may requirespring-loaded to ensure a positive pressure to keep thousands of such penetrations_ seawater out. Most remotely operated external Electrical distribution systems within the pres-contactors and relays are placed in oil-filled boxes. sure hull are similar to those for atmospheric applications, but external distribution systemsb. Future NeedsReliable, multiconductor hull encounter entirely different problems. Each wirepenetrators, cables, and connectors are essential to and component is subjected to both pressure andsystems development. Available components have adverse chemical effects. Deficiencies in the state-only marginal capability. of-the-art exist in insulation, circuit interruption Insulations capable of withstanding many pres- techniques, and automatic system monitoringsure cycles must be developed. New techniquesof equipment. circuit interruption are needed. Reliable automatic Electricalhull penetrators contain contactssystem monitoring equipment must be developed. which complete circuits through the hull. TheirBecause undersea maintenance is difficult if not selection is important, as number and size deter-impossible, equipment must be provided to detect, mine hull reinforcement requirements and mayevaluate, and correct equipment faults automati- affect internal and external equipment arrange-cally. Pressure and water resistant switch gear, ment. preferably electronic rather than electro-mechan- Penetrators must be reliable barriers to hydro-ical, must be developed to avoid bulky protective static pressure to avoid electrical shorting or hullenclosures and to improve reliability. New meth- flooding. Although various configurations contain-ods of hull penetration, using radio or visible light ing relatively few contacts have had some success,frequencies now being developed for glass hulls, none is yet satisfactory for extended operationsshow promise and warrant increased effort. requiring many signals at great depths. Underwater cables and connectors are a signifi-3. Buoyancy and Trim Control cant problem. Each must resist the high pressure seawater environment and form a reliable prcasurea. Current SituationMaintaining neutral buoy- resistant connection at the connector-cable andancy reliably is important because uncontrolled connector-connector interfaces. descent or ascent could be disastrous. A vehicle's Underwater cable must be resistant to mechan-weight generally must be controlled through a ical stresses from pressure cycling, vibration, ther-range as much as ±-5 per cent of total weight.

VI-39 TOO Merely moving from seawater to the fresh orthe vehicle operator for other duties willbe brackish water of a river mouth changes displace-required. ment perceptibly. Descent from warm surface waters to cold4. Conclusions bottom waters or transit through several thermal layers places a heavy burden on External machinery systems and equipment not orsalinity designed for undersea use have proved generally buoyancy control systems. Existing systems re- inadequate. However, due to the unavailability of quire constant attention of experienced personnel special subsea commercial equipment, equipment to compensate for changing conditions. designed for other purposes has been used in the Buoyancy control is achieved most simply by pumping seawater in and out of hard tanks,oceans. Even equipment specially designed for submerged application requires extensive improve- changing the ratio of vehicle weight to displacement. This method has proven satisfactory toment. The state-of-the-art in external machinery 2,000 feet, but pumping water against the highsystems and equipment is summarized as follows: pressures of greater depths requires expenditure of much precious energy. Propulsion Systems Problem When transporting specimens, minerals, or recovered objects to the surface, it will be necessary Screw Maneuverability requires to provide buoyancy at least equal to the wet several units weight of the cargo. Dropping weights may be Tandem Not tested on a full-scale ve- inexpensive, but pumping seawater ballast is more hicle; complex mechanism desirable because it is reversible. Further, systems Cy cloidal Not tested on a full-scale ve- operating submerged for long periods may not hicle; complex mechanism have the opportunity to replace dropped weights. Water Jets Sediment disturbance; low Trim in undersea vehicles has been controlled efficiency by shifting ballast, changing the pitch of fms or New Methods Need to be developed vanes, or applying propulsion. In shifting ballast, seawater or mercurypumped from one region ofElectric Motors Problem the vehicle to another, working effectively even at Commutation and brush wear slow or zero forward speeds. However, the system DC Motors Inverter/controller weight and responds slowly, and the ballast, tankage, intercon- AC Motors reliability; flooded opera- necting piping, and pumping system add weight, volume, and complexity. The vehicle must have tion some relative forward or reverse motion to effect Electrical Problem trim by the use of lifting surfaces. Penetrations Weight; reliability of seals and insulation; continuity of b_ Future Needs New fast and completely auto- circuit matic buoyancy control must be developed. Chem- Distribution Weight and bulk of oil-filled ical propellants may achieve a more satisfactory junction boxes; mechanical ratio between the weight of energy storage and the circuit interruption; cable change in vehicle buoyancy. The solution may lie reliability in designing vehicles so their bulk modulus closely matches that of seawater, utilizing materials and Control Problem devices which vary in displacement to compensate for changes in pressure and temperature, thus Buoyancy Ballast pump rates and providing automatic buoyancy control and mini- reliability; automatic con- mal requirements for variable ballast. trol; buoyancy generation Moreefficienttrim control methods with at great pressure quicker response will be needed as vehicles become Trim System weight and speed; larger and faster_ Automatic trim controls to free automatic control

VI-40 101 Recommendations: greater depths, supplemental buoyancy material or More efficient, reliable, lighter weight externaladvanced hull materials will be required. The amount of such material will be a function of the subsystems are critical to deeper ocean operating empability. Development has not received thehull's W/D ratio and the density of the buoyancy attention given materials and power sources, al-material. though of equal importance. A program specifi- The pressure hull buoyancy ratio must increase cally aimed at improving reliability and developingwith depth. A recently constructed submersible, new external machinery systems and equipmentfor example, with an 8,000-foot operating capabil- propulsion systems, buoyancy, and trim controlity has a pressure hull made of a 190,000 pounds systemsis needed. per square inch (psi) compressive yield strength The Navy's Deep Ocean Technology Programsteel and a buoyancy ratio of 0.43. should be funded to the requested levels. The Deep Submergence Search Vehicle (DSSV) Civilian technology funding levels should allowdesigned to operate to 20,000 feet would have a thedevelopmentof fundamental knowledgepressure hull buoyancy ratio of 0.9 if fabricated of needed to produce low-cost systems for non-the same material. The buoyancy ratio of the military users_ DSSV pressure hull would be reduced to 0.7 if a titanium alloy of 125,000 psi compressive yield D. Materials strength were used. Higher yield strength titanium alloys have not Materials problems enter critically into everybeen used in deep submergence pressure hulls aspect of underwater technology. The economybecause of lower toughness and possible suscepti- and effectiveness of ocean activities are dependentbility to stress corrosion. If a titanium alloy with upon development of improved materials fora 180,000 psi yield strength and acceptable tough- submersible vehicles, underwater structures, equip-ness became available, a pressure hull buoyancy ment, and all types of components. Materialratio as low as 0.5 could be attained for 20,000 development involves not only basic metallurgicalfeet. and mechanical properties but problems of pro- Complementary needs include (1) hatches that duction, design, fabrication, testing, in-service in-form an integral part of the structure when closed, spection, corrosion, and marine fouling. but which can open for mating operations at geat Developments are needed in metallics, non-depth without dangerously degrading the struc- metallics, and composites of increased strengthture, (2) techniques to utilize more than one with sufficient notch toughness, ccrrosion resist-material in a hull to capitalize on the unique ance, fatigue strength, producibility, weldability,advantages of each, (3) analytical tools to predict and economy for pressure hulls and other struc-and evaluate preliminary design choices, and (4) tural applications. Included in the nonmetallicfabrication techniques. category are fiber-reinforced plastics, glass, and Development is needed of undersea antifouling other ceramics. coatings to inhibit biological growth (Figure 5), Neutral buoyancy is an operating requirementnew coatings to protect against corrosion, and for submersibles. Applying a principle that buoy-cathodic and impressed current techniques for ancy is best provided by the pressure hull andcombating corrosion. Materials are required for a auxiliary buoyancy material is used primarily forvariety of underwater applications in addition to trimthe pressure hull should have a weight-to-pressure hulls: displacement (W/D or buoyancy) ratio of 0.4 to 0.6. This allows for the buoyancy required forGaskets, sealants, and pressure hull penetrations. external machinery and equipment, outer hull andRubberized fabrics for pipelines, storage con- payload. In the discussions following, a spherical tainers, and buoyancy bladders. geometry is assumed, because this shape provides minimum W/D ratios. Nylon and other materials for mooring cable, No currently available production material suit- insulation, and protective sheaths. able for pressure hulls can achieve a W/D ratio lower than 0.5 for 10,000-foot operations. ForTransparent materials for viewports.

V141 strength or advanced nonferrous ornonmetallic materials. If many pressure cycles are involved,failure due to fatigue rather thancrushing forces must be considered. Unfortunately, as yieldstrength increases, toughness and fatiguelife decrease. Each time a vehicle descends to operatingdepth and returns, a fatigue cycle is incurred.If a collapse safety factor of 1.5 is incorporated, cyclicloading would vary from zero psi to a maximumof 86,500 psi for HY-140. Data suggest that HY-80 can sustain10 times the cyclic loading of HY-140; however, the10,000 cycle capability for HY-140 steel islilcely to be at least three times the cycles asubmersible will undergo during its useful life. SinceHY-140 s.4 fatigue life is ample, it is not correct to implythat an HY-140 vehicle will have ashorter service life than an HY-80 vehicle. This would be trueonly if service life extended beyond 60 yearswith dives to Figure 5- Biological growth onhydroid; after one year's submergenceoff Florida coast near maximum depth every other day. Palm Beach. Inspection of laboratoryafter removal of growth showed little corrosionhad taken place. (West Palm Beach Post-Times b. Future Needs While steel has a higherdensity photo) than other materials considered for pressurehulls, new ultra-strength steels(yield strength greater than 240,000 psi) may produce in15 years Fluids for buoyancy andhydraulic systems,efficient 20,000-foot pressure hulls (W/Daround pressure compensating systems,and lubrication. 0.5) for small, maneuverable noncombatant vehicles. Technology and knowledge ofmaterial per- Although other materials may be usedfor formance in the ocean has not progressed towherevehicle and habitat structures, high strengthsteel fmal decisions can be made as towhat materialsmay be found the least costly oncestress corro- and construction techniques are tobe employedsion cracking and brittle failure problems are in future systems. F.ntirely newmaterial conceptsovercome, and manufacturing andfabrication may be developedand employed by the yeartechniques developed. 2000, but only if sufficient effortis expended in Currently HY-80 steel, for which suitable m.sn- analysis, development, and use of awide variety ofufacturaig and fabrication techniques havebeen materials. developed, is much less expensive than anyother material proposed for pressure hulls.If ultra- 1. High Strength Steels stength steel technology were successful, a20,000- Ferrous materials having afoot hull with W/D ratio around 0.5 wouldbe a. Current Situation possible and steel might remain the most econom- yield strength of 80,000 psi(HY-80) or less have been used in all fleet submarinesand in most deepical material. submergence vehicles. HY-140 steels(130,000 to 150,000 psi yield strength) now canbe specified2. Nonferrous Metals although the use for use in noncombatant vehicles, Titanium and aluminum of HY-140 for combatant submarinesawaits solu-a. Current Situation materials, much less dense than steel, show prom- tion to many problems inforging, fabricating, and ise for low W/D ratio hulls for deepsubmergence welding large segments. muchvehicles. However, fabrication techniqueand cor- Operations at 20,000 feet will require materials to stronger steels in excessof 180,000 psi yieldrosion unknowns have limited such

V1-42 only a few applications. _-:luminaut uses aluminumtechniques have not been developed. Unfortu- forged rings for hull construction, and the Alvinnately, the failure of glass spheres is unpredictable employed titanium buoyancy spheres. Aluminumand usually catastrophic; once a crack begins, the spheres with yieldsixength of approximatelyentire assembly disintegrates. In metallic structures 75,000 psi, and small titanium spheres with yieldthe failure mode is usually buckling; initial cracks strength of 120,000 psi have been fabricated. and structural anomalies usually can be detected prior to complete failure. b. Future NeedsExtensive development and Glass technology is being applied in construc- improvement of fabrication techniques must betion of the Naval Undersea Warfare Center's done to realize the full potential of nonferrous(NUWC) Deepview, a vehicle having a 44-inch glass materials. For example, bottom habitats probablyend hemisphere (Figure 6). Also NUWC's Hikino will be manufactured in large sections on shore,design has a total glass sphere with no pene- transported by surface ship or towed to the site,trations. The sphere incorporates a titanium ring and lowered. Since most, if not all, structuraljoint between hemispheres and utilizes an acrylic fabrication will take place on land, dry weight willinner and outer lining. Other glass construction be extremely important in handling such largetechniques include pouring, sagging by heat, sag- structures. ging by vacuum, and injection molding. The Naval Operating costs of current submersibles areCivil Engineering Laboratory is working on acrylic related to vehicle weight due to surface supportsphere construction by assembly of 12 identical difficulties. Thus, advanced structural materialsspherical pentagons. and improved supplement buoyancy that reduce' vehicle weight can be economically rewarding. In the future submerged support of submersibles could make dry weight a much less important factor. Further, contiLuing development of nonferrous metals and alloys for ocean equipment and components is necessary. Included are gunmetals, cupronickels, and cast and wrought aluminum alloys.

3. Nonmetallic Materials a. Current SituationOperation of vehicles at 20,000-foot depths will require pressure hulls having weight-to-displacement ratios approaching the ideal OA These can be achieved only by using the very high strength steels with yield strengths above 240,000 psi, titanium with a 180,000 psiFigure 6. Artist's concept of Deepview sub- yield strength, glass-reinforced plastics, advancedmersible vehicle. (Navy photo) composites, or massive glass. Glass is expected to be developed to a usable compressive strength level of 250,000 psi during Properties and performance characteristics of a 1970-1980. The attractiveness of massive glass liesglass filament, originally developed for Polaris in its low density and theoretical compressiverocket cases, have been evaluated under simulated strength, possibly as high as 4,000,000 psi. Failureconditions.Complexring-stiffenedcylindrical generally initiates at the glass surface when tensionmodels have been tested, demonstrating a capa- forces are present and occurs long before compres-bility to withstand short-term exposure to 30,000 sive capabilities are reached. feet of hydrostatic pressure and long-term static Annealed glqss spheres up to 56 inches diameterand cyclic exposures at depths to 20,000 feet. have been fabricated and tested, but results are Glass fiber reinforced plastics (GRP) are of very inconsistent, and adequate fabrication controllow density and offer the possibility of compres-

VI-43

4, 200,000 psi. Im-material, causing the Trieste to be quite bulkyand sive strengths of 130,000 to gasoline- composites unmaneuverable. Its operations with a proved matrices, reinforcements, and helium- offering higher compressive strength,modulus,filled buoyancy balloon are analogous to filled balloon or blimp operations in the atmo- shear strength, and environmentalresistance can sphere. lead to greatly improvedweight-to-displ-xement Titanium spheres are used on the Alvin to ratios and reliability. GRP materials nowhave 150,000provide an effective net buoyancy_Radial fiber demonstrated strengths of 100,000 psi; rocket psi appe.,--3 attainable in the nextdecade. spheres, a variation on filament wound materialmotor case development, show greatpromise for Oxide ceramics are another potential weight-tofor construction of low W/D ratio pressureresist- supplemental buoyancy. Spheres with a displacement ratio of 0.39 have withstood up to ant enclosures. Alumina andberyllia appear the technology does45,000-foot equivalent depth pressure; an 11-inch most likely candidates. Current sphere with no surface resin coating has beenheld not permit precision manufactureof high strength Sphericalat 26,000 feet and tested tofailure at 56,000-foot ceramic parts larger than 18 inches. sphere has been pentagonal ceramic plates imbedded in ametallicpressures. A 32-inch diameter framework may offer a solution forsphericalproof-tested to pressures equivalent to 22,000-foot depths. structures. Most vehicles currently under constructionwill buoy- done to developemploy syntactic foam for supplemental b. Future Needs Much must be of very light hollow glass producible,ancy. This is a mixture the nonmetallics into safe, reliable, technology engineering materials for deepmicrospheres in a resin matrix. Current and fabricable has yielded syntactic foams with aweight-to- submergenceapplications.Glass work should penetrationdisplacement ratio of 0.56 at 8,000-foot pressures emphasize reliability, fabrication and achievable net plas-and 0.69 at 20,000 feet. Thus, the techniques, and joint design. Fiber-reinforced buoyancy from each foam is approximately28 tics need process and quality controlimprove- and 20 pounds per cubic foot ofmaterial respec- ment. weighing 64 beryl- tively. (One cubic foot of water Promising fibers such as carbon, boron, pounds is displaced by a cubic footof foam lium, alumina, and others should bedeveloped of 28 further. Penetrations for manned hulls mustbeweighing 36 pounds yielding a net lift developed and evaluated. Oxide ceramicsdeserve pounds, etc.) extensive investigation with emphasis onmosaic The importance of relative density of syntactic vehicle structures to solve the scale-upproblem. By thefoam is evident from analyzing its role in 19802s, nonmetals may be practical for manratedconstruction and operation. Every pound ofvehi- be p ressure h ulls. cle negative buoyancy when submerged must compensated by a pound of supplementalbuoy- ancy. If each pound ofbuoyancy material contrib- 4. Supplemental Buoyancy Material uted only one-third pound of net buoyancy,then buoyancy would require a. CurrentSituation Vehicle volumeisanone pound of negative important criterion in maneuverability,which im-the addition of three pounds of buoyancy mate- proves as volume decreases.Volume is greatlyrial. influenced by the buoyancy materialemployed_ The result would be that each pound added to a Combatant submarines have been of such limitedvehicle would compound to a total of four pounds depth capability that buoyancy has generally notof dry weight. Based on current costs forinstalled been a problem. In fact, they carrylead forbuoyancy material, each added pound of vehicle weight-growth margin and stability. Because ofweight may cost an extra $200 to $300, a cost available pressure hull materials, deepsubmersiblespenalty approaching or exceeding that of excess ordinarily attain neutral buoyancy bycarryingweight on a jet aircraft. extra buoyancy material. Gasoline is used for supplemental buoyancy inlx Future Needs Volume reductions,and perhaps reductions, can result from the Trieste, which has descended35,840 feet invery significant cost the Pacific. But gasoline is inefficient asbuoyancyimproved syntactic foams or other supplemental _105 V1-44 buoyancy materials. Ultimately it will be desirableapplications include steel, titanium, aluminum, to develop a buoyancy material providing 39 to44glass, glass fiber reinforced p!ectics, and ceramics. pounds of lift per cubic foot for 20,000-footAll have promise of meeting low W/D ratios at operations. Syntactic foam improvements may20,000 feet by 1980. require stronger, lighter resins and microspheres Although such materials as titanium and glass with improved tolerances and fatigue life; theare being improved, oncemanufacturing and fabri- possible combination of glass macrospheres andcating techniques have been developed the high microspheres in the foam matrix; and castablestrength steels might remain least costly for most foams that can be poured into small irregularundersea applications. Materials failures in marine spaces and set at room temperature.To use glassequipment, a major shortcoming of most oceano- spheres, techniques must be developed to elimi-gaphic efforts, may constitute a major obstacle to nate the danger of sympathetic implosion, a verybetter utilization of the sea. Fatigue life under serious problem prohibiting their use currently. cyclic stress is important in selecting materials for A poible assist may come from developmentsubmersibles, and long-term corrosion is the key of structural members which are themselves posi-consideration for permanent structures. tively cr neutrally buoyant. For example, an outer Extensive use of supplemental buoyancy mate- skin built of laminated GRP imbedded with glassrial for operations below a few thousand feet is microspheres might be used both to reduce wetlikely to be required for many years. Currently for weight and to add stiffness to the outer hull20,000-foot operations, buoyancy materials give structure. Effort devoted to improving buoyancyonly about one-half pound of buoyancy for each materials and developing buoyant structure is surepound of their own weight. Vehicle volume has an to be highly cost effective and could even permitimportant effect on maneuverability, and the less advanced pressure capsule materials in 20,000buoyancy material has an important effect on foot systems. vehicle weight, volume, and costs. Hence, improved buoyancy materials and equipment will be 5. Secondary Materials very cost effective. Independent or contractual materials develop- There are a great number of critical secondaryment is not being undertaken to ameaningful materials problems for undersea structures, vehi-extent by industry. For example, 80 per cent of cles, and devices. They involve rubber, plastics,the Navy's exploratory development in deep ocean fabrics, fibers, insulations, hydraulic fluids, lubri-materials is undertaken in-house. cants,etc. The problems are related to such environmental effects as leakage under pressure,Recommendations: temperatureembrittlement,corrosion,fouling, Structural materials development must be acceler- scouring, and contamination. Most materials developed for submerged use have been employed onlyated along several paths with sufficient funds to near the surface. Research anddevelopment onreach fair conclusions about the ability to obtain efficient deep submersible and habitat structures. deep sea materials has barely begun. After 10 years, efforts should be narrowed and 6. Conclusions production choices made. Research must be coordinated and industry initiative encouraged; the Materials technology development is of criticalapproach should be Varough systems engineering_ concern, and upon it the economy and effective-Efforts should focus on: ness of undersea activities depends. Weight-to- displacement pressure hull ratios of 0.4 to 0.6 areSteel.ffighstrength steels development and exceedingly impoitant due to the fundamentalfabrication techniques, including study of fatigue requirement of supporting the remainder of theproblems, should be pushed to obtain a higji- vehicle to achieve neutral buoyancy. quality, , low-cost material. If the pressure capsule cannot provide needed buoyancy, supplemental material must be added,Nonferrous metals. Aluminum and titanium increasing vehicle weight and cost, and reducingshould be developed to provide the basis for effectiveness. Materials considered for structural.efficient (W/10.4 to 0.6) 20,000-foot structures

VI-45 within 10 years. Emphasis should be given to corrosion resistance, fabrication methods, and cost reductions. Nonmetallics. Large glass structures for 20,000 feet should be manufactured and tested to prove reliability. Consfruction methods and quality c =- fro! techniques should be stressed. Glassfiber reinforced plastic and ceramic structures should be built and evaluated against glass, titanium,and steel; efforts should be dropped if no clew- feasibility is shown within 10 years. GRP work should emphasize reliability, resistance to delam- ination, and reduction of water absorption.

Supplemental buoyancy material should be developed with a major effort to provide a low-density, acceptable-strength product having 39 pounds of buoyancy per cubic foot. A program to develop secondary materials should be emphasized to provide the needs of new systems exposed to seawater. More vigorous re- Figure 7. New Ambrose offshore buoy research into ocean causes and effects (Section I,placing Ambrose lightship off entrance to New Environmental Considerations) would feed direc-York Harbor, an aid to navigation long pro- tly into this program. vided by U.S. Government. (Coast Guard photo) A more comprehensive program should be organized to ensure proper information transfer among user, materials supplier, and designertomust be provided for command and control and ensure proper testing of materials. Basicmaterialsfor emergencies. Acoustic frequency and power data should be made available in handbook formlevelallocationswill be required as undersea to the designer, especially for some nonmetals andactivity increases. coatings. A system also is needed for the orderly and accurate feedback of service experience information. Testing results should be standardized. 1. Navigation, Geodesy, and Positioning a. CurrentSituation Navigation,used here, E. Navigation and Communications means the location of one point onthe earth's surface in relation to another. Geodesy isthe Navigation and positioning are prime requisitesscience of determining the three dimensional to safe and successful operations onand beneathcoordinates of locations (geodetic control points) the sea. Traditionally, the U.S. Governmenthason the earth's surface. Positioningis locating supplied geodesy, chartmaking, and navigationaloneself relative to a local reference not necessarily aids to its own agencies, industry, commerce,andestablished geodetically. individm1s (Figure7).While there are many Marine surveys normally are positioned by surface navigational aids, they generally lack pre-shore based electronic 53 Aems. Multiple methods cision for operations out of sight of land. are sometimes used, including shorebased, inertial, Communications systems are essential to intelli-satellite, bathymetric, and acoustic systems_ Selec- gence interchange (includingtelemetry) amongtion depends upon availability, repeatability or submersibles, support platforms or ships, underseaaccuracy, distance of operations fromshore, and stations, buoys, and associated satellites orair- purpose. craft. Safety demands reliable communications Distance from shore of commercial develop- equipment_ Primary reliable communicationlinksments in the ocean regions is increasing,with no

V1-46 107 compensating decrease in the need for accuracy.Ifacoustic and optical navigation aids, such as coded anything, improved accuracy will be requiredtransponders, would permit periodic check of because of increased operating and explorationposition. Networks of such devices would permit costs at greater distances and ir deeper water. sea lanes comparable to air lanes fornavigation Geodetic satellite programs on land are underand traffic control. Both surface- and bottom- way to establish a worldwide controlpoint systemmounted units could be used. Inertial guidance to an accuracy of ± 10 meters in anearth-centeredsystems, if reduced in cost and complexity, could coordinate system. Applications of satellite meth-be used to extrapolate between navigation marker ods to marine geodesy are under study. Satelliteslocations. offer unique capabilities because they are inde- Navigation is basic to most surface and under- pendent of distance from shore and provide awater missions; it must be emphasized, however, singular reference datum. Current navigation bythatpositiondeterminationisa fundamental polar orbiting satellitesrequires supplementarytechnologythatjustifiesadvancementinde- methods for continuous positioning in the inter-pendently of mission requirements_ vals between satellite fixes. Uncertainties in ship Evaluation of mission requirements for navi- velocity and satelliteorbit plus sensitivity togation support reveals that curcent capabilities are azimuth and elevation of the satellite from ashipinadequate to: general nonmilitary purposes. It are current sources of error insatellite navigation.further indicates that advancement of basic navi- Inertial naviption systems can be used to keep.gation technology, at least in part, shouldbe position between satellite fixes. Developmentsinseparated from immediate mission requirements in navigation by geostationarysatellites promiseorder that (1) potentially useful systems notbe marked improvement through taking simultaneousshelved in favor of expediency and (2) a broader bearings on two or more synchronous satellitesspectrum of instruments and information systems continuously on station. incorporating navigation input be made available. Broad future navigational needs range from b. Future Needs The U.S. Government mayhaveprecise sophisticated systems for comprehensive to provide underwater navigation aids asit hasocean surveying to simple, short range,but not such surface aids as LORAN and satellitenaviga-necessarily inaccurate systems for the occasional tion (Figure 8). boating enthusiast. The Department of Transportation presently is developing a national plan for navigation throngh the U.S. Coast Guard and Federal Aviation Admin- istration. The plan will consider the development and operation of navigation aids for current and future aviation and maritime commerce. It will identify areas of U.S. Government responsibility for navigation services and the current and projected technology to carry out these responsibilities.

r" 2. Communications a. Current StatusThe primary communication `. link between submersiblessupport ships, and Figure 8. Coast Guard LORAN station at bottom habitats is the acoustic underwater tele- Nantucket, Massachusetts. Both LORAN-A and LORAN-C signals are transmitted from this phone. Communication is slow and difficult, par- station.(Coast Guard photo) ticularly when multipaths and reverberation are present. For short range communicationlinks Lack of long range, straightline communica-optical systems may be practicable. tions or sensing below the ocean surface severely Transmission of submersible and station status limitssubsurface navigation_ The addition ofand operating data by telemetry is preferable to

VI-47 108 voicetransmission. No satisfactory equipment currently exists for this underwater acousticneed. Developmeut of higher data rates is greatlyde- sired. b. Future NeedsNeeded will be a long-range acoustic communication system requiringinvesti- gations intothefeasibility of new types of communication links perhaps through the benthic layer or solid earth. In the immediatefuture, an acoustic link must be developed totest and improve underwater communicationsand to support advancement of otherfundamental ocean technology_ For later developments, itwill be required as a primary communicationlink for facilities where cable and radio communications are not feasible, as in remotelocations. - Figure 9- Communications central aboard Specific developments required for communica- USC&GSS Oceanographer, one of the most tions: completely equtpped centrals aboard nonmilitary U.S. flag vessels. (ESSA photo) High and low frequency sound(infrasound and ultrasound) sources and receivers with narrow beam and directional characteristics. ocean surface. However,for surveys below the Acoustic frequency and time conversionmeth-surface, for undersea construction,and for geo- ods to permit direct usage of a largerportion oflogical evaluation, the improvedsurface accuracy the acoustic frequency spectrum. may be nullified bythe underwater navigation enhancemethod used. Use of refraction layers in the ocean to Undersea exploitation is limited by thelack of interfer- long-range communication and minimize three-dimensional navigation systems, a combina- ence from components. tion of navigation and bathymetry.The ocean Development of acoustic and electronic concep:senvironment places severe demands uponsubsur- through signalface navigation. To the extent thatsubsurface to improve signal-to-noise ratio is manipulation. transponders or transmitters exist, accuracy limited by original position determinationplus the Exploitation of other possible communicationinaccuracies of acoustic rangingand direction- media and such advanced technology aslasers. Acoustic communications are hamperedby Radio frequency communications amongships,several basic deficiencies which preventreliable, buoys, surface platforms, aircraft,satellites, andhigh speed, wide band, accurate, shortand long shore stations will reouire adaptationof equip-range information exchange.Development of un- ment to the special requirementsof the oceanderwater acoustic link equipment is requiredfor environment (Figure 9). Problems must besolvedhabitat-to-surface communications. with respect to allocation offrequencies and Increasing surface traffic, wider utilizationof bandwidths necessary to support oceanactivities.submersibles, and future undersea stationsand operations will require networks ofcommunica- 3. Conclusions tions-navigation aids. Navigation is basic to most underwatermis- Long range acoustic communications arediffi- earth- sions. Ocean surveying requires the sametypes ofcult to achieve. As alternatives, seismic and basic reference systems and accuracies as onland.field communications offer interestingpossibil- Satellitenavigation improves accuracy on theities.

VI-48 109 Radio frequency equipment must be adapted toease of maintenance, ruggedness,and simplicity of intensifies ocean needs, and frequencies andbandwidths mustoperation. Poor underwater visibility problem be allocated. the problem. The need to reolve the tool has resulted largely in using or modifyingoff-theis not Recommendations: shelf equipment, but such equipment satisfactory for the more sophisticatedunderwater A formal program applying geodeticmethods andtasks_ Thus, tools built specifically forunderwater principles at sea should be initiated to achieve thework should be designed. following: Establishment of marine geodetic ranges toI. Current Situation validate and calibrate new systems. Land tools are designed for an environmentof Development of improved positioning systemslow viscosity, high visibility, and negligiblebuoy- for shelf surveys and future extensions seaward. ancy. The diver depends upon a vastnumber of these land tools modified for water use, including: Expansion of geodetic satellite methods to marine applications for singular reference datumsandTools for cutting, hammering, torquing,and establishment of geodetic control points. welding. Establishment of a system of navigation aidsAir tools to provide selected applicationof permitting navigation accurate to 150 feet at abuoyancy forces. distance of 200 miles from shore. Water jet tools for clearing muds and digging In addition, a comprehensive bread based devel-trenches. opment program should be undertaken to: Knives, scrapers, and pry bars- Improve subsurface navigation instrumentation The effectiveness of underwater operadonsis accuracy and reliability. vitally dependent upon the adequacy of such Reduce navigation instrumentation size, com-hardware. plexity, and cost. The basic characteristicsreliability, easeof maintenance, ruggedness, endurance, and simplic- Seek new media and methods. ity of operatitwiare more critical for underwater Develop equipment to establish a local verticalhardware tha:._ -ar equipment on land. The petroleum industry has modified land equipment skill- reference. fullyfor offshore use. Government agencies, Pursue research and development of acousticcceanogaphic institutions, and marine equipment communications and underwater acoustic links. firms have developed hardware for many underwater tasks. However, most existing ocean hard- Develop a network of communication-navigationware items are seriously deficientin the basic aids. characteristics. Perform research on communications through Human underwater activity is greatly restricted the benthic layers or the solid earth to determineby extremely reduced light transmission in water their feasibility for employment in undersea opera-compared to air. Under ideal conditions, vision is tions. little more than 100 feet; by comparison, very small objects can be distinguished at 2,000feet in clearair. Typically, vision on the continental 50 feet F. Tools shelves of the world ranges from 5 to Where currents keep mud and organic material in Those who work in the oceans agiee that mostsuspension, vision may be no more than a few existing tools are seriously deficient inreliability,inches.

VI-49 333-091 0-69-8 1 0 been In order to alleviate these problems, somebasic The Naval Underwater Warfare Center has lift studies are being made in tool development; afewworking on a hydrodynarnic winch, a salvage examples are discussed below. padeye using explosive bolts, a buoyancy transport The hammer undoubtedly would havedevel-device which can carry objects weighing up to oped along very different lines had the human race1,000 pounds, a position and locating systemfor evolved in a medium relatively as heavyanddiver use, and a diver's underwater homing system. viscous as water. Considerable energy iswasted under water during the travel of the hammerhead and shaft prior to impact. An efficientmanual2. Future Needs underwater striking tool could employ a heavy There is an urgent need for toolsdesigned streamlined weight traveling a relativelyshortespecially for underwater work. In addition, we ham- distance along a straight guide. Pneumatic must consider the scientist's tasksthat will necessi- effect with shorter mers accomplish the same tate good tools. strokes. Future tool needs include: Explosive studs fired from a hand gun to penetrate the hull plates of sunkenvessels haveAll-purpose pneumatic wrenches. been known since before World War II. Suchtools still are somewhat crude, but the possible variantsSelf-contained power tools or tools with power warrant further development. By clusteringsix orsupplies small enough to be placed in thediving eight stud guns around the periphery of a circularbell and that will function for hours onthe plate with a lifting eye in the center, a verysolidbottom. lifting pad can be attached quickly to almost any sunken metal structure. When injecting breathingTools adapted for scientific work, such as coring gas or air into a compartmentfor buoyancy, atools with self-contained power supply,bottom hollow stud driven through the compartment wallsamplers with power supplies at or near the diver, can serve as the through-hull penetrator. and marine life sampling tools which do not Underwater welding techniques must considerdisturb the bottom. the chilling effect of the surrounding water.The problem is especially evident with some high- In summary, the needs are for safer, more yield-strength steels. Methods currently are underreliable tools for the commercial diver and special- development to weld in a gas-filled compartmentized tools for the scientific diver. erected around the work area. Steel can be cut by an electric oxygen torch with a hollow electrode. After an arc has been struck, oxygen is forced through the center of the3. Conclusions electrode to burn the hot steel. Recommendations: Sonic search devices may be carried by divers in poor visibility. A system presentlyundergoing testNew, more sophisticated tools are neededfor employs a continuous transmission, frequencydeeper diving commercial and scientific divers. (An modulated (CTFM) signal. A hand-held deviceartist's concept of a futuristic diver working at emits an acoustic signal; echoes from obstructionsgreat depths is shown in Figure 10.) Tothat end, a modulate the return signal's pitch conducted tomore concerted basic andapplied research pro- the diver's earphones. A high pitch indicates angram must be implemented. Someindustrial tool obstruction at close range. companies already are making preparations for Because of high cost, the device is not usedsuch work, but Federal assistance would expedite extensively. Greater effectiveness and lower priceprogress. A Federally sponsored,long-range re- should result from volume production and compe-search and development program to provide im- tition. For many underwater searchtasks, aproved tools and tool procedures would help, but wrist-mounted magnetic compass is adequate, buta strong interim capability isneeded now to not reliable near a wreck or otherlarge ferroussupport present programs inthe commercial, structure. military, and scientific community.

VI-50 timely use in understanding and predicting the marine environment. Highly stable ocean platforms Re FLIP and SPAR have been designed and constructed by the U.S. Navy in conjunction with oceanographic institutions to collect environmental data. Requirements for improved mooring and positioning of floating installations will continue 1:o increase. Larger surface vessels and platforms, offshore airports, harbor facilities, mobile breakwaters, and multipurpose floating island concepts depend largely on improved mooring -4nd positioning systems.

1. Mooring Systems and Buoys a. Current SituationOpen water mooring of vessels and platforms is the traditional method for stationing at sea. Anchor and cable systems are used to moor buoys, dredges, pipelaying barges, semi-submersible oil rigs, and drilling vessels. Brute force mooring techniques have evolved for shallow water locations, exemplified by the heavy sinkers and chain moorings used by the Coast Guard for navigational buoys (Figure I I). Excessive weights Figure 10.Artist's concept of future diver- operated jackhammer.

G. Mooring Systems, Buoys, and Surface Support Platforms In any underseas activity, surface support usually is necessary to monitor and control, provide logistic support, render safety and rescue assistance, and serve as a local terminus of operations. In the future submerged support will become more frequent. Small moored systems classified as buoys have a long history as navigation aids. Use of --fg= stationary large surface vessels, barges, and platforms for commercial, scientific, and defense purposes is increasing. Moored buoys also have collected and transmitted environmental information from selected ocean areas. Study of the feasibility of ocean data buoys has lead to formation of a Coast Guard project office to develop a National Data BuoyM=1116____ System. Unmanned moored data buoy networks may be deployed over deep ocean and continental shelf areas to measure automatically environ- Figure 11.Typical rrzassive anchor and chain mental parameters under, on, and above the waterfor 'flooring rzairigational buoys in shallow surface and to transmit the information ashore for water. (Coast Guard photo) 112 VI-51 prevent brute force techniques from being em-platform and the vertical pull of the taut mooring ployed in deeper waters. line. In recent years, dynamic systems have been Vertical stability can be achieved through ap- developed to position surface platforms in deeppropriate hull shapes hice that of FLIP (Figure 12). water. Water depth, positioning accuracy require-The platform's design characteristics result in a ments, operational conditions, and platform sizehull with minimum response to the forces imposed economically justify a dynamic positioning systemby passing waves. for some applications. For most deep water floating platforms, however, direct attachment to the bottom is necessary. New materials are replacing the traditional steel cabies and chains. Nylon, dacron, and polypro- pylene reduce weight and minimize corrosion problems of deep moors. New developments in fiber glass cables and chains also promise corrosion-free, high-strength moorings. Connecting devices of commensurate performance are required. The stablesurface platform, or specialized buoy, must perform a variety of tasks peculiar to the ocean environment. Special equipment is required to meet these needs. Surface platforms and buoys have particular requirements for position accuracy which vary widely. The required position accuracy usually is stated with respect to ographic location. Horizontal accuracy is defmed as its watch circle (the area to which the platform's horizontal movement is restrained). A system for maintaining buoy or surface platform position with respect to geographic location or bottom reference for extended periods is a primary requirement, except for intentionally-free buoys. Fixed moors require techniques to predict and counteract forces in the mooring cables. If Figure 12_Floating Instrument Platform (FLIP). Draft is 300 feet in vertical position. embedment in rock is necessary, explosive anchors(Navy photo) or equivalent techniques must be used. Dynamic positioning systems incorporating var- b. Future NeedsTechnology leading to more ious thrust control techniques (cycloidal propel-stable and durable buoys and platforms is inter- lers, directable propulsion units, or bow and sternrelated with many disciplines. It begins with a thrusters) must undergo further evaluation at sea.better understanding and defmition of the winds, Automatic control systems must be developed to sea state, and currents over long periods andtheir signal corrective action depending upon inputs,dynamic interaction with floating vessels and surface conditions, and navigational data; an ex- platforms. The following specific improvements perimental system should be built and tested at sea. Finally, options between fixed mooring and are needed: dynamic positioning must be studied. Methods to survey bottom conditions and pre- The horizontal watch circle in which a mooreddict anchoring characteristics of bottom sedi- platform may move is influenced by design provi-ments. sions_ As the watch circle is decreased, greater demands are imposed on the anchor, which mustNew types of anchors with greater holding power resist both the horizontal drag of the buoy orin different bottoms at greater depths.

VI-52 113 Increased fatigue life of cables and connectors to Avoiding surface effects by using submarines is reduce this most common cause of failure inideal. Long endurance submersibles using nuclear, mooring lines. thermodynamic, or other power sources could minimize the need for support ships. Development of materials for higher strength Current surface support systems development chains and cables. by the Navy include a new class of ASRs (Figure 13). These ships, with catamaran hulls, are de- More reliable, longer-life shackles, thimbles, swiv- signed to support rescue submersibles as well as els, and other fittings. other Navy missions_ The ASR is a greatly im- Improved linetension measuring equipmentproved support platform, but definitely limited by for monitoring and limiting loath imposed bywave action in more severe seas_ A test support floating platforms on mooring cables. shi2, the IX-501, will be used for r!rface support of Sealab III (Figure 14). It depends on moorings Analyses of the coupling of the motions betweenand relatively protected waters to support test the platform and mooring cabie under the excita-operations. tion of wind and sea. More sophisticated sensing and control systems -46, for dynamic positioning of large drilling ships and barges. Dynamic positioning is relatively new, and continual advancement will be required to establish its economic feasibffity under all conditions at _a

Sea. men Low cost (high production) expendable buoy technology including deployment concepts applicable t-iarge-scale buoy systems for use on a ;g global or quasiglobal basis.

Figure 13.Artist's concept of _first of new Improved technologyis expected to allowseries of submarine rescue ships (ASR). buoys to be positioned in remote areas to reportCatamaran hull configuration provides stable platform and large working area necessary synoptically observations via synchronous satel-for launching, retrieving, and supporting Deep lites using VHF or higher UHF frequencies. Partic-Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) and ular emphasis should be placed on improved advanced diving systems. (Navy photo) reliability so the service interval can be extended.

2. Surface Support Platforms a. Current SituationHuman underseas activity, except for military submarine operations, has required surface support. Development of submerged support systems will not negate this re quiremen t. Today the primary operating cost of deep submersibles results from the ships and systems to support them. Except for high pressure associated with gret depths, the greatest and most dangerous ocean forces are at the surface with itsattendant weather and wave system. Great hazards exist for the small submersible even in moderate seas during Figure 14. U.S.S. Elk River(IX-501), special launching, retrieval, and transfer of cargo andpurpose range support ship first used in Sealab III operations, has center well, 65-ton traveling personnel. A few wave lengths below the surface,gantry crane, deck decompression chambers, and wave effects disappear. two personnel capsules. (Navy photo)

VI-53 The Navy is modifying nuclear submarines andport system could provide reliability, relative one diesel sub to test carrying theDSRV piggy-freedom from weather and sea state conditions, backa promising beginning of an all-weather andsafer and less costly support, and availability. under-ice submersible support system divorced The trend is toward improved support capa- from the hazards of the ocean surface. bility. Development of new platforms designed Through its own laboratories and in associationspeciallyforall-weathersubmersiblesupport with academic institutions, the Navy built FLlPwhether by submarine or by deep-draft surface and SPAR, two deep draft, surface stable platformstable vessel, is strongly encouraged. By 1980, a vessels for oceanographic and acoustic research.more subsurface riavy and a proliferationof They have proved very successful as stable plat-commerchil submersibles will dictate improved forms; FLIP is reported to have experiencedsupport systems capability. Work at continental vertical motion of only three inches in theshelf depths and deeper willrequire surface presence of 35 foot waves. support ships where surface conditions are favor- The following are important operations per-able and where the underwater task is such that a formed by stable surface platforms: surface supported system can be deployed more rapidly or economically. For many shelf opera- Vehicle handling. Launching and retrieving man-tions large submersibles may perform tasks with- ned and unmanned vehicles involves handlingout surface support. heavy masses through a very rarely calm, ocean- For underwater tasks requiring surface support, atmosphere interface. Equipment and techniquesa variety of ships will be used_ It isunlilely that a must be improved before launch and retrieval cansingle multipurpose platform could perform all be accomplished safely and routinely. Submergedsupport functions. A need exists to investigate reirieval (involving underwater docking) is a possi-platform requi! =tents including selected model bility being developed for the Navy's Deep Sub-studies and ancillary equipment development. mergence Rescue Vehicle. Various stabilization systems are already in use (e.g., stabilizers, tuned ballast, hull shaping) to De-ballasting. Mining, construction, and salvagedecrease motion of ships under way. However, operations at continental shelf depths may requirelittle has been accomplished for stationary plat- large quantities of high and low pressure air forforms other than for FLIP and SPAR. Such de-ballasting operations. Routine provision of airstabilization techniques as mass traps should be supplies at depth has not been accomplished- considered. The traps are formed by two long plates held apart at intervals; water inside is -Diver support_ A satisfactory surface system istrapped, providing an apparent mass that dampens required to continuously support extended satura-the motion of the platform_ ted diving operations at sea_ A system to maintain a surface platform's Logistics. Surface platforms must be suppliedposition for extended periods with respect to with materials and personnel while on station.geographic location or bottom reference will be At-sea transfer techniques during severe weatherrequired. Project Mohole did much for dynamic must be developed; vertical replenishmentwithpositioning. helicopters offers a possible solution. Platforms A variety of lifting and emplacement require- may be required to provide potable water,electricments will be put upon futureplatforms. Available power, high pressure air, heat, supplies, quarters,equipment or technology provides for lifts up to subsistence, and medical care to .9ersonnel working 200 tons. Winches stabilized to counteract ship's at the site below. modons during a lift operation have been thoroughly studied_ For heavy lift or emplacement in excess of 200 tons, a large floating crane orsimilar In the past there has been a b. Fuaire Needs device must be evaluated- strong inclination to adapt off-the-shelf equipment to needs of surface support vessels and platforms, resulting in repeated failure of equipment to3. Conclusions function in an environment for which it was not Mooring and anchoring techniques and hard- designed_ A specially designed stable surface sup-ware are inadequate for the heavyload and long

VI-54 115 er exposure demands of present andfuture deepThey will serve as an uppertermitOls'to source, supply depot,and safetymortit°1. ocean platforms and buoys.Present mooring sys- sttlijn tems employing wire rope encounter problemsofocean constructionwork andunderseai willev°'c 'tcyni excessive weight, corrosion, kinking, low elasticity,maintenance. These platforms torsional unbalance, and massiveness of handlingFLIP, SPAR, and other sYstemswhic13 weafl- equipment. Systems employing nonmetallic nylonMin remarkable stabAityeven in adv, er or dacron ropes encounterproblems of fishbite,conditions. lack of electrical cables for underwater instrumentation, and mechanical attachment. Recommendations: The National Data Buoy System project under orI the Coast Guard will demand substantial develop-Research and development shoWd bepe(fN ment and improvement in deep ocean mooringandmooring technology and equipmenttc:1:211cirt 2,000 feet in5 buoy technology, from which engineering in manydeep ocean operations at other areas will benefit. at 20,000 feet in 10 years. platfurrnSsbn7qbe Present support for undersea activities is chiefly Several types of buoys arAd by surface ships. Experience with FLIP andSPARinvestigated to determine effects of size,tr unde101-02-Z414 demonstrates that specially designed hulls cantions at the air-seainterface, andpenduluOZb-Nty, maintain remarkable stability under conditionsofdrag, draft, metacentric 0'7Ipta; severe sea and weather. Speciallydesigned surfaceplatform directional control, mooring stable platforms are necessary to support deeplocation on different mooringsysten0'fin.a12- the each type cof &VT twil ocean vehicles, stations, and activities.The dynam-system best suited for ics of various types of floating platforms are A National Project for a Pilot Buoyrein; sufficiently different th4 t. each must be treatedsupport of the NationalData BuoySyli":5te',6et independently in establishing a satisfactory moor-of the Coast Guard sh..,,uldbe implemeOesbniii materialS--"ti be ing system. The more promising cable In the future, large stable surface platformsevaluated under operational conditions- of 7.hc:tting. may evolve into mid-ocean storagedepots, trans- Surface stable p1atforMs capable portation centers, power stations, etc. (Figure 15).underseas vehicles, stations, andconstf-a: knj salvage activities to 2,000 feet in 5Ye,:nerfl to 20,000 feet in 10 years Should beclever": 111, platform must provide a surfaceterIninalresserl t,or logistic support, vehiclehandling, 4.009 and s44ir, diver support, heavy lift,electric powef, er services as needed by the underseaactri"IY.

H. Biomedicine and DivingEquipment

iflh Biomedical technologY rilust haf/c1elprovekr" with equipment development to(1) prezira; man capability towithstand variations and temperature. (2) enhance vision,I3e3rillg' 41-.A tactile perception, (3) providemobilitY jjcn tation, and (4) make tool useeffective virtually weightless condition. The most effective diver is oneAfli° °P!1,Ntes freely, carrying his ownlife support sY5te 114S technology must be applied tore5°-iv,d- e,qtv e problems through biomedical re searc breal ,kin0 Figure 15.Artist's concept of flail::: large opment and design of properants ap. stable surface platform. (North American Rockwell photo) rigs.

116 111-55 1. Biomedicine extended beyond 1,200 feet in the near future. Saturation diving, however, requires expensive man-in-the-sea a, Current Situation Fundamental special life support equipment and instrumenta- technology is bio-engineering oriented and is par- tion and so is not economical for most maent ticularly concerned with human functions and operations. performance undersea. Devices, equipment, and Spethal breathing mixtures pose a hostof materials must be provided which (1) enabie man physioloecal and bio-engineering problems. to withstand changes in pressure and temperature associated with increasing depth for extended and(1.) PhysiologicalToxicity of breathing gases, repeated periods, (2) accommodate his sensory individually and combined, for greater depths is requirementstomaintainadequatevisibility, not established firmlyparticularly forextended orientation, feel, and hearing, and (3) provide himperiods of continuous exposure. with directional and locator capability, mobility, The total effect upon respiration and metabo- and tools. lism of operating at greater depths imposes severe Although experimental dives have been made to restrictions on such basic operational parameters depths in excess of 1,000 feet, current technologyas rate of ascent, diving depth, duration,and work restricts operation to approximately 600 feet for accomplished. For example, the breathing appara- relatively short intervals. tus must precisely measure and control partial Scuba (untethered diving wherein the diverpressure of oxygen when the concentration iswell carries his life support system, maintains near below one per cent. neutral buoyancy, and enjoys nearly complete Gas density and sound velocity change with gas dexterity) currently is most useful for shallowcomposition and distort the voice, making com- short-duration dives. munication difficult. Normally in commercial operations, divers are tethered to the surface. The diver receives gas from(2) Bio-engineeringEssentiallyall engineering the surface and maintains communication with top-designs must be revised to accommodate variations side personnel who calculate his decompressionin density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and time. Diver bottom time is increased over scuba.other properties of gas mixtures employed. Mate- Deep diving systems often are employed whenrials, equipment, and instrumentation are subject operations require dives in excess of 300 feet forto serious malfunction because of these variations. several hours. It is a specialized engineering problem, and discre- The nucleus of the deep diving system is ation must be exercised in employing off-theshelf pressure vessel that serves as anelevator trans-hardware. porting divers to the underwater site. Many such The Navy's Biomedical Engineering Program is systems provide for mating the personnel trans-conducted as a coordinated effort of several fer capsule with a deck decompression chambergroups. The Deep Submergence Systems Project so divers can decompress in relativecomfort. Deepand the Office of the Supervisor of Salvage are diving systems eliminate in-water decompressioninvolved principally with hardware del, elopment and provide backup life support to enhance safety.for near-term application. If a man is to work for a long period at a The Underwater Bio-Sciences Research Program particular depth he must adapt physiologically.of the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery is a Prolonged living under increased pressures hascomprehensive frve-year plan for basic research in been demonstrated in such saturated diving experi-support of Navy underwater operational requirements as the U.S. Navy's Sea lab and the Cousteauments. Concurrent human factors researchis Conshelf. Using this technique, after about 24directed by the Office of Naval Research. The hours a diver has absorbed all the gas his systemoverall plan was issued by the Chief of Naval will at that depth, and the time he must spend inDevelopment, who enlrted the aid of several decompression remains the same. Therefore, theorganizations and the academic community. longer the diver stays, the geater his productive in time compared to decompression time. b. Future Needs The following Navy prog-ams Saturation diving has been employed in theunderwater biomedical research and development open sea to about 650 feet andprobably will beare designed to meet futurebiomedical needs.

V1-56 117 (c) Psycho-physiological effects of air ions. (1) General physioloff (a) Cardio-puhnonary physiology. (d) General atmosphere studies in isobaric (i) Pulmonary ventilation,workof closed environments. breathing, and related studies. (ii) Thermal and gaseous effects on circu-(6) Psychology lation. (a) Selection and training. (b) Heat loss and caloric requirementsof (b) Sensory and motor adjustments. underwater swimmers. (c) Psycho-physiological adjustments. (c) Nutritional requirements in hyperbaric (d) Group functioning. environments. (d) Physiological effects and indicationsof stress resulting from prolonged exposure2. Diving Equipment to environments. a. Current Situation(1.) Breathing Rigs Semi- rigspredominate when diving issup- (2) Decompression studies closed (a) Study of deep and prolonged divesusingported by a submersible chamber. They also various mixtures to depths ofhumanare usedextensively by free swimming military divsrs (Figure 16)- The system requiresless than tolerance. (b) Feasibility studies of computer useforone-tenth the gas supply of completely open- decompression computations. circuit breathing rigs- The diver's exhalation passes (c) Studiesof basic physical-physiological factors in bubble formation. (d) Development of advanced therapeutic sickness. procedures for decompression - (e)Studies of the effects of chronic exposures to hyperbaric environments.

(3) Studies of inert gases and artificial atmospheres (a) Studies of new gas mixtures and effects to depths of tolerance or to 2,000 feet. (b) Basic and clinical research in oxygen toxicity. (c) Effects of gases under pressure on cellular metabolism and neuromuscular function. (d) Solubility and distribution of inert gases in body tissues. (4) Pharmacolou (a) Evaluation of drugs in hyperbaric environments. (b) Pharmacolugical agents to combat stress and fatigue in underwater environments. (c) Pharmacologic adjunctsfor hyperbaric oxygen therapy. (d) Pro;thylaxis and therapy of illness and +AR injury from marine life. (5) Atmosphere studies: isobaric andhyperbaric (a) Trace contaminants toxicity. (b) Toxicological appraisal of undersea con- Figure 16.Diver .sting a tethered, semi- struction materials. closed breathing rie(Westinghouse photo) 118 through a baralyme or sodalime canisterwhich absorbs the carbon dioxide, recycling mostof the exhaled gas for rebreathing. Semiclosed rigs are simpler than closed-circuit, mixed-gas rigs,but the improved gas economy (duration) of theclosed- tpmer;gi circuit rig compels its consideration inthe future. VIM 1 NERTGA S Closed-circuit pure oxygen rigs are very simple; v however, human physiological reaction to oxygen restricts their use generally to depths of 25feet for one hour. Unless there is abasic breakthrough in -sireek.7 diving medicine, closed-circuit pure oxygenrigs will fmd little application. REGULATOR sare.L4.-- - Oil-ECTOR The closed-circuit, mixed-gas rig offers the same VALVE rig gas economy as the closed-circuit, pure-oxygen EMERGENCY. (Figures 17 and 18). However, the consumptionof VALVE oxygen in the mixture varieswith work rate and TREAT-GAS depth, and addition of oxygen must reflectsuch BCITTLE changes. This requires precise sensors andcontrol devices that increase cost and complexity while degrading reliability. Some of the most advanced rigs employ either polarographic or fuel cell oxygen sensors. Control cryogenicFigure 18. Closed-circuit, mixed-gas breathing of partial pressure of oxygen through rig (back view).(Westinghouse photo) technology has been demonstrated. Because of the narcotic properties of nitrogen in compressed air and the very high air consump- place in tion rates, open-circuit sport scuba rigsand thestandard hard hat air rigs have little saturation diving.

(2) Protective ClothingDiving often involves exposure to cold water,making protective clothing essential. Even water that feels warm canresult in important heat loss if an exposure suitis not worn. Notwithstanding the many advances indiving technolog, much commercial divingstill is done with the heavy rubber and canvas dressassociated with hard hat diving invented by AugIstusBeebe in 1837 (Figure 19). A recent notable de,..arture has beenthe metal suits having dgid subsections withmovable joints. These are one-atmosphere suits; whereas,the hard hat suits expose the diver to ambient pressure.The 'atest is a development from a spacesuit. Because of the complex geometry of the human anatomy, the joints are very difficult to make.To be useful, the joints reust be flexed easily while aneffective seal at pressures of several hundiedpounds per square inch is maintained. In the last 25 years, close-fitting, pliablerubber and neoprene suits have been developedfor free Figure 17. Closed-circuit, mixed-gas breathing swimming divers. These fall into twomain cate- rig (front view). (Westinghouse photo)

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b. Future Needs The most critical problem with exposure suits is development of a light, compact, 1 IrMWMTM7' selfcontained energy pack for a free swimming diver. The most promising systems rely on silver- 1 41111116 zinc batteries to supply electrical energy, a pyro- technic cartridge to supply heat, or an isotopic power source to supply both. Suits produced for Figure 21.Artist's concept of future diver the astronauts may be adaptable for underwater wearing gill-7ack. use. Because of the high cost of development,the initial versions are likely to be tailored for milita.,,, The possibility of man exchanging respiratory needs. gases directly with an aquaticenvironment have Diving with a selfcontained underwater breath-not been explored seriously untilthe present ing apparatus is restricted by the compressibility,decade, and it is difficult to predict the outcome solubility, and narcotic effects of gases. Increasedof such research. volumes of gases can be made available by cryo- Underwater breathing systems during the next genic technology- Another solution would be tofew decades will be dictated by the need .for use breathing mixtures that are notcompressible.breathing support related to man existingunder Liquids such as physiologic saline solution arehigh pressure. More people will spendappreciable likely to behave as biologically inert respiratorytime in wet environments operating untethered gas dilutantsatgreatdepths, incontrast tofrom a habitat or diving system. Therefore, they compressed inert gases. will need compact, reliable systems and the ability No excessive amounts of inert gas can dissolvetoeliminate or reduce manyfold the preset-. in the blood and tissues of a diver with liquid filleddecompression time penalties. The technique of lungs regardless of depth. Hence, the diver couldliquid breathing, anticipated as a revolutionary

V1-60 121 departure from mixed gas breathing, opens the There is an urgent demand for breathing appa- possibilityof greatly shortened decompressionratus using available breathing gases most effi- periods. ciently and for a system to heat diving suits under Needs in breathing gas technology include: deep sea pressures and temperatures.

New breathing mixture components that provide3. Conclusions chemical inertness and nontoxicity without undesirable changes in density and thermal conductivity. Current diving technology permits operations in protected or relatively shallow waters to a depth Better understanding of the toxic reactions ofof approximately 600 feet; however, free diving in oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen. excessof 1,200feetwill probably soon be realized. With proper emphasis, this capability Better understanding of the effects of various gasprobably can be increased to 2,000 feet or more, miXturesone component on another. but there are extrtmely difficult physiological Data on the physical aspects of respiration underhurdles to be overcome in diving at much greater water during various levels of physical activity. depths. Progress of free diving at greater depths is Better understanding of the aeroembolism pro-retarded by such numerous problems as safety, cesses (blood and tissue gas dynamics) and subse-breathing gases, body heat retention, diver speech, quent establishment of more precise decompres-and decompression. Research and development is sion procedures. in progress on these matters. Liquid breathing research, if successful, may provide a means of Toxicity of oxygen at high pressure and pro-attaining depths in excess of 2,000 feet. longed exposures. Oxygen toxicities and hypoxia have been extensively studied, but long-term exposure to such Central nervous system narcosis by nitrogen andinert gas mixtures as helium-oxygen, nitrogen- other inert gases. oxygen, or hydrogen-oxygen mixtures at pressure has not been studied sufficientlyto establish Closely related is the need for bio-engineeringappropriate diver exposure limits. Reduction in development to solve the problems of: decompression time for saturation divers is expected to become a critical economic factor in Equipment and materials to maintain body heatutilization of free divers. balance and to preserve tactile sense, and manual In engineering designs of diver support equip- dexterity. ment, specialized problems are involved and off- the-shelf techniques should be used with discrimi- Increased resistance to breathing under increasednation. pressures. The number of deep ocean divers is multiplying on all coasts, and saturation diving will become Long, slow decompression. common practice in the near future. There is a Loss of body heat during prolonged submer-shortage of sustained funding for personnel and facilities engaged in advanced diving research and gence. medical treatment. Impairment of speech by artificial atmospheres- Recommendations: Action of drugs and medical procedures for man in the sea. Research should be pursued to make possible effective free diving at depths of 2,000 feet in 10 Effective, compact. and compatible swimmeryears or less, seeking to attain increased depth doppler navigation and sonar systems are needed.capabilities in 20 years by perfection of liquid Today's support equipment is too heavy; bulky,breathing. and difficult to integate into the total diver Research and development should be acceler- system. ated to improve and simplify diving techniques,

VI-61 122 diver safety, breathing gas technology,body heat The near-surface environment of the oceans retention, diver speech, diver nutrition, andde-varies greatly from place to place and time to time. However, near-surface current velocity, sea state, compression technology. Experiments should be conductedexposingvisibility, background noise, and sound propaga- lower animals to inert gases and mixtures uptotion are probably less variable and influential on one month at various pressures,temperatures,undersea systems than ocean floor and sub-bottom humidities, and activity levels to determineguide-environmental differences like bathymetry, sedi- characteristics. lines and limitation of diver exposure. ment distribution, and acoustic A national program to train medicalpersonnelThe sea floor is much less well known than the and expand facilities for diver medicaltreatmentnearsurface environment. and research should be established. Improved techniques for undersea surveys are needed for economical and timely completion of I. Environmental Considerations such needed ocean information as the following: The major features of the geophysicalenviron- Gross bathymetry, slope, and roughness. mentair, sea, and the land beneath the seamust be understood to further oceantechnology. The Small scale bottom roughness. systems and techniques to studythese features Sediment shear strength. encompass ships, aircraft, satellites,buoy systems, undersea fixed platforms, and maneuverable sub- Liquid-solid interaction and bearing strength_ mersibles. Much basictechnology of marine science is at hand to make great progess,but Geological patterns. salt domes, _ind examination efforts are fragmented and information is scat-of outcrops. tered. "3ravity and magnetic readings and false magnetic A thorough understanding of thefollowing targets. factors is necessary for operations in and underthe sea. Small scale reflection profiles and seismic characteristics. Submarine topography,stabilityofslopes, microbathymetry, bottom composition, engineer- Temperature and heat conductance. ing and chemical properties, and bottom currentsCircuiation and tidal currents, including turbidity (including turbidity flow). currents. Temperature, salinity, density, dissolved gases, Internal waves. pH, Eh, and nutrients. Behavior of visible light and water clarity. Fouling, bioluminescence, dangerous animals, and false-target and sound-scattering organisms. Sound propagation, background noise, and false acoustic targets. Currents, waves, breakers, surf, internal waves, sea level, and tides. Data collection techniques now utilized (mainly Distribution, concentration, and thicknessof sea analog) require lengthy processing and analysis procedures. Use of digital techniques, including ice_ realtime data collection and processing at sea, is Spatial and temporal variation, deflectionofincreasing, but much still must be done to meet vertical anomalies of gravity and magnetism. basic needs (Figure 22).

It should not be inferred that knowledgeis 1. Sea Floor and Bottom Strata completely lackingin the above factors, but improvements in environmental measurementanda. Current SituationSubmarine topography and prediction are essential for success ininc:easingmicrcbathymetry operations include (1) prepara- national capabilities in the ocean. tion of bathymetric (bottom topographic) charts

VI-62 123 Research into the seafloor's changing topography and structure also is necessary for both military and nonmilitary use. Development of free, self-propelled, unmanned undersea probes as well as manned exploration submersibles willenhance survey capabilities. Such systems must operate to depths of 20,000 feet. The Navy Shipboard Survey Development Pro- gram includes capabilities to take narrowbeam and wide beam bathymetric data from a cable towed instrument package operable to 20,000 feet. The system includesdevicesto display essential data on a ship's bridge. The Navy plans such capability for 11 vessels, 2 of which are now in operation, U.S.N.S. Silas Bent and U.S.N.S. Elisha Kane. Figure 22. Computer aboard USC&GSS Oceanog- rapher is used for data collection and processing. 2. Bottom Composition and Engineering Prop- (ESSA photo) erties of the oceans prepared to various scales anda. Current Situafion Knowledge of the composi- various contour intervals and (2) studies of the seation, properties, and mechanical behavior of seafloor to determine provinces of similar structuresfloor sediments is essential for designing founda- such as basins, ridges, and rises and to determine tions, recovering minerals, predictirig the behavior direction and degree of slopes. of vehicles and equipment on or in the ocean Location and description of submarine physio-floor, tunneling, pipeline and cable laying, control- graphic features are indispensable to: ling pollution, disposing of waste, salvaging and recovering objects, and interpreting geophysical Determining areas of potential mineral or petro-records. In underwater work, soil mechanics must leum deposits. be applied in drilling, coring, pile driving, dredging, mining, and operations involving penetration into Site selection for bottom installations. seafloor sediments. Soil mechanics is established reasonably well Surface or subsurface naviga:ion. for engineering tasks on land. With very few Developing sonar techniques for fmd;ng newexceptions,theoretical and applied ocean soil fisheries. mechanics (away from coastal areas) is no more than 15 years old. The studies and measurements h. Future NeedsThere have been few majormade in this relatively short time are few. High iopments in bathymetric survey techniquespressures, dynamic conditions, and imccessibility and systems since invention of the sonic echocontribute to the complexity of the problem. sounder and graphic recorder, although progress The reliability of underwater soil engineering has been made in precision depth recorders anddata must be better than for land applications. side-looking sonars. Failures of land structures due to erroneous soils One major step, dital recording of soundingsdata can be remedied and normally are not as a supplement to graphic recording, has cutcatastrophic. Submerged installations, however, drastically the time required to produce bathy-are nut susceptible to convenient repairs;failures metric charts. This development can be irn.provedcan be costly and hazardous. even further. Faster and more detailed bathymet- kemote sediment sampling from surface ships ric surveying methods based on advances in acous-by snappers, dredges, and corers is unsuitable to tic, photographic, recording, and other types ofobtain the relatively undisturbed samples neeth4 instri.:mentation are needed. for engineering purposes. In situ sediment sam-

124 V1-63 advance pling his been accomplished in shallowwaters by Research and development needed to scuba divers and in deeper water bysubmersibles.undersea soil mechanics capabilities include: of the Submersibles permit direct observation and sampling process and can acquiresamples withSamplers for use by divers, submersibles, thin wall devices in the upper sixfeet of sediment.surface ships. Laboratory experiments on seafloorsedimentsInstruments for on-site measurements like vane have been conducted using samplesrecovered byshear at several depths within a sedimentbody. coring devices, submersibles, orother means. Meaningful engineering measurements canbe made Equipment to take long borings in deep water, in the laboratory and related to insitu measure-including techniques to re-enter bore holes. ments. Selective samplingof large areas should yield reconnaissance information of wideapplica-Instrument packages for narrow beam echo sounding and high resolution profiling devices :0 bility such as in preliminary site studies. be towed at cruising speeds. b. Future Needs Prediction offoundation stabil-Instruments to record properties ofturbidity ity should be facilitated bydetermining suchcurrents. sediment properties as permeability anddynamics of water movement, depth-dependentstrength Foundation engineering criteria must be estab- gradients, compressibility characteristics,and elas-lished and transformed into pertinentseafloor data foundation tic and plastic equilibrium to predict requirements.Because underwater foundations stability. Mas.) sediment stability characteristicswill be constructed on the basis ofinformation include bearing capacity, settlement,slope stabil-acquired under adverse conditions, methods are ity, penetrability, and breakout forces. needed to inspect them and surrounding soiland These properties are important to such applica-to effect repairs. tions as operation of mining machinery onthe Interaction between underwater foundations ocean floor, reflection andrefraction of soundand bottom soil can result in thecreation of energy striking the ocean floor,geophysical explo-complex moments and forces. Techniques are ration, and foundation site selectionand prepara-needed whereby lateral, uplift, twisting,and over- tion. turning forces and moments can beapplied and To determine slope stability and layerthick-measured singly and in combin2tion. Sensors to nesses, sediment properties must1:r. known todetect changes in pressures, deflections, ordis- considerable depths. Properties .mnnot bedeter-placements would be useful in surveying the ocean mined now below the uppermost fewfeet. Also,floor locally prior to and following construction_ there is a need to determine the probabilityof occurrence, the properties,and possible effects of turbidity currents on installations.Instrumenta-3. Physical and Chemical Propertiesof Seawater tion systems able to remain submergedfor long a. Current SituationThe three properties that periods must be developed. temp- Chemical additives or mechanicalconditioningmost affect, underwater design are pressure, sediment strength orerature, and salinity. Theyinfluence the basic may be able to increase specific prevent stirring fine particles whi*reduce visibil-physical properties of seawaterdensity, need for artifi-volume, electrical conductivity, compressibility, ity. However, in some places the surface tension. cially improving visibility is eliminatedsince strongsound velocity, viscosity, and boiling point currents carry suspended sediments away. Osmotic pressure, freezing point, and Comparative analytical studies of all commonare determined by salinity only. sediment types are needed to relieve theneed for On the average one cubic foot of detailed in situ sampling. Instrumentation systems(I.) Density lowered to the ocean floor could transmit orseawater weighs 64 pounds; one cubic footof ice shearweighs 56 pounds, and one cubic meter(35 cubic record data on density, sound velocity, 2,240 strength, and sediment bearing capacity toquicklyfeet) of seawater weighs one long ton or characterize an area. pounds. However, these values vary with tempera-

V1-64 125 ture, salinity, and pressure. The water column consists of multiple density layers rather than a steadily increasing density with depth. A direct method to measure density is needed. (1) Acoustic PropertiesSound is the principal means of communication and detection inthe sea. For locating objects, positions, and terrain features or for probing the natureof sediments, sound is ,ova "TR: -,..c-ureeMobvf, essential. Unfortunately, temperature changes with ." = .1' a.A.' depth bend sound waves, and the changes vary ft with time and space. '-or these reasons, water temperature is the ocean property most widely measured. TheNavy alone makes more than 5,000 temperature sound- Alitter- ings per month. Such data are essential forthe Naval Weather Service to derive daily maps of near-surface sonar propagation conditions. Sound from a source in the ocean's near-surface region follows many diverse paths generally classi- OLO_ as:

Surface duct. Sound travelling :a the near-surface Figure 23. STD sensor for measuring water sa- region. linity, temperature, and ezpgz being lowered from USC&GSS Oceanographey. (ESSA photo) Bottom bounce. Sound reflected off the Gccan floor. Convergence zone. Refracted sound travelling(34 Electromagnetic PropertiesSeawater rapidly absorbs almost every wave length in the electro- along a deep path and sometimes reinforced with spectrum. Radio waves (except ex- energy from the bottom. rnwsnetie tremely long high-energy waves) are attenuated The development of operations in the latter immediately in water. Infrared waves are absorbed by water molecuks. Ultraviolet, X-ray,and gamma two categories requires geophysical data_New rays are absorbedby electrons or atomic nuclei. technology for measuring temperature, salinity,However, water is relatively transparent to visible and pressure includes: and near-ultraviolet light. Salinity-temperature-depth system (Figure 23) (4-) SalinitySalinityisdefined in terms of which records water salinity and temperature atdissolved solid material in seawater. The salts various depths. of sodium and chlorine are the most important, Of Expendable salinity-temperatr:e-depth system.accounting for approximately 85 per cent. the various constituents, only calcium is pres- Airborne radiation thermometer which measuresentina stateof saturation; seawater isfar sea surface temperature by infraredradiation,from saturated with the others. Seawater's ability enabling an aircraft or a satellite to quickly amassto dissolve large amounts of solids and gases data over a large area. without reacting chemically with them is one of its most important properties. Buoy temperature sensor cables. SaiillitY varies in different ocean areas; how- Expendable bathythermographs for measuringever, approximately 90 per centof seawater falls temperatures at various depths by surface vesselswithin 34 to 35 parts per thousand. New dis- and aircraft. coveries have been made in hot spots where

VI-65 333_09 0-69-9 salinities are as high as 240 parts per thousand.Inoverlying waters. Carbon dioxide occurs in rela- and some areas gold concentrations are over600 timestively large amounts in seawater as carbonates the ocean average. (Such discoveries couldbebicarbonates. bub- important in ocean mining.) Some ocean areas produce abundant gas The Nansen bottle, developed in the 1890's,bles that greatly impede sound waves.In the Red Sea still is used to take samples for analyzing seawaterSouthern California Bight and in the salinity. Improved instruments are needed tovirtual curtains of gas continuously arerising sample and measure very deep waters quickly andfrom the ocean floor. In some areas of high Sea) easily. productivity or of stagnation (nce the Black The mutual exchange of energy and materialdeep waters produce hydrogen sulfidebubbles and between ocean and atmosphere at the oceancontain little or no oxygen. surface depends largely on the chemistry of the topmost layer of water. The importance ofdiffu-(6) Hydrogen Ion Concentration (pH) Values of sion processes near the deep ocean bottom is justpH, a measure of hydrogen ion concentration beginning to be appreciated. In some cases theserange from zero (highly acid)through 7.0 (neutral) may be studied by suchnatural tracers as theto 14 (highly alkaline). The carbon dioxide con- upward diffusion of radium from the sedimentstent mainly determines the pH value of seawater. into the bottom waters. Mixing mechanisms andIn the deep ocean it generally decreasesfrom rates between upper, intermediate,and deep oceanabout 8.3 at the surface to 7.7 at depths between layers can be studied by artificial radioactive1,200 and about 3,000 feet, below which it zises tracers as well as natural chemical tracers. to about 7.8_ Values as low as 7.5 arefound in areas of high biological activitybecause of carbon (5.) Dissolved Gases Gases constitute about 0.25dioxide liberatioa. Near the shore, the pH may per cent by weight of ocean water,their solubilitydrop sharply due to introduction of fresh water decreasing with increasing temperature or salinity_streams highly charged with demyingvegetation The most important and abundant gases in theand organic matter from the land. Soznetfrnes a ocean are oxygen, nitrogen, andcarbon dioxicle.sharp drop in pH is found immediately above the Dissolved oxygen is of special interest to underseaocean bottom because of carbondioxide produced systems because of its corrosive effect on mate-by such bottom organisms as bacteria. rials. Surfne waters are usualiy saturated with dissolved oxygen. (7.) Oxidation-Reduction Potential (Eh) Organic The amount of dissolved oxygen decreases withmatter also has a geat effect on theEh of water. depth until an oxygen-rninirnum layer is reached at(Eh, or oxidioa-reductior potential, is a measure a depth of 2,000 to 3,000feet. Below this oxygenof the ability to accept or donate electrons, thus a content gradually increases until the bottom ismeasure of corrosiveness.) Seawaterapproximately reached_ Very deep bottom waters frequently havesix feet above sediment sometimes hasEh values an oxygen content approaching thatof surfaceof zero; below this level and into the sediment, Eh wa ter. may drop as low as -300millivolts. At the sea Dissolved oxygen indicates the age of deep coldsurface Eh usually is about +300 millivolts. Bot- currents entering from surface polar regions. Thistom topography strongly influenceswhether zero free oxygen is consumed by deep water marineEh occurs six feet above the bottom or belo v the life. In waters within the sediments, the oxygensediment surface. Tnus, site selection surveysfor content drops radically because of the activityofbottom habitats and installatkns are necessary to bacteria and bottom dwelling organisms. anticipate corrosion problems. Nitrogen in seawater, occurring as free dissolved gas or in such compounds as nitrates,nitrites, and ammonia, is essential for living matter and deter-(8.) RadioactivityDisposal of low-activity solid mines the growth rate of ocean plants. Sedimentsradioactive wastes in specified areas of not less on the bottom often have only a small amountofthan 6,000-foot depth is permitted. These wastes organic nitrogen, correlating with the concentra-are sealed in containers andshould cause no tionf organic matter in the sediments and in theproblems to underwater operations.

VI-66 127 The natural occurrence of radioactive elements likespectral components, period of maximum in seawater is very small, the principal elementenergy, and directional behavior: being potassium-40. Man-made radioactive mate- Older instruments to measure sea state include rial enters the ocean by fallout. Although seawatership's wave recordet3, photo wave recorders, wave greatlydilutesthesewastes, some radioactivepoles, and stereo photogrammetry. New instru- elements are concentrated by biological organisms.ments take continuous measurements of the sea Ionizationchambers,Geigercounters,photo-surface from ships, satellites, and aircraft, provid- multiplier scintillometers, and similar instrumentsing accurate and more complete observations. can be suspended from ships to measureradio- These include (1) the air:-Jorne wave me:er activity. utilizing a radar altimeter device to acquire wave structureprofiles,(2)asouic echoing device b. Future NeedsNew techniques to measuremounted onaship's bow to measure waves directly temperature, salinity, and sound velocitycontinuously and to compensate automatically for to greater depths all: needrd to provide directship motions, and (3) cameras on satellites(espe- digital and analog output required for realtime ciallyin synchronous orbit) to producc photo- data processing. graphs analyzed for information on seasurface Airborne and shipborne deep expendable re-conditions. Wave sensors on fixed ocean platforms cording bathythermographs for direct digital meas-like the Argus Island permit study of storm waves urements of temperature versus depth to 20,000not normally measured by ships. feet from a moving platform are needed. Direct Subsurface wave motion, surf conditions (im- measurement of sound velocity to great depths isportant derivatives of surface waves), and such required for reliable sonar operation. wave processes as gr,neration, propagation,refrac- New techniques are required to permit rapid,tion,decay,filtering, and subsurface pressure continuousinsituanalyses of theimportantfluctuations are little understood. chemical properties of seawater and bottom sedi- Mathematical models for computer useare ments, particularly at sites considered for underseabeing developed to reduce complex wave motion installations. data to understandable information, The Environ- mental Science Services Administration is develop- 4. Dynamic Factors ing mathematical models of ocean-atmosphere interactions and of the conveyance of heat and Ocean energy decreases with depth; therefore,water. A more sophisticated model of total world practically all the ocean's environmental energy ishydrology, including sea ice, ground water, and contained in gravity waves, tides, and currents. Yetother factors, has been developed, but itsappli- otherfactorsarcimportantbecause of theircationis limited by lack of experimental data. potential hazardt,. Instrumentation to obtain pertinent data is vitally needed, and the technology to develop it appears a. Gravity WavesPredicting the exchange ofavailable. energy and material across the air-sea interfaceis Future wave measuring sensors must measure largely concerned with the growth and decay ofnot only height but the entiredirectional spec- gravity (wind gcnerated) waves. This aspect hastrum. Knowledge of waves for engineeringdesign progressed well, making available refined forecast-criteria is lacking. Some numerical analysistech- ing techniques. Much data on average wave heightsniques have been developed for design criteria of exist, although datastillare lacking on wavethe Polarisballistic missile and other systems. lengths. Current research is directed primarily atThese techniques have been amplified and im- the fundamentals of energy exchange, seeking toproved, but the basic problem of obtaining proper diminish the heavy reliance on observation andmeasutemelits has not been solved. experimentation. Early wave observations consisted primarily ofb. Internal WavesInternal waves are not well random visual observations from ships. Of ques-understood but are known to have an effect on tionable accuracy, these data provide little knowl-underwater sound transmission.Internal waves edge of more sophisticated wave characteristicsusuallyaremeasured by observing short-term

2 8 VI-67

..4:4; temperature fluctuations at given pointsin theena. The deep oceandepths are the coldest parts water column; however, motionof the ship orof the seas (3.8°C average). buoy from which the instruments aresuspended could bias results. The very stableFLIP platform has been wed for internal.-Jave measurements with good results. To predict motionsin the environment adequately, technology is needed to measure three dimensionalinternal wave spectra by digital data collection techniques.

c. Unusual WavesTsunamisand Hurricane Waves Tsunamis(tidalwaves)are formed by earthquakes or by slides that dislocate the oceanfloor. They are of 200 to 300 miles in lengthbut only two or three feet high indeep water. Moving at great speeds, they usually are notdetectable to the eye until they increase to asmuch as 20 or 30 feet in height when approaching coastlines. Hurricane waves are difficult to predict because the circulai motion of hurricane winds causesthe waves to move at various anglesfrom the path of Figure 24.Heat probe fb; measuring ocean bot- the storm. Hurricane waves generally accompany tom heat flows and taking core samplebeing storm surges or storm tides that can run4 to 15 lowered from oceanographic survey ship.(ESSA feet above normal high water as they movetowardphoto) land. Little effect from surface waveaction is felt 200 to 300 feet below the surface. Hurricane research is active, although a storm'se. Currents Surface currents arehorizontal move- course cannot yet be predicted, norits fury con-ments and include both tidal currents(produced trolled. Technology is needed to slow the processby tidal movements of water in oceanbasins) and of evaporation of water from the sea in ahurricane circulationcurrents. Navy interestin currents and to disrupt the convection prr, ,Tssthat addstraditionally has centered on their navigational the extra energy to convert a rain storminto a effects. New developments in surface and sub- hurricane. Technology is needed also todevelop merged current measurements include the auto- improved mathematical models of storms. matically recordingdeep moored telemetering buoy. important to undersea d. ThermodynamicsThe exchange of thermal Subsurfacecurrents, energy affects the thermal structurein the upper operations, include deep-layer vertical movements by ocean layers, generation of oceanweather, mainte- (upwelling or sinking) and movements caused Shifts of sound nance of global atmosphericcirculation, and pro-tides or large-scale turbulence pagation of perturbationsin climate. Unfortu-signals is one way of measuring subsurface cur- nately, the process is little understood,and pro-rents. Long-range sonar isaffected by dynamic because technology ischanges in locatien and characteristics of ocean gress has been slow mainly data on not developed sufficientlyfor the refined observa-water masses, t',,us requiring extensive tions needed to establish more effectivetheory. currents to be effective. Ocean heat comes primarily from the sun.For However, obtaining that information in deep that few undersea operations, however, heat flowingfrom water is so expensive and time consuming moored the earth's crust also is important(Figure 24). It is measurements have been made. A few practically uniform on the shelf and inthe basinscurrent meter arrays have beeninstalled at the but is significantly higher in areasof midoceanNavy's Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation ridges and trenches. Deep drilling intothe crust isCenter and elsewhere. Variations in current are required to implove knowledge of thesephenom-computed from data taken from these arrays

V1-68 12 9 and compared with concurrent temperature and II. Materials ralinity lata. a. Physical Properties Although deep ocean currents are generally of (1)Density low velocity, some evidence existsthatthese (2)Strength currents coupled with the presence of a structure (3)Corrosion and Fouling could create turbulence, erode the bottom, pro- (4)Galvanic Table duce a wake of turhid water, and affect founda- (5)Welding Characteristics tion stability. These effects could make a bottom b. Corrosion Protection installation more detectable by acoustic means and c. Buoyancy Materials could upset or buryhe structure; therefore, (1)Efficiency Curve for Cylinder/- further investigation of near-bottom currents is a Sphere vs. Depth necessity. (2)Syntactic Foam (3)Buoyant Outer Hull f. Hydrospace HandbookAt present the ocean d. Pressure Hull Penetrators source of information engineerhas no single III. Structural Data summarizing data on environmental factors and a. Pressure Hulls their effects on materials and components consid- (1)Shapes and Volumetric Efficien- ered in designing ocean systems. The U.S. Air les Force prepared the Handbook of Geophysics and (2) )csign Data (Equations for transi- Aerospace Materials Handbooks to provide infor- tionareas,viewports, hatches, mation for design of aircraft, missiles, and space- buckling) craft. A hydrospace handbook containing informa- b. Wetted Hulls tion on environmental factors affecting ocean (1)Design Data (Unstiffened,ring enneering design could be invaluable. One such stiffened, ring and stringer) handbook is expected to be released in the near c. Simple-Beam Equations for Moment, future. Shear, Deflection An important function of both industry and government will be to assure that such handbooks IV. Fluid Mechanics are continuously upd2ted and technical memo- a. Fluid Statics randa, failure analyses, and abngineering data to b. Real/Ideal Fluid Flow help advance ocean capability are published. An- c. Fluid Measurements other responsibility is in preparing ocean engineer- d. Flow About Immersed Objects ing texts for teaching and technical reference. e. Drag, Lift, and Cavitation A possible Hydrospace Handbook outline: V. Thermodynamics a. Liquids and Gases HYDROSPACE HANDBOOK b. Gas Laws c. Refrigeration and Heating Chapters d. Humidity e. Air Conditioning I. The Marine Environment f. Modeling Theory a. Properties of Salt Water b. Properties of Soil, Silt, and Sand VI. Hydrodynamics c. Hydrostatic Pressure vs. Depth a. Basic Relation to Gas Dynamics d. Sound Propagation b. Propulsion e. Light Transmission c. Steady/Unsteady Flow f. Wave Motion and Forces d. Skin Friction g. Sea Temperature, Salinity, Density vs. Shape/Drag Curves Depth (worldwide) 11. Wave Heights, Storms, Meteorological VII. Electrical Data, Currents a. DirectCurrentCircuitsandPower Nav igation Data Sources

130 V1-69 Lit alone prediction. Yet these data must II) Batteries (2)Fuel Cells he more reliable for ocean than lot land applica- (3)Nuclear tion. b. Alternating Current Circuits For military applications (especially in antisub- c. Electrokinematicsand Magnetic Cir- marine warfare) the advent of new detection cuits systems utilizing bottom bounce and convergence d. Electrostatics and Dielectric Circuits zone modes has emphasized the need to measure e. Electrical Connectors and Cables ocean floor acoustic characteristics. f. Electromagnet icInterferenceReduc- Bottom loss characteristics arelittle known, tion because present systems and techniques are inade- g. Connectors,Conductors,andCable quate te measure detailed topography, acoustic Properties properties of sediments at all frequency ranges and grazing angles, and bottom losses. The marine VIII. Bio-Engineering geophysical surveys sponsored by the Naval Ocean- a. Human Factors ographic Office have provided new and valuable b. Diver Decompression Tables information, but more is needed. c. Divcr Gas Mixtures vs. Depth Tables d. Life Support Systems Recommendations: IX. Communications New and improved instruments and instrument suits must be developed for oceanographk sam- X. Safety and Certzfication pling and measurement inciuding means of: APPENDIX ATable of Definitions APPENDIX B Milestones in Undersea History Improving underwater optical visibility. Viewing and recording bottom features without g. Conclusions A greatneedexiststo map using the visible spectrum. synoptically the physical and dynamic ocean and --Making rapid, in situ measurements of the mass ocean bottom processes. The expendablebathy-physical properties of both water and madne thermograph has provided a revolutionary tool tosediments, and of other properties to provide map temperatures. Similar systems areneeded to engineering data for seafloor construction. measure sound velocity, waves, and currents. Knowledge of probable extremes in the ocean --Making rapid, continuous in situanalysis of environment is insufficient to establish engineering chemical properties, Eh, and pH of sea-water and design criteria. Variations within the sea and the bottom sediments. sea floor are little known or understoodrelative to land variations. Exploitation of the deep sea andMaking rapid, continuous surveys of bottom the continental shelf will require detailed informa-topography. tionon theinterrelationships of temperature, prcssure, salinity, and currents and on theeffects A vigorous program should be pursued to of fouling and corrorion on materials, bottomexamine, understand, and determine subsea physi- mounted structures, cables, buoy moorings, andcal, biological, and geological environmental condi- sy stems. tions as they affect engineering design. The data Underwater soil mechanics affects all missionscritical to engineering design should be accumu- involving objects attached to or in contact withlatedand publishedinhandbooks,technical the ocean floor. Soils information is important tomemoranda, and engineering data sheets and up- (1) preparation of foundations for structures anddated continuously as knowledge permits. installations, (2) bottom sitting or crawling sub- Effectivesurface,diver,orsubmersible- mersibles, (3) drilling, coring, dredging, pile driv-emplaced, engineering-oriented, in situ sampling ing, mining, and production, (4) waste disposal,and measuring devices must be developed to and (5) salvage, rescue, and recovery. Soil mechan-characterize the ocean floor and sub-bottom and ics state-of-the-artis not adequate for effectiveto study turbidity currents over long periods, if

VI-70 131 seatloor soil mechanics is to be understood. Thepress digital outputs will be necessary to optimize information derived should be made available ininformation content, especially with buoy sys- engineering design handbooks. Operational tech-tems. niques that minimize soil disturbance and ways of increasing subsurface sediment structural strengthc. Data ProcessingWith shipboard computers in must be sought. oceanographic measurement programs, speed of data collection and processing has increased significantly. Much processingisroutineasinthe J. Data Handling reduction of Nansen cast data and correction of reversing thermometers. Shipboard employment of Problems of handling large quantities of diverse environmental data will continue to increase rap-the computer as a realtime data processor has been idly. The technology of fast, high-capacity auto-limited. Some use has been made of realtime and processing 3ystems for acoustic matic data handling systems has increased mark- collection edly in recent years with third generation high-studies, especially for and by the Navy. speed digital computers now in general use. Storage and retrieval systems can provide ran-d. Data Relay Developments Syqems are being dom access to large masses of data, permittingdeveloped to telemeter data required at sea in relays(ships, buoys, reductioi) of data storage in the computer itself. realtimedirectlyorvia This advanced technology has not been applied tosatellites, or shore stations) to central data process- the marine program to any important degree asing activities (Figure 25). Here the data can be yet.' Shipboard computer use was begun fairlyimmediately interpreted and new instructions sent recently and is increasing However, most of theseback to the survey vehicle. This offers improved computers are being employed primarily as dataaccuracy and speed while making possible use of storage mechanisms, not as realtime data proces-simpler, less costly equipment aboard the survey vehicle. sing systems.

1. Current Situation ESSA ODESSA SYSTEM UNMANNED I I.1 03 VISTIII 301 0 87A110116 03011061031113 0300 107011110611 AI010 37 0E0. a. Data GatheringMany new instruments for COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY RESEARCH PROERAM

CONSOLE 1111/11106071011 SITILLITE collecting oceanographic data have been designed Isnrcal INTIRROGS(JON lade fee Wet for direct digital data collection. Examples are transnutter sound velocirneters, salinometers, and expendable Isccrey bathythermographs. To date, however, these gen-

1.37FOROIO0lCIL erally have had their own shipboard digital re- PACIIRCE BUOY 11.1311011IOS corders. 11711.1,0 ck. 5110011 SURFACE BOOR 111111 et IKI! b. Data Display and Recording Both digital and 30.100 day 0101blfitl- analog displays are being used now in marine data collection, permitting immediate, rapid data evaluation and checks on collection quality. However,

many techniques stillare primitive. Strip chart 0M11101101113 WWI 3130001 elect, Rica records, for example, require laborious manuai 1.1.111 processing and analysis. Digital magnetic types are in use but in lengthy experimental programs large 1.7308 volumes of tape can be generated, creating a temperalure storage problem. Therefore, techniques to com- .dna cooduottily ..,11., .111 mase111. el 11 7 s ..... HUM.if

Figure 25. ODESSA system telemeters environ- 4 The problem of data handling is under intensive mental data from unmanned buoys to ship or study by the National Council on Marine Resources and satellite for subsequent ttansfer to central data En&eering Development. processing facilities.(ESSA photo)

1. 4 VI-71 e. Data Storage and RetrievalThe data storage r.tability conditions, however, effects the reliability and retrieval systems now handling marine data areof automatic data facilities. antiquated and require either duplicate storage or Currently, thc National Oceanogaphic Data very slow sorting and retrieval procedures. ForCenterisdevelopingdata bascs for physical, example, the National Oceanographic Data Centerchemical, geological, and bioiogical data. Nu data (NODC) docs not possess any random accessbascs for important engineering criteria (fouling, capability. corrosion, and strength of materials), bathymetric, The National Oceanographic Data Center han-magnetic, gravimetric, bottom photography, and dles primarily ocean station and bathythermo-sea ice exist. These data are contained in widely graph data, plus limited geological and biologicalscattered generating activities and generally are nu data. NODC does not handle engineering (such asavailable to meet user requirements. fouling,corrosion, and strength of materials), bathymetric, magnetic, gravirnetric, photographic, Recommendations: or many other types of important marine data.Standardized computer hardware and software These data existat widely scattered locationssystems should be developed for oceanographic throughout the Nation but could be much moretasks. Such systems should include data plotting useful if in compatible formats and located cen-and navigational control and should become an trally. integral part of all government funded research vessels. Since automatic computation equipment 2. Futhre Needs presently is available for use at sea, future large- scale government sponsored and conducted envi- Integrated realtime data processing systems areronmental data missions should not be undertaken needed to handle multiple uses of new, diverseunless onboard automatic realtime data collection instrumentation developed with digital recordingand processing capabilities are utilized to assure capability. Thus, computer interfacing is requiredthe efficient employment of scarce scientific tal- to permit immediate processing of data from theseent. instruments in a compatible manner. Progress to NODC should be equipped with random access date must be extended and rapidly accelerated,capability to increase the speed and efficiency of especially in view of anticipated buoy develop-data retrieval under various categories such as ments. cruise or insItution. Branch data centers should be Random access capabilityis needed in dataestablished throughout the nation, the location retrieva1 from all marine data bases to ensure rapid depending upon technical competence and user access by users. Random access disks and magnetic interests. drums areavailablebut have not been used To be most effective, NODC should be sup- extensively in the marine field, except for selectedported entirely as a line item in a single .1gency's mission-oriented Navy programs. budget. This could be achieved best as an adjunct to an expanded Navy ocean mission to support 3. Conclusions national objectives (see Chapters 2 and 4), especially since much NODC-held data will be from A need exists for much greater realtime data classified Navy missions. reduction and analysis at sea by computer or through relay to central data processing facilities ashore. Computers offer the advantage of reducingK. Life Support large quantities of data rapidly into comprehend- able format for prompt review and analysis. Data Life support in small subrnersibles, cargo and from several ships can be correlated simultane-support submarines, and ocean bottom stations is ously. Theresulting on-site knowledge wouldcomplex,nd challenging. Fortunately, consider- peniiit more efficient use of sea rime for criticalable knowledge and experience exist, a large part measurements and control of data acquisition. Thecontributed recently by the National Aeronautics technology of operating instrumentatici systemsand Space Administration, by nuclear defense at sca under adverse environmental and platformsheltei development, by Navy's nuclear fleet sub-

V1-72 133 marine operations, and by the Navy Sea lab experi- A second method is to bleed fresh air from ments. storage tanks, to filter the habitat atmosphere, and to pump contaminants overboard. Considerable I. Current Situation power and frequent resupply are necessary;the method has proved to be extremely inefficient in Life support activities may bedivided ii:toproviding a uniform clean atmosphere. seven functions: The third and most feasible methodisto providea sealed habitat with oxygen supplied Atmosphere control (breathing mixture and con-either from storage -if from an oxygen generator. taminant control). Oxygen storage can be either WO pressure or cryogenic; the advantages and disadvantages of Climate control (temperature and relative hu-each must be analyzed for a particular application. midity). Oxygen generators have been improved over the early years of nuclear submarine operation. The Water supply (potable, wash, and machinery currentunits provide good service but require make up). assiduouscareinoperation and maintenance; Food supply (preparation, refrigeration, freezing,improvements are necessary to enhance reliability and safety. Currently, a very promising oxygen and storage). generator module (a byproduct of fuel cell re- Waste removal (solid and liquid waste products). search) is under evaluation for the Navy. Chlorate candles and chlorate candle furnaces Habitability (human factors design considera-have been used on nuclear submarines. However, tion). controlispresentlyimpossible,because once Personnel (crew's psychological wellbeing). ignited the whole candle is consumed; hence, an automatic system appears impractical. Other meth- a. Atmosphere ControlAtmosphere control, al-ods combining oxygen generation with carbon though the most difficult of life support functions,dioxide removal are in preliminary stages. Some is not a new problem. Suomarine and, moreappear promising but only for limited compart- recently, spacevehicledes'gners have devotedments and small crews. considerable time and effintoitssolution. Filters, catalytic burners, and carbon dioxide However, only recently have human beings beenscrubbersmaybeusedtopurifyhabitat subjected to a completely closed environment foratmosphere. Activated charcoal filters,electro- extendedperiodswithoutfrequentrotation.static precipitators, and mechanical means may be Miners, although exposed for many hours, haveconsideredalso.Catalytic burners (as carbon daily recuperative periods before re-entry into themonoxide-hydrogen burners) perform well with mine, as do diesel submariners during surfacing orlittle maintenance or adjustment. Carbon dioxide snorkeling. Polaris submariners regularly spend 60removal can be accomplished by liquid scrubbers or more consecutive dayssubmerged with noordry chemicalplates. To date only mono- opportunity tor their bodies to recuperate. ethanolamine scrubbers have proved efficient and Sincerelativelylittleisknown about thereliableforlarge volume purification. Smaller cumulative effects of long-duration exposure, it isvolumes mly be cleaned by lithium hydroxide extremely important to keep the atmosphere ofplates or crystals. manned underwater structures as pure as possible. The problems of sealed atmosphere control in Once the desired atmosphere has been defined,submerged structures can be solved with present various methods to maintain it can be analyzed. technology, but the system selected will depend The simplest method is a ducted supply andupon the structure's volume, crew number, mis- exhaust system withfiltersusing the earth'ssion duration, and to some extent power source atmosphere to provide air. This method is appli-chosen. cableto land-linked mining operations having Another problem is monitoring habitat atmos- tunnels extending rnder the ocean floor or tophere for contamination from materials and con- shallow underwater habitats. sumaMes. Hardware in the market for both auto-

134 V1-73 matic and manual monitoring ofatmospheric Three methods of air conditioning areavailable: contaminents must be considered. For most compounds, commercial detection units areavailable;Vapor compression. Manual however, each has certain shortcomings. Absorption. sniffers are extremely reliable and should beused for backup and checking automatic units.Many -Thermoelectric. types of hardware have been employedin existing diving systems and submersibles. Vapor cornpressiop systems currentlyemployed Components and materials must be screened asin submarines are subject to leakageof refrigerant soon as preliminary designs arebegun. Paints andvapors at seals, valves, pipe joints,and control con- adhesives must be selected with care, for manynections. Absorption systems, such as thelithium evolve toxic gases during deterioration.Consum-bromide type generally used, are extremelyheavy ables brought into the structure mustbe con-and bulky and have a low coefficientof perform- trolled,including lubr, :atingoils,halogenatedance. Both the vaporcompression unit and the hydrocarbon solvents, and aerosol packagedprod-absorption system use refrigerants hazardousto ucts. When passed through thecatalytic burner,personnel. many create such chemicalderivatives as hydro- For example, Freon becomes a personnelhaz- chloric and hydrofluoric acid vapors, even moreard at concentrations of 250 parts permillion or dangerous than the original products.Similarlyhigher. If not removed by the atmosphericcontrol corrosion, fire, and explosion hazards mustbesystem, these vapors can contaminatethe atmos- eliminated through constant surveillance. phere during long periods of submergence.Fur- Emergency breathing stations should be in-ther, Freon alsocan break down into more stalled in numbers to support the occupantswhileharmful compounds in the presenceof such high rescuing them from the station or raising it tothetemperature sources as cigarettes,galley ranges, surface. Such a system would have tobe closed-and pyrolytic burners. to circuittoprecludeexcessiveinternalpressure Various internal systems convert energy internalhull build-upwithinthevehicle or station, unlessheat,whichisejectedintothe anticipated rescue time is very short. atmosphere. The heat must be passed overboardto Additionally, backpack breathing sets may bethe sea, and since many heat sources maybe furnished for use in contaminated areas.Theselocalized, the associated heat removal devices may must be untethered to allow wearerto passbe localized. through a lock. When personnel return from a The magnitude of heat rejectionassociated with contaminated space, some of that atmosphere willfixed and variable heat loads must be determined. be brought into the general living compartments;Fixed heat loads are generated by internal systems provision must be made to control such contami-which are required for performanceof mission nation. functions but are essentially independent of crew life support requirements. Included areradiation, The function of an air condi- b. Climate Control convection, and conduction from hotpiping, tioning system is to remove heat andhumidity machinery, and electrical and electronicequip- fromairusedasaheatsink by personnel, electronic equipment, and various auxiliary equipment. Variable heat loads are generated principallyby ment. Within certain limits, control of compart- life support functions. These includeheat from the humidity is neces- ment temperature and relative wasteand water system, galley, food storage and proper operation sary for personnel comfort refrigeration,laundryand showers, metabolic of internal equipment. water condensation, body heat,carbon dioxide Design uf the air conditioning system will beabsorbing equipment, and the oxygen recovery influenced by: and supply equipment. One approach to designing the heatrejection Outside w er temperature. system is to eject all waste heat to the seathrough The need to minimize the number and sizeofa single heat exchanger.An intermediate coolant heat from the various pressure hull penetrations. can be used to collect waste

VI-74 135 systems.Alternatively, several heat exchangersargues for a closed system, peci as depth is inside and outside the pressure hull can be used.increased. Both approaches must he evaluated to determine system layout, cost, and safel:, . d. Food Supply The food supply can range from Another approach employs thermoelectric de-the prepared variety used by astronauts to the vices adjacent to a particular heat source. Thiskitchen-cooked meals served aboard nuclear sub- eliminates movement of large volumes of air butmarines. The latter require space, equipment, and requires electrical hull penetrations to a hot plateadditional atmosphere control equipment. Frozen outside. Thermoelectric air conditioning can alsomeals with wide menu selection and well balanced be used as a heater by the reversal of the powerdiet could be furnished. Preparation would be supply voltage. minimal. Mission duration. crew size and composition, power source, and logistic procedures will c. Water SupplyWater is required at differentdetermine tha most suitable system. degrees of purity: potable water for drinking and food preparation; fresh water for personal hygiene,e. Waste DisposalSolution of waste disposal and rinse water in sanitation, laundry, and dishmust consider power and men available, mission washing. duration, depth, and location of the habitat (or Fresh watercan be supplied from storageoperating depth of sobmersibles I.Freezing or tanks or extracted from sea water. For longchemical systems supported by between-mission missions and larrcraws, storage may be impracti-replenishment would be most desirable for small cal. Severalt-dpes of fresh water machines areto medium size crews (15 to 25 men) and less than available. For very large installations, combination120 days. nuclear power generation and fresh water evapora- However, for long missions and large crews tion plants are possibilities. some mechanical means must be utilized. Blowing Vapor compression units have been used suc-sanitary tanks with compressed air (as in conven- cessfully on submarines and small surface ships fortionalsubmarines) requ;:es greater amounts of years; for steam driven ships, several firms offerenergy with increased depth; this method become.; reliable compact units. impractical at great operating depths. In addition, As part of water management, measures mustsewage must be removed from a habitat's vichnty be taken to minimize water discharge. For exam-to avoid contamination of intike water and to ple, a system must be considered (similar to thatprevent disturbing the scientifi,-: environment. used in commercial airlines) whereby toilets are A closed system could !,tore all liquid wastes in flushed with water pumped at high velocity from aa waste receptacle containing a chemical disinfect- drain collecting tank. The tank will accumulateant to arrest bacterial activity. Garbage and fecal effluent from showers and other sources. waste could be compressed, treated chemically, In general, two basic water management con-sealed in drums, and packed in freezer storage cepts can be 6onsidered. The first is essentially aspaee as food supplies are consumed. Trash could closedsystem incorporating various forms ofbe baled and stored. It is conceivable that little regenerating waste water while storing on boardadditional space and facilities would be required waste products. It involves various filter processes.for a closed syvtem. Little or no makeup water will be required in an efficiently operating closed system. f. flabitabgityMuch workisbeing done in The second system is the conventional openhuman factors Henn a design viewpoint. In early system that rejects unprocessed all waste waterdesign of habitats, littleattention was paid to overboard and utilizes sea water distillation as acomfort, because major emphasis was on safety; fresh water source. This is presently usi'd aboardhowever, that phase has passed. Because of con- submarines. Fresh water from distillation is storedcentration on long periods of underwater habit- incentral tanks. Additional unprocessed waterability, attention has been focused on the human may be used for flushing toilets. However, thefactors. differential betv,een the normal internal atmos- Habitability has become a major factorin phere and the ambient pressure of the depthsdesigning for sustained system effectiveness. Cer- tain factors like ventilation and lighting may bebest choicewillhinge on engineering analysis equated directlyto 'performance errors duringconsidering vehicle or station characteristics, mis- operadori. However, design of living quarters,sion, and cost. Adaptation and improvement will recreation areas, and other nonoperational facilitiesbenecessaryas vehicles and stations become also can affect ultimate performance throughlarger, operate deeper, and cruise longer, and as impact on morale, fatigue, and other factors. higher standards or more difficult goals are intro- Other design factors less directly related alsoduced. Reliability, maintainability, and endurance are important. A significant consideration inthemust keep pace. crew's adjustment to isolation and confinement is Problems -remain with new hardware where no the availability of a safe, reliable escape method. prior experience exists upon which to drawfor example, the overboard discharge of liquid and g. PersonnelMore than any research project,solidwaste andtheintakeof sea waterin miclear submarines have shov,n that men can livesufficient volume at depths to 20,000 feet. togethet- in close confines for long periods. Person- nel selection, mobility, pleasant surroundings, ac-3. Conclusions tivity to increase mental stimuli (school, music, At depths greater than 2,000 feet, transfer of movies, machinery operation and repair, watch sea water in and waste water out of a pressurehull standing), sanitary conditions, food preparation, demands large energy consumption, a hazardous atmosphere, sleeping facilities, and crew must hull penetration, and hardware of special capabil- be considered in de3ign of a manned underwater ities.Atmosphere controlisbyfarthe most structure. Good communications keep up interest in thedifficult life support function. In air conditioning, factors influencing design outside world and offset isolation. This has been are outside water temperature and numberand experienced during Polaris patrols when emphasis has been placed on information from familiessize of pressure hull penetrations. Utilization of energy by various internal sys- ashore, although security regulations permit notems results in heat which is rejected to the reply. internal hull atmosphere. This ultimately must be The effects of isolation and confinement upon ejected to the sea. havebeen consideredin human performance Operating depths greater than 2,000 feet have a recent manned space flight programs.Dramaticmajor impact on designof internal systems. changes have been observed in single individualsBecause of the danger inherent in taking aboard isolated for several days or weeks. In small groupslarge quantities of sea water and the difficulty of (two to five individuals) some subjects developeddischarging waste water atthis great depth, a regressive behaviur and feelings of hostility, al-carefully planned system of water inventory man- though anger seldom was expressed directly. Bothagement will be necessary. regression and hostility may, of course, be ex- The solution to waste disposal must consider tremely detrimental to performance. The passagepower and men available,missiondefinition, of time usuallyincreases the effects of otherdepth, and location of habitat or operating depth 3tressful conditions like boredom, lack of com- of submersible. munication, sexualdeprivation, and machinery noise. Recommendations: To combat the negative effects described above, the habitability of both living and working spacesA research and development program is needed to should be enhanced. Several features in the currentprovide safe, effective, economical pumps, valves Polaris system, for example, reflect that privacy isand piping to transfer fluids and solids in and out important to those living in a confined space. of pressure hulls at depths to 20,000 feet. As an alternate, a completely closed-cycle water and waste system should be perfected. 2. Future Needs Other research and development work on life Life support futk;tions now can be performedsupport methods zind equipment should be done by anv of several methods and :.quIpments. Theto support the national projects recommended in

V1-76 137 Chapter 7 of this report and in particular the Figure 2'7 undersea laboratories, stations, and vehicles. LARGE U.S. PRESSURE 7EST FACILITIES Maximum I.TEST FACILITIES Static Diameter Length Pressure Location1 Feet Feet The conquest of three strange environments in (PSI) last 30 years demonstrated the need for the 20,000 4.0 8.0 IITR complete and adequate testing. In striving for high 15,000 5.0 8.3 Southwest Res. altitude operation of military aircraft in the late 15,000 4.0 20.0 NSR DC 1930's and early 1940's engineers quickly dis- 10,000 10.0 Sphere NSR DC covered that operating conditions in the rarified J,000 5.0 10.0 NCCC LC atmosphere above 10,000 feet were completely 6,000 6.0 21.0 NSR DC 5,500 6.0 10.0 NCEL different. 4,000 7.5 19.0 Southwest Res. They were compelled to design and build 3,750 4.0 8.5 Southwest Res. entirely new environmental simulation facilities to 3,000 6.0 10.0 NASL test, evaluate, and qualify aircraft engines, electri- 1,300 8.0 28.0 Perry NOL cal systems, and mechanical systems. Development 1,200 8.3 36.0 1,200 11.5 33.0 NSR DC of the B-29 aircraft was delayed at least two years, 1,200 7.5 Sphere Southwest Res. and the jet engine was delayed for an indetermi- 1,000 8.3 26.0 NR L nate time beyond initial conceptual stages because 1,000 7.0 14.0 Electric Boat facilities did not exist. 1,000 7.5 19.0 Electric Boat After thefirstsupersonic flightin October I ITR - Illinois I risthute of Technical Research, Chicago 1947, the airciaft industry encountered problems Southwest Res. Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas of adiabatic temperature rise in mechanical and NSRDC Naval Ship ResPPrch and Development Cenier, electrical components due to ram air compresson. Carder ock a.id Annapolis, Maryland Entirely new concepts of test equipment were NCCCLC Naval Command, Control, and Communica- essential to simulate high altitude, high tempera- tions Laboratory Center, San Diego, Cali- ture operation. fornia NCEL Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Port Hue- The first Sputnik in October 1957 launched the neme, California worid into the third new environment, the vacuum NASL - Naval Applied Science Labcratory, Brooklyn, of space. Recent construction programs on large New York and experrive space simulationfacilities again PerriPen y Submarine Builders, R Mere Beach, Florida forcefully demonstrated that test facilities must be NOL - Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White Oak, Maryland Naval research Laboratory, Washington, D. C. provided to conquer a new hostile environment. NRL 7.lectric BoatGeneral Dynamics, Electric Boat Division, Groton, Connecticut A. Simulation Facilities 1. Current Situation Few enviionmental tests have been conducted Developing and utilizing the undersea frontieron structures,external machinery systems, or may face a completely unnecessary barrier-lack ofother deep submersible components. As structures test capability to qualify, certify, and ascertainand components are designed for lighter weight, operational readiness and effectiveness of futuregreater strength, and increasingly improved per- deep operating equipment. Without this capability,formance, it becomes necessary to utilize more undersea development will be faced with failures,advanced materials, which may affect the perform- frustrations, wasted effort, and possible loss ofance and fatigue life of the systems. life. Navy data indicatethat the fatigue life of Within government and industry there are onlyHY-140 steel may be only one-tenth that of 17 large pressure test facilities capable of simu-HY-80 steel, and fiber reinforced plastic pressure lating pressure to 2,270 feet (1,000 pounds perhousings may have a very short life measured in severeinch)and fivelargetanks capable ofonly tens of cycles. Simple crush tests will not sin.ulating pressures to 22,700 feet (10,000 psi).demonstiate expected performance.Itwill be Figure 26 presents a summary of these facilities.necessary to subject structures and components to temperature and pressure low cycle fatiguetests, production, they would require Navy siiinilaikiA the requiring extensive test time. '-acility expenditures exceeding $1 billion over Once gross integrity of the hardware systemnext 10 years. of man have been assured,itis If deep ocean programs merely doubled over and safety test important to determine mission effectivenessofthe next 10 years, existing and planned complex manned systems operl.ting in achalleng-facilities would accommodate no more than 20 per cent of the required development work,only 10 ing environment. Experience has indicated many testing, and no occasions where complex interaction ofvehicle, per cent of required equipment sensoi-,, auxiliary systems, and man requirepriortesting to certify the fully assembled vehicle. Litalysis ;In d simulation to determine overalleffec- Attempted use of off-the-shelf equipment on existing vehicles forced insitu tivemss for mission goals. No simulationfacilitiesessentiallyall exlq where relevant parameters including pressure, testing and resulted in a long list of equipment temperature, and salinity can be reproducedand failures. The NR-1 is an exception; all subsystems beforeinstallation. manipulated to assess their combined effects. willbetestedthoroughly Navy data indicate a tremendous deficiency inNevertheless, no facility exists to test the entire at-seaoperation simulation testfacilities,particularlyfor greatvehiclebeforelaunch.Initial depths.' A deficimey of 430 test years in tankwithout any equipment malfunction is the excep- sizes up to 2u cubic feet at pressures over 15,000tion rather than the rule. Because deepdiving psi was noted, without including the needfor submersiules must have much eq.iipment external structural and low-cyclefatiguetesting.This deficiency wasto the pressure hull, many new calculated on currently defined five-year fundingexternal machinery problems are encountered. plans and did not provide for an increased national effort in the deep sea. 2. Future Needs Equip:nent testing to less than the full sub- Progress in undersea systems will necessitate due merged operating pressures has been necessary testing and evaluating equipment prior toselection to lack of adequate testfacilities. For example,and installation on vehicles. Testing, evaluation, available facilities restricted testing the pressure2nd certification of whole vehicle systems are hullforthefirst Deep Submergence Rescueric...ded to minimize failures during at-sea opera- Vehicle to only 2,700 feet rather than the poten- tic-ns. tial 5,000 foot performance capability. Thefirst In the decade 1970-1980, a proliferationof Deep Submergence Search Vehicle (DSSV) capsuledeep ocean simulation facilities will be needed. of will be only static tested to its operating depth When economicalandfeasible,testfacilities 20,000 feet because no tank will be available forshould have multiple capabilities. For example, a cyclic testing until at least two years after delivery.vehicle test facility might be built to accommodate No chamber capable of cycling the DSSV or diver tests as well. Requirements include: Fimilar capsule to operating depth is planned. Over the next five years, deep submergence Certification and test facilities for small submers- programs will pinpoint operationalproblems en- ibles to 20,000 feet. countered in sustained operations at 2,000 and 20,000 feet. As feasibility of a new generationofCertification and test facilities for full size deep operational systems is demonstrated, new deep operating submarines and undersea stations. markedly diving systems will be developed with Anechoic test chambers for sonar equipment and increased capabilities. Military systems could include deeper operating quiet operating machinery. attacksubmarines, newstrategicmissilesub-Coastal engineering facilities. malines, and bottom-sittingor bottom-mobile systems.If these vehicleswere approved for Test facilities for pressure capsules and housings to 20,000 feet. 5Navy Ship Research and Development Center, Deep Facilities fortesting external machinery and Sea Simulation Facilities Navy-Wide, Part I. Report C 2515-1, (NSRDC, Annapolis, Malyland, 1967). power systems. 13B V1-78 Facilities for deep ope:ai Mg weapons and explo-capability is approximately 1,000 feet. A sectional sives testing. view of the arrangement is shown in Figure Hyperbaric seawater aquaria to handle organisms which live only at the deepesi: depths. IGLOO RECOMPRESSION CRAMER Small hyperbaric tanks for cLpture, transfer, and INNER LACK OUTER LOCK examination of specimens inhabiting the depths. Facilities for calibrating, testing, and evaluating oceanographic instrumentation systems.

B.Hyperbaric Facilities DIVING TAN( N. OIR.L1 VCR.. 1. Current Situation PRES:ARE MO 1.51 CR DEPTH OF 706 FEET II MA WATER. CRIERALL ONESSICWS The term hyperbaric facility generally is applied 22 FEET NW to a man-rated pressure chamber complex in- 26 FEET FLAG tended primarily for experimental studies of human behavior and physiology under increased Figure 27.Diving facilities at U.S. Navy Ex- perimental Diving Unit and Naval School for ambient pressures. Such facilities have been usedDeep Sea Divers.(Navy drawing) for therapy and for commercial and military diver training. Categories of man-rated chamber uses include: The diving tank can be filled to a depth of facilityis Medical and Experimental approximately eightfeet. A similar (1) Human physiological research planned for the Naval Submarine Medical Center, (2) Clinical medicine New London, Connecticut. The complex at the (3) Medical therapy Medical Research Institute, being uprated to a (4) Biology, especially marine biology 1,000-foot capability, has a wet tank depth capability of only three feet. Swimmer and Diver Development The 2,000-foot hyperbaric facility being de- (1) Physiology, including decompression tablesigned for the Navy Mine Defense Laboratory, development Panama City, Florida (Figure 28), when completed (2) Equipment development, test, and evalua-will be the largest, deepest, and most complete tion facility of its kind in the world. One end of the (3) Mission training and development Saturation Diver Work Systems Support (1) Oil and mineral (2) Salvage and construction (3) Rescue and medical treatment (4) Military

The Navy currently has hyperbaric chambers at the Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland, and at the Washington, D.C., Navy Yard Annex. The latter houses both the Experimental Diving Unit (EDU) and the Naval School for Deep Sea Divers, each having hyperbaric complexes consisting of four connected pressure chambers. Figure 28.Proposed multipurpose pressure fa- An outer lock, an inner lock, and an igloo are oncility at Navy Mine Defense Laboratory. (Navy one level, a diving tank below. Depthsimulation drawing) 40 VI-79 to wct chamber has a full-diameterdoor providingunacceptable. In addition, much work remains determine optimum decompression schedules.This accessfor small submersibles. Supperi: systems divi,,g opera- planned include comprehensive datagathering, is especially important since deep evaluating, and monitoring devices and a computertions require several days of decompression. large opcn ocean Military activities aiso will be expandinL,human system to allow simulation of a capability limits. Most marked needs willbe in arca. Preprogramming ofentire experimental runs possible_ Use oftraining and equipment evaluation. Industryis and automatic gas control will be the equipmentbuilding additional hyperbaric facilities, but thc chambers will concentrate on diver main emphasis probably will be on exploitingand development, evaluation, and training. consolidating diving capabilities to depthsaround One industrial high pressure simulationfacility, will go into operation in 1,000feet.Testfacilitieswith wet and dry a three chamber complex, chambers will be needed to permit experimental early1969atAnnapolis,Maryland.Itisa 1,500-foot facility with one water filled chamber.diving to 2,000 feet. Support systems include a gas storage anddistribution system which makes possiblecharging anyC. Ocean Test Ranges selected chamber with air or other gasmixtures. 1. Current Situation Decomprcssion may be accomplished manually or alongaselecteddecompression Simulation facilities cannot reproduce certain automatically ocean environment asthe curve. parameters of the currently operational hyperbariclong-term fouling effects of marine lifeand the The largest evaluation of facilityisat Duke University, Durham,Northacoustic effects of s!ze. Test and Carolina. Its five interconnected vessels have moresystems effectiveness during missionsrequiring than 9,000 cubic feet of volume.The largest, amobility, search, and use of acousticsgenerally 20-foot sphere containing an operating theater,is must be performed in ocean test ranges.Noise rated to 225 feet of seawater equivalent pressure.quieting projects require anechoic characteristics, Three of the vessels, one a wet chamber, areratednot yet satisfactorily simulated in achamber. in a to 1,000 feet. Many pieces of equipment which work well The University of Maryland and OhioStatelaboratory pressure tank fail in the hostile, un- University are building hyperbaric facilitieswithknown undersea environment. Part of thesimula- I ,000-foot capacity. A facility with a1,600-foottion problem lies in insufficient understandingof In addi- seawaterratingisnearing completionat thewhich parameters must be reproduced. University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. tion, simply providing temperature andsalinity Although there is widespread interest amongcontrol increases costs greatly. Thus, itis often the academic and industrial communities in oceandesirable to use the sea environmentfor equip- relatedresearch and hyperbaric medicine, thcment development. substantial first cost and operating expensedeter The Navy owns all but two of the operational many. Also, because the fieldis relatively new,ocean engineering ranges(Makai Range in Hawaii hyperbaric projects tend to be uncertain invest-and the University of Southern California range on ments. More experience isrequired before theSanta Catalina Island, California).Industry assists pattern for using these facilities isestablished withthe Navy in much of its range operations. Evalua- confidence. The Nary's Atlantic Undersea Test and tion Center (AUTEC), with principalfacilities a,: Andros Island, Bahamas, and St.Croix, Virgin 2. Future Needs Islands, is conducting limited testing. Research will be needed to betterunderstand When fully completed in 1970, the center will physiological phenomkna, especially with the an-have a wide range of capabilities to testundersea Range ticipated increase in depth of routineoperations. vehicles, weapons, and weapon systems. In determining the limits or humanendurance, functions willini-lude operational evaluation of experiments under closely controlledconditions advanced weapon systems and components, meas- corrective action can be urement of submarine noise and othertarget are essential so immediate warfare taken. In situ testing to determine humanlimits is parameters, evaluation of antisubmarine

VI-80 exercises, calibration of low frequency sonar trans-1969 upon installationof aportable seafloor ducers, testing of sonobuoys, and test and evalua-habitat complex (maximum depth 580 feet), tion of oceanographic instrumentation and oceandiving equipment, decompression facilities, and an engineering developments. Like the model basinoperations control center. facilities at the Naval Ship Research and Develop- To test mobile systems, especially weapons, ment Center, AUTEC n be made available forranges require detailed oceanographic surveys de- commercial and scientificuse. Becuase of itspendent on precisc navigational control and obser- location, facilities may be valuable in biological,vational techniques. Coordinated, closely spaced chemical, fishery, and other studies. bottom samples, underwater photographs, and An important undersea engineering range is thedepthrecordsprovideinformationforcable Ocean Engineering Test Range operated by therouting and bottom samples, structure design and Naval Undersea Warfare Center at San Clementeemplacement. Data collect;on and emplacement Island,California.Thisfacilitycanbe madetechniques will be augmented greatly by use of available to civilian mers on a cost reimbursementdeep submersibles on the AUTEC ranges (Figure bask. The primary test area is a four by five mile29). When the need for immediate, continuous tract -Inthe northeastern side of theisland,data are critical, permanent buoy arrays have been featuring graduated plateaus to 4,000 foot depthsemployed. and a two dimensional underwater positioning system. The site was first developed for full scale Polaris underwater launch tests and was also used for Poseidonmissiletests. The Navy's Sea labIII operationwillbe conducted atthislocation. Planned additions include a marine railway, exten- trAi -.NM sive pier and breakwater facilities, and a distressed submarine simulator to train crews of the Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle. The range has a special purpose surface support ship, the U.S.S. Elk River (IX-501), converted from a World War II landing ship and initially used to support Sea lab III operations. It has a center well, a traveling 65-ton gantry crane, and two deck decompression chambers. The U.S.S. Elk River can support diver and submersible operations in rela- Figure 29.Artist's concept of Navy's new tively quiet waters. AUTEC research submarine as it works on The Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory, Portocean bottom obtaining scientific data by use of instruments emplaced by its remotely con- Hueneme, California, has developed techniques fortrolled mechanical arms. (Navy photo) in situ testing to 6,000 feet in the open ocean. Their devices include recoverable submersible test units, which have carried materials samples for2. Future Needs periods exceeding one year, and a deep ocean instrument placement and observation system for In situ test ranges and facilities will continue to in situ measurement of such parameters as shearbe important in measuring complete system effec- and bearing strength of sediments. tiveness,instrument calibration, and long-term The Makai Undersea Test Range is being devel-phenomena studies when pressure cycling is not oped at Makupuu Point, Hawaii, and will includeimportant. In such cases, range testing may well be capabilities to 18,000 feet within 80 miles ofless expensive than simulation. shore. The range is being developed for man-in-sea, Ranger must be fully developed and instru- deep vehicle, and ocean instrumentation test andmented and contain the proper facilities, including evaluation. The man-in-sea facilities are nearest toin some cases habitable undersea installations and completion. scheduled for operational readiness insubmersibles. For testing systems sensitive to the

VI-81 333-091 0-69-10 environment, more abundant and accurate oceano-Facilities for physiological research, medical train- graphic data will be required, probablythrough ing, equipment development, and saturntion diver greater use of submersible andadvanced buoy operational training are grossly inadequate. The of human diving endurance cannot be technology. limits Active participation by industry inestablishing determined safely in situ; closely controlled labo- and operating ranges benefits all marineactivities. ratory simulation is required. There exists amajor For example, detailed bottom survey measure-need for hyperbaric trained medical doctors.Fur- ments apply directlyto ocean mining and to ther, amateur divers often preempt government search and recovery. Equipmentdeveloped forfacilities for emergency decompression,further range monitoring can beapplied in large scaleintensifying the facility shortage. environmental monitoring and prediction.The Extensively surveyed and instrumented in situ wealth of experience accruing from installation,facilities and ranges are being developed. These operation, and maintenance of variousundersea ftcilities have special advantages because of their systems will become part of the industrialbase size and total environment reproduction.Much needed to achieve the recommended nationalgoals work remains, however, to complete range instru- in the oceans. mentation and provide such facilities with real operational capabilities. Although in theorythe Navy's ranges are available 'n civilian interests, D. Conclusions they quite appropriately mt:a serve Navyneeds The necessity of complete and adequate testing first, thereby intensifying the shortage of range to conquer a strange environment has beenvividly facilities. demonstrated by aviation advancing into high altitude, supersonic, luid space flight. The ocean environment iscliff:cult and will require a vastRecommendations: safe, orderly, and array of test facilities to permit should be estab- rapid progress. Prior operational experiencehasA national facilities program lished to (1) determine present andfuture needs, bornethis out. Test facilities area national (3) factor in(2) develop and construct newfacilities, resource as important as any other single in- Insuffi-improve test scheduling, (4) maintain an the advancement of marine technology. provide cri- cient facilities already have and will continue toventory of national capabilities, (5) teria to choose between in situ andsimulation hamper the national ocean program. in Equipment, instrumentation, and systems de-testing, and (6) establish a center of excellence velopment are impeded seriously by a lack ofthe technology of test tank and raosedesign. The program's responsibility should include conven- environmental simulation facilities. Test tanks of situ two general types are needed to:(1) advancetional and hyperbarictest taaks and in fundamental technology and prototype subsystemfacilities. Coast Guard efforts to developdiver and component evaluation and (2) evaluatevehiclerescue decompression tanks(including chambers and system certification and effectiveness includ-capable of being airlifted) should be related to the ing man-machine interrelationships. Theformerprogram. category requires test tanks to simulate tempera- Major efforts should be pursued to seek new ture, salinity, and pressure cycles to greatdepths.and economical methods of simulation,including fiberglas tanks. The latterrequireslarger, integrated facilitiessuch possibilities as concrete and permitting dynamic duplication of relevant para-Deep (2,000 to 20,000 foot) anechoicsimulation meters. technology does not exist and should receive The forces of economic development, recrea-special emphasis. If a breakthrough occurs, acous- tion, and national security already have movedtic and noise suppression efforts will begreatly man into the sea; these forces will growat anenhanced through laboratory testing. increasing rate. Manrated hype, baric facilities are A significant increase in tank and range test needed for medical and physiologicalresearch,capabilities is basic to the U.S. undersea program. swimmer and diver equipment research anddevel-The importance of test facilities as anational opment, training, operational work,and rescue.resource cannot be overstated.

V1-82 14 3 III. DEEP OCEAN ACTIVITIES operate reliably in the cold, corrosive, high pres- Most nations border on and are affected by thesureseawater environment. Successful operations sea; their people appreciate its powerand hostility.below 2,000 feet require new approaches expected An expression of determination by the Unitedto be valid all the way to 20,000-foot depths. States to go forward with a significant marine Althoughinitialinvestment may be a little technology program and to establish leadership inhigher, no important improvements in early pro- the understanding and development of earth's lastgram schedule or nearterm costs would occurif frontier cannot go unnoticed. U.S. prestige surelythe deep ocean technology goal were set incre- would be enhanced ifit pursued the underseamentally at depths of less than 20,000 feet. The frontier on its own initiative; the United Statessame problems must be solved, and useof the best would enter international deliberations on thematerials on hand would be ec,-momically justified. utilization of the sea in a position of strengthIn fact, overall costs most likely would be higher based upon knowledge and prior achievement. for a program having depth goals set in progressive Achieving exploration and assessment of theincrements. ocean bottoni within 10 years and thecapability The sections following con iain a review of the to carry out useful operations in the depthswithinkinds of systems available and likely to evolve in three decades requires new technology. performing useful missions in the undersea fron- The oceans are the operating medium of Amer-tier. An assessment of the state-of-the-art is made ica's foremost deterrent in maintaining the balancewith specific recommendations for the future_ of world power. The United States cannot take theExpected benefits range from military and scien- risk that a potential antagonist might gain knowl-tific to political, social, and economic. edge the United States does not possess, thereby A. Undersea Systems seizing an undersea capability advantage. In this report, the deep ocean is defined as opea Although nearly 10 years ago the Trieste went ocean areas from the surface to20.000 feetto the deepest part of the ocean, nearly 36,000 beyondthe2,000-footdepth contour. Thefeet below sea level, submersible technology is still 2,000-foot contour was selected becauseitis inits infancy. .The deepest dive known fora beyond the edge of the continental shelf and maneuverable nonbathyscaph was to 8,310 feet it, because 2,000 feet is the presently projected limitearly1968. Yet thisciaftis but a primitive for advancedambientpressurediving.Theforerunner of future submersible systems. 20,000-foot goal is important because it encom- It is known that all the way to the bottom passes all but two percent of the ocean floorandthere is marine life and that high grade minerals approximately 99 per cent of ocean volume. A fewexist on the seafloor. At the foot of continental operations at intermediate depths, such as onslopes sedimentary deposits are likely w contain seamounts and midocean ridges, might justifypetroleum. Exploration and development of re- vehicles and exceptions to the goal. sources will be enhanced by manned The step beyond 2,000 feet represents a tech-remote systcmis that can operate anywhere inthe nological challenge, not so much against a poten- N vater column. tial adversary (although this cannot be certain), It is a great advantage to the scientist to observe but against a new frontier. The frontier existsfirsthand the environment he isstudying. Ad- primarily because there has not been a nationalvanced marine technology can and must give him commitment to explore, understand, and master basic tools to extend his senses into the undersea this promising expanse_ frontier to unravel its great mysteries_ It should not be implied that the problems are Surveys are needed not only to understand and not difficult. Experience indicates that operationsmeasure environmental conditions butalso to below 2,000 feet are limited by equipment anddetermine areas worth exploringwhat resources, materials capabilities. Existing systems can per-where, and in what concentrz tions?not only on form only small amounts of useful work. Tech-the shelf but also in the deep sea. At the same time nical problems exist in developing high strength,iiational security demands the ability to inspect, low cost materials, compact long endurance power examine, or survey any area of interest in the deep sources, and machinery and equipmentthat will ocean or ocean bottom.

VI-83 Search, survey, and recovery systems to ex- Submersible vehicles of all typestethered and amine the bottom, much as one views land from auntethered, manned and unmannedwill be useful helicopter, are needed. Desirable capabilitiesin- in ocean activities. Once each is developed to its cludehovering, closestation keeping, precise full capability, normal comparative studies will navigation, and the ability to return to a givenestablish the range of conditions and operations spot. The system should be able totake biological, for which each is most effective. geological, and chemical samples (includingcores) and to map, make bathymetric charts,photograph, 1. Submersible Vehicles listen, and touch. The floor must be explored to discover exploitableresources,tofind hiding Submersibles have many operational advan- and places, and to study seamounts, volcanoes, tages. They function in an environment free,.-)f mud slides. A 20,000-foot depth capability will wave forces and the potential damage and limita- permit these operations in almost 99 percent,oftions imposed by adverse weather. They provide the world's ocean volume, covering 98 percent'ofan ultraquiet platform for acoustic studies. They the ocean's floor, excepting only the deep tren-can tilke advantage of the force of buoyancy to ches. emplace or recover objects and, perhaps most New vehicles and equipment will be needed toimportant, they can bring man into the oceans for support and maintain more fixed, portable,andobservation and work. mobile undersea systems. As Dr. John P. Craven, Chief Scientist of the Navy's Deep Submergencea. Current SituationOperational submersibles Systems Project hassaid,"Inthe long run,have demonstrated limited usefulness in several underwater transfer is the key to effective use ofexploration and impection tasks. Many special the ocean depths." Therefore, a key secondarypurpose oceanographic slibmersibles existin a mission for rescue vehicles will be underwaterwide variety of configurations, hull materials, and ttansfertosupply habitats, stations, and sub-depth capabilities. Of the 82 proposed or existing marines notindistress. Such vehicles wouldvehicles for which operating depths are known, 24 provide deployed underwater installations freedom(29 per cent) are planned for operations to at least from surface support. 6,000 feet and only 12 (15 per cent) for opera- Inherent to practicability of these vehiclzs istions to 20,000 feet. The operating 20,000-foot substantial payload capacity. For example, thesubmersibles can be classified as unmaneuverable Navy's Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle will bebathyscaphs. Additional technological advances able to carry internally only 4,300 pounds ofare necessary to develop capability for work at personnel or cargo. Ambient pressure, wet cargogreat depths. carriers will be necessary to transport thousands of Typical submenibles (Figure 30) now in opera- tons, especially for mining, construction, salvage,tion have pressure hulls generally of ring-stiffened and the deployment of instruments and equip-cylinders or spheres made of high strength steel. ment. Maximum speeds vary from two to five knots, The Navy has been pursuing actively its Deepmission endurance fiorn 4 to 30 hours, and range Submergence Rescue Vehicle (DSRV) and Deepfrom several miles to about 100 miles. Submergence,arch Vehicle (DSSV) projects and Submersibles usualtyare powered from bat- is conducting preliminary studies on a Deep Oceanteries located external to the pressure hull, and Survey Vehicle (DOSV) and a Deep Ocean Tech-have external propulsion motors. Ballast systems nology (DOT) test bed vehicle. These projects aretypically involve both soft or free-flooding tanks of the utmost importance to extend U.S. capa-blown for additional freeboard and surface stabil- bility and knowledge of the ur dersea frontier.ity and tanks or dropable weights to change Seamh and rescue projects certainly should receivebuoyancy at great depths. high priority, since the world has lost an average of A number of technological deficiencies have two submarines per year in peacetime. Recently areduced the efficiency and potential usefulness of one-half million dollar isotope power source wassubmersibles. Most are highlighted here; more de- recovered off the Pacific Missilr, Range after atailed discussions may be found in the appropriate long, extensive search. subsections of this chapter, pages 29-77. V1-84 145 Figure 30.Typical commercial submersible vehicles currently operational to depths of 1,000 feet or more

.Z11

Aluminaut. (Reynolds Aluminum photo) Roughneck. (North American Rockwell photo)

talst=

te_

Ben Franklin. (Grumman photo) Deep Quest. (Lockheed photo)

Deepstar-4000. (Westinghouse photo) DOWB. (General Motors photo) -i46 VI-85 wo Air

644,44

TROPICAL

tirifirkesh

Shelf Diver.(Perry Sub ;iarine Builders photo) Star III.(General Dynamics photo)

ad- Electricalcablefailures have resulted fromfatigue strength. Critical limitations exist in tearing by bubbles forming and expanding inter-vanced rnr.terials fabrication techniques andtesting nallyupon ascent. Connectors with adequatemethods. insulation and reliable disconnect properties are not available. Essentially no switches, relays, orb. Future Needs Vigorous pursuit of oceanactiv- fuses have been designed for ambient operation. ities will require continuing development, notonly Usually standard equipment designed for use in airof fundamental technology but also ofsubmersible at atmospheric pressure has been modified forsystems. Submersible use can be forseen in many undersea use by emersing it in oil, which has led toocean activities: some failures attributed to carbon deposits.Per- formance of AC and DC electric motors generally Fish behavior and location studies and undersea has been poor because of bearing and insulationfish harvesting. failures. Small submersibles have been severely limited Undersea core drilling, site surveying for pipe- by heavy, bulky, inadequate battery power sour,3eslines and structures, and operations to complete, which require time-consuming iecharging. Manipu-inspect, maintain, and repair botto.npetroleum lators have proved unreliable primarily because production installations. of electrical distribution and motor difficulties,-Mineral surveys, evaluations, and observation of water intrusion, and poor control systems. Hydraulic systems operated at very high differ-seafloor mining operations. entialpressures havefailed becasue of waterSearch, identification, and recovery of lost ob- intrusion and incompatibility with certain mate-jects. rials. Lubricants operating in high pressure have caused bearing failures and efficiency losses due to--Cargo and personnel transfer to undersea installa- increased viscosity. Pressure compensating oil andtions. Saturated diver delivery to work sites. gasoline used for buoyancy have serious drawbacksSupp.:_t of scientificstudies of coastal and of combustibility and bulk modulus. oceanic processes including observation, measure- Underwater communications, navigation, and positioning systems and equipments for nonmili-ment, and sampling. tary submersibles are too limited in range andOcean surveillance and mapping. accuracy. Materials are deficient in strength-to- weight ratios, toughness, corrosion resistance, and--Support of underwater equipment.

VI-86 147 To effectoperations, submersibles must beOne of the best :7nown one-atmosphere diving designed to fulfill performance criteria for depth,chambersisthe bathysphere in which William endurance, speed, payload, instrumentation, andBeebe descended to record depth of 3,028 feet working tools. The vehicles themselves are onlyin 1934. Submersible work chambers used in diver one part of a total system which includes shoreoperations arz another type of manned, tethered bases, support platforms, transportation to worksystem. Some have dual compartments, one at sites,maint:nance equipment, supplylogistics,one-atmosphere pressure and the other at ambient supporting instrumentation and tools, and person-sea pressure with provision for diver entry and nel.Integrated design of the entire systemisexit. necessary for optimum performance. Pmbably the best known unmanned tethered Explor, .ionsubmersibles willbe needed t,submersible is the Navy's Cable-Controlled Under- support::tudies direed toward utilizing andwater Recovery Vehicle (CURV), operated from a exploiting the oceans. The functions of personnelsurface ship and carrying equipment for photo- and light cargo transfer and of search and rescuegraphy, television observation, limited search, and shouid be included in their capabilities whereverretrieval of smallobjects (Figure 31). Such a practicable. Based on the state-of-the-art of man-srehi,..le has Unlimited enduranr, low initial cost, ned and unmanned deep submergence vehicles andand a capability for round-the-clock operation. an examination of anticipated requirements, sub-'fne Navy has under construction a CURV type mersiblecharacteristics can be deteimined forvehicle capable of operation to 7,000 feet. many anticipated technological development tasks with a minimum number of vehicle configurations. Characteristics should not be constrained by the current technology; rather, they should anticipate subsystems and components compatible with future scientific, govclument, and industrial requirements in die deep oc-1:a11. Submersible requirements for both shelf (to 2,000 feet) and deep ocean (to 20,000 feet) depths include:

Power sources. Propulsion machinery and control, variable ballast, and olectrical distribution. Figure 31.Navy's cable-controlled underwner Pressure hull, outer hull, and buoyancy mate-recovery vehicle, CURV 11.(Navy photo) rials. Navigation and positioning equipment, obstacle Bottom crawling or rolling submersibles may be avoidance and search sonar. tetheredor untethered, mann -1or unmanned. Several have been 6uilt for spe,:ial purposes. In Improved manip lators and controls. many cases, obscured vision from disturbed sediments limited mission effectiveness. However, a Magnetic and seafloor anchoring. bottom crawler would be suitfthle on hard sedi- Underwater communications and viewing. ments or when turbid water viewing systems (like acoustic imaging) become available. Recently a Emergency escape. rese ..rchsubmersible operated very successfully along the bottom by ballasting slightly heavy and 2. Unmanned and Tethered Vehich-ls riding on wheels. Inrecentyears,severalsuccessfultethered a. Current SituationTethered submersibles his-unmanned vehicles equipped with special instru- torically were typified by diving bells or chambers.ment suits have been built. Cable controlled or

VI-87 .1 4 8 selfpropelled, they have been used for deep ocean Undersea construction and salvage will require of search, survey, and research. Examples includetheheavy duty work systemsthe counterparts Naval Research Laboratory's towed search systcmdredges, power shovels, bulldozers, tractors. ?ave- used to locate and identify much of thewreckagement layers, trucks, pile drivers, plows,drills, and ,-)f the submarines Thresher and Scorpion ataboutcranes. Cable controlled oi cabletowed devices obstructions, 8,500 feetand.the commercial ocean bottomwill be hampered and endangered by side-scanning sonar platforms. nearby traffic, and concentration of similar devices A self-propelled, torpedo-like instiumentpack-at a given work site. The hazards ofcables suggest age with a preset internguidance system haswireless control links from the controlstation to been developz.d with 14 000-foot depthcapability the device. An alternate approach mightbe small for the Navy. The prob, 122 inches longand 20manned submersibles to serve as controlcabs fro inches in diameter, is launched from andtrackedwhich operators ditect and moritorlarge work acoustically by a surface ship. The system hasbeen devices. used for oceanographic and acoustic research The competitive marketplace or comparative gathering data on sound velocity, thermal proper-studies for military systems will determinewhich ties, and other physical pioperties onniagneticdevicesmanned or unmannedwill best serve tape. Sinking instrument packages, launchedfrom particular needs. a ship and later recovered whenballast or an anchorisreleased, are another example of a3. Transport and Support Submarines successful unmanned submersible platform. a. Current SituationTransport submarines have b. Future NeedsAs more efficient underwater been 1.-onsidered seriously for commercial usefrom observational equipment J.nd tools for underwatertime to time. In contrast to surface vesselshaving cutting, welding, grappling, hooking, drilling, andspeed, safety, scheduling, and passenger coml.( rt controlled lifting become available, a vastly ex-governed to a large extent by weather,submersi- panded eraof undersea construction,salvage, bles Gan operate in an environment essentially mining, and recovery will evolve through useofquiet and predictable. unmanned and tethered vehicles and platforms. With the advent of nuclear pow..:.r, advanced The 5tate-of-the-a,/ has progressed well,making stiuctural materials and fabrication techniques, possible design and construction of a wide varietyand development of submersibles formilitary of equipment for special application. Furtherapplications, the technical and economic feasi- developmentis needed to improve endurance,bility of transport submarines continues toim- acctuacy, control, reliability, compactness,manip- prove. For transoceanic voyages,the transport ulation, and depth capabilitirs. submarine has been suggested seriously as a carrier Gross bottom re -.onnaissance ior site selection,of bulk liquids weighing less than water. geological searches, geo4atic surveys, and biolog- A market will exist for recreational submersi- ical sampling will require a Variety of unmannedbles with large viewing ports if costs are not too instrument platforms. In some cases, multipurpose high. A submersible recently was a top tourist systems may be a less expensive, quicklyavailable attraction in Lake Geneva even though the bottom interim substitute fer manned submersibles. there is quite unspectacular. An advanced sea elevator, derivative of the Whereas some products recov- divingb.:11, may effecttransfer of man andb. Future Needs materials from surface suppozt ships and platforms ered from the sea will be transported v;apipelines, to deep ocean installations op or in the seafloor. conv,tyors, and surface vessels,submarine cargo It might carry as many as a sc-,re of men and carriers probably will be needed betweenoffshore supplies to depths as great as 20,000 feet. Eventu-production sites and such intermediate points as ally, its function may be assumed by transportundersea processing stations, storage tanks, and submersibles, free from severe waves and weather surface platforms. A strong need will exist for and saving a step in materials handling. The sea submersiblohupport submarines as high endurance elevator also may be displaced or supplemented by motherships for deep operating manned or unman- pipelines, air lifts, conveyors, and other mechan- ned submersibles engaged in search and rescue, ical equipment. wide-area ocean surveys, site selection, cornmuni- 9 V1-88 for cation-navigationaid emplacement and mainte-of submarine warfare emphasizes the necessity nance, and salvageespecially inregions wherepreeminence in this field of military readiness. The ice and severe weather predominate. submarine in the past has developed two of the The mother submarine could be the forerunnerprinciples of warfare to a fine qualitythoseof of an undersea logistic vessel supporting a sub-surprise and offensive. merged Navy and a variety of manned bottom Since World War II a development has taken installations. Further, it could be a mobile under-place which has revolutionized the art of subsea support laboratory. .Significant performancemarine operations and made possible the true parameters of this mobile supportsubmersible,submersible. No longer is the submarine forced to recommended as a National project, would in-depend on the atmosphere for battery charging clude: and human habitation. This development, the adaptation of nuclear power to naval propulsion, Depth capabilityof atleast1,000 feet. Ahas enabled radically new concepts to be at- 2,000-foot depth capabilityis desirable if thetempted. primary technology to be developed (submerged Many factors, some military and others civilian, support) is not compromised. should be considered in the development and construction of military submarines. Russia and Submerged endurance of at least 30 days, butChinaareplacing increased emphasis on the modest speeds of five to 10 knots. Nuclear powerundersea area and are building submarines at an would be desirable. increasing rate. Commercial offshore technology developmentandresourcerecoveryactivities Transport, launch, recovery, logistic support, and oil and gas) are accelerating. The forsmallsub-(particularly cemmand controlcapabilities capability to protect domestic ocean industry is a mersibles. Navy responsibility that must enlarge as offshore Saturated diver lockout, support, and decom-activity expands. Even if internationalregulation pression to at least 1,000 feet, preferably 2,000and registration are established for deep sea areas, feet as recommended above. Bottom sitting capa-this capability is vital to national interests. bility required. All of these activities influence Navy programs. In addition to well-established roles of antisub- Retrieval and transportation of objects beyondmarinewarfare (ASW) and missile launching, the lift capacity of small submersibles. requirements for such missions as surveillance, intelligencegathering,inspection, and logistics Oceanographic data collection and survey capa-support forecast an expanded militarysubsurface bility. role. Internal and external servicing of submersibles The U.S.S.R. has not-remained unimpressed by that while submerged. This servicing would largely bethe advantages of submarine warfare systems; performed by saturated divers either in the water strong nation maintains a huge submarinefleet and or in an ambient pressure compartment. is rapidly converting its fleet to nuclear propulsion without sacrificing numbers. It is important that In addition, designs for transport and submersi-the nation as a whole be apprised of this and hence ble support submarines and for special terminals,lend support to future oceanic plans and programs. including modification of existing ports anddevel- Wartime ASW includes detection, classification, opment of underwater ports, will be needed. localization, attack,, and destruction of enemy submarines. U.S. submarines have benefitedfrom would be a 4. Military Submarines an extensive quieting program, and it mistake to assume that the Soviets cannot accom- a. Current SituationMany factors are focusingplish a similar objective. Long term reliance on upon one unassailable conclusionthkimportancepresent sonar detection, classification, andlocali- of the military submersible in modern warfare.zation systems cannot be an acceptable a" crnative. The advantage gained by concealment undertheResearch and development on ASW implications surface is of great importance. The historic successof additional depth capability to the sound chan-

VI-89 the nel and beyond are extremelyimportant andocean, not simply at the limited depth near should be emphasized. surface in which submarines now operate. They The concept of depth has not beenneglected inmay also choose to consider thefar more challeng- the postwar era. The advent ofHY-80 steel hasing problein of being able to identify asubmarine of militaryor even bottom crawler thathas secreted itself made possible the deeper employment of an irregular submarines. In addition, other materialshave beenamongst the hills and valleys submarines,bottom or is simply sitting on a seamount.Just as utilized for special Navy and civilian paid generally smaller in size than themilitary type.higher altitude performance for aircraft has While much progress has been madein this field,off whether it be for combat or for surveillance, the extended depth capability of thesubmarine new constructionmaterials and fabrication techniques must be emphasized as theywill be neededsuggests the same potential benefits. to satisfy future requirements. The U.S.S. Albacore has made manycontribu- Submarine-based strategic missiles are vital to postulated to ubmarine technology. The nuclear-U.S. deterrent capability. It has been tions U.S. strategic powered oceanographic submersible,the NR-1, hasthat in the future substantially more both for oceanicmissiles may be sea-based, not onlybecause of great promise as an instrument because of the investigationtoservenational needs and forreduced vulnerability but also experimenting with possible futuremilitary needs.special advantage of separating military targets Dolphin willfrom large populations. The recently commissioned U.S.S. understanding the oceans be- investigate the tactical advantage of deeperdepths Leadership in itis realized that and is a triumph for imaginativeplanners. Thecomes more important when Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle, soon tobeAmerica's key strategic deterrent is contingent on concealment, mobility, dispersion, and verylong completed, will provide a capability forpersonnel submersible either inpatrol time. Greater depth capability would pro- rescue from any military in some Navy-sponsoredvide a much vaster operating volume and being or planned. The Alvin, a thereby attain- development, was a key recovery vehiclein theareas, a bottom sitting capability, Palomares (Spain) operation where anaircraft-ing improved concealment. carried nuclear weapon was located andrecovered Man's projected sea activities in 2,600 feet of water. b. Future Needs The importance of deep oceans has notdi-will demand even more accent on newideas and Scienceconcepts for underwater effort.Where man goes, minished since the House Committee on possible and Astronautics in July 1960 reported: his problems go, and this extrapolates into new areas for conflict. Thefledgling deep sea This phenomenon [ deep soundchannell mayindustrywill grow in importance and demand serve to introduce tocontention by those inter-sophisticated protection systems. ested in the sea that the most urgent reasonfor The seas suggest that they are theideal locale penetrating the full depths is military.The seafor locating strategic deterrence systems.Away conceals its contents. This gives thesubmarine itsfrom populations centers, themissile-carrying sub- of concealment enormous advantage ofconcealment and the con-marine is provided with a cloak comitant property of surprise. Evenwith exceed-whichdefiescountering systems. Indeed, the science ingly sensitive devices to measure thesub's disturb-Polaris submarine is a triumph of modern field, detection fromand technology and provides anoption of an ance of the earth's magnetic submarine is the surface becomes more and moredifficult asassured response. The modern attack take a deep-divinga key factor inanti-submarine warfare and un- the craft dives deeper. It may in this sub to catch a deep-diving sub [emphasis added] . doubtedly will play an ever-increasing role Military strategists may thus considerhow muchregard. The Navy should accelerate its efforts toattain more difficult the problemof detection would be if the entire sea were a military arena,thata limited ability in theoceans' third dimension and effectively to 20,000 feet within two submarines were extremely quiet requiringthe useoperate searching weredecades. To facilitate going deeper, studiesshould of active sonar for discovery and feasibility and necessary throughout theentire volume of thebe accelerated to determine the 1 VI-90 0 effectivenessoicarrying weapons external toporate a maximum number of subsystems in spite submarines. In addition, many technologicalef-of the premium of space and weight on the forts discussed in this section on undersea systemsvehicle. Some subsystems like navigation, record- be and in earlier sections on fundamentaltechnologying, readout, display, and monitoring might located aboard the support vessel. Support vessels willdirectly benefit deeper operating military systems. should be designed and procured as an integral Considered from a different perspective, tech-part of the submersible system. nology developed by 1975 might permit construc- In open ocean areas, especially in ice and severe tion of a combatant submarine by 1980(veryweather regions, submersible support submarines possibly of radically different design) capableofwill be needed. They will have the special advan- operating ,t 4,000 to 8,000 foot depths. Materials,tages of all weather availability and covertness. welding techniques, penetrations, controlsand With the advent of the Albacore hull, HY-80 displays, and other advanced technology beingsteel, submerged missile launching, and nuclear propulsion in the 1950's, great advancements were developedforthe Navy's DSRV, DSSV, and Nuclear Research Vehicle (NR-1) should be con-made innaval seapower.In recent years the ofpromise indicated by the Aluminaut, theTrieste, sidered for incorporation. The construction steel, some submersible military systemscapable ofthe NR-1, titanium, glass, ceramics, HY-180 syntactic foam, fuel cells, free flooded machinery, operationsshould be considered. 20,000-foot and advanced sensors and controls suggest yet a Coupled with an extensive research and development program, such systems mightprovide futurenew era in naval seapower. operational flexibility and an understanding of the tactical value of depth. Recommendations: 5. Conclusions Development and construction of exploration sub- Small submersibles capable of descending wellmersibles should begin immediately with a goalof beyond 2,000-foot depths already exist. As fixed,operations to 20,000 feet in less than 10 yearsfor portable, and mobile habitats are established inprime assignments in the forthcoming decade of deeper waters, improved submersibles will beexploration of earth's last frontier. These vehicles required for site selection and elementary con-should have maneuvering agility, sample-taking struction. Underwater transfer by high payloadand small object recovery capabilities, andim- vehicles will be a key to deep ocean use. A usefulproved sensors. A National Project for anExplora- challengeisforeseen in providing 20,000-foot,tion Submersible with 20,000-footcapability will long-endurance exploration submersibles to helpdirectly contribute to these developments.The explore and assess the deep ocean within 10 years;Navy-planned 20,000-foot DSSV shouldbe pro- 20,000-foot work vehicles will follow on a sched-duced with high priority because of itspotential uledictated by needs rather than technology.benefits to other national goals. Survey and work submersible prototypes will Work vehicles with high payloads shouldbe evolve from current vehicle technology and will beproduced as the next priority. Although to serve adapted to meet concurrent needs for rescue,undersea installations, they should be developed salvage, research, and transport assignments. for adaptation by such commercialinterests as In addition, a variety of tethered devices likefishing, petroleum, and mining.Tethered work sea elevators, instrument platforms, remoteworkvehicles of the sea elevator variety alsoshould be platforms,observation platforms, and bottompursued for the transport of men andmaterials crawlers will be needed for such operations asfrom surface or submerged supportplatforms, bulldozing and mineral recovery. They could bebottom sites, and structures. availablewell within 10 years for 2,000-foot Unmanned instrument platform and remote operations and later as needed for servicing under-operating probe technology should continue to be sea habitats at 20,000 feet. developed. Cable less control should receive atten- Deep submersible systems may have overlookedtion so that unmanned systems are not automa- some special possibilities. Currentdesigns incor-tically ruled out by cable considerations.

V1-91 Support systems should be an integral part of mineralextraction,sea food production, and submersible systems development. First priorityunderwater transportation facilities. should be given to a submarine support system However, environmental constraints establish that is itself a continental shelf work system andmany common technological needs. Ofbasic im- can handle deep submersibles in atotally sub-portance to site selection, construction, and em- merged mode. A National Project for a Mobileplacement operations are underwater soil mechan- Undersea Support Laboratory should be developedics, terrain features, and bottom currents. There within five years. Support systems are needed for aare common needs to develop power sources, variety of purposes including supply terminal anddistribution systems, materials, viewing systems, logistic functions, power, and life support regen-communication equipment, life support systems, eration. A prototype submerged harbor facilityand waste management and contaminant control compatible with submarine support ships shouldsystems. The fabrication, emplacement, assembly, be constructed within 10 years. inspection, maintenance, operation, ingress/egress, The panelis pleased to note current Navyand repair of underseainstallations will place studies on new combatant submarines and theirsevere demands on the entire spectrum ofundersea roles. The panel endors-es in concept the programstechnology. and funding levels recommended by the Deep Technology for underwater installations will Submergence-Ocean Engineering Program Planningresultin part from extended current marine Group. technology on mobile undersea vehicles, terrestrial The programs recommended by the studycivil engineering, and classic naval architecture. In group combined with thoserecommended by thisaddition there will be new design, analysis, and panel are intended to be responsive to the nationalbuilding techniques acquired from studies of pro- need. totype installations and component and subsystem Cooperative efforts are imperative between theexperiments conducted inrelatively largetest naval and civilian technology groups to determinefacilities. how programs of mutual interest are undertaken The capability to utilize the continental shelf and to facilitate the very important function ofand deep ocean areas continuously may assist in technology transfer. preserving future rights of access to ocean depths. The panel believes that the national interest isThe recognized U.S. 3 mile limit of the territorial bestserved by having a strong technologicalseas and the disputed 12 milelimit claimed by capability in both sectors. severalnations comprisetheonlyareas that All possible encouragement is given to the Navycurrently can be occupied legally. to increase its subsurface capalAlities to operate It is possible that international law will extend anytime, anywhere, and at any depth. the territorial sea concept seaward and allow areas adjacent to bottom-oriented activities in the deep oceans to be occupied legally.Availability of B. Deep Ocean Installations technology and capability to operate in ocean Undersea installations, portable and fixed, willbottom areas will encourage utilization of under- have a variety of purposes. Nearterm tasks willsea resources and will complementmobile capabili- include understanding the environment, surveil-ties described in the previous section on undersea lance, testing, and exploration of living and non-systems. living resources. Future uses may include territo- Within 10 years, all segments of the economy rial protection, undersea command and control,industrial, academic, and governmentmay have missile and submarine basing, industrial processing,undersea installations on the continental shelves, and power generating stations. Characteristicsofand short-time visiting will occur on the slopes, underwater observatories or laboratories will de-seamounts, and in deep sea areas. Because of pend on surface, water column, and sea floorimmediate capability and convenience, initial ac- conditions. tivity will concentrate on the shelves. However, a Plants, stations, and bases must be compatiblevigorous decade of technology development will with operational constraints. For example, petro-permituse of selected deep ocean areasfor leum recovery installations will differ fromsolidcommercial or military operations.

VI-92 i53 1. Sea Floor Habitats For similar sizes, fixed bottom strytures will be cheaper than portable habitats However, for a. Current SituationThe United States has notmaximum response to changing situations, andfor placed any habitats at depths below limits ofwork atseveral locations the more extensive saturated diving. Such deep habitats require pres-development and added construction expense for sure vessels in which a one-atmosphereenviron-transportability will be justified. ment can be maintained. Vehicles capableof Such stations and attendant transfer and logis- transporting men and materials to a bottom in-tic vehicles could be positioned where military or stallation will be needed to allow the habitat tocommercial needs require, such as for recovery of remain on the bottom. Power sources, life support,scallops or nodules or for an extended salvage and operational equipment must be containedoperation. Ocean exploration will disclose new within the habitat or in a satellite installation,areas for exploitation in whichthe ability to move because permanent wire cable contact with themanned habitats quickly may be a key to profit- shore or surface is undesirable. able returns. One advanced concept is the Naval Civil Engi- Underwater inspection, maintenance, and repair neering Laboratory's Manned Underwater Stationwill become increasingly important because deteri- (Figure 32), designed for 6,000-foot depths. Theoration usually accelerates with time. New tools, station consists of two main cylinders, one forequipment, and nondestructive inspection tech- habitation and one for a nuclear power source,niques must be developed; the last, in particular, with small access and observation spheres abovewill be a formidable challenge. Underwater instal- and below. lations must be specially designed for maintenance and repair in a manner compatible with submersible capabilities. Improved materials that resist the sea environment will be anotherimportant factor.

2. In-Bottom Habitats a. Current SituationConstruction of in-bottom habitats will depend on tunneling techniques long used for railroad, subway, automobile, and water tunnels. Over 100 undersea mining complexes exist under many tens of square miles of continental shelf involving thousands of linear miles of openings. As many as 4,100 men work in a single undersea complex (Figure 33). However, all these

..J.

Figure 32.Artist's concept of a manned under- 2 water station(Navy drawing) Olt - f , , b. Future Needs The first portable bottom laboratories and stations will likely accommodate only small crews of 15 to 25 men. However, if mining, 1I11,/1. industrial, or major military operations suggest the Figure 33.Machine shop located in a mine desirabilityof bottom installations, they may 1,500 feet below sea level off Newfoundland become substantially larger. coast.(Navy photo)

15-4 NrI-9 3 be required. These tasks imply mines have been establishedby tunneling fromlocationwill colunm. Tovehicles with large capacity power sources or land. None opens to the water shore construct in-bottom habitats ormines far fromavailability of a power supply submersible or midocean ridges,power source. They alsoimply the need for shore or in seamounts and on including tunnels driven directly from the seafloor will bereliable large-scale external machinery, required. motors and drives. tunneling system T.ere may be a requirement to establishfoun- Therearethree different driving on the requirements: in rock, in soft ground,and opencutdations by such methods as pile all cases,seafloor. More data and predictionmethods are ditches dredged from the surface. In of large thorough preliminary geological investigationandneeded concerning the bearing capacity test borings are essential. diameter piles. In recent years great advances haveoccurred in boring machines for useinsoft rock. Such3. Conclusions machines have many cutter bitsmounted on a F. Austin, of the Naval Weapons that of Dr.Carl large cutter head with a diameter equal to Center, China Lake, Calif., has saidof undersea in the United the bore. The largest boring machine installations: States has a cutter head 20 feet indiameter with the head 43 cutter bits; five 200 hp motors rotate The technology to work and livebeneath the sea at 3.5 rpm. The Soviets havedeveloped a 28-footfloor is in hand at the presenttime for water driven as diameter borer. A 10-foot bore has been depths over the entire continentalshelves of the 6,713 feet in one much as 375 feet in one day and world excluding areas of permanentice cover. Let week may month. Advances up to 4,000 feet per us learn to use thistechnology to our economic be achieved within the next decade. and national advantage. 6 b. Future NeedsIn-bottom installations will be of men constructed where large concentrations required for and equipment are to be assembledfor extended Deep ocean installations will be periods. Sites especially suitable for tunneling aresuch activities as understanding theenvironment of living seamounts, mid-ocean ridges, and largerock out-and its processes, study and exploitation terminals and crops on the continental slope. and nonliving resources, surveillance, To date, boring machines have proved econom-bases,and underwater power and processing ically feasible only in such relatively soft rock asplants. A capability to utilize theslopes, sea- sandstone and shale. Studies are under way tomounts, and deep ocean basins maybe the best develop machines to bore harder rocks.Futureand surest way of preserving freedomof access to development should be directed at completelythe land masses under thehigh seas. Manned or emplaced mechanized and automated tunnelingprocedures.stationsbeginning withportable Rapid tunneling at reduced costsdepends ontypes and followed by more permanentin-bottom perfecting boring machines and on suchcomple-typescan achieve continuousdeeply submerged mentary technology as instrumentation toprobeoperations. been formations for water flows, grouting, guidanceand Prototype ambient pressure habitats have control, lining, and material removal. A needalsobuiltforcontinentalshelf depths, and one- unmannedatmosphere habitats could be built forlimited exists to develop systems for remote using operation at deep ocean sites. endurance missions at much greater depths Work vehicles will be needed to perform suchexisting submersible te-Ainology. Manytechnolog- functions as foundation preparation, leveling,andical needs of both habltats and submersibles are for drilling. Machines analogous to bulldozers, back-similar. On the other hand, certain technology under- hoes, cranes, and emplacement systems will bebottom habitats is in its infancy, such as able to take advantage of the buoyancy provided by water. Systems for boring and drilling into the bed or 6Carl F.Austin, "Manned Undersea Installation," Proceedings of the Conference on Civil Engineeringin the side of a seamount and for placing drill pipe or Oceans, American Society of Civil Engineers,September otheisurface powered devicesinto an exact 1967, p. 830.

Vi-94 155 water soil mechanics, foundations, site prepara- Sudden storms and fog affect surface support. tion, and underwater construction equipment. Other hazards include accidental explosions, espe- Commercial mining ventures might be consid-cially in areas containing undetonated mines or ered forerunners of in-bottom facilities. Underseatorpedoes, and operator error resulting fromphysi- mines have been in operation off the coast ofcal or mental ill 11,;alth. England for over 350 years. Tunnels have been Deliberate enemy attack could involve forces builtunder thecontinentalshelves; however,ranging from conventional depth charges to nu- tunnels have never originated under water. Suchclear explosives. Research is needed todetermine operations might be required for seamountlabora-characteristics of explosions arid other hazards at tories or links between bottom-sitting stations.great depth. Anticipation of hazards is necessary Precise underwater surveying and positioning, un-to design, fabrication, installation, certification, derwater grouting and boring, and heavy equip-and qualification of undersea systems and their ment technology are all in their infancy inrelationcrews. to undersea construction. Several hazards directly associated with undersea systemsstructural failure, powerloss, ard Recommendations: fireperhaps are to be most guarded against. Such Underwater working operations will require coor-dangers should be anticipated and minimized. dmr.ted development in many basic engineering and component areas. Data are needed on the1. Safety and Certification interaction of waves and currents with an installation. Adequate underwater power rources, equip-a. Current SituationOrderly progress into the ment, and tools must be developed. Visualobser-undersea frontier demands that safety engineering vation, television, and viewing equipment will bestartduringthedesignprocess,rather than reqnired as well as command and communicationsholding safety reviews of completed plans and systems. Improved materials will be required foractions.Certificationof manned vehicles, sea elevators, deep diving equipment, and undersea reliable and long-life installations. habitats should be the responsibility of a qualified Technologytosupport bottom occupancy should be undertaken. This includes constructiongroup. Comparative safety of undersea systems is an work systems, underwater precision surveying, soil mechanics, foundation techniques, and submers-important factor in determining marine insurance rates, a substantial addition to the cost of undersea ;,bleboring machines. Developing systems for underwater construction without surface supportoperations. System safety and certification are equally important to assure that an item is safely could be economically rewarding. An isolated station emplaced on a seamountdesigned, well built, and adequately tested. Certifi- should receive high priority. Within 20 yearscation is a continuing process that includes con- 1aborator4.!s should be established in waters ascern for safe operation, maintenance, and over- deep as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and before the endhaul. of the century an ocean bottom station at 20,000 Itis important that fire, one of the worst feet should be built. hazards, be extinguished rapidly. Fire control systems use multipurpose powders, gases, foams, or water delivered by portableextinguishers, fixed C. Safety, Search and Rescue, and Salvage pipelines, or manned hoses. Such new agents as To support undersea activities, it will be neces-high expansion foam have been tested and have sary constantly to examine technological progresspossible undersea application. The National Aero- and prepare for potential hazards. Loss of life innautics and Space Administration, with a similar undersea operations would be not only tragic butclosed environment problem, has developed infor- could be detrimental to the national effort. mation on fire fighting and fire prevention tech- Natural hazards include uncharted obstacles,niques that may be applicable. mudslides, sudden strongshifts of subsurface Whatever the technique, it must work fast; total currents, marine organisms, tsunamis, and suchcombustion of one pound of cellulose-like material long-term effects as corrosion and fouling. in a short period generates smoke, toxic gases, and

VI-95 enough heat to raise the temperature 500 degreesMinimize and/or isolate sources of ignition. in a 12-foot sphere. No single agency is assigned responsibility for Materials to be used internally should be tested for safety and certification. The Navy has published a flammability and behavior at high temperature. certification manual, Material Certification Proce- Methods to suppress fire with powder or inert gas dures and Criteria Manual for Manned Non-will not be feasible without auxiliary oxygen Combatant Submersibles (NAVSHIPS Publicationbreathing apparatus. In compartmentalized vehi- #0900-02802010), which applies to vehicles oncles the crew must be able to retreat from a fire, which Navy personnel are diving. Legislation pro-seal off the area, and oxygen-starve the fire or posed to Congress would vest in the Coast Guardextinguish it with built-in systems. responsibility to certify undersea systems. Both An authority for control of ocean system the Marine Technology Society (MTS) and thesafety, certification, operation, and maintenance is American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) are issuingneeded, possibly similar to the combined Federal guidelines for safety and certification of mannedAviation Adniinistration/Civil Aeronautics Beard submersibles. The guides aresimilar in manycontrol over aircraft. The group could serve as a respects. MTS's Safely and Operational Guidelinessource of information on system safety and, like for UnderseaVehicles willserve as an initialUnderwriters Laboratories, could develop lists of standard for the industry, while the ABS guide,safe materials, equipments, and methods. It would willingly or unwillingly, will be followed by thoseinvestigate accidents, report on causes, and make who wish to enjoy the reduced insurance pre- recommendations to prevent recurrence. miums compliance would bring. The Deep Sub- The Coast Guard seems the logical agency to mersible Pilots Association (DSPA) has publishedexercisethisauthority.Appropriate legislative Guidelines for the Selection, Training, and Qualifi-action wouid be required to extend the cor trol cation of Deep Submersible Pilots. This materialnow vested in the Coast Guard for surface ship was contained in early form in the MTS guidelinesactivity to underwater operat;ons. Its authority and now is available in revised form from DSPA.would extend over the safety of vehicles, diving All these documents will be very useful to thechambers, underwater power plants, diving sys- operator and the prospective operator of underseatems, on-bottom and in-bottom underwater habi- systems. None, Powever, to date has the force oftats, and underwater storage facilities. Criteria for law. review authority would be that a failure could affect human life and safety, seriously disrupt the b. Future NeedsResearch programs are neededenvironment, or damage property of a second to determine the likelihood of accidents,theparty. extent of danger, and methods for anticipating the hazards involved. This information should be made2. Search and Rescue available to the designer. Emergency escape capability is needed. Onea. Current Situation The Navy has a surface fleet approach is the detachable buoyant crew capsule,of 10 submarine rescue vessels (ASR) which carry used on Alvin and the Autec vehicles, operable byMcCann chambers. Dependable operation of the the crew or by rescue teams. Anothei is to developchambers requires diver support. As a result of points for easy attachment of lift cables. recommendatio-as of the Deep Submergence Sys- Protection from fire is one of the most severetems Review Group (DSSRG) following the loss of problems. Technology must be developed to: the U.S.S. Thresher, the Navy (DSSP) has placed contractsfor two Deep Submergence Rescue Minimize the presence of combustibles. Vehicles (DSRV). The first DSRV will be ready for sea trials in 1969 and will be operational in Precipitate or remove smoke particles rapidly. 1970. Design studies for another DSSRG recommended system, the Deep Submergence Search Inhibit the spread and duration of fires. Vehicle (DSSV) to operate at 20,000 feet, have Extinguish fires without overloading air purifica-been completed, and a prototype vehicle contrac- tion systems. tor has been selected.

VI-96 Although both vehicles can be used for searchhave manipulators that could be used to alimited purposes, the DSSV has no undersea rescue capa-extent to free entangled vehicles. bility, and the DSRV capabilityis limited to The Coast Guard has the major responsibility submarines modified for the purpose. On April 26,for search and rescue at sea. It has joinedwith 1968, Hon. Paul Ignatius, Secretary of the Navy,industry to develop expertise and tools necessary in an address to the National Conventionof thefor effective search and rescue. A MutualAssist- Navy League, Honolulu, made the following an-ance r-..escue and SalvagePlan (MARSAP), now nouncement concerning utilization of theDSRVbeing formulated, will provide the CoastGuard undersea by non-U.S. Navy groups: with a limited, interim capability for rescue. I am pleased to announce at this time thatthe The search phase of at-sea operations depends United Statesiswillingto share with otheron the search rate and the searchparty's naviga- nations the obvious benefits provided bythetional accuracy. With aircraft and airborne radar Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle. A documentthe rate for surface search can be quite high, has been prepared giving details andtechnicalperhaps 4,000 square miles per hour. Underwater specifications of this submarine rescue systemsearch,however, undertaken by surface ships which will be available to foreign navies on requesttowing sensors or by submersibles, is extremely through normal diplomatic channels. Nations in-slowabout 0.1 square mile per houras indicated terested in this rescue system can modify theirby the Scorpion search. submarines so that in the event one becomes This underlines the major reason for thehigh disabled on the ocean floor, it can be mated withcost of underwater searchthe searchrate. Better the US. rescue vehicle. This is anotherexample ofsurveillance of surface and underwater traffic can this counhy 's willingness to cooperate in oceanicimprove locational accuracy, therebydecreasing programs. the time and expense of search operations. Thc DSRV mates to the escape hatchof theb. Future NeeisThe Coast Guard, working submarine, and rescue is accomplished by directclosely with the Navy, should be given responsi- transfer of personnel from the stricken submarinebilityforsearch and rescue operations in the to the rescue vehicle (Figure 34).The DSRV,undersea frontier.It should work closely with DSSV, and numerous other small submersiblessafety and certification experts in industry to establish standards to minimize underseaacci- dents. When determined practical by theCoast Guard,safety and rescue apparatus (such as tracking pingers, lifting eyes, and standardmating hatches) should be required on undersea systems. As the number of undersea vehicles andinstalla- tions grows, control over vehicle movementwill become necessary, especially in congested or restricted areas. Divers and submersibles will be callei on to perform a variety of search, location, andidentifi- cation tasks. These will be an essential partof most salvage and rescue operationsunless a target's position is precisely known and the areais not susceptible to ocean currents or sediment transport. Reliable, high-resolution sensors tolocate small objects resting on cluttered bcttoms orin sediment will be necessary. Identification is a real problem. Visual observation is the most reliable technique, yetis slow and Figure 34.Artist's concept of the DSRV. (Navy photo) difficult v.'thout a maneuverable high endurance,

VI-97 333-091 0-69-11 manned submersible equipped with observation Recovery of small objects from depths below systems, precise position systems, anddigging and divercapabilities has been accomplished. The scraping tools. Navy's CURV and several commercial systems have recovered numerous torpedoes on test ranges. 3. Salvage and Recovery However, when an object is lost in an uncharted Palomares, Spain) the Presently there exists aarea of rough terrain (as off a. Current Situation search, identification and recovery problems are substantialcapabilitytolocatc,identify, and Relief maps of the area must be shelf depthsmagnified. recover small objects at continental prepared. At Palomares, they were based mostly and large objects in shallower water. In excep- on observation by television camerasmounted on recoveryhas been achieved at tionalefforts, CURV and extensive extrapolation by graphic arts greater depths. The Navy largeobject salvag... surface ships,persDnnel. program was directed at combining the Palomares lift equipment, and divers to lift submarines and Great depths-2,85k 'feetat complicate the other wreckage from depths of 850 feet.Unfortu-recovery point (Figure 36)further nately, only limited funds have been available tooperation. The lost weapon slipped several times to greater depths. Had it slipped downthe next support development in this area. steep slope, recovery by the CURV wouldhave The best salvage and recovery system depends been precluded by the added depth, and recovery on the geometric configuration,condition, proximity to the shoreline, depth, and extent ofby any existing system would have beendoubtful. flooding and burial of target. A small surface vessel with divers and manually controlLd equipment may suffice for small objects inclear, shallow waters. In other operations, it could be necessary to employ large, deep-diving work vehicles operating as part of a more complex system. The surface vessel approach to salvage operations is obviously limited by diver depthcapabili- ties. Hollow structures (like airplanes or cabin cruisers) might be raised from shallow depths by filling with low-density foam (Figure 35). During the Sea lab II Project in 205 feet of water, a foam formed of resin, catalyst, and methylene chloride delivered through hoses by a diver-held gun was introduced inside an airplane hulk. It displaced enough water to raise the hulk.

LEWIN, Figure 36.Bottom topography off Palomares, Spain, site of nuclear weapon recovery. Points of interest are: (1) original point of weapon's impact on bottom, (2) position to which it slid, it was first sighted, and first recovery attempts were made, (3) take-off point of CURV unmanned vehicle for first recovery attempt, (4) position of weapon after second slide, (5) final lift-off point for successful recovery. (Navy photo)

e." b. Future NezdsBetter underwater observation and terrain mappirv; equipment, power s mrces, and tools are needed for recovery operations. Figure 35.Artist's concept of a sunken air- Better underwatercutting,welding, grappling, craft being prepared for salvage by diwrs. (Navy photo) hooking, drilling, and methods tcontrol lift

VI-98 159 (including constant tension winches and computerSearch, location, and identification systems. solutions of buoyancy and stability problems) are Lift systems. required. Needed are advanced attachment devices to lift large, cumbersome items. A specialproblemRecovery, attachment, and viewing systemsand iscontaining and recovering dangerous liquidtools. cargoes. Recovery operations at increasing depths willRecommendations: necessitate developing submersible systems with The Coast Guard should set standards and inspect specialized heavy duty external equipment. For and certify safety engineering of undersea systems. certain applications, hovering capability duringIt should conduct research and development to operations, creation of excess buoyancy for lift, or identifyhazard sources, safe materials, equip- attachment of a recovery device to an object willments, and methods, and document means of thatobviate benecessary.Underconditions coping with emergencies that may occur in under- optical observation, sensors will have to define A principal precisely the position of tools relative to thesea vehicles, structures, and operations. objective should be the interchange of information sunken object. A family of recovery devices will be among government and industrialdesigners, opera- nece:Aary to accommodate the numberof shapes, tors, and other agencies concerned withsafety and sizes, and types of objects. certification. Efforts of the group established to develop a Mutual Assistance Rescue and Salvage 4. Conclusions Plan (MARSAP) are an example of desired inter- Undersea systems are vulnerable to damagechange. Another important objective should be from earthquakes and other natural even ts, explo-administration of rules regarding experimental and sive forces from accident or enemy action, mal-test devices, vehicles, and structures.Intelligent functions of internal and external subsystemsregard for safety without hampering useful techno- which may prevent surfacing or result in fire. logical and scientific progress is a necessity. Loss of lifefrom underwater accidentsis The Coast Guard's search and rescue mission unnecessary and could slow exploitationof theshould be extended beneath the seas. Developing undersea frontier. Almost no research and develop-an operational capability shouldbe coordinated ment is being pursued on the cause andforecast ofclosely with present Navy efforts. This capability hazards, the prevention of disasters, and emer-should be commensurate with the rate ofindus- gency procedures other than firefighting. trial and recreational advancement into the seaand Only limited capability exists for deep underseashould concentrate on developing systems to search and rescue. The Navy's Deep Submergence2,000 feet within 5 years and 20,000 feetwithin Rescue Vehicle requires that modifications be10 years. The Navy rescue program shouldbe madetocombatant submarinehatches. Thegiven sufficient priority to achieve an operational system's usefulness for rescue of small submers-system on the current schedule. ibles will be limited to such assistance as attach- Navy salvage development efforts to saturation ment of lift lines, observation, and communica-diving espths should be renewed and should tion, because a small submersible's size precludesinclude an effort to extend the capatility to 2,000 incorporation of a mating hatch. feet within 5 years. Deep ocean recovery should U.S. salvage and recovery capability to presentreceive high priority and should be routinely diver depths is good and will improve substantiallyoperatkaial to 20,000 feet within 10 years. when saturation diving to 850 fecc becomes a Navy fleet operational capability over the next few years. Deeper recoverycapability has advancedIV. NEARSHORE ACTIVITIES little since a few scraps of the U.S.S. Thresher were obtained following monthsof effort. Techno- The nearshore zoneconsistsof the land logical development is needed in the areas of: immediately adjacent to the sea and the waters over the continental shelf to the 2,000-foot con- Platforms with high-endurance and maneuver-tour. Inshore areas are those in most intimate ability. contact with the shoreline.

160 VI-99 and However, one critical problem is enforcement Because of expanding industrialization if trade, increased leisure time, and greaterdispos-of existing standards. Research indicates that able incomes of growing populations, the near-strict enforcement were applied to primary treat- shore zone has been under increasing pressures,ment,if each industry followed good pollution resulting in serious degradation in manyplaces.control practices, and if industry would plan Multiple useof this zone must be carefullysystematically new facilities with adequate incor- planned to accommodate the interests of recrea-porated advanced pollutioncontrol, pollution tion,science,wastedisposal, and commercialwould be abated effectively. advanced development. This section is addressed only to some Pollution, long a growing problem, nowhaspollution monitoring techniques and to sea oil reached proportions requiring not onlypositivepollution problems. Section V-D discusses restor- control but active restoration in somenearshoreativemeasures specifically applicable to fresh areas. Coastal scientific andengineering efforts arewater lakes. necessary to gain a betterunderstanding of shore processes, to halt harmful erosionof beaches, and to restore selected coastlines to auseful condition.I. Current Situation The Coast Guard role must be broadenedand reinforced to provide the necessary services associ-a. Advanced PollutionMonitoring Techniques ated with preserving new'ore areas. These serv- An example of an advanced pollution monitoring ices are vital to the nation's utilizationof themethod is use of infrared techniques. Research and shdves and the deeper ocean. Initial effort mustbedevelopment of infrared imagery in pollution concentiated on the nearshore area and muchofdetection and monitoring has been pursued for the technology needed to resolve theproblems isseveral years. at hand. Infrared imagery is the photographic product of The ocean transportation industry and theremote spectral sensing of infrared radiation emit- Nation's harbors suffer from many deficiencies.ted by material having temperatures greater than Technical aspects require an overall transportationabsolute zero. The principal device, the airborne system approach toresearch and developmentinfrared imaging line scanner, is extremely sensi- programs, ship and cargo handlingdesign, andtive to small thermal differences. It operates inthe harbor development and renovation. invisible portion of the spectrum in either the 3 to 5 or 8 to 15 micron ranges. Infrared imagery can furnish the oceanographer A. Pollution with valuable basic data unobtainable by anyother Much has been stated about inshorepollutionsensor. It has been used to locate and mapthe control and abatement, wasie disposal,and wasteGulf Stream;itis being used for studies of reuse. These problems will notbe reitereatedestuaries. For military intelligenoe gathering and because investigation reveals that intensivestepstargeting purposes ithas been operational for already are under way to attack theseproblems.many years. However, its use inoceanography has The relationship of pollution abatementto been recent and limited. water quality restoration is defined indetail in Current studies indicate the following potential Section V, Great Lakes Restoration. Thereis auses of infrared imagery in rivers andestuaries: clear need to assure that abatement ispositively pursued concurrently with restorative measures.Mapping estuarine surface circulation patterns. Restoration can be investigated under more con-Mapping tidal variations and circulation patterns closed trolled conditions in the Great Lakes, a (ebb vs. flood). system. Hence,itis recommended that initial attempts at water quality restorationbe under-Semiquantitative mapping of estuarine surface taken there. A national commitment is needed totemperatures. establish and enforce water quality standardsand to support technology development necessarytoDefining main channels of rivers and estuaries by streamlines, turbulence, and thermal patterns. esta :. the base for water quality improvement.

ATI-100 161 Estimating and mapping salinity patterns of The imagery also disclosed that the salt water estuaries under optimum thermal-salinity relation-front during flood tide diverts the polluted river ships. discharge to the southern shore and over the shallow shellfish areas, thereby causing contamina- Delineatingdrainagepatternsof tributariestion. Data collected on temperature, salinity, tidal having heavy overhanging foilage. fluctuations, etc., provided a standard for semi- Identifying well mixed and poorly mixed estu-quantitiative interpretation of the imagery. Dis- aries. advantages of the infrared system are that it is not an all-weather reconnaissance system,it reveals Identifying bed and bank sediments. nothing about thetype of pollutant, andit Locating offshore bars and breaker regions. determines relative, rather than absolute, temperatures. Monitoring construction of such harbor engi- Other successful experiments using airborne neering structures as jetties, docks, groins, etc.,infrared systems for thermal pollution studies are and their effect on circulation patterns and sedi-being conducted in the Columbia River at Rich- ment dispersal. land, Washington. Infrared imagery and radiometric measurements are being collected from Locating sources of pollution having thermalaircraft, and the data are being processed by characteristics. several computer techniques developed to produce Detecting both submarine and terrestrial springs.qualitative and quantitative displays. One is used for qualitative evaluation of thermal data from a Studying water turbulence. three dimensional color display (Figure 37). Recording wind streaks, hence wind direction. Locating shoal areas. Locating sea ice and identifying its type, age, and fracture patterns. Studies using infrared were conducted in 1966 on the Merrimack River Estuary,Massachusetts, by the U.S. Geological Survey. Airborne infrared imagery was obtained in August and September of the estuary from Haverhill to Plum Island at low, flood, high, and ebb tides. From the imagery, thermal effects of papermill waste, its diffuson in the river at various phases of the tidal cycle, and individual sewage outfalls were detected easily. Estuarine flushing was found to vary widely in different parts of the lower estuary. The surface expression of the freshwater-seawater Figure 37. Oblique three-dimensional display interface ,:ould be seen clearly. of infrared image collected over Columbia River near nuclear reactor site of the Atomic Infrared imagery in the Merrimack study pro- Energy Commission's Hanford Profect. vided a synoptic, integrated, comprehensive, and (Battelle Northwest photo) rapid method to detect pollution sources involving thermal differences. It was useful in determining circulation patterns in the estuary. The imagery Turbulence patterns and mixing zones near provided a synoptic view of the estuary surface'satomic reactor coolant discharge points in the thermal rondition at high, low, flood, and ebbColumbia River are being determined. Isothermal tides. It precisely delineated the salt waterfront atmaps of the river surface are being plotted. The flood and high tides and defined the main channelrapid scanning infrared imaging systems obtain at low and ebb tides. measurements that reveal detailed turbulence and 162 VIAl mixing zones otherwise extremely difficult, if not impossible, to define. Isothermal plots of the river surface indicate the magnitude and aerial distribution of the heat discharge to the river. Hot spring development along the river bank, due to discharge of reactor coolant into a trench near the river, also has been defined_ b. Oil Pollution and Other Hazardous Substances' Pollution of the environment by oil and other hazardous materials can occur almost anywhere at any time. Some recent examples inthe United States and its possessions are:

Figure 39.Pelican caught by great oil slick San Juan, Puerto Rico (1968). The tanker, S.S.from tanker S.S. Ocean Eagle. (Coast Guard Ocean Eagle, carrying 5.7 million gallons of crude photo) oil from Venezuela, ran aground, broke in half, and spilled more than 2 million gallons of oilin the water (Figures 38 and 39). miles of coastline, including recreational beaches, and many ducks and other waterfowl were killed. The source of the material was not determined. Long Beach, California (1966). A levee around an oil company's holding pond brokein a storm, and 200 barrels of crude oil were dumped into the harbor. Missouri River (1966). A chemical company's storage tanks ruptured, discharging0,000 gallons of ammonium hydroxide, 100 tons of molasses, and 1,000,000 gallons of liquid fertilizer intothe river. Mississippi River (1965). A hurricane sank a Agure 38.Oil streaks from derelict bow section of oil tanker S.S. Ocean Eagle. (Coast barge loaded with 600 tons of chloi itie, necessi- Guard phnto) tating evacuation of area residentsinLouisiana during salvage operations. York River, Virginia (1967). The Liberian regis- tered tanker, S.S. Desert Chief lost between 500Spring Creek, Missouri (1965). Railroad tank cars containing 20,000 gallons ofcresylic acid and and 1,200 barrels of crude oil during unloading gasoline were operations. An estimated 10 miles of the York40,000 gallonsof high octane derailed, spilling their contents into the creek. Fish River and several recreational beaches were fouled, were killed, and groundwater supplies were con- and waterfowl were killed. taminated. Downstream water users were notified, Cape Cod National Seashore (1967). Severaland further damages were averted. large slicks of oily material contaminated about 30 Minnesota-MississippiRivers (1963).Storage tanks ruptured, spilling 2,500,000 gallons of crude soybean oil and 500,000 gallons of salad oil. Two 7Most material from here to the end of the discussion on the current situation was taken from: Secretary of the thousand ducks were killed, and recreation and Interior and Secretary of Transportation, Oil Pollution, A wildlife areas were fouled for 130 miles down- Report to the President, Washington: Government Print- ing Office, February p968. stream.

VI-102 Chattahoochee River, Georgia (1963). A burstareas require both government andindustry to pipeline spewed 60,000 gallons of kerosene intogive careful attention to pollution control meas- the river five miles above one of Atlanta's waterures. supply intakes. The river was polluted for three The quantities and varieties of oils and other weeks. A treatment plant supplying one-fourth ofhazardous materials transported and stored by Atlanta's water was shut down for two days, afterindustry are staggering. For example: which gieatly increased chemical treatment of the water was necessary. Four billion barrels of petroleum and natural gas liquids are used annually in the United States, and Coosa River, Alabama (1963). A tractor-trailerthe figure is expected to reach 6.5 billion barrels hita bridge and spilled 25 tons ofbariumby 1980. carbonate.Downstreamwatersupplieswere threatened. Twenty-five billion pounds of animal and vege- table oils are consumed or exported annually. Minnesota River (1962). A storage facility pipeline broke, releasing about 1,400,000 gallons ofEightybillionpounds (1964) of synthetic cutting oil, light mineral oil, and zylene into theorganic chemicals are produced annually by some river. 12,000chemical companies. These chemicals, many toxic or with unknown effects on aquatic Illinois River (1961). At Peoria, Illinois, a hoseand even human life, range from everyday food rupturedduringthe unloading of anhydrousflavorings to pesticides. ammonia from a barge. Forty-two persons were hospitalized, and 5,000,000 fish were killed. No readily available compilation exists of the number, size, and character of facilities for moving Mississippi River ( 1960). Industry drained severaland storing these materials. However, the quanti- tons of phenol into the river near Baton Rouge.ties indicate the high probability of pollutants Watersupplies for New Orleans and nearbyspilling into the Nation's waters from transporta- communities were contaminated. tion and terminal facilities. Newspaper headlines seldom announce the flow These are only a few of the almost continuous of 10 or 30 or even 300 gallons of waste oil into a series of similar experiences reported across the nation in lakes, rivers, and territorial waters. nearby stream or lake. The event is proclaimed Oil and other hazardous materials constitute aonly by the trail of grime and damage left behind. major pollution threat to the Nation's waterThese catastrophes might go unnoticed except that resources. The danger exists both inland andalongthey are repeated so often. is large or small, the coasts. Whether the spill This country is laced by 200,000 occasional or continuous, each source must be(2) Pipelines miles of pipelines with pressures to 1,000 pounds evaluated for (1) the relative hazards involved, (2)per square inch. These lines carried more than one the preventive measures that should be instituted, billion tons of oil and other hazardous substances and (3) the damage-control and cleanup capabili-in 1965. Many sections are laid in and across ties that may be needed. waterways and reservoirs. Lines are heavily concentrated where the demand for petroleum prod- (1.) Waterborne Sources of Oil PollutionWithucts is greatin the most populous areas along the the growth of world and domestic commerce,coasts, rivers, and lakes. Thus, our pipeline system increasing numbers of vessels of generally largerthreatens pollution of our waterways, port areas, capacity have been required. Almost exclusively,and sources of drinking water. There are enough oil is the fuel of the waterborne commercial fleets,leaks from accidental punctures, cracked welds, and perhaps one vessel in five is engaged also inand corrosion to require alertness and technical transporting oil. Thus, water transport constitutesimprovement. a greatpotentialpollution threat. The great numbers of these possible pollution sources and(3.) Offshore PetroleumOffshore oil and gas the fact that they are mobile over extensive wateroperations are being conducted in the Gulf of

164 VI-103 Mexico, off Southern California, inCook Inlet, Figure 40 Alaska, in the Great Lakes, and even offthe East ENVIRONMENTAL NUMBERS Coast. For example, in the Gulf ofMexico almost ',,,...,...,,,C.:.:go Escaping Far From 6,000 wells have been drilled since1960, and Condition In or Near Hull Hull thousands of miles ofoiland gaspipelines Response Hull crisscross the Gulf's floor. Time Such operations may pollute offshorewatersBefore throughwell blowouts, dumping oil-saturated I mrri inent 1 N.A.1 N.A.11 drilling muds and oil-soaked cuttings, andoil lostCasualty in production, storage, and transportation.Pipe- platforms to0-24 Hours lines on the seabed from the offshore After Casualty 2 4 6 storage facilities also threaten pollutionif ruptured by storms or ships' anchors. 1-20 Days After Casualty 3 5 7 1Not applicabri. 2.Future Needs Source: Trident Engineering Associates, Inc., "A Posbi- ble Solution to Pollution of the Sea and Shore by Oil Tankers," unpublished report to the Commission (An- A major effort must be undertaken to curtail napolis, Maryland, 1968), p. 2. oil pollution from ships and oil rigs. A systems approach to preventing pollution spillage at sea, how to monitor it, and how to disperse it is Figure 41 discussed in the following pages. CONTROL TECHNIQUES WITH APPRO- The shipping and oilindustries have some PRIATE ENVIRONMENTAL NUMBERS methods to prevent spills and to clean up those occurring. Most are suitable only for small spills; Control Environ- many require bulky equipment orchemicals diffi- Techniques or mental cult to carry to the scene. Therefore, one approach Systems1 Number2 to combat oil spills is to make equipmentand materials more readily transportable. Another is to Build foam barriers into cargo tanks adapt present methods to be effective against the (oil-permeable impedance) 1 largest spills. Solidify oil 1 In chemical, food, and other industries there Design safety features into tank 1 are agents, systems, and procedures forthe con- Inject foam sealant into selected tanks 2 trol,dispersal, or conversion of petroleum-like Act to free grounded ship (sacrificial substances. A search of other industries is needed approach) 2 for techniques and equipment adaptable to con- Gel oil 2(1) trolling oil spills. Close tank vents (escape impedance) 2 Finding and applying existing techniques and Pull light vacuum on selected tanks 2 equipment may offer hope of a rapid solution to Unload tanks to free ship, using the oil pollution problem, but that solution may stored high-pressure air 2 not be best. Concurrently, research anddevelop- Sluice cargo between selected tanks 2 ment efforts should seek completely new solu- I nstal I water ballast tanks in tions. critical areas 2(1) The problem can be subdivided according to Burn oil above tanker 2 the condition or location of the dangerous cargo Solidify oil in selected areas 2 and the response time of a remedial system. Figure Build sealing devices into tank 2(1) 40 lists nine combinations of cargo condition and Design air-transportable super- responsetime,givingeach an environmental foam sealant system 3 number. Figure 41 lists some remedies or remedial Heat oil ready to pump 3(2) systems and the environmental number (or alter- Bring in emergency high capacity nate) to which they probably would apply best. pumping system 3

VI-104 Figure 41 (Continued) The systemwillbein some way handling hundreds of thousands of gallons of crude oila Control Environ- substance normally the consistency of lukewarm mental Techniques or tar.The objectivewillbe to dispose of the Systems' Number2contaminant before it damages nearby shore facilities. Therefore, the rate at which the system works Bring in high capacity fuel transfer is important. system (hose, jets, helicopter- hose system) 3 Tankers, like any other vessel, are more likely to Bring in emergency receivino system suffer damage in rough weather. In such weather (corrals, flexible containers, etc.) 3 high winds move escaping contaminants toward Bring in emergency pump power shorelin&s most rapidly. Therefore, any system source 3 must have good sea-keeping qualities,functioning Burn combustible liquids 3 well under very unfavorable conditions. Evaporate oilhigh temperature 3(5) (7) Act to free ship (sacrificial approach Even the emergency equipment installed aboard with outside system for )id ship to save sailors' lives often receives cursory 3 maintenance.Equipment topreservebeaches, help) industry and property Corral oil (equipment carried wildlife,and shoreline probably would receive even less attention. There- aboard tanker or with fore, the system must withstand being unused for helicopter aid) 4 Corral oil with other outside aids 4(5) years with little or no preventive maintenance. Use foams in other ways 4(5) Use large-scale corralling 5 3. Conclusions Sink oil 5(7) Data collected by infrared imaging systems can Use surface oil evaporation equipment 5 be used for quantitative and qualitative water Corral oil with equipment shipped in 5(7) pollutionstudies.Qualitativeevaluationsof Use water surace cleaner, ship- or imagery using oblique three-dimensional displays air-mobile 5(7) ari4 stereo coverage will allow the interpreter to Airdrop lightweight surface cleaning sense the tr..:e intensity relationships. The poten- materials 6(7) tial of color-coding specific radiation levels and Use chemical combustion promoters 6(7) developing false color imagery has been demon- Use combustion sustainers such as strated. These techniques and their variations artificial straw 6(7) should make possible more effective systems to Use surface cleaning ships (high monitor pollution. speed, high capacity) 7 Oil and other hazardous substancesarea Use skimmer 7 continuing major pollution threat to the inland, Use corrals 7 nearshore and offshore waters of our Nation. Catastrophecanoccur any vhereor anytime, Most of the remedialsystemsof Figure 41 are not especially in areas of high population concentra- existingsystems.There are few systems available now, and existing systems either have not been adequately tion. Methods to combat major pollution accidents tested or results of their tests have not been published. are entirely inadequate. 2 Numbers inparentheses are alternate environmental numbers. Source: Trident Engineering Associates, Inc., "A Possible Recommendations: Solutionto Pollution of the Sea and Shore by Oil Tankers," unpublished report to the Commission (Annap- Detailed research and development programs in olis, Maryland, 1968), PP- 3-5- infrared imagery use for pollution monitoring should be increased. The primary development objectives are actu- A major systems program should be imple- ally conventional, since they call for the cheapest,mented to cope effectively with the accidental lightest,smallest system that will do the job.pollution of the Nation's waters by oil and other However, other factors require consideration: hazardous substances, including investigation of 166 V1-105 !Mods of pollution control and restoration The lack of such critical information consti- en the redesign of ships, if necessary. tutes a technology barrier if (1) the needed crEeria require the acquisition of data which cannot be CoastalEngineering obtainei without technological advances, (2) basic understanding is inadequate to permit accurate The shoreline of any nation is a natural locationinterpretation of such data, or (3) the acquisition ir industrial and commercialactivity, transporta-of the information requires long-term observation. Dn terminals, and transferfacilities. It is where Principalinadequaciesof basicengineering residential neighbor- te most prized resorts and criteriaexistinenvironmentaldesign, coastal Dods develop and it is an essential recreationalplanning, conservation of sand, constructionand ea for a majority of thepopulation. The bays,modification technology, movement and stabiliza- the ;Wades, and nearshore waters rank among tion of sediment, and environmental protection. lost important for food production andharvest- hatcheries for many species Environmental design criteria to support coastal ig, not to mention modification and construction is needed in(1) nportant to the ocean fisheries.Therefore, the ioreline (coastal zone) must be considered a vitalsub-bottom structure and bottom topography (bathymetry), (2) prevailing and maximum con- ational resource. have been misused and poorlyditions of wind, waves, surface currents, tides, and Shorelines subsurface currents, and (3) design methods that ianaged for such a long time that majoradvances accurately account for the effects of these environ- -1 our knowledge and itsapplication to the coastal one are essential to preventfurther degradationmental factors in planning and design. nd to effect restoration. Greatly increased prior- For the coastal zone, much technology is in ty in national planning must be given toprotee-hand. However, such information is not readily ing existing shoreline and facilities, modifyingtheavailable to the coastal engineer at present. The horeline to achieve its most prudent utilization bywell-recognized need to develop environmewal he many competing demands, and its extensioncriteria for planning and design (particularly those )y construction of inlets,peninsulas, and offshoreactivities in which coastal zone developmentis being slands. expected to ',/e ITIOFC rapid and extensive) is pursued as rapldlyas time and present funds I. Current Situation permit. The most effective shoreline modificationand The state of knowledge for translating environ . .:onstruction of fixed structures in the coastal zonemental data into design critcria is notader7.,ate, -equire knowledge of: (1) coastal zone oceano-particularlyfor wind and wave forces. b'odel zraphy, physiography, ecology, and substructure,studies of natural processes at the land-seainter- (2) the properties of sediments both aboveandface have had only limited success, mainlybecause below the waterline, and (3) the multitudeofscale effects are poorly understood. The major natural processes occurring in the coastal environ-concern and uncertainty are for structures,vessels, air-sea interface and ment. Further, such modification andconstructionor devices which penetrate the must consider that changes in theshoreline orare integral parts of underseaactivities. bottom topography, modification of sediments, In undersea activities, principal unknowns are a and introduction of man-made objects will alterknowledge of subsurfaceurrents, the effects of natural coastline processes. surface waves on subsurface structures, the rela- Planning and design phases prior to modifica-tion between subsurface phenomena andthe dis- tionand constructionrequirequalitative andturbance of ecology, and the phenomena occuring quantitative information to provide accuratedefi-at the air-sea interface. Thisinformation is essen- nition of nearshore properties and processes.Alsotial for optimum planning, design, andmodifica- the engineer must be able to predict theeffects oftion of structures in the coastal ne. Lack of these properties and processes on the modificationinitiative in advancing technology for measuring or structure and, also, topredict the effects ofbasiccoastal environmental characteristicswill modifications and structures on the environmentalhave serious negative effects on all future engineer- and coastal processes. ing programs in the coastal zone.

VI-106 16 7 A Nat;onal Project for Coastal Engineering andtures, and often the recreational appeal of the Ecological Studies, as defined in Chapter 7, willseashore is lost or greatly diminished. develop the fundamental technology to investigate Sand is a rapidly diminishing natural resource. the unknowns with emphasis on ecological disturb-Sand once was carried to our shores in abundant ances. Near-shore ecology needs as related tothesupply by streams, rivers, and glaciers. Unfortu- scientific community are described more fully innately, large strMches of our coast receive essenti- the basic science panel's report. ally no replacement sand from these sources. In coastal planning the first requirement isInland development by man reduces further sand adequate technical knowledge of shore processes,available for erosion abatement of the shore. Thus, storm frequencies, and storm tide elevationsforto save sand, wasteful practices must be eliminated the area concerned. Especially on the Pacific Coastand losses prevented wherever possib?e. (including Alaska and Hawaii), the effects of Fmtunately, nature has provided extensive tsunamis (earthqvAke-generated waves) must bestores of beach sand in bays, lagoons, and estu- considered. This information, applied to the topo-aries; these can be used in some areas as beach and graphy of the coastalarea and the adjoiningdune replenishment. Massive dune deposits also are continental shelves, makes possible prediction ofavailable at some locations; however, these must flooding and erosion hazards in each area. Suchbe used with caution to avoid exposing the area to knowledge then may he used to establish zoningflood hazard. Sources of sand are not always and building regulations and the needs, types, andlocated for economic utilization, nor are they dimensions of works toprevent flooding orinexhaustible. When they are gone, cost of pre- erosion. serving the shorelines will increase rapidly. In highly developed areas, economic considera- Mechanica;:y bypassing sand at coastal inlets is tions usually will justify the expense of protectivean increasing conservation practice. Removalof construction projects which will insure preserva-beach sand for building purposes is being curtailed tion of land improvements and values once theas coastal communities recognize the value of good need is recognized and the type of constructionbeaches. Modern hopper dredges, used for channel established. maintenance in coastal inlets, are being equipped Undeveloped or sparsely developed areas offerwith pump-out capability to discharge their loads greatopportunityforadvanceplanningandon the shore instead of dumping sand at sea. It is control, particularly where intensive developmenthoped that dumping at sea ultimathly will be isimminent.Appropriateprocedures can beeliminated. On the California coast, where large adopted to conserve remaining natural protectivevolumes of sand are swept by currents into deep features. Proper regulation can result in mini-submarine canyons near the shore, facilities are mizing cost of protective measures and ensurebeing provided to trap the sand and transport it adequate protection. Also, regulation can assurewhere it can resume natural beach-building proc- that substantial areas of the coast remain in aesses. Planting beaches with appropriate grasses natural or near-natural state for general recreation.and shrubs reduces wind erosion and preserves the Erosion planning should not be considered fordunes. Sand conservation is very important in the every -.mall beach. Instead, a long reach of 30 topreservation of our seacoasts;it must not be 50 miles only should be considered. In fact, if aneglected in long range planning. short reach is repaired without proper planning, Protectionof ourseacoasts,nota simple the adjacent beaches may be adversely affectedproblem, is by no means insurmountable. It has and the problem not solved but magnified. increased tremendously in importance in the past Sanddunes, beaches, and nearshore areasis50 years. While the cost will mount as time passes, the principal material protecting our seacoasts.it will be possible through careful planning, ade- Where sand is available in abundant quantities,quate control, and sound engineering to do the job protective measures are greatly simplified andproperly within economic means. Shore protection reduced in cost. When dunes and broad, gentlymust be undertaken as a cooperative effort at all sloping beaches can no longer form by naturallevels of government, Federal, regional, State, and means, is necessary to resort to massive struc-municipal. 268 V1-107 Currently construction in the coastal zone is In deeper waters, in waters with adverse surface accomphshed almost entirely by surface methodsconditions, and where the bottom is coral, consoli- and equipment. Moreover, most construction tech-dated sediment, rock,etc., subsurface drilling, niques have remained static for the past centuryblasting, hydraulic jetting, and hauling may be (excluding development of new power sources).necessary. The presence of equipment inthe sea Divers are used for preliminary surveys, inspection,will compel the presence of men so meansof salvage, simple installation, and assembly opera-underwater communication and observation will tions, but the operations are basically dependentbe essential for supervision and control. upon land or seasurface methods. These requirements do not pose insurmount- Itisconceivable that wave energy will be able problems, althotOt considerable development controlled and focused to accomplish work atthe is needed. Primary is heavy machinery operating land-sea interface. Natural bottom contoursguideon the ocean floor to haul orhandle material. In wave fronts, concentrating wave energyat pointscoastal areas, such equipment could be powered along a coastline. If wave refraction andreflection by cabled electric power or snorkel equ;pped could be controlled by the emplacement of port-engines. Work illuminationwillbea major able undersea barriers, enormous workcould beproblem to undersea operations; hence, further accomplished at a great saving of time and money.development of illumination deviceseven electro- Moving sediment along the coast from an over-magnetic or acousticwill be required. supplied area to a denuded area is one obvious Sediment stabilization will become a greater application; however, no investigations of theproblem as offshore installations and coastline feasibility of harnessing wave energy for this pur-modificationscreatemorecomplexcurrent pose have been attempted. Controlled useof wavepatterns and traffic. Present methods depend upon energy is at present an undevelopedtechnology.mechanical stabilizationthe application of such In some instances, the impetus to improvehard mechanical cover as shell, riprap, scrap metal, technology in such coastline engineering as harboretc. The feasibility of chemical additivesapplied and port development, artificial islands, tunnels,under water needs further investigation. Develop- and underwater transportation and distributionment of a fine-grained artificial material withthe systems is coming from other souv...es. Examplesaesthetic qualities of natural sand but more prac- are mineral exploration andexploitation, pipelineticalcharacteristics for beach stability (i.e., in installation, petroleum production, etc. terms of specific gravity, etc.) is a future possi- The application of underwater technology tobility. coastal engineering probably will result as spinoffs The difficulty of men and machines working from other developments with more immediateunderwater while maintaining adequate communi- need. cations and lighting is a prime problem. This is Coastaldesign and construction technologyespecially true in areas of concentrated activity must include underwater methods and equipmentand where current and wave action interface.For to a greater degree. Requirementsfor offshoresome operations working fromthe surface may cities, passenger and freight terminals for ocean orpose fewer problems than attemptingheavy earth- air transportalon, or recreational facilitiesestab-moving or site preparation with underwaterequip- lish a need for application of underwater tech-ment and methods. Extensive tunnelingunder the nology as an integral part of coastal engineering.In bottom starting from shore appears morefeasible the following paragraphs, some activities are con-than an offshore sea bottom entrance withless sidered briefly as a means of identifying potential tunneling required. This entire situationcould technological opportunities. reverse if a simple method of making a seabottom Dredging sediments for navigation channels andentrance could be perfected. barrier island passes, for drainage or diversionof Protection of materials used in coastal modifi- currents and sediment, or for constructionofcations and structures willrequire technology islands, peninsulas, and beaches is a majorcoastaladvances. Present protection against corrosion, zone activity. In shallow atidprotected waters,biological attack, erosion, waves, and currents is surface vessels will continue to be the primaryinadequateorexcessively expensive for many means of moving sediments forsuch projects. missions. For example, monel metal covering at

VI-108 169 the water line and sacrificial cathodic protectionEvaluation of new methods and equipment for can usually solve the problembut become prohib-major shoreline modification and construction and itively expensive. for island building. Different activties will dictate levels of expend- Control ofDevelopment of faster and less costly methods iture that can he justified economically. and materials to stabilize sediment. biological encroachment and encrustation is both a structural and an operational problem. It requiresReduction of future costs by stockpiling sand, many solutions for different areasand species.once a dredge is set up and inoperation for Mechanicalprotectionagainstenvironmentalanother purpose. For example, after a dredge has forces and erosion is less difficult. Bothchemicalreplaced sand on a denuded beach. large stockpiles and biological corrosion are technology barriersof sand can be strategically placed so that wave requiring improvements in corrosion-resistant ma-action automatically replenishes losses over future terials, protective coatings and :levices. years.

b. Future Needs 3. Conclusions The following observational and measurement Shore erosion is coused by wave action, tide capabilities are required to permit meaningfulcurrents, rain, wind action, and severe storms and study and definition of coastal zone processes: is affected by offshore depths, slopes, shape of the shoreline, and other factors. In most cases, shore Methods and instrumentation for rapid on-siteerosion can be controlled by properly planned and measurement of the engineering properties ofexecutedcorrectivemeasures.Shorelines have sediments(i.e.,staticcompression and shearbeen misused and inadequately managed; major strength,stability,bearing characteristics, andadvances in knowledge must precede preventive dynamic response). and restorative action. Protection,modification, and extensionof Methods, equipment, and instrumentation forshorelines assume greatly increased importance in rapid core sampling of sediments and rapid (prefer-national planning. Optimum modifications of the ably automatic) analysis of cores for piimaryshoreline and construction of fixed structures physical, geological, and chemical properties. require a knowledge of oceanography, physiography, sediment properties, and natural processes. Methods and instrumentation for continuousPlanning and design prior to modification and mapping of bottom sediments by primary geo-construction require accurate definition of near- logical classification and primary physical proper-shore properties and processes and interrelated ties (e.g., density, sonic attenuation, and shear effects. velocity). Principal inadequacies of basic engineering cri- Effective experimental methods and associatedteria exist in environmental design, coastal plan- instrumentation and data processing systems forning, conservation of sand, construction and modi- study of primary coastal processes, particularlyfication technology, movement and stabilization those controlling sediment transport and deposi-of sediment, and environmental protection. tion. Coastal planning requires technical knowledge of shot,. processes, storm frequencies, and storm Specail research and development programs aretide elevations for the area concerned. Undevel- required for: oped orsparselydevelopedareas offergreat opportunities for proper advance planning and Development of improved modeling techniquesdevelopment control. for the study of coastal processes, including design Sand is a rapidly diminishing natural resource of such improved model basin equipment as wind,requiring conservation. Protection of our seacoasts wave, and current generators and controlsplus ais not an insurmountable problem. Construction variety of materials for simulation of water andand modification in the coastal zone is frequently sediment properties. accomplished by antiquated surface methods and

YI-1 09 170 equipment. Wave energy can be focused by port-gained there will be the foundation for the thrust able structures to accomplish enormous work. into the deep oceans. shelf Dredgingisamajor coastal zone activity. Severalambient pressure, continental Sedimentstabilizationwill become agreaterhabitats have been demonstrated in recent years, problem as more complex current patterns andin the United States and abroad. They have been more traffic result from humanactivity. Presenttemporary installations depending upon cables to methods of protecting materials from corrosion,surface ships or shore for power. biological attack, erosion, waves, and currents are A Fixed Continental Shelf Laboratory as de- designed to facilitate inadequateor excessively expensive for manyscribed in Chapter 7is missions. development of the technology to occupy and manage the shelf and to minimize logistic support Recommendations: The laboratory will be available for joint civilian- academic-military use in the accomplishment of The following observational and measurementsubsystem and component development tasks. capabilities should be developed: 1. Current Sitatuion Methods and instrumentWiton for on-site measurement of the engineering properties of sedi-a. 14bitats Widely varyingapproaches have been ments. suggested and tried for undersea habitats. Some are quite small; others are large,providing working Methods, equipment, and instrumentation forspace for six to eight divers. For a singleworksite, rapid core sampling and automatic analysis ofa relatively immobile shelter maybe planted on samples. the bottom. Moving worksites for inspectionof Methods and instrumentation for continuouscommunication cables or pipelines may require a mapping of bottom sediments. mobile habitat integral to a submersible vehicle. All systems have three features in common: Effective experimental methodology and associated instrumentation and data processing systems.They can maintain the diver at or near the ambient pressure at the worksite for extended Research and development programs should beperiods. conducted to: The habitat or an elevator-like chamber inter- Imprcve modeling techniques for the study offacing with it) can bring divers to the surface for coastal processes and controls. decompression. When an elevator is used, divers nearly always r.re transfeired to a separate and Evaluate new methods and equipment for majorlarger chamber on the surface for decompression. shoreline modification and construction and island building. The chamber at the underwater worksite has at least one bottom hatch from which divers can Develop faster and less costly methods andenter the water and return. materials to stabilize sediment. Functionally, seven habitat types can be identified: (1) continental shelf station, (2) variable depth habitat, (3) composite chamber, (4) decom- C. Shelf Installationa pression staging system, (5) personneltransfer In order for man to conquer the sea, he on ast gocapsule/deck decompression chamber, (6) vehicle into thesea. Much has been said aboutthewith diver lockout, and (7) hybrids. complexity of advancing technology to exploit, occupy, and manage the U.S. ContinentalShelf.b. Continental Shelf StationThe most elemen- However, it is now technically possible to occupytary configuration provides structuralsimplicity the shelf by applying developments of the pastand relative freedom for divers from the turbulent several years. Conquest of the ocean depths mustair-sea interface (Figure 42). If intended onlyfor start on the continental shelf,for experiencebottom installation, the hull need be designed for

VI-110 171 1.*41.-424*

=r-trA z "kl

Figure 42.A movable continental shelfstation which completed successful trialsin late 1968. (Oceanic Foundation photo)

only small pressuredifferentialsindeed, it may be made of fabric or rubber. Providingthe men in a Figure 43.Artist's concept of a composite food, water, sanita-chamber suspended from a shipmounted crane. station with electric power, (Navy photo) tion, and supplies can beformidable, especially in foul weather. For a very largework force active over acres of the seafloor, one can envision several stations arranged about theworksite. The equivalent of a fence, fixed lights, storage,implementWith the hatch open, it can serve as anante- sheds, and the foreman's officewould completechamber to the diving compartment or as alock to the resemblance to a job site onland. enter or leave the diving compartmentwhen the chamber is on deck. The variable depth c. Variable DepthHabitat diving compart- habitat is anchored on the ocean floorbut can beIf a major fault should make the ment unusable during a dive,the divers can enter floated to intermediate depths. Thehabitat serves vehicle, and livingtheobservation compartment under pressure. as a work station, transport (Normally, divers would work from thelower quarters. If the worksiteextends vertically to the would stay in the level of one or more decompression stages,diverscompartment, while observers observation compartment throughoutthe dive. can continue usefulwork during each decom- to high pres- pression stop. This system typically isconfined toThe observers, not being subjected sures, can leave thecompartment as soon as it is a small-scale operation,involving two or three divers under rather special site and taskconditions.hoisted on deck). The composite chamber is quiteversatile, is relatively easy to transport, and is moresuited to d. Composite ChamberThis sytem is virtually a from a ship-the smaller, short-term missionsthan to major variable depth habitation suspended to mate with a diving compart-diving projects. Without the ability mounted crane (Figure 43). The chamber compels ment is nearl.y always a pressurehull, making itlarger chamber, the composite surface. Andivers to remain inside untilfully decompressed; possible to decompress divers on the total time under observation compartment (usuallyspherical)isthis putz a defmite limit on the mounted atop the diving compartmentand con-pressure. nected withitvia a pressure-tight hatch;it e. Decompression StagingSystemThis is a series performs several functions: of underwater stations located atprincipal decom- a twopressionstoplevels.Personnel working at With the hatch closed, it can carry one or entering the next scientists or engineers in a shirt-sleeve er-ironmentbottom site may decompress by higher habitat, spending a night,then swimming to to view the underwater jobsite.

V1-111 the next (Figure 44). Gradually ascending through the PTC is mated with the DDC, both being several such stations, diving personnel undergo pressurized equ-*;y. The PTC ;6 lowered by a tlecompression and simultaneously make use of crane. The system's pertinent features are: heretofore enforced idletime. This system is attractive only under special conditions of terrain.Divers live and sleep above water. Plans to expand one nonmilitary undersea test The PTC has horizontal mobility within the range include a series of habitats from nearshore torange of its surface support platform and full shef depths, including this use of decompression vertical mobility. staging. Both chambers can mate at any pressure from atmospheric to maximum rated pressure to transfer divers. The system can be mounted on a dam, drilling platform, barge, or ship. Possible alternate means of operation include (1) two PTCs mating with adjoining compartments of one DDC or (2) PTC serving two or more DDCs. For safety reasons, a DDC should consist of not less than two self-contained pressure vessels; two main chambers and an entry lock are the most practical. g. Vehicle with Diver Lockout The systemis a two-compartment vehicle with one compartment Figure 44. Artist's concept of a decompression staging system.(Westinghouse photo) exposed to ambient pressure (Figure 46). The system is valuable for a series of short, widely- spaced dives (e.g., photographing and marking f. PersonnelTransferCapsule/DeckDecom- damaged spots on a submarine telephone cable). pression ChamberThis system, first used forSuch a system could be used where weather commercial saturation diving, allows divers to live restricts deployment of normal surface support in a deck decompression chamber (DDC) (Figure methods. Currently, storage batteries arethe 45). A single small chamber, the personnel transfer power source for the vehicle, limAingmission capsule(PTC),transportsdiversfrom deck duration to a few hours and restricting speeds to chamber to the worksite. The divers enter when less than five knots.

Figure 46. A submersible vehicle with diver lockout.The diver lockout hatch is located Figure 45. A personnel transfer capsule/deck aft on underside of hull where open hatch decompression chamber system.(Westinghouse cover is visible.(Perry Subniarine I3ui1ders photo) photo)

VI-112 If such a system were integral to a full-sizeThought must be given to problems of logistics, nuclear submarine, speed and endurance limita-chamber operation, and maintenance; when several tions would be virtually removed. The size of themen are under pressure for a week or more, plans diving team, supporting sensors, and amount ofmust be made for food supply, laundry, and equipment delivered to a site would extend satura-personalhygiene. These problems are greatly tion diving capability beyond anything possiblesimplified if the main habitat is located on the today. surface rather than several hundred feet beneath. Continuous, correct gas supply and carbon dioxide h. HybridsThe systems described above are notabsorption must bewellplanned before the all-inclusive; variations on any system are possible,operation; redundancy of systems is necessary, and combinations of two or more may be effectiveespecially if operations are to be conducted in for particular missions (Figure 47). For example, aremote areas. bottom-anchored, variable-depth habitat with a mating trunk used with a DDC would permit i.Availability ofDecompression a tambers divers to eat, sleep, and undergo decompression in Several small decompression chambers are in use a larger surface chamber. A DDCcould be com-today,approximatelyasfollows:Gulf,40; bined with a submersible decompression chamberCalifornia, 20; Florida, 2; and Alaska, 6. During operating from a fixed winch. The submersiblepeak seasons, commercialdiversinthe Gulf chamber could be fitted with a propulsion systemnumber around 1,000 and in California, over 300 to provide limited horizontal positioning capa-There are approximately 25 combination person- bility. The operator could remain in a shirt-sleevenel transfer capsule/deck decompression chambers environment inside a spherical observation cham-today. ber atop the diving chamber. The main task of a diving program is to selectj. AccidentsThe number of divers working off- the best system for a particular job and site and toshore in the Gulf is expected to increase markedly evolve a safe, economical method of operation.in the next few years; an estimate of 3,000

o 0 °

Figure 47.Artist's concept of underwater habitat designs.(Navy photo)

174 VI-113 333-091 0-69-12 within10 yearsisconservative. Presently nopipelines and cables include plowing, hydraulic medical facilities on the Gulf Coast areavailable jetting, combined jetting and suction dredging,and and attuned to the needs of divers.Three to five use of shaped charges. diver deaths occur each year in the Gulf. Protecting offsnore oil and gas pipelines from damage by dragging anchors, soil movement,and k. Bottom Activities Many activitiesalready are underwater currents has required improveddeep taking place in the shallow bottom areas.Tunnels burying techniques. Large trenching barges candig built on the surface in sections can beeconomical ditches 12 feet deep and 5 feet wide in water200 where the conditions are favorable, as inprotected feet deep, using a special d.edging siedpulled sediments on thealong the pipeline. Towed sea plows on sleds are waters with unconsolidated plow of seafloor. Sections of tunnel several hundredfeet in used to bury seafloor cables. A sea length are fabricated on shore, floated to thesite, sophisticated design was used to bury morethan lowered into a dredged trench with asuitably 100 miles of transatlantic cable in watersfrom 120 prepared foundation bed. The sections arejoined to 900 feet deep to safeguard itagainst damage together with the aid of divers, and thetrench is from fishing vessels. backfilled. The Trans-Bay Tube now under con- Dredging, a well-established construction and Area Rapid mining technique in shallow waters, hasbeen used struction for the San Francisco Bay overburden Transit Systemisan example. It has tunnel to deepen navigation channels, remove sections about 48 feet wide and 22 feethigh, for foundations, excavate open-cut typetunnels located 135 feet below sea level at thedeepest and outfalls, mine and place fillmaterials, and workingrecover placer and seafloordeposits. The dredges, point. As advAnces in procedures for capacity and under water are made. open-cut tunneling maybe however, are severely limitedin seafloor construc- extended :o deeper, less-protected offshoresites. cannot be considered for major Tunneling in soft ground follows the same tion or mining in deep water. general procedure as tunneling in rock, except Construction and mining require moving large drilling and blasting are not required, andcritical amounts of material. Commercialmining requires Forproduction rates of thousands of tons perday to attention must be given to temporary lining. of this very soft and wet ground, especiallyfor undersea be economically justifiable. Capacities sites, shield tunneling methods are used.While the magnitude to 2,000-foot depths may beachieved technology of shield-driven tunnels is wellalong, bydevelopingimprovedhydraulicorairlift continued improvements willincrease advance- dredges. ment rates and reduce costs. pile Site preparation can be accomplished by 2. FutrNeeds driving and caisson sinkingstandard operationsin conventional construction work, particularly in Improved cements that will set rapidly in low the nearshore regions. In the offshorepetroleum temperature sea water and concretes moreresist- industry, piles and pipe caissons are beingdriven ant to deterioration in sea water areneeded. As from barges in water depths exceeding 300feet. demand grows for concrete foundations in waters The most commonly used drivers arepneumatic to 2,000 feet, major improvementswill be needed hammers, sometimes combined with suchsupple- in placing concrete from surface barges.Concrete mentary means as jetting and drilling.Vibratory mixing and emplacement on the seafloorusing and sonic drivers are used occasionally and may underwater plants or equipment may berequired have considerable growth potential. in the more distant future. In the nearshore zone, concrete can beplaced There will be a need to extend tsenchingand underwater from the surface using eitherdrop- dredging operations to greater depths and deeper bottom buckets or tremies.8 Bags filledwith cuts. Devices such as mobilebreakwaters and concrete or grout intrusion of emplacedaggregates pneumatic curtains to shield operations maybe are sometimes used.Methods for trenching to bury needed. The ability to observe and monitor underwater would help greatly to increaseoperating efficiency, but a major breakthrough in observa- s Funnel-like devices lowered into the water to deposit tion techniques in turbid water will berequired. concrete.

VI-114 175 Assistancebysubmersiblesprobablywillbe3. Conclusions needed. It is now technologically possible toutilize the Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories capablecontinental shelves in view of the progress and of operation at any depth to 2,000 feet should bedevelopment of the past several years. The experi- developed during the coming decade. Each suchence of working on theshelf should provide station should be equipped for submerged trans-solutions to :ubsequent problems of utilizing the port vehicles to convey crew members orsuppliesdeep oceans. to and from the surface or nearby shores. Crew Several ambient pressure, continental shelf hab- size will vary greatly and will be dictated by theitats have been demonstrated in recent years; mission. however, these have been temporary installaiions Specialized subsea power equipment will bedepending on cables to surface ships or shore required analogous to drills, cranes, bulldozers,installations for power. Technical advances during pavement layors and concrete pourers used onthe next 10 years will permit autonomous manned land. Their ability to be mounted on a family ofstations on the ocean floor. standardized, remotely controlled, power-driven Present habitats and concepts for the future chassis would increase their versatility. When anhave three main features in common: operator is required at the work location, the assembly might well be designed for temporaryThey can maintain the diver at or near the attachment of a small portable operator's capsuleambient pressure at the worksite for extended or a small submersible vehicle. periods. Assembly and fabrication of an underwaterThe habitat (or an elevator-like chamber inter- complex completely under water may be requiredfacing with it) is capable of bringing divers to the when the entire structure is too cumbersome on the surface or the components are of a configura-surface for decompression. tion that can be assembled only in place. Regard-The chamber at the underwater worksite has at less of depth, the operation will require carefullyleast one bottom hatch from which divers can planned evolution of an integrated system includ-enter the water and return. inP surface vessels, puntoons, submersibles, divers, monito:ing equipment, and automatic controls. Tunneling in soft and hard ground under the All underwater work operations will requirewater is feasible and can be aidedgreatly by coordinated development in many basic engineer-manned underwater support. ing and component areas. Soil mechanics and foundation design are clearly essential, as are dataRecommendations: on the interaction of waves and currents onthePursue the National Projectsto develop and installation. Underwater power sources, equip-construct Fixed and Portable Continental Shelf ment, and tools adequate for the tasks mustbeLaboratories; Seamount, Slope, and Abyssal Sta- developed. Accurate means of locating and posi-tions; and Mobile Undersea Support Laboratories tioning the installation must be available. Visualas well as other forms ofundersea habitats during observation, television, acoustic imaging equip-the 1970's. ment, and command and communications systems will be essential. Improved materials are a basicD. Transportationand Harbor Development requirement for reliable long-life installations. It is predicted that within 10 years all segments The present U.S. commercial oceanborne cargo of the economyindustrial, academic,military,trade ($36 billion annually) will continue to have a and civil governmentwill be managing selectedmajor impact on programs to extend ocean uses. portions of the U.S. Continental Shelves andThis, moreover, should continue as the value of conducting exploration operations in the deep sea.the U.S. world trade should more than double in Immediatecapability,convenience,cost,andthe next 20 years. potential productivity dictate that initial activity The impact of maritime transportation on U.S. be concentrated on the continentalshelves. nationalinterestsisa product of underlying 176 technologic, economic, and political forces opera-York isa major port for imports;however, of interestsNorfolk, Virginia, is the major port for export on ting on a worldwide scale, as well as major Gulf port and policies within U.S. Governmentcontrol. the Atlantic. New Orleans is the interestsfor export. Import and export tradeof the Gulf These forces affect not only U.S. shipping Louisiana but shipbuikling interests as well.And, finally,Coast is distributed primarily among the and Texas ports. Similarly, importand export programs for offshoreharbor development have the important interrelation with suchFederal andtrade on the Pacific Coast is distributed among State activities as urban renewal, trathpromotion,California and Washington ports. The competition between these adjacert ports is illustratedby the and transpc rtation development. fact that Long Beach harbor handled7,582,000 Revolutionary changes in merchant ship config- whereas the multi-mode short tons with only 1,447 receipts, uration and integration of ships into 10,379,000 transport systems for point-to-point cargodelivery adjacent Los Angeles harbor handled will have great influence on developing usesof thetons, with more than 4,000 receipts. thatLong Beach harboris oceans. As maritime transportation progressleads Itisobvious shipping a larger percentage of bulk cargorequir- to larger, deeper-draft ships andcontainerization handleing less handling and shorter turn-aroundtimes. techniques, today's ports will be unable to equipment, and these ships. Programs for progressivelydeepening All factors relating to packaging, personnel must be considered in any evaluationof these ports now are encountering severephysical obstacles, costly dislocations and ecologicaldis-the influence on trade in U.S. ports. Competition between ports exists where more turbances created by channel dredging. than one port is in an area. This competitionis generally a stimulus to efficient port operation.It 1. Current Situation requires that users and potential users be con- a. Shipping and PortsData on past and presentvinced constantly of the economy andefficiency volume of waterborne trade by U.S. and foreign of a port. flag vessels, compiled by the Bureau of Census, The erection of modern physical facilities to reveal that export and import waterborne trade isimprove efficiency is only the beginning.Total increasing. During 1950, ocean shipments totalled costisthe dominant consideration in routing 159,389,000 short tons of which 39.3 per centfreight. Inland transportation, port charges, and equal or was carried by U.S. flagvessels. Total tonnagewater transportation costs combined must increased to some 405,205,000 short tonsbybetter that of a competitive routing. 1964; however, only 9.9 per cent was carried by Technological advances, especially automation shipping U.S. flag ships. Tanker cargo carried by U.S.flag and handling, are penetrating the ocean business rapidly. The port authorities must create vessels dropped from 53 per cent in 1950 to only neededdeep water 5.9 per cent in 1964. This drastic shift from U.S. new port facilities as they are flag vessels to foreign vessels is a function ofterminals, offshore terminals, and automated iaan- myriad factors including shipbuilding costs, wages,dling equipment for new large bulk cargo carriers. Most other maritime nations are doing more age of ships, and automation. with tech- The Atlantic coastal region in 1966 accountedthan the United States to keep pace nological change. Gigantic superports arebeing forthe major share of imports, whereas the combination of Atlantic and Gulf Coast portsplanned in Ireland, France, and Japan; expansion is under way in Italy, Belgium, andHolland. accounted for most v,f the Nation's exports. Cargo of tonnage by all vessels for coastal distribution has During the next few years as utilization remained approximately constant for the last 10oceans changes, many problems mustbe solved; actual construction of the hardware maybe the years.During 1964 theprincipaloceanborne import commodities were crude petroleum, resid- simplest. Expediting paperwork, removing customs Thebottlenecks, coordinating land and water trans- ual fuel oil, gas, iron ore, and aluminum ore. in- major export commodities were bituminous coalport, developing simplified pricing systems, labor and wheat. creasing safety, and dislocation of ports and Many U.S. major ports have a disparity betweenwill be most difficult. Port and harborproblems the amount of cargo imported and exported.New will be solved only through systemsanalysis,

V1-116 177 research and development, and modern procure-and to redistribute the cargo for overland shipment policies.Similarprocedures made largement. defense and communications systems possible. Inthepast,the Corps of Engineers has Thebroadandcomplexinterrelationshiprespondedtothe demand for deeper harbor between harbor and waterfront development mustfacilities by progressively deepening these major include the following Federal programs: ports. However, theyareencountering serious obstaclesthatconstrainfuturedredging:(1) The civil works program of the Army Corps ofdamage to water supplies by salt water intrusion Engineers. into aquifers, (2) dislocation of private property adjacent to harbors and channels, (3) relocation of The water pollution and fish and wildlife pro-major land transportation and communications grams of the Department of the Interior. facilities, (4) replacement of such major navigation structures as locks, (5) encountering bedrock, The urban renewal, open space, urban beautifica-conduits, vehicular tunnels, etc., (6) disposal of tion,historicpreservation,waterand sewersdredged spoil, and (7) disruption of harbor ecol- grants, publicfacilityloans, and public worksogy. planning programs of the Department of Housing The greatest obstacle to harbor development is and Urban Development. the cost of relocations and dislocations resulting The economic development, trade promotion,from channel enlargement. Major harbors have technical ossistance, business loan, and port plan-such extensive industrial developments at waters ning programs of the Department of Commerce. edge that harbor or channel improvement requires relocation of industrial, commercial, and residen- The transportation systems, transportation facili-tial structures. ties, urban freeway, and Coast Guard port and AtOakland,California,harbordeepening maritime programs of the Department of Trans-would result in very high costs for modifying portation. Army, Navy, and city waterfront facilities. The Chelsea River Channel in Boston Harbor is dredged The surplus facilities disposal programs of thenearlyberth-to-berthinseverallocations, and GeneralServicesAdministrationandof thedislocations will be required if dredging proceeds Department of Defense. to greater depths. In New Orleans, producingoil wells located on and adjacent to the banks along Forecasts of port needs, identification of urbanthe Calcasieu River, Pass Channel, and theMissis- renewalopportunities and desirable recreationsippi River Channel must be moved if the channels areas,delineationof pollutionproblems, andare enlarged. determination of means of financingall need Examples of major land transportation facilities study. that must be relocated include highway tunnels at The United States is on the threshold of aOakland, Baltimore, Norfolk, Mobile, and the revolutionary change in merchant shipping. Formouth of the Chesapeake Bay. The many highway, economy of operation the trend is to larger sizes,rail,and subway tunnels crossing New York deeper drafts, smaller crews, better cargo handlingHarbor constitute an outstanding example. facilities, and higher speeds. Most of today's ports The problem of removing increasing quantities will be obsolete and unable to handle the moreof rock to accomplish harbor deepening is a cost-effective ships. Offshore handling and unload-problem associated with particular harbors. On the ing facilities will be needed,.-vnereitwill beGulf Coast dredging very long approaches through impractical to provide for the greatly increasedunconsolidated sediments covering the gently slop- ship drafts. The efficiency of larger, more auto-ing adjacent shelf is a problem. mated ships will require concentration in a few Deeperdredgingcreates water conservation large, well equipped ports rather than many snailproblems by permitting the intrusion of the salt ports, Ports should be located away from con-water farther up fresh water streams or rivers and gested downtown areas providing ample room toby damage to the protective covering of fresh exchange cargo rapidly, to return the ships to sea,water aquifers. The problem of damage to water

78 V1-117 supplies appears to be most significant on theResolution of the conflict in use of U.S.Conti- Atlantic Coast, particularly in the DelawareRivernental Shelf areas. estuary. Potentially serious problems exist attheReduction or elimination of wrecks, debris, mouth of the Columbia River and in San Franciscopollutants, and litter on the U.S. Continental Bay. Identifiable problems exist in the Great LakesShelf. and the Pacific Coast harbors: Establishment of safety standards for continental shelf structures and devices. Disturbance to harbor bottom and lake bed ecology. Continuance of the Nation's ;ead in continental shelf capabilities and activities. Pollution affecting water quality, fish species, conservation,regulation and fish habitats. Estuarinepollution, (tentative). Changes in tidal flow that affect the habitats for fish and shellfish. The present functions and activities ofthe Loss of waterfowl breeding grounds throughCoast Guard are: spoil dumping. Provide search and rescue services. The effect of harbor deepening on the estuarineDevelop and administera merchant marine ecology has resulted in growing concern by natur-safety program. alists and conservationists throughout the country, Maintain a state of readiness for military opera- emphasizing the need for additional information. tion in time of war or national emergency. corinrehensivesystem of aidsto The U.S.Provide a b. Protection of Life and Property navigationforthe armed forces and marine Coast Guard is envisioned as the principal agencycommerce. for (1) rescue of ships. submersibles, and divers, (2) safety inspection and certification of submers-Enforce or assist in the enforcement a Federal ibles, diving equipment, diver training,and smalllaws on the high seas or waters subject to the boats, and (3) relevant law enforcement.However,jurisdiction of the United States. itisnecessary to examine theNavy's role in certification of Navy submersibles so thattheConduct an oceanographic program, maintain Coast Guard.data on ocean status, provide ice-breaking services experience can be transferred to the and iceberg patrol, and train officer andenlisted The panel endorses the role contemplatedfor the reserves. Coast Guard in future ocean operations. There is proposed legislation and discussion by2. Future Needs the Coast Guard on a U.S. ContinentalShelf safety and co- Today and for the foreseeablefuture the program as a11 orderly, comprehensive, marine transportation industry is essential tothe ordinated means of protecting life and property on well-being of the United States. The viabilityof the shelves.' This freatment of safetyreflects this beenthe national economy to a large extentis depend- Continental Shelf Safety Program and has trade. National endorsed by the National Council onMarineent upon a steady growth in world The pro-defense relies heavily on shipping andshipbuilding Resources and Engineering Development. response. Marine gram includes the following major areasof en-toensure adequatemilitary transportation and trade help maintainsatisfactory deavor: political relationships between the UnitedStates and most of the maritime powers of theworld. The future of the ocean transportationindustry 9Has not yet cleared the House Merchant Marine is dependent on faster, more economicalships, Safety Committee; no bill number assigned as of January possibly nuclear powered, that willallow the 1969. VI-118 179 United States to become a leader in world shipping To plan properly a program for port and urban once again. wat.3rfronts, alternatives to harbor deepening must A program for port and urban waterfrontbe considered if this is not economically feasible. development and redevelopment should be estab-The,-e are basically four technical alternatives to lished involving all interested Federal and Stateharbor deepening. Filst, where thereisa long agencies. It should embrace a range of activitiesapproach channel to reach port or harbor facilities, from creation of entirely new port or waterfrontoffshoreunloadingstationswithinprotected complexes torehabilitation and conversion ofwaters may be constructed. Corresponding han- existing port and waterfront lands and facilities.dling and transportation systems ashore must be The program should entail: (1) comprehensiveconstructed or modified to deliver the bulk com- surveys of port-transportation requirements, inter-modities to their final destinations. It is conceiv- facing with community needs, and studies onable that the construction or modification would urban renewal, recreation, and pollution, (2) de-be financed by private or joint enterprise. velopment of plans for port, harbor, and water- Second would be a combination of lightering front area renovation, and (3) integration of portby barge, followed by transit up the channel to the and waterfront planning witn programs for conser-pier head. Extensive studies reveal that, depending vation of estuarine resources. The Army Corps ofon local conditions, it is economical :n some cases Engineers already has begun work related to theto transship cargo and lighter by barge. first two in cooperation with the Departments of Third is to provide more efficient scheduling of Tramportation, Housing and Urban Development,the bulk carrier by determining the decrease in the and Interior as follows: ship's draft due to fuel consumed en route and computing the decrease in the ship's draft due to The Department of Housing and Urban Develop-cargo to be unloaded. ment and the Corps of Engineers have conducted a A fourth alternative is a systems design of ship preliminary survey of areas engaged in or inter-size and port capacity in conjunction with existing ested in harbor or urban waterfront renewal.channel depth, involving faster ships with im- Waterfrontrenewalactivitiestobeplannedproved cargo handling facilities and scheduled involve: (a) eliminating sources of drift and debris,control of all ships calling at the port. As the including removal of dilapidated or obsolete struc-world's fleets increase in number and speed, it is tures, (b) clearing lands for housing, open space, orconceivable that fleet controllers similar to airway recreation, (c) substituting small boat or marinecontrollers may effect proper and safe traffic flow facilities for abandoned commercial areas, and (d)within the harbor. removing sludge and solid pollutants from urban If channels are to remain fixed in depth, and harbor areas. ship size and speed are to increase as predicted, installation of offshore cargo handling facilities is The Corps of Engineers presently is engaged innecessary. Any extensive harbor and channel pilot studies in the New York and Boston areas todeepening must be preceded by an extensive determine what new Federal initiatives or authori- land-use pattern study. Due to consumer and locale ties are required to execute waterfront renewalrequirements,italso may be advantageous to plans. The studies will identify the legal, financial,relocate the industry, shortening land routes in the and associated problems of harbor area renovationtransportation networks. stemming from abandoned private facilities and For bulk cargoes in general, it is conceivable sunken or derelict vessels. They will recommendthat political and economic conditions at the changes in statutory authority to insure optimumdestination may compel the preprocessing of some use and effective redevelopment of the harbor areabulk caigoes fortherecipient countries. This resources. wouldreducesubstantiallythebacklandl ° The Department of Transportation is developingrequirementsfor bulk cargoes in U.S.ports. a Port and Harbor Access Progmm based on planning methods to determine optimum urban roads, terminal points, and intercity roads and rail 10Backland is the area of a port city where warehouses, lines to serve the port area. terminals, etc. are located inshore from the waterfront.

VI-119 However, higher landing and terminal costs may The high rate of ship technology development result and the trade-offs must bc studied. could make a large investment obsolete before its to normal economic life. (For example, general eco- Of the various nontechnical alternatives nomic lives for systems elements are: container- channel deepening, the legal and regulatory pre- 10 years, ship-25 years, terminal-50years.) dominate, including restrictions to shipoperation, size Therefore,it would seem advantageous to con- channelregulation,and safety. As ship struct the facilities that have shorter economic increases,directionalstabilityatlowspeeds maintained or replaced avoid high fees livesandareeasily becomes more difficult; hence, to pipelines, conveyor belts, long finger piers, etc. maintain for using tugs in channels, many ships Othernon-technicalconsiderationswould speed, creating a substantial wake thatdamages include the decline of the present commodity structures along the channel. Asship size and ofmovements, the increasing volume of new com- trafficin the port increase the probability modities, shifting trade routes, population pres- increases. collisions and channel blockage also sures causing port systems to bereduced in size, Economic loss fromtotal blockage and portsafety requirements, air space requirements, pollu- incalcuable; higher insurance costs shutdown is tion, etc. and port charges are a distinct possibility. The Coast Guaid, as the Federal maritime law prob- Large ships may create major economic enforcement agencyhas the responsibilityto lems in regional port development.As ship sizeenforce Federal laws relating to water pollution. increases, the tendencyis to concentrate cargoThe Coast Guard also is responsible for enforcing capacityat one location to thedetriment ofthe Oil Pollution Act of 1961 which prohibits neighboring port facilities, causing socioeconomicoffshore pollution. These are largely preventive reaction by impact on the region with predictable measures only, and it would appearthat broader labor unions. responsibilities should be authorized. Over the The exhaustion of bulk cargo sources threatensU.S. Ccnfinental Shelf andinother Federal ports and their regions with a shift of trade routesnavigable waters, there is a need for this agency to and ports of call. If the source of cargo forlargeprovide greater assistance in the protectionof the ships is depleted and channels have beendeepenednatural resources through pollution abatementand explicitly for large ships, the huge investment incontrol. the channel and perhaps in the handling equip- deepened ment will be wasted. If channels are not 3. Conchisions and ship size increases, port authoriti-s andother regulatory bodies may impose a progressive tax on The present U.S. commercial oceanborne cargo large ships as an economic restraint on super sizes.trade will continue to have a major impact on any Since depthis the most expensive variable inprograms designed to extend ocean uses. channel construction, the tax probably will be a The future needs of the transportation industry function of ships' length, beam, and draftwithare dependent on faster, moreeconomical ships, emphasis on draft. possibly nuclear powered, that will allow theU.S. As bulk ships increase in size, sowill theto become a leader in world shipping onceagain. inherent dangers of such hazardous cargoes as Technological advances, automation, and need naptha and nitrates. Port authorities mayrestrict for economy of operation are penetratingwater- large hazardous cargo operations to remote areas;borne shipping business at a very rapid pace.As a or by law they may restrictdangerous cargoes toresult, port authorities must stand ready to create ships of present sizes. such new port facilities as deep water terminals or han- Regional development of port systemswill beoffshore unloading terminals with automated influenced by the very nature of largeships dling equipment for new large bulk cargocarriers. coupled with advancedscheduling techniques. Progress in marine transportation is leading profit-rapidly to larger, deeper draft, bulk carriersand Operators of super ships may find it more handling able to change the schedules and use oneporthigh speed ships with improved cargo systems suchascontainers and lighters. The system suitably modified for their increased capa- efficiency of city. impact of containerization on the

VI-120 181 cargo handling is revolutionary and will continueV. GREAT LAKES RESTORATION11 to increase. Port design in addition to ship design will pace Virtually every activity man pursues modifies future progress. The deepening of harbors tohis environment in some way. While not all these accommodate large bulk carriers is encounteringmodifications are detrimental, the sum of discrete such severe physical barriers as bedrock, man-madeactivities undertaken to achieve specific goals can tunnels, and long shallow approaches. In genei al,be detrimer tal unless efforts are made to balance terminalsforcontainerized shipping must beresource utilization and environmental quality. totally new and located outside downtown metro-This balance must be sought with a full under- politan areas, a trend which can release valuablestanding of the interactions between resources. land for urban development. benefits,detriments,and long-range coststo Offshore unloading platforms and lighteringsociety. techniques are being conr:dered as one of the most The public has become aware of the importance progressive and economical means of handlingof this balance only very recently; previously, larger, deeper draft ships. concern for preserving and maintaining our natural The Coast Guard role in protection of life andresources was subordinated by parochial interests. property must be strengthened; this responsibilityThis shortsightedness now demands measures be for the U.S. Continental Shelf undersea activitytaken to cure the sicknesses of our environment; mustbeconsolidatedunderoneresponsiblepreventive measures alone will pass a legacy of ruin agency. It is obvious that chaos will result fromto future generations. the advancing use of the U.S. Continental Shelf The five Great Lakes demonstrate misuse and with its myriad of men and equipment unless oneabuse of environment by man. One only need agency concentrates systematically on the tasks ofcompare the rate of population growth in areas protecting life and property. immediately surrounding each of the Lakes with Finally, to insure proper prot,:ction of life andthe rate of deterioration of water quality (Figure property, the Coast Guard should pursue research48). Ranked according to impaired water gu -. ity and development programs to strengthen capabili-or interfereryte with beneficial uses, Lake Erie ties of traffic control and monitoring, search andexhibits the greatest impairment, followed by rescue (including underwater scuba divers, sub-Lakes Ontario, Michigan, Huron, and Superior. mersibles, and habitats), pollution abatement andTotal population in the drainage basins around control (oil and other hazardous materials), andeach of the lakes corresponds closely: the rat_ of fisheries regulation. population growth reflects the rate of accelerated aging or eutrophication processes in the lakes. The conclusion is inescapableman is directly responsible for the accelerated deterioration of Recommendations: water quality. If corrective actionis not taken, further deterioration will parallel future population growth. Port and harbor development should be based on a Fortunately, this situation has been recognized total systems approach to marine transportation, byallsectors of our society, and preventive concentrating on design of offshore and improvedmeasures to arrest deterioration are being imple- methods of intermodal (air-land-sea) transfer tomented. These measures, however, probably are allow more effective use of the coast-41k J. not enough. Whether the lakesLake Eriein To ensure proper protection of tIte and prop-particularcan recoverfrr m previous environ- erty, the Coast Guard should pursue a ,e >earch and development program to strengthen capabilities for traffic control and monitoring, search and I 'Most of the material in this subsection was taken rescue (including underwater divers, submersibles,from Battelle Northwest, Research Report, Great Lakes and habitats), pollution abatement and control (oilRestorationReview of Potentials and Recommendations for Impleinentation to the Commission (Unpublished and other hazardous materials), and fisheries regu-report. Battelle Memorial Institute, Richland, Washington, lation. 1968).

V1-121 182 L Pop. In. ..Minion:" I.

k Pop. in Millions :". 6 e". 5 4 L 3 2 Pop. in Millions 1 ...1840 1860 r eToronlo 1840 1860 1880 190019201940 1960

/11 - 1-1"-9 -

Chicago ./.., .-, . ....,....--.) ......

.5{-34t Main Commercial Fisheries Laboratories ? 1820 1840 1860,1880 1900 19201940 1960 411 Bureau of Corninerciul Fisheries. Department of the Interior 1. IIIOther Agencies (U.S. and Canada) es- -.. 1...,-

each Figure 48. The Great Lakes and theirdrainage basins, showing population increase in basin. (Battelle Northwest photo) Adminis- mental damage through implementation of preven- The Federal Water Pollution uontrol tive measures alone is debatable. The recoverytration (FWPCA) Report (1966), Water Pollution long andProblems of the Great Lakes Area, identifiesthe period probably would be inordinately Lakes area the forfeited benefits considerable. Thus, restora-major physical problems of the Great tiveas wellas preventive measures mustbe as: considered to achieve resource utilizationandOver--enrichment of the Lakes. environmental quality managed in the best inter- Lakes. ests of the United States and Canada. Build-up of dissolved solids in the Bacterial contamination of the Lakes andtribu- A. Current Situation taries. The fact that something has gone awry inLake Erie is obvious. People cannot enjoy its usein theChemical contamination from industrial waste same ways they could 20 years ago.Southern Lakedischarges. Michigan and parts of Lake Ontarioexhibit someOxygen depletion of the Lakes andtributaries. of Lake Erie's symptoms. The commondenom- inator limiting the multiple use of theGreat Lakes Like all lakes, the Great Lake^ are undergoing pollution.'2Most authorities resources is water Historically, agree with this conclusion. an aging process leading to extinction. young lakes are relatively barrenof biological life; they are oligotrophic. As aging progresses,the 12Testini ony of Dr. David C. Chandler, Director,Greatmaterial retained by the lake gradually increases in Lakes Research Division, Institute of Science andTech- nology, University of Michigan. the bottom sed4inerits; the sediments decompose,

V1-122 18 3 and the lake waters become richer in nutrients onUnsightly, malodorous masses of algae and other which minute water plants thrive. As the plantpollutants interfere with the recreational use of population on w'aich they feed increases, thewaters and beaches, clog municipal and industrial population of minute water animals and higherwater intakes, and depress property values. animals multiplies. Increased biological productivity changes both Nearly all Lake Erie is eutrophic; Lake Ontario the surface and deeper waters. The lake passesis nearly eutrophic, and Lake Michigan exhibits from the oligorrophic phase eventually into thesome symptoms of eutrophy, especially in the eutrophic phase in which organic and inorganicsouthwestern part. Isolated evidence of pollution materialsfillthe basin. Rooted aquatic plantshas been observed in Lakes Huron and Superior, become established, gradually converting the areaalthough in general, water quality in these lakes is to marshland. good. Eutrophication, the aging process, is the process Increases in the dissolved solids of the Great of enrichment with nutrients. Accelerated eu-Lakes have been observed over the years since trophication of lakes results from the input ofroutine water quality analyses first wE.Te initiated. nutrientmaterials,largelynitrogen and phos-Despite dissolved solids concentrations r...)t having phorusfromman'sactiv ,ies.Naturalagingimpaired water usesseriously,local problems proceeds slowlyinthe geological time scale;influenced by population and industrial growth are however, acceleration of the process by humanexperienced near points of large waste discharges. activity causes aging that can be observed within aThe dissolved solids problem probably will be generation. reduced somewhat through recently adopted State Acceleratedeutrophicationis emphasizedwater quality standards. Because most bacterial because it is critically impairing the benefits of thecontamination can be directly traced to man, it Great Lakes. Itis a very difficult problem re-can be remedied more easily. quiring several remedial measures. Problems of The accelerated aging of the Great Lakes is not build-up of dissolved solids and oxygen depletionthe sole cause or symptom of deteriorating water are closely associated with eutrophication. quality. However, because other pollution effects Accelerated eutrophication of Lake Erieis are intimately linked to this phenomenon, meas- manifest as follows: ures to prevent accelerated aging and to restore waterquality helpsolve other problems. An Blue-green algae, diatoms, and other algal prolif-example is lessening cxygen dep..etion caused by erationscaus,noxious odors and appear asthe biodegradation of organic wastes. unsightly scums on the water surface. Oxygen can be depleted through addition of organic substances to a body of water and the These algae impart unpleasant tastes to waterproliferation of algae. Most organic pollutants can supplies. be controlled by treatment methods consistent Dissolved oxygen levels are depressed in ther-with water quality standards. mally stratified areas.

Desirable bottom ilwe lling, clean wat, nimal B. Causes of Pollution and Accelerated Aging species are displaced by lessdesirable species tolerant of pollution and low oxygen concen- To define the necessary action and formulate tration. restorative methods, it is essential to understand the nature of causvtive factors. The following Fish populations change from such highly-prizedfactors contribute to the accelerated aging of the game fish as pike, trout, and whitefish to suchGreat Lakes: coarse,less valuablefish as carp, catfish, and sheepshead. 1. MunicipalWastewater Objectionablefilamentousalgaegrowingin shallow waters wash up onto the shores and Municipal sewage is the principal source of beaches. nutrtents, especially phospforus; 75 per cent of

8 4 VI- 1 2 3 the plu.,sphorus added to Lake Erie comesfromproblems. Of course, the problem will grow as municipal wastewater, and 66 per centof the watertransportationand recreational boating phosphorus is derived from detergents. Two-thirds increase. of the phosphorousisretained inthe lake, principally in its bottom sediments. Needless to S. Oil Discharges say, the effects of municipalwastewater discharges Oil discharges are undesirable, for they cause have had a drastic effect on aging.There is noecological inbalances and drastic effects on aes- doubt that domestic sewage is a predominatingthetics. On the other hand, special oiN could contributor to the deterioration of water qualityhave limited beneficial effects by reducing the because of its nutrients, as well as its bacterial andpenetration of the sunlight, necessary for the organic contamination. growth of algae that contribute to eutrophication.

2. Combined Storm Sewage 6. Dredging Combined storm sewage sometimes is a greater For many years harbors and channels in the problem than municipal wastewater. CombinedGreat Lakes have been dredged to provide suitable storm sewage from a heavy rainfall can overtaxthechannels for waterborne transport. The spoil, rich capacity of a treatment plant; hence, substantialin nutrients, usually consists of sediments carried volumes of untreated wastewater are bypassed toby tributary streams and rivers and of sewage and receiving bodies of water. industrial waste residues. Dumping spoil in the lakes, the practice for many years, releases more nutrients than when sediments and residues are 3. Industrial Wastewater undisturbed. Hence, dredging causes an increase in Often industrial wastes are routed to .nunicipalthe recycling of sediment-stored nutrients, espe- treatment systems for the mutualbenefit of theciallyphosphorous. Important benefits would community and its indu.try. These wastes gener-accrue if the dredging spoil weredeposited on ally hove the effects discussed underMunicipalisolated land so nutrients would not be washed Wastewater, paragraph1 above. However, manyagain into the lakes. large industries bordering the G-eat Lakesfind it more economical to accomplishtreatment within7. Thermal Discharges their own complex. Many do not effect a suitable degree of treatment, thus contributing to acceler- Thermal discharges can have both beneficial ated aging. Nutrient-laden effluents, organic con-and detrimental effects on accelerated aging.Dis- taminants, noxious chemicals, and sediments orcharge of such heated effluents as industrial and extensive arecontained inindustrialpower plant cooling water can induce inorganic residues algal growth during seasons when water tempera- wastewaters. tures are normally too cold. Conversely,during seasons when water stagnates andbecomes strati- 4. Watercraft Wastes fied in the Lakes, thermal discharges could help W:.; :es from watercraft are not treated to therestore circulation. Stratification causes oxygen extent of municipal wastewaters, or mostoftendeficiencies in the bottom waters of a lake, in recycling not atail.In the United States, recreationalturn, causilg vastly increased nutrient watercraft wastes are equivalent to that discliaorgedfrom the bottom sediments. by a community of 500,000. However, thiscontri- bution to water quality deterioration of the Great8. Nutrient-Laden Inflow from Tributaries Lakes is insignificant by comparison withother nutrient sources. While its treatment is beneficial, Inflow from tributaries and impoundmentsadd especially to public health, it is very doubtful thatnutrients to the lakes. Because impoundments watercraft wastes alone would acceterate aging ofsuffer the same aging problema, both the causes the Great Lakes. However, on a very local basisatand remedies arc essentially the same asfor the a marina, for exampleit may cause veryseriouslakes. This illustrates the need to treatthe Great

i 24 185 preventiveAs silt and erosion runoffflow into the lake, Lakes as a total basin, implementing available for bio- tributaries as well asnutrients are dissolved and are and restorative measures for practices, especially the lakes themselves. (This aspectis discussedlogical utilization. Land use land development in urbanand agricultural areas, further below.) have contributed to acceleratedaging; measures must be undertakentocontrolthis nutrient 9. Waterfowl source. The Great Lakes, on an extensivelyused migra- tory flyway, are a resting andhabitat area for large 12. Agricultural Runoff numbers of waterfowl. However, thebirds' contribution to eutrophication of the Lakesis a part of Agricultural runoff, another veryimportant the natural aging process. source of nutrientsentering the Great Lakes, consists of eroded soil, leached saltsand fertilizers, 10. F Zcheries and excess fei Wizen Measures toalleviate some of the nutrient contribution in therunoff include That fisheries have suffered from waterqualitycontour plowing and otherland management deterioration in the Great Lakes iswell known.techniques, judicious fertilizerapplication, and Actually, the annual catch of all speciesin Lakecontrol of agricultural wastewater wherepossible. eutrophi- Erie has not decreased with accelerated Itis difficult to control nutrients inagricultural cation,However,lessdesirablespecieshaverunoff, because treatment methods cannotbe supplanted the more desirable gamefish, becauseapplied to point sources.Itis a problem of, spawning and rearing areas havebeen contami-perhaps, the same magnitude as combinedstorm nated or destroyed. The bottom faunahave beensewage. In the Midwestalone, it is estimated that changed by pollutants and sediments,altering thethe nutrients from animal wastes areequivalent to game fish food supply soonly the more tolerant,that from 300 million people.Obviously, only a less desirable species can thrive. fiaction reaches the Great Lakes, but thepotential had some The predation of sea lamprey has from this source is enormous. impact, but this has been lessimportant recently in Lake Erie than in LakesMichigan and Superior. The purposeful addition ofnutrientsisa 13. Urban Land Drainage increasing fish production common technique for Although distinguished fromcombined storm in lakes, while catching orremoving large quanti- sewage, this problemhas many similar elements, ties of fish constitutes a reductionof nutrients. exists for Lakes becauseassuming that a separate sewer system Thisis important in the Great drainage is com- of fisheries resourcesstorm runoff. Urban or storm planning and managemeIi i. posed of such nutrient materials asstreet sedi- can benefit nutrientcontrol. For example, nutri- refuse. It usually restoration programments, grit, oils, salts, and street ent removal as part of a receiving body of water, wash ashoreis discharged directly to a requires that dead alewives which by pathogens removed. Additionally,because the potential contamination from Lake Michigal be concentration may alewives can be a liource of protein.Hence, twois quite low; yet, the nutrient not be low, particularly inrich soil areas. function,canbeaccomplishedconcurrently: nutrient temoval by vigorous fishing for anunde- sirablespecies and production of asignificant14. Subsurface Waste Disposal amount of protein. Ruralareasand many developmentareas around the Great Lakes have septicfields for 11. Sediment Interchange domestic wastewater disposal.Nutrients in sub- having and agri-stantial amounts drain to the lak.)s in areas Sedimentation (including silt, erosion these regions cultural runoff, dead biologicallife, and waste-certain soil characteristics; however, are fairly dispersed anddo not constitute a major waterresidues)constitutethesecond most important sourc.; of nutrients inthe Great Lakes.source of nutrients.

VI-125 186 15. Atmospheric Quality Deterioration has occurred in other smaller lakes. The fact that the FWPCA and other agencies are working to The carbon dioxide content of the world's control elements contributing toeutrophication atmosphere has increased a small amount, and the andtorestorewaterqualityreinforcesDr. temperatures of the atmosphere haveincreased Brinkhurst's conclusion. likewise. Consequent temperature increases in the Technology to control eutrophication may be water cause a small drop in dissolved oxygen. classified as preventive or restorative. Preventative measures remove nutrients fromthe water before It is virtually impossible to predict what woulddischarge to a receiving body, and restorative happen to the eutrophication trend by removingmeasures remove the nutrients orthe products of any single nutrient source. Whilepriorities shouldeutrophy from the affected body of water. Meas- be established for preventive and restorative tech-ures which reduce nutrients usually improveother niques, many methods must be implementedwater quality parameters, (e.g., bacterialcontent) before restoration can be achieved. which may have little effect on eutrophication. Factors contributing to accelereated aging are ranked below according to their importance in theC. Preventive Measures problem. Hence, they serve as thtargets for both preventive and restorative measures: 1. Nutrient E Jusion High Impact Most research has been to develop suitable metlids to remove nutrients from municipal Municipal wastewater wastewater. Most methods, however, can be Agrie ultw:31 :.qoff applied also to other nutrient-containing aqueous flows. The soap and detergent industry is seeking substitutes for he phosphate in detergent formula- Medium fr tions, because d:-.tergents account for a substantial Industrial wastewater part of the phosphorus in municipal wastewater. Combined storm sewage Activated sludge secondary treatment plants removal. Urban land drainage can be operated to optimize nutrient Decing Aeration rate, aeration time, aeration solids, and t-laden inflow from tributaries return sludge ratios are critical to effectivephos- phorus removal. These plants also can be operated to accentuate denitrification, employing avariety Low Impact of operating procedures. Capitalizing on the principle that nutrients in Watercraft wastes municipal wastewaters cause prolific growth of Oil discharges algae, algae are cultured under controlled condi- Thermal discharges tions in the treatment plant. The algae then are Waterfowl harvested to remove the incorporated nutrients, Subsurface waste disposal leaving the effluent low in nutrient content. The Atmospheric quality dete:ioration limiting factor inthe removal of nitrogen and phosphorus by this method is the efficiency of Can the eutrophicatio:.1 rrocess in theGreat algal hm vesting. an.] Lakes be revened? This irem1significant Chemicalco-precipitationwithlime question, because the eff'..i .!ane funds expendedhydrous aluminum and iron oxides ishighly on Great Lakes restor; 1011 grt;atly ini-menceeffective in removing phosphorus from municipal the answer. In referrinE, take Erie, Dr. R..dph L.wasteviater, but nitrogen removal is less effective. Brinkhurst of the Univcrsit, of Toronto saik;. Of all removal processes, ion exchange is the most the healtiv:.est corpse I've seen." He firmlybelieveseffective for removing both nitrogen and paos- that eutrophication-cin be reversej, citing specificphoms. Ammonia stripping also has been effect 'me studies that demonstra',e eui.:(:,-Ibicationreversalin removing nitrogen.

V1-1 26 8 7 Spraying effluent on land has been relativelyD. Restorative Measures effectivein removing nutrients from municipal wastewater, but drainage from the land must not Restorative measures are intended to remove be allowed to flow into a receiving body of water.nutrients from water. While prevention involves millions of gallons per day, restoration in the Membrane processes, primarily for dissolvedGreat Lakes involves hundreds of cubic miles of solids removal, have some capability for nitrogenwater. This point should be carefu" remembered and phosphorus removal but are expensive. when alternative courses of actioire considered. Distillation is efficient for removing nitrogen Some restorative techniques discussed below and especially phosphorus. are based on limnological theory rather than actual Other methods have been proposed, but mostexperimental or developmental work. Others are are still in the research or developmental stages.based on applications to lakes of much smaller size Recent FWPCA hearings on Lake Michigan nothan the Great Lakes. doubt will accelerate efforts to evolve an efficient, inexpensive method for phosphorus removal. TheI. Sealing Bottom Sedime*s Secretary of the Interior stated that phosphorus removal from municipal wastewater should be If the addition of all nutr'ants were terminated, maximized, and municipalities that discharge ef-recycling of nutrients from previously deposited fluents to Lake Michigan should accomplish 80 persediments would continue accelerated eutrophica- cent phosphorus removal by 1972. tion of the Lakes for a considerable time. One Agriculturalrunoff,asignificant source ofsolution is to seal the bottom sediments from the nutrients, is more difficult to control. However, overlyingwaters. Thissealmust be renewed some measures can be taken to exclude nutrients,periodically, perhaps annually, if accumulation of including land management to prevent erosion andadditional nutrients by natural causes continues. subsequent pollution by siltation. Measures are being implemented to control2. Flushing with Low-Nutrient Water watercraft wastes, including retention of wastes Use of low-nutrient water to flush eutrophic onboard fo: treatment ashore and onboard proa.es-lakes has been employed with some success to sing equivalentto secondary treatment and arestor, water quality. This method was used in corresponding degree of nutrient removal. Consid-Green Lake near Seattle, and similar experiments erable research and development sponsored by theare planned for Moses Lake, Washington. The great FWPCA, Navy, and Coast Guard is in progress. quantities of low-nutrient water required make Another measure that can be implemented toapplication or this method in the Great Lakes exclude nutrients from the Great Lakes is thequestionaHe. Further, downstream waters may be cessation of dredge spoil, garbage, trash, and refuseadversely affected by the flushed nutrients. disposal in the lakes. Of these, dredging has caused concern in localized areas because of the amount3. Nutrient Removal of nutrients associated with the spoil. Although two-thirds of the phosphorus introduced into Lake Erie is- retained in the bottom sediments, significant amounts also are ret:ined by 2. Nutrient Diversion fish, algae, and rooted vegetation. Removal of fish Diversion of nutrient-containing effluents (such willbeconside-edinlaterdiscussions.Itis as municipal wastewater) around bodies of water isessential that algae and aquatic weeds be removed a technique successfully employed in the past tofrom the Lake. Cutting nuisance aquatic weeds 1.:eventaccelerated eutrophication. Despiteitsand leaving them in the water effects no nutrient success, this method could prove shortsighted. Theremoval. Furthermore, the harvested algae and pollution problem merely is passed to a down-weeds must be removed sonutrients do not stream impoundment, lake', bay, or estuary. This isreenter the lake by leaching and drainage. One not acceptable resource management unless sub-solution would be toutilize them for added stantial mitigating circt:rnstances exist for whichbenefits as sources of protein, fertilizer, mulch, or the long-term effects are thoroughly understood.animal feeds.

VI-127 frequent inter- 4. Thermal Destratification measure that must be repeated at vals, and the chemicals could accumulate in fish During seasons when oxygen deficiencies exist and eventually be harmful to man. in the bottom waters of a lake, nutrientavail- ability at the sediment-water interface is greatly 8. Chemical Inactivation increased. Oxygen deficiencies result largelyfrom water stagnation in temperaturelayers and from Research is in progress for a method to chem- biological decay on the lake bottom. Destratifica- ically inactivate the nutrients by preventing their tion or restoration of water circulation toallow utilization by the algae. One promising method is oxygen to be absorbed fromthe air reduces theto develop chelating agents which will complex availability of nutrients in the bottom sediments, with divalent ions that function as co-enzymes in thereby arresting or retarding the aging process. nitrogen fixation by algae and to determine the Destratification can be accomp'ished by mech-types of algae growl hs which result. anical mixing, aeration mixing, oi thermal mixing. In the first, the lake is mechanically stirred sothat9. Prevention of Light Penetration zones of stratification arethoroughly mixed. In The development of a substance to decrease the the second, the same mechanical mixingallows penetration of light into the Lakes by increasing oxygen from the air to be absorbedin the water.either reflectance or opacity has been proposed In the third, mixing is accomplished by heating. This substance must be nontoxic,biologically stable, and nonrestrictive to oxygen transfer into 5. Dredging the water. No known substance satisfiesthese Since bottom sediments are a potent sourceof criteria and others required to maintain maxi.n..am has been nutrients, removal of the sediments beneficialuse of the water resource.Further, recommended for restoring lakes. However,Great during certain seasons photosynthetic organisms Lakes sediments are quite thick in certain areas. can provide measureable quantitiesof oxygen This and theexpanseof the Lakes dictatesduring hours of sunlight, so the addition of alight exertionof Herculeaneffortsto completely retarding substance must not disrupt this. remove the sediments. Care mustbe exercised to minimize release of nutrients during thedredging 10. Rough Fish Removal operation. Part of the nutrient inventory in theGreat Lakes is retained by the fish population,and 6. Biological Control removing the fish reduces the inventory. However, Biological control of algae and aquaticweeds is many fish species are highlydesirable for game or possible if suitable animal populations arediscov- commerce. On the other hand,substantial popula- ered to graze on the blue-greenalgae and rootedtions of rough fish, such as carp andalewives, are viruses or para- vegetation. Developing strains of undesirable. sites to prey exclusively oil thealgae and aquatic A concerted effort to remove these fishwould weeds is an alternative. Research toattain these result in reduced nutrients. It would beprudent to objectives has had very little success todate. consider processing these fish for usable protein, as burial of the fish within the Great LakesBasin 7. Chemical Control could allow the nutrients to be washed againinto Althoughcoppersulphatehas beenvery the lakes. succe.ssfulfor almost a century in controlling Since desirable fish species are also a nutrient prolific growth of algae, it is also toxic tc.othersource, increased harvestingshould be encouraged lifeforms. Research investigatorsareseeking within the ")ounds of sound conservationpractice. highly specific algacides to kill only thenoxious species. Chemical control, not being anutrientE. Other Measuresfor Water Owl lity Improve- removat method, treats only the symptomsof ment eutrophication; the dead algae settle to thelake bottom, increasing the potential nutrient reservoir Accelerated eutrophication, the cause of the in the sediments. Further, it is only atemporarymost serious long-range consequences, is notthe

VI-128 9 sole cause of water quality deterioration in the 4. Thermal Discharges Great Lakes. The following paragraphs discuss Thermal discharges should be nrmaged so that measures which will improve Great Lakes waterwater quality standards are met and these dis- quality. Most plans cited below are recommenda-charges are beneficially employed wherever pos- tions of the Federal Water Pollution Controlsible. Administration and others who are continually studying the Great Lakes Basin. 5. Oil Discharges TrePT.ment of oil and other hazardous materials 1. Municipal Wastewater Treatment should be undertaken to exclude them from the A minimum of secondary treatment should beLakes. provided by municipalities discharging wastewater to the G..eat Lakes. Treatment should be efficientF. Future Needs andcorn inuous,accomplishing90 percent removalofoxygen-consumingwastes.Limits The foregoing subsections have shown that: should be established for such specific pollutantsThe causes of water quality deterioration in the ammonia, as suspended solids, se:-tleable solids, Great Lakes are fairly well defined. phenolics,oil, and thcse materials exertinga biochemical oxygen ,.!.:anand. The levels should beTechnology is available to prevent most water .?,etcornmensur,..te with their ability to interferequality problems. with beneficial uses of water. Whenever possible, treatable industrial wastes should be processed byTechnology to restore the water quality of the municipal systems, and master plans should beGreat Lakes is or can be developed. formulated for integrated treatment facilities in urban areas. Areas with septic tanks should be To abate pollution substantially and to improve incorporated into sewerage systems as soon aswater qualitybefore implementing restoration possible. Continuous disinfection of all municipal measures, ultimate standards should be established wastewlter also should be effected as soon asin cooperation with the States, the regions, and possible. the Federal Government. Once fixed, the standards should bestrictlyenforced. Incremental 2. Industrial Wastewater Treatment compliance may be necessary in some instances to All industrial wastes should receive the equiv- offset the economic efforts of the ultimate stand- alent of secondary treatment, and those industrial ards and to allow time for new treatment equip- wastes causing chemical pollutionshould be ex-ment to be incorporated. The Great Lakes should cluded from the Lakes or should receive a suitablebe used as an example for applying national level of treatment. standards. Maximum reduction by the best available treat- It has been determined that significant preven- mentshouldbe implemented foracids andtive measures are being implemented to improve alkalies, oils, and tarry substances; phenolic com-Great Lakes water quality. Undoubtedly Lake Erie pounds ond other organics which produce objec-will become truly dead if accelerated eutrophica- t' bletastes and odors:, ammonia and other ti 3n proceeds unimpeded. n ,ogencompounds;phosphorus;suspended If only preventive measures are implemented materials;toxicandhighly-coloredmaterials;and technology foi improvement is only partially oxygen-demandingsubstances;excessiveheat;applied, the Great Lakes could be restored to a foam-producing compounds; and other materialsdesired levelof water quality, but only after which detract from aesthetics or other uses ofconsiderable time. Some speculate that recovery water. would be measured in terms of geological time. Even if technology for improvement is fully 3. Agricultural Runoff applied(i.e.,fullutilization of preventive and Pesticides and herbicides shovld be applied totestorative technology), restoration of desirable minimize the amounts that drain into the Greatwater quality could take as long as a generation. Lakes in surface or subsurface runoff. This assumes that eutrophication is reversible--a

VI-129 333-091 0-69-13 referred to controversy.However, of benefit. Hence, Point B is commonly pointof considerable efficient project scale, recent research appears to confirmthat reversal to as the most economically because this point maximizes benefits interms of some degree is possible. Therefore, in summary, if present resource associated costs. management practices are notimproved, Lake Erie will continue to accelerate towardits demise, and the other Lakes will likely succumbin the order: Ontario, Michigan, Huron, and Superior.If only preventive measures are taken, LakeErie may recover in a few thousand years,and water quality BENEFITS COSTS in other Lakes will be maintained;Lake Ontario also may show improvement. Ifboth preventive and restorative measures areimplemented, marked improvement in Lake Erie mightbe observed within a generation. These statements, however, are far toogeneral tosupport the necessity forrestoration. The question, "What isthe desired level of water quality in the Great Lakes?" has,tever been specifically answered. The objective be to optimize the benefits which would accruebecause of enhanced water quality in terms ;le cost of COCTS attaining such enhancement. 'igure 49. Benefit-cost analysis. Within the general frameworkof a market suppose that system, there are clear-cut reasons to be directly public intervention can control disposalof wastes Since the degree of restoration can bodies. Not only can governmentimplied from the derived optimum cost(Point C), intowater analysis can identify how intervention improve efficiency asmeasured ina detailed benefit-cost terms of market values, but it canand should takemuch restoration is enough. explicit cognizance of extra-marketvalues. Since Several benefits that can be quantified: the character of water courses in heavilypopulated areas is such thatinterdependency between uses isEnhancement of land values. inevitable, a major nroblem confrontingpublic policy is to gauge wxurately thesignificance ofReduced cost of water treatmentfor domestic, various interdependencies andfoster the efficientmunicipal, and industrial supplies. multipurpose use of the water resource. fisheryresource, both The answer, then, to th,.: questionof how much Enhancement of the restoration is enough can be determinedthrough acommercial and sport. detailed benefit-cost analysis similar to thatwhich Enhancement of water-based recreationactivities long has been used to evaluate theeconomic and increased potential forwater-based recreation feasibility of large public projects. opportunities. Figure 49 illustrates the type of analysis required. At the outset, the costs of improved waterMinimized potential public healthhazard. value quality probably will not be matched by the Lakes and of associated benefits. Eventually, thevalue ofImproved aesthetic appeal of the benefits will rise until incremental benefitsequal attraction of tourists. exceed incremental costs (Point A). Benefits will quality will gradually Benefits derived from improved water costs from A to B, but the ratio demographic decrease until the incremental benefits areagain change continually. For example, and sociological trends as inincreased population, equal to incremental costs (Point B).Beyond that il put in- point, increments of cost will exceedincrements leisure time, income, and mobility

VI-130 191 creasing pressure on the Great Lakes as a recrea- As other restoration plans proposed earlier, this tional resource. The change is compounded by theexample is directed toward reducing the avail- fact that as population density increases, socialability of nutrients from bottom sediments. It has pressures arise to place a higher value on recrea-been demonstrated experimentally that the avail- tional opportunities. Therefore, the value to theability of nutrients to the water mass ic regulated individual of such opportunities in the future willby the oxygen content of a lake's deep waters. be greater than today. By the year 2020, forAs these waters become oxygen deficient, decom- example, the projected population in the Lakeposition of organic matter without oxygen results Erie Basin alone is expected to pass 23 million,in chemically reducing conditions inthe sedi- compared to 9.8 million in 1960. The rate ofments. This further results in iron and manganese increase in water-based recreation demand is esti-compounds being dissolved and sediment nutrients mated to far exceed this population growth. being released. Further study of this phenomena.' is an integral part of the National Eutrophication There has been much speculation about theResearch Program wherein pilotscale tests in cost of a restoration plan for Lake Erie. TheKlamath Lake, Oregon, will be used to determine following example provides an order-of-magnitudethe influence of sediment-water interchange on estimate of cost for a potentially feasible method. It already has been shown that preventive meas-algae production. A second effect of oxygen depletion in the ures must be implemented to remove the causesof accelerated eutrophication. Moreover, it has beendeep waters is the marked change in the aquatic stated that restorative measures must be imple-ecology. The demise of the mayfly nymph on the mented so that the time of lake recovery will bebottom of Lake Erie is related to the low oxygen short enough to avoid forfeiture of substantialconcentration. Since the mayfly provided a major source of food for desirable fish species, these too benefits. -The example assumes that the recommen-have declined. A more direct effect of low oxygen dations for preventive technolor will be imple-concentrations is the gradual takeover of the Lakes mented. by rough fish that are more tolerant of low oxygen Earlier subsections on Prevention and Restora-levels. tion (C and D) outlined the technology considered InthePublic Health Service1965 report, and, in somc cases, tested on a small scale. ThePollution of Lake Erie and Its Tributaries, the following is one approach involving a large engi-dissolved oxygen values in the bottom waters of neering effort. Itis a method to destratify Lakethe central basin of Lake Erie are described as Erie by artificial recirculation. This example is nothaving decreased during the past 35 years from offered as the idealsolution. (Undoubtedly aabout five milligrams per liter (mg/I) to less than complex of restoration methods will be required,two, with many areas near zero. Typically, severe and several techniques must be implemented.) It islate summer stratification can occur over an area intended to provide a reference concept that willof about 2,600 square miles or about 25 per cent assist in defining the necessary level of planning,of the entire lake. The total volume of the water effort, a.,d funding in a more quantitative mannercolumn (average depth-12 fathoms) in this area is than previously. As such, the artificial recircula-about 120 million acre feet or 35 cubic miles. tion case study can serve as a focus for further Carr1 3 provides an excellent review of dissolved evaluation. oxygen conditions in Lake Erie. Although itis It must be emphasized strongly that restorationdifficult to generalize, Carr's work suggests that of alakeas large as Erie represents a majorthe oxygen-depleted hypolimnion occurs in the environmental modification and, hence, must bewater column below 50 feet. For the particular approached with caution. The analysis and evalua-configuration of Lake E-ie, this condition prevails tionrequired beforesuch an undertakingis for about the last 10 fe et of the central basin. If beyond the scope of this discu3sion. Although much information necessary to evaluat 2 feasibility, engineering requirements, and of an 1 3Carr, J. S., Dissolved Oxygen in Lake Erie, Past and artificial recirculation project already eA1.,1s, sub-Present. University of Michigan Great Lakes Research stantial additional work will be required. Division, Pub. 9, pp. 1-14.

V1-131 1-.5) 2 million acre feet are oxygenas large as 20 timesthat calculated by the design so, about 20 to 40 of this analysis, deficient. method; however, for purposes 270 millionthis value is not applied. An alternate calculation based on a of Cook and pound oxygen deficit suggests that 20million acre Using the design methodology depleted." These valuesWaters' 6 and the aforementioned volumeof water feet could be seriously million acre feet in 100 are in sufficient agreementfor purposes of thisto be circulated (i.e., 40 analysis. days), the following values result: The conclusion, then, is that artificialdestratifi- displacement of cation of Lake Erie will require Engineering Parameters about 40 million acre feet of bottom water,which must be brought to the surface to bereplaced withVolumetric water rate 200,000 CFS1 7 surface water during the summer months(i.e.,Diameter of circulators 10 feet about 100 days). Length of circulators 50 feet Artificial destratification is not a new concept,Number of circulators 500 but application on the scale representedby LakeCompressed air volume Erie requires new considerations.Numerous de- (total) 1,300,000 SCFM1 8 stratification tests have been conducted inthe Compressor hoi sepower United States, Great Britain, and Europe.Whether (HP), total 600,000 any permanent installationshave been made is unknown. Cost Parameters Results of these experiments have notalways been preditable, probably due to the natureofCapital cos-ts sediments and the initial oxygen content.This Circulators @ $200,000 $100,000,000 emphasizestheobvious need forAnnual operating costs experience 8,150,000 caution in any major effort to change theenviron- Fuel (diesel) ment. A direct parallel can be seen inlarge-scale Amortization (10 yrs. st. line) 10.,000,000 5,000,00C: weather modification programs. Maintenance and repair The use of airlift recirculators has beende- Personnel 5,000,000 scribed, and detailed design methods havebeen $28,150,000 developed.Airliftrecirculators (vertical, open- ended pipes with compressed air introduced nearFor contingency purposes, this total value canbe the bottom sid and discharging below thesurface)rounded upward to $30 million per year. are extrzmely efficient moversof water against As presently conceived, airlift circulatorswould ssentially zero head. For example, air consum-consist of vertical, open-ended riser tubesmounted the motive air ption rates are approximately one-hundredthof aon barges. Power for compressing cubic foot per minute per gallon of water circu-introduced near theriser's bottom would be theprovided by diesel enginesapproximately1,000 lated per minute. Velocities issuing from 50 feet in circulatorwill be from fivetosixfeet perhp per circul .tor. Each riser would be length with the upper end terminatingabout 10 second.' 5 tanks at Application to ihe destratification of LakeEriefeet below the surface_ Blowaole ballast Thisthe lower end of the riser will allowthe riser tube obviously requires considerable extrapolation. shallow water for is particularly true of the induced circulationthatto be elevated for moving into flooded, occurs outsidethe circulator. Another expertrepair and storage. With the ballast tanks estimated that the net induced circulation maybe

16/bid. 1 4 Cornmoner, B., "The Killing of a Great Luke." The "CFS iscubicfeet per second; 200,000 CFS is the World Bookapproximately equivalent to the average anrual flowof 1068 World Book Supp:ement to the Columbia River at its mouth. Encyclopedia. 18 SCFM is standard cubic feet per minute: standani "Cook, M. W. and E. D. Waters, Operational Charac-refers to the conditions of average atmospheric tempera- teristics of Submerged Gas Lift Circulators,U.S. Atomic Energy Commission Report HW-39432, Dec.1, 1955. ture and pressure. /93 the riser tube will hinge down from the barge and H. Conclusions lock into its operational position. Mobility of the barge-mounted system will This section idernifiec and focuses attention on permit towing to mooring sites selected on thethe action required to restore Great Lakes quality basis of water quality analyses. to a desirable level. Accelerated eutrophication and other water quality deterioration are described with the contributing factors. Current technology G. Institutional Arrangements to pzevent water quality impairment resulting from man's activities and to restore water quality Well-founded restoration plans that incorporateto a level that provides for optimum beneficial use the best available technology are of little value is reviewed. unless institutional arrangements provide means Also, the necessary economic anaiysis to iden- forsuccessfulimplementation.Alltoo often,tify the costs and associated benefits or restorative desirable proposals for improved water manage-measures are discussed. Institutional arrangements mentpracticeshavenotbeenimplementedare mentioned to identify the requisite characteris- because constraints of existing water law, waterticsof anagencyto lead the planning and managementinstitutions,administrative regula-restoration programs. tions, and waterusecustoms hid not been Finally, restorativetechniques of the Great considered adequately. Lakes are discussed with one example examined in It takes only a cursory examination to discoverdetaii to help identify the magniiude and cost of that, in both the United States and Canadian partsneeded res,oration actions,. of the Great Lakes Basin, there are a mult;aide of Any elan to restore the Great Lakes will involve Federal.State, and local agencies, universities,a tremendous undertaking because of the scale and researchinstitutes,andindustries with activenature of the resources involved. Technology to programs related in some nianner to one or more deal with freshwater environments is not oriented aspects of the quality of the Great Lake.: re-towardsolving problems of the Great Lakes sources. As one would 1.uspect, there is consider-magnitude; however, technology .eveloped in the able overlap in interest and activity among thesemarine sciences has been directed toward solution programs. of large-scale problems. Therefore, experience in In view of the rapidly deteriorating quality ofmarine technology would be highly beneficial in some of the Lakes, particularly Lake Erie, it isformulating and implementing plans to restore this apparent that existing institutional arrangementsvast resource. are not adequate to handle the problem. This Two opinions often have been strongly stated raises the questionshould a new organization bein both the marine sciences and Great Lakes set up, or does an existing agency possess enoughresearch. First, the experts agree that the .applica- of therequisitecharacteristics that, ;;iven thetion of marine science and technology skills to necessary authority and funding, it could success-study the restoration of the Lakes would be fully formulate and implement restoration plans?highly appropriate. Second, and more importantly, It is essential that full advantage be taken of the almost all the experts contacted believed that this vast reservoir of knowledge and skills that existsdesirable relationship has not been exploited suffi- among all the resources agencies and organLationsciently. active in the Great lakes Basin. The problem is Use eGreat Lakes resources is limited by neither a lack of capability among available per-water pollution. Although a variety of classes of sonnel nor a ..thortage of suitable technology withpollution are evident, the most serious long-range whichtoattackthewaterqualityproblem.problem results from accelerated eutrophication or Rather, it is the need for an effective vehicle withthe aging process of these lakes. Lake Erie is not which to acc-mnplish (1) needed leadership, coordi- dead. nation, and utilizatic-1 of available talent including Suitable technology is presently available to thespecial capabilities to be found in marinesuccessfully undertake me:sures to prevent further sciences and(2)successful implementation andwater quality deterioration and accelerated eutro- management of a laige-scale restoration program.phication.

VI -1 3 3 1.9 4 Recommendations: tionindicates that this part would cost about $30 Implementation of measures to prevent watermillion annually after a substantial initial capital investment. This provides a basis for which to quality deterioration and acceleratedeutrophica- examine and compare other aspects of a restoration is essential before restoration can be achieved. A detailed economic analysis should beunder-tion program. taken: (1) to identify th-, quantifianle benefits A goal should be set to halt substantially zny accruing for various levels of improvement in thefurther pollution anti to improve th,,: quality of of Great Lakes resources and (2) tonearshore waters. The goals of this program should quality State-Federalultimate de :ermine the associated costs ofachieving thesebeenforced by joint standards to be fixed immediately. These stand- improvements. This analysis should include consid-ards should be tailored for incremental future eration of forfeited benefits if resource manage- untilthedesiredstindardsare ment practicesare not improved andshouldcompliance significant aspects including do-attained. encompass ali A National Project tailored to the immediate mestk ,municipal, and industrial water supply; southern watershed manage-needs of Lakes Erie and Ontario and power; irrigation agriculture; Lake Michigan should be funded totest such ment; and recreation and aquatic tesourcesinclud- knowledge thatpromising restoration schemes as artificially in- ing pleasure boating. Without the duced destratification. Existing facilities should be such an analysis would provide, the mostdesirable quality remains aused to the fullest extent. and justifiable level of water projectfor Lakes Erie and matter of conjecture and debate,and any restora- A restoration tion progra.rt would lack direction and adefensibleOntario and southern Lake Michigan should be undertaken as soon as the technology is available. goal. A restoration program, in addition to preven-The program should complement the implementa- qualitytion of existing pollution abatement technology in tive measures, is necessary to improve the the Great Lakes and must be managed to of the Great I-alces to any significant degreewithinall accommodate Federal,State, community, and an acceptable period. Adetailed study of one part of such a programartificially induced circula-private ii;terests.

VI-134 Chapter 6Industrial Technology

The technology of several domestic industries insure access and availability of suitable areas and with major interest in the oceans or lose to shore to zonefor optimum multiple use of the resource). is discussed. These include the following resource industries: Figure 1 Living PRESENT TECHNOLOGICAL STATL): OF Fishing VARIOUZ; DOMESTIC INDUSTWES Aquaculture Nen-Living Type Examples Oil and gas Ocean mining Existing Industries Chemical extraction Mature, healthy, Oil and gas on conti- Desalination and growinA nental shelf Power generation Chemical extraction from sea water Recreation, not tieaed separately here, is men- Mining of sand, gravel, tioned only for the sake of completeness. It is sulfur discussed more thoroughiy in the Marine Re- Shrimp and tuna fishing sources Panel Report. Transportation and harbor Surface marine recrea- development are discussed in Chapter 5 of this tion report. Early stage5 of Desalination Each industry subsection includes pertinent crow th Bulk and container summaries and recommendations, with major find- transportation systems ings and recommendations given at the front of and associated termi- the panel report. Each industry's technology is nals treated from the vi:rvpoint of present status and Aquaculture, fresh trend:, future needs, and reconsnendations, with water and estuarine emphasis on recommendations that can be imple- Underwater recreation menteci by the Federal Government. Mature but static Most segments of There are treriendous differences in the indus- or declining fishing tries'present and anticipated rates of growth. Further, widespread differences exist among the Shipbuildin Merchant shipping various segments of an industry, as in fishing. FigureI depictsthepresent technologicalFuture Industries status of ocean industries in two broad categor- Nearterm promising Mining of placer min- iesexisting and future industries. Assignment of (where marterrn erals an industry to a given category has beensomewhat is less ."..nan 15 Oil and gas beyond the arbitrary. years) continent& shelf When development of an ocean industry is Long range Sub-bottom mining .proceeding well, as in oil and gas activites on the (excludii..g sulphur) continental shelf, only minor adjustments in Fed- Aquacutture, open eral policies and programs a:e indicated. o;:ean When developments areinearly stages of Deeo water mining potential large-scale growth, as in desalination, the !-Jower generation fro7n in Federal Government's role can be decisive wwfes, currents, tides, maintaining the expected rate of growth. In the and thermal differ- of State case of underwater recreation, the roles ences and local governments also arz important (to

V1-135 When development of an industryisnotincentive and competition necessi,ry for resource progressing,moredrasticchanges arerecom-development by free enterprise. The Federal Government should keep a watch- mended, thoseofafiscal,legal- regulatory, or technological natureall of whichfid eye on future industries with longer range areinterrelated.For example, U.S. fishermenpotential and maintain close liaison with those should be permitted to purchase vessels abroadindustries and the academic community, as new and should not be required to pay excessive dutydevelopments may reverse the outlook. Two major on foreign gear. This would helpimprove, forrecommendations emerge from a review of the example,thetechnicalposition of the Newindustries' technological status. England ground fish fishermen, enabling them to compete more effectively with foreignfisbPrmen.Recommendations: In addition, technology's role in the Bureau ofNational Projects such as the rixed and Portable Commercial Fisheries should be uporaded cmn-0 tinental Shelf Laboratoriesshould be under- siderably, with substantial emphasis given searchtaken. Such projects would permit many usersto and location techniques. lease mid use these facilities to test the economic Wben an industry's development is yet to begin,and technical feasibility of new undersea develop- as in offshore placer mining,special incentives toment options. pioneers and specialattention to removal of legal-regulatoryandeconomicobstaclesare A statutory mechanism is neededthrough needed. The Federal Government can do muchwhich the Federal Government, State govern- prior to the beginning of a new mining enterprise,ments, industry, and academic community can such as implementing a more comprehensive re-cooperate to provide responsible advice and plan- connaissance survey program of the shelves andning for a truly national ocean program. Such a encouraging broad basic engineering programs pres-mechanism would help ensure that the overall ently beyond the financial capability of mostprogram makes effective use ofthe competence industries. anti facilities of both Government and private The nature of the encouragement for otherorganizations. In eddition, it could be used to potential ocean industrieq depends on the partic-identifydeficiencies in basic engineering disci- ular industry. Incentives for deep water oil and gasplines,facilities, and manpower. Further,this development, for example, would be somewhatmechanism couid ensure cons.Ideration ofimpor- different from deep water mining for many rea-tant ocean programs not presentlyplanned by sons, including: industry or Government. Finally, thismechanism could monitor the progress of NationalProjects AvailabiP-v of oil and gas industry ventureand the Government's fundamentaltechnology capital is different from that of mining. efforts. The common need for this became appar- with a The immediate past Ins ory of offshore oil andent in hearings and interviews conducted has created a more experienced industry. broad cross section of marine intevests.

Extracting liquid or gas is far different from such I.ASHING mining operations as dredging nodules. The casefora growing and stablefishing A common thread running through most oceanindustry as a resource of employment and Na- industries is the realization that aid in areas of tional income was vividly illustrated bythe follow- basic engineering and in costly technology devel-ing: opment facilities (available for lease) will be vitally useful. However, itis recognized that tie miringThe annual catch is worth $438 million ( 1967) at and petroleum industries will wish to conductdockside, but to the processor itis worth $1 their own detailr!d surveys and developnr..1.,± of billion. Fishermen have $500 million tied up in the final phase of the extraction zchnology. Both vessels that keep chipyards and gear manufacturers are important, but if theGovernment performsbusy. The industry and closely allied shore activi- thesefunctions,itwill virtually eliminate the ties provide half a million jobs. U.S. fLhermen,

VI-136 17 whatever their present woes, would appear to be acritical with respect to the pelagic fish. The national asset.1 localization step may rely on sonars, odors emitted by fish, lasers, etc. Localization is critical with From a technological point of view, there is arespect to groundfish. current need within the industry to: Each phase is depeldent on basic data provided by biological research. 'However, it is not essential Improve capital equipment (vessels and gear). that such research be completed in order that technological advances relating to wild population Encourage more comprehensive and integratedproduction and harvesting be made more effective. use of marine technology. Yet such research must be supported continually to optimize operations and to expand the number The advance of a given industry is only partiallyof species which can be fished economically. dependent on scientific research and discoveries. It may be limited by lack of capital,technical knowledge, or proper complementary equipment.A. Fishing Vessels and Gear Environmental and institutional peculiarities pose 1. Fishing VesselsPresent Status problems in certain locations. The effects of fiscal, legal, and regulatory problems are discussed in The U.S. fishing fleet is numerically one of the detail in the Rport of the Panel on Industry andworld's largestabout 76,000 powered craft of all Private Investment; this report concentrates ontypes exceeded only by Japan. About 60 per cent technology. of U.S. vessels are over 16 years old, and 27 per Research has been undertaken on a piecemealcent have been in service over 26 years. While the basis, but 'ne crucial interaction between compo-fleetis in a continual state of renovation and nents dictates that a more comprehensive ap-replacement, there is much room for improve- proach is needed. Fisheries technology can bement considered in terms of operational phases: The U.S. fish harvesting segment utilizes over 12,000 documented vessels of five tons capacity or Location, tracking, and identification of com-larger, nearly 64,000 motor boats, and about mercial species. 3,500 small unpowered boats. The 12,000 vessels total more than 415,000 gross tons. Estimated Harvesting, including the concentration and con-present market value of vessels alone exceeds $500 trol of speciespreferably on a selective basis. million. The range of individual vessel prices is Transporting catches from fishing ground tofrom less than $1,000 to as much as $1,750,000. processing facilities at sea or ashore. There were 128,000 domestic fishermen on vessels, boats, and ashore in 1965 (U.S. figures), an Processing and preservation. average of less than two fishermen perboat. It is obvious there is a significant number of one-man boats. In location, tracking, and identification there Foreign fishing fleets off our coasts are domi- are two major steps: (1) search forthe generalnated by large, complex craft capable of operating area in which commercialconcentrations are tothousands of miles from home port. By contrast, be expected and then (2) the localization ormost U.S. fishing vessels are small coastal craft. detection of the precise position of the fish. TheThe small size in itself is not a deficiency because long-range search involves broad-scale mappingmost fishing operations are close to our coast with heavy dependence on environmental informa-(Figure 2 shows a departing fleet of coastal shrimp tion.It ultimately could receive much supportvessels.) from satellites, buoys, and computers with appro- Although considerable variation exists among priate instantaneous sensing equipment. Search isfisheries, 95 per cent of all U.S. fishing vessels are constructed of wood, while only five per cent are of steel. Of the 12,000 documented vessels of five 1Senator E. L. Bartlett, Congressional Record, Jan. 30, 1968. tons or more, about 67 per cent have radio-

1,88 V1-137 names as English sole, Dover sole,black back or yellowtail flounder, fluke, rex sole, etc. For the most part, however, in the UnitedStates they appear on restaurant menus or infood stores as fillet of sole_ Such larger species as halibut often are steaked, finding readyretail market. Flounder is taken primarily by otter trawls, the same gear that catch mostof the cod, hake, haddock, pollack, ocean perch, and many other kinds of groundfish. This conglomeration offish is the foundation for the most ranidly growingedible 4, fish commodity in the worldthefrozen fish - block from which fishsticks are made_ The demand at dockside for these fish has grown between 1948 and 1966 from 850 million pounds to 1,900 million pounds. To competein this wet', 4.....aZ6- expanding market, U.S. fishermen must meet the 4116ffinlaraggin. price established by foreign competition. Figure 2. Departure of shrimp fleet.(Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo) b. Strength of the SupplySome species of telephones, 49 per cent have depth finders, 27 pergroundfish off our coast are plentiful enough to cent have automatic pilots,19 per cent havemeet domestic demand and provide asubstantial direction finders, and only seven per cent haveexportsurplus. The supply of other species, radar. These percentages vary greatly byfishery. however, has been considerably reduced byheavy The U.S. fishing fleet is not fully utilized,duefishing pressures, often by foreign fishermen. partly to the seasonal character of fisheries and the inability of much of the fleet to participatein several fisheries. Some under-utilizationresultsc. Domestic ProductionDeclineThe New Eng- from the inability of a substantial portionof theland otter trawlers at the end of WorldWar II were vesselsthe strongest and most vigorously growingbranch fleet to compete with other more modern How- in the U.S. fleet and with foreignfishing fleets.of the United States flag fishing industry. fishever, the share of the domesticD-oundfish market Many vessels are unable to locate and catch 74 per under conditions of channg resourceavailability. claimed by the otter trawlers dropped from thecent in 1948 to 29 per cent in1966, causing a Figure 3 shows vessel utilization by fishery for Atlantic U.S. fleet. Regardless of the reason for idle time,decline of U.S. position in the Northwest the data indicate an inability to spread fixed costsfishery from first to eighth or ninth place. responsible by larger annual catches. U.S. Federal policy has been partly of thefor the decline in harvesting NewEngland ground- As indicated in Figure 4, 40 per cent nations documented vessels are part time (operating lessfish by encouraging other North Atlantic than 120 days). The figure lists fishing vessels part(particularly Canada and the Scandinavian coun- time or full time by type of fishery in 1962_Ittries) to increase their dollar earnings. Inaddition, should be borne in mind in interpreting theseCanadian fishermen have received liberalvessel construction subsidies and much related support statisticsthat a large number of people fish commercially only in summer and for additionalfrom both their federal and provincial govern- earnings, often encouraged by the low cost ofments. commercial licenses. d. Effects on Domestic Fishermen Ourfishermen have been forced, as a result, to restricttheir 2. Case Study of New England Ground Fishery activities to the higher priced resourcesof inshore a. The Demand Many speciesof flatfish inhabitflounder, Georges Bank haddock, andscallop. the U.S. Continental Shelves; some have such tradeThese species are taken by the smaller US_vessels

VI-138 with more ready access than foreign fishermen toint fficient, and obsolete vessels and men. It is this the more lucrative but restricted U.S. fresh fishfisl ery that is the cause of the widely published markets. reports that the Russians are catching all the fish and crowding US. fishermen off their own fishing e. Public Image of the FleetItis precisely thisgrounds. The reasons for this, as indicated above, fishery in New England (as well as California,are not those generallystated.It should be Oregon, and Washington) which is the origin of theemphasized that this decadence of the fleet is not popular view that the entire U.S. fishing industrydue to negligence of the fishermen and is not is decadent, declining, and composed of overaged,typical of the entire industry.

Figure 3 VESSEL UTILIZATION BY FISHERY FOR THE U.S. FLEET,1962

Average Average Average Average days vessel Fishery trips per days at sea days at sea unutilized year Per trip per year per yearl Gillnet/Drift 72 1.9 137 115 N.A. Trawler4 17 12.1 200 52 N.A. Dragger 80 2.82 223 29 Oyster Dredge 21 4.4 93 159 Clam Dredge 139 1.2 167 85 Swordfish 15 5.2 76 176 Menhaden Seiner . 48 2.5 121 131 110 Shrimp Trawler . 25 5.73 142 Snapper Boat 18 5.3 97 155 Tuna Seiner 7 18.0 133 119 Salmon Seiner 14 5.7 80 172 Halibut Boat 6 14.2 85 167 147 Salmon Troller . . . 18 5.8 105 Salmon and other Gillnet 16 44 72 180 Pacific Dragger 24 4.9 117 135 Crab Boat 53 2.3 121 131 Herring Seiner 11 9.6 102 150 Lobster 86 1.6 137 115 Mackerel and Sardire 14 5.6 80 172 Industrial Fish 24 5.0 120 132 Pound Boat 136 1.1 150 102 Tuna Clipper 6 40.0 250 2 Whaler 96 2.0 193 59 Scallop 19 10.0 190 62 Tuna Trollers 8 15.0 122 130 Cannery Tender 50 3.0 150 102 Charters 21 3.7 77 175 Longliner 92 1.2 111 141 Assumes a 252 working-day year. Saturdays. Sundays, and eight holidays havebeen excluded. 2.-2.8 represents small draggers. Large draggers average 5.6 days. 353represents medium trawlers. Large trawlers average 15.1 days. 4N.A. = North Atlantic. 5Vessels chartered for unspecified fisheries. Source: Basic data from a private survey of the fishing industry by Fish Boatmagazine.

VI-139 200 Figure 4 OR US. DOCUMENTED FISHINGVESSELS CLASSIFIED AS PART-TIME FULL-TIME, BY FISHERY, 1962

Part time Full-time Number Number Number operating FisherY documented operating Per cent Per cent vessels under over 120 days 120 days

42.0 367 58.0 . 633 266 Gillnet/Drift 177 100M N.A. Trawler' _ 177 114 13.0 761 87.0 N.A. Dragger . 875 47.1 317 52.9 Oyster Dredge . 599 282 66 25.0 198 75_0 Ciam Dredge . 264 71.6 21 28.4 Swordfisher . 74 53 75.2 55 24.8 Menhaden Seiner . . 222 167 72.2 20 27.8 Sardine and Mackerel 72 52 28.0 2,897 72.0 Shrimp Trawler 4,024 1,127 207 37.9 339 6Z 1 Snapper Boat. 546 31 29.2 75 70.8 Tuna Seiner . 106 168 43.0 223 57.0 Tuna Troller . 391 Tuna Clipper 100.0 66 - - 66 (large seiner) 616 55.0 Salmon Seiner . 1,120 504 45.0 149 38.9 234 61.1 Halibut Boat . 383 711 50.0 Salmo n Tro Iler 1,421 710 50.0 Salmon and 38.0 752 466 62.0 286 Other Gillnet 92.1 152 12 7.9 140 Pacific Dragger 66.0 480 197 34.0 283 Crab Boat 88.0 25 3 12.0 22 Herring Seiner. . 24.5 53 40 75.5 13 Longliners 67.7 62 20 32.3 42 Lobster 74.8 206 52 25.2 154 I ndustria l Fish 25.2 214 160 74.8 54 Pound Boat 100.0 5 - - 5 Whaler 172 100.0 Scallop 172 - - Cannery Tender 260 260 loao 62.0 557 38.0 Charter2 1,467 910 8,805 59.4 Total 14,821 6,016 40.6 1N.A.= North Atlantic 2 Vessels chartered for unspecified fisheries. Source: Basic data from a private survey of thefishing industry by Fish Boat magazine.

VI-140 20. t

3. Commercial Fishing Gear TypesPresent Status Commercial fishermen in the United States einploy a variety of equipment and vessels to harvest fish and shellfish. Each fishery is characterized by itsspecialization of fishing gear and vessels. Commercial fishing gear design is dictated by the species to be harvested, its size, habitat, mobility, and by conservation requirements. Commercial fishing gear may be classified as:

Nets (seines, trawls, gill nets, etc.). Hook and line (hand lines, long lines, trolling lines, etc.). Gear for gathering immobile species (shovels, tongs, rakes, pumps, and dredges). Traps and barriers (pots, pound nets, wires, etc.).

Figure 5liststhe value of catchto the fishermen by type of gear for 1966. Figures 6, 7, and 8 are photographs of gll nets, a clam dredgeFigure 6. Operation of gill net hauler aboard and a snapper trap. R/V Oregon,shown hauling 6-inch stretched mesh tuna gill net. (Bureau of Commercial Figure 5 Fisheries photo) CATCH BY GEAR TYPE, 1966

Value of Principle Ca ch to Gear Species Fishermen Caught ($ Million) Otter Trawls _ . 154 shrimp, bottom fish

Purse Seines . _ 89 salmon, tuna, menhaden, anchovy Pots and Traps . 54 crab, lobster Baited Hook & Line . . . 51 salmon, halibut Gili Nets . . . 42 salmon, shad, perch, bass, mackerel

Dredges _ . . 33 scallops, oysters, clams Tongs and Rakes 20 oysters Haul Seines . . 4 bait, herring 4C-

Pound Nets _ . 3 herring Hoes and Forks. 3 clams Fyke and Hoop Nets. . 2 Perch, alewives, catfish, bait Trammel Nets . 2 pompano, mullet, weakfish Other Gear . . 15 miscellaneous 472 Figure 7.Clam dredges being hauled aboard Source: Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Com- R/V SilverBay _(Bureau of Commercial mercial Fisheries. Fisheries photo) 202 VI-141 Pots and Tn.ps 6.0 Long Lining 4A ±1. Other Gear 7.5 -4414 Although electronic gear has been well developed as navigational, safety, and fishing aidsfor the last decade, few vessels have installedthe full -4/ 7 array of available equipment. Agriculture, road building, and other heavy equipment industries have long recognized hydraulics as a versatile, efficient means of transmitting power_ Yet, only now isit berming to find widespread use in the U.S. fishing industry.New developments are being implemented in the new tuna seiners and king crab vessels beingbuilt and converted on the West Coast for the Alaskan fisheries. The problem is not thatfishermen, shipyards, or naval architects who design vessels are backward. Systems ofthis type usually must be built into vessels, and when a new vessel is built, it usually has this gear. However, hydraulic gear is an exception as it generally wasadded to tuna vessels (even old ones) during the purseseine Figure 8. Trap being hauled aboard with catch revolution. of red snapper.(Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo) 4. Trends of Fishing Vessels Itis of particular interest thatpound nets Design trends are to: yielded only $3 million worth offish in 1966; yet they once were the most efficient gearfor catchingNew hull shapes for greaterspeed, sea handling, salmon in Alaska and the Pacific Northwest.Onlycarrying capacity, and safety_ 20 years ago. more than 600 wale inoperation,Introduction of more multi-purposeconcepts. catching salmon far more efficientlythan any other gear since developed. The smallfishermen, Construction trends are to: more numerous than thepound net operators, were successful in havingleslation passed toIncreased use of metals and less of wood,leading outlaw these "overly-efficient traps." to stronger, more roomyvessels and greater An analysis of 9,251 fishingoperations' indi-verratility in layout of quarters and holds_ cates that 80 per cent of the vesselsused were less than 60 feet in length, while only 4 per cent wereLower maintenance costs due to bettermaterials greater than 90 feet. The following is a percentagesuch as steel alloys and anti-corrosive paints_ breakdown of the gear type used in the10,666 vessels represented by the analysis: Propulsion trends are to: 37.6 per cent Otter Trawling Greater horsepower for more speed_ Newengines 15_1 Troll Lines have lower weight-to-horsepower ratios, requiring Purse Seining 11.9 (Increased 9.8 less space and increasing hold capacity. Gill or Trammel Nets speed is especially important for tuna vessels.) Dredging 8_0 Greater horsepower for better dragging power for trawlers (which in this case maybe more 2A fishing operation is defmed here as a company, partnership, or individual proprietor. important than greater speed).

VI-142 Size trends are to: Greater use of hydraulic power throughout vessel for steering, deck winches, deck cranes, hoisting Larger vessels optimized for a particular mission.winches, etc. Crew quarters trends are to added space and Increased mechanization of existing operations comfort, including improved sanitation and messfor faster handling of lobster traps, king crab pots, facilities. and clam dredges. Fuel capacity trends are to larger tanks to permit Newly-designed nets and fishing techniques for longer trips and additional time at the fishingfaster and safer handling of fishing gear such as gounds. tuna purse seines, king crab pots, scallop dredges, and trawls. Fish hold trends are to: In summary, fishing gear has changed measur- Larger capacity due to better construction tech-ably in the past decade. The king crab fishery has niques, smaller engine room requirements, andbeen aided by new crab pot design. Synthetic webbing, having swept through the entire industry, larger vessel size. has been of great importance. The power block Better insulation materials. and large synthetic purse seines have revolutionized those fisheries using purse seines. The pound Sanitation improvements by use of metal pennets discussed earlier were enormously efficient boards, improved covering materials, and refrigera-devices, although their use is curtailed now bv law. tion.

Safety trends are to: 6. Federal Effort Inflatable liferafts, stronger rigging, non-slip Exploratory fishing and gear researchclosely deck materials, safety guards, firefighting equip-relatedprovide the fishing industry with informa- ment, etc., particularly in new construction. tion concerning the location and extent of fish and shellfish resources and with knowledge of new and Features which reduce insurance rates and im-improved harvesting devices. These activities aid in prove working conditions at sea. meeting overall industry needs by:

Reducing effort spent in locating concentrations 5. Fishing Gear and Operational Aids of commercially useful fish stocks. It has been estimated that fishermen now spend an average of Current trends are toward: 50 per cent of time at sea locating fish, although this varies greatly among fisheries, and is consider- More sophisticated electronic gear for navigation ably more in some. and fish finding installed aboard new and existing vessels. Providing a broader base for expansion to alternate fishery resources, thus reducing idleness and More powerful deck gear to handle larger fishinginstability within thefishing community and gear being installed on new vessels and conver-increasing the variety of fish products available to sions. consumers. Larger fishing gear being employed on vessels Reducing harvesting costs, thus increasing the with higher engine capacities. ability of domestic fishermen to compete with Larger fixed fishirig gear (anchored in a singleforeign imports and other domestically produced locality such as king crab pots). animal proteins. Greater use of snythetics in floats, pots, traps,Providing efficient techniques and vessels to trawls, seines and ropes. harvest resources not possible with existing gear.

V1-143 204- Disseminating through demonstrationand tech- Figure 9 nical services results of the aboveobjectives_ BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, BRANCH OF EXPLORATORY FISHING, Figure 9 lists the Bureau of CommercialFish- PROGRAM FUNDS, FY 1968 eries (BCF) budget in exploratory fisMngFiscal Year 1968- Total Funds Figure 10 shows distribution of BCF personnel Regionand Location engaged in exploratory fishing and gear research ($ thousand) by position type and location, Fiscal Year1968. It . . 650 should be noted that there are no naval architects, 1 Seattle, Washington . only three mechanical engineers, and but three2 Pascagoula, Mississippiand electronic engineers working on fishing fleet prob- St_ Simons Island, Georgia 13401 lems. With this low staffing level theBureau3 Gloucester, Massachusetts . 450 cannot devote adequate attention tothis subject-4 Ann Arbor, Michigan 265 Figure 11 shows Bureau of Commercial Fish-5 Juneau, Alaska 175 missions, eries exploratory fishing vessels and Total 2,780 Fiscal Year 1968. Figure 12 is a photographof one of the newest exploratory fishing vessels operated 1.uncludes S400.000 non-rect_ning cost for outfitting new J:o5r the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. eXworatory fishing vessel Oregon II.

Figure 10 BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, BRANCHOF EXPLORATORY FISHING, DISTRIBUTION DP PERSONNEL, BY POSITION TYPE ANDLOCATION, FY 1968 Gloucezter Juneau Central Seattle Pascagoula ISst. Sdim. Ann Arbor Total Type of Position Mass, Alaska Office Wa sh. Miss 3 4 47 Fishery Biologists 9 14 4 Fishery Methods and 4 2 a 17 4 4 2 Equipment specialists 0 0 0 1 3 Mechanical Engineers 1 1 3 1 0 0 Electronic Engineers 2 Biological Aids and 1 8 Technicians 7 Administrative Officers and A%istants, clerical personnel_ Port Captains 2 1 2 29 and Fleet Supervisor, 4 12 3 la 3 53 Vessel Crew 15 10 25 17 12 7 160' Total . 27 53 18 Tutai ^.^..berofauThOriz.d peSitionsinck4es several vacancies.

States. Thus, B. Hunting and Harvesting Pr?ctically unutilized off the United thex3 is room to develop unexploited resources if tec hn o logicaldevelopmentsandeconomic Many great fishery resources of the north of temperate zone are fully exploited or overex-conditions allow this expansion. Potential areas ploited. Marine harvest has definite limits, possiblytechnological development are those concerned much lower than theorized. Duringthe pastwith fishing vessel design, fish detection systems, decade, fishing-fleets have been expanded and newand new harvesting systems. the existing U.S. areas and neNV species fished.Overfishing maY A. concerted effort to upgrade increasefishing fleet through improved capability of vessels cause a serious decline of a species or an forms, increased in population of another, possibly lessvaluable. and gear, more efficient hull Propulsion power, more effective deckhardware, While true that many groundfish resources now play an in high demand are heavily exp3oited, manyand improved capturing deviceswould herring,tinportant role in improving thecompetitive posi- pelac resources such as anchovy, thread United jack mackerel, Pacificsaury, etc., are lightlytion of our fishermen. However, if the exploited. Many midwater resources currently areStatesis to take advantageofthe biological

V1-144 1; 0 Figure 11

BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, EXPLORATORY FISHING VESSELS AND MISSIONS, 1968

Year Mission Name of Vessel Home Port Length Built George M. Bowers Pascagoula, 73 1956 Inshore exploratory fishing Mississippi and gear research, Gulf of Mexico Oregon II Pascagoula, 170 1967 Exploratory fishing and Mississippi gear research, Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Oregon St. Simons 100 1946 Exploratory fishing and Island, Georgia gear research, North Caro- lina to Florida and Caribbean Delaware Gloucester, 147 1937 Exploratory fishing and Massachusetts gear research, Western North Atlantic John N. Cobb Seattle, 93 1950 Exploratory fishing and Washington gear research, N. E. Pacific John R. Manning Juneau, Alaska 86 1950 Exploratory fishing and gear research, biological research, Alaskan waters Kaho Saugatuck, 65 1961 Exploratory fishing and Michigan gear research, Great Lakes Delaware IP Gloucester, 156 1968 Exploratory fishing and Massachusetts gear research, Western North Atlantic

'ReplacedDelawarein late 1968.

productivity of the oceans, plans must be initiated for the orderly transition of fisiring from basically a hunting process to one in which greater artificial control can be exerted. This transition should Ii.? t include: IL -:411116 II"

Perfecting the hunting process by maximizing fish detection capabilities. Minimizing esaape of fish within the influence of fishing gear. Figure 12.Exploratory fishing vessel Oregon II, Leading, herding, or aggregating fish to increase operated by Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. availability to harvesting systems. (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo)

VI-145 553-091 0-69 14 2 0 6 of theDoes the net catch as manyfish in the first 15 Developing techniques that allow harvest last 15 minutes of more abundant smallerorganisms in the foodminutes of towing as in the chain. towing? whether the net is needsHow can it be determined It is felt by many that the most urgent torn during a drag? are to apply existingtechnical knowledge and to secure adequate capital for newvessel construc- These are just a few examples todescribe the tion. This should be done bymaking ::westrnenttrial and error procedures of fishermen.They show capital more readily available tofizhermen willingthe need for additionaldevelopment in fishing to upgrade their equipment.This subject is dis-systems and imply that manyproblems are phys- cussed more thoroughly in the report ontheical and, therefore, need engineeringsolutions. fishing industry by the Panel onIndustry and Private Investment. 2. Future Requirements andPossibilities 1. Present Limitations a. Fishing VesselsNew concepts are foreseen in A recent report described how anengineerdesigung fishing vessels and deck machinerythat might be impressed with the modemelectronicwould allow more time for fishingand require less equipment available tolocate stocks of fish,time for handling gcar. The majoremphasis should navigate precisely, and stay in contact withotherbe on developing entirely newvessels and fishing fishermen and shore facilities.3 However, he alsostrategy. Perhaps such unconventionalhull designs might be disillusioned with the relativeantiquityas hydrofoils and catamaransshould be consid- of the fishing gear and the fishing captain'salmostered. Submersibles offer uniqueadvantages in a total lack of information concerningits perform-supporting role, their ultimate uses yetto be ance. He might ask severalquestions the captaindetermined. would be unable to answer: Typical submersible advantages includefree- dom from the effects of sea surfaceconditions, Why do catch rates sometimes varygreatlyability to operate under ice, betterfish detection between nets concurrently fishing the same spe-capabilities, and the ability to observe the per- cies? formance of fishing gear and fish reaction tothe How many fish are present on the grounds? gear. A systems analysis should be madeof major What is the speed of the net over the bottom? U.S. fisheries to determine optimumfishing strat- egy, possibly introducingradical changes in fishing What is the net's speed through the water? practices. For example, it could lead to highspeed automated What changes occur to the net when towedfastfish detector vessels or aircraft, highly fishing vessels capable of remaining onthe fishing or slow? ground for long periods, high speed vessels to How many pounds of tension are exerted onthetransport catches to shore, and floatingprocessing webbing? plants. What effect do wind, tide, and currenthave onb. Search (1.) Predictions The valueof environ- gear performance? mental information to the fisherman iswell recognized_ The value of predictions lies in effect- How long does it take for the net toreaching improvement in locating andcatching fish_ bottom? Even now, ocean environment predictions are of When does it leave the bottom? geat economic value in the North Pacificalbacore fishery, the Gulf shrimp fishery, and others.Yet the collection, analysis, and use of oceanographic 3 McNeely, R. L., "Marine Fish Harvest Methodsinformation by fishing captains is seriously defi- Recent Advancements and Future EngineeringNeeds," daily MTS Journal of Ocean Technology, April 1968- cient. Fishing vessel masters make decisions

VI-146 20 7 as to where tofish, and the processor andtion. There should be nothingthat an airplane spotter can see with thenaked eye that a low distributor must act on their predictions of the remote success of the fishermen. Thesystem's economicorbiting satellite utilizing cloud-penetrating efficiency will be increased to the extent thatsensors cannot detect. scientific information leads to improveddecisions. Even small improvements in the precisionof(3.) Data CollectionThe number of instru- fishermen's predictions can effect important mon-mented platforms established in the oceans must of etary savings in the multi-milliondollar fishingbe increased greatly to make maximum use satellites. Instruments should be placed on re- industry_ Predictive capabilities are closely related tosearch vessels and on ships of opportunity.It will variations in the ocean's circulation patternswhichbe necessaryto provide by mass production are, in turn, related to variationsin incoming solarsturdy, simple, inexpensive and reliablesalinom- plank- energy,outgoingearthheat, andassociatedeters, current meters, bathythermographs, phenomena. The lack of regularly receiveddataton samplers, and water pigmentmeasuring de- from large ocean areas and lack ofunderstandingvices. atmosphere and Moored and drifting unmanned buoys to sense the eneru exchange between the and to the ocean prevent systematic analysis.Synopticvarious ocean and atmospheric parameters requires costly andtelemeter the data to shore viasatellitewill environmental observation revolutionize our understanding of the ocean. extensive collaboration among oceanographers, seldom meteorologists, and space scientists_Until thisBuoys will be particularly useful in areas the quality oftraversed by ships. Production ofinexpensive, energy exchange is understood, sturdy, dependable buoys from whichseveral ocean current predictionswill be poor. Technology to provide the basic data is nowmeteorological and oceanographic parameters can thebe recorded continuously requiresintensification available. Satellites and computers can keep for observa-of effort. Development of instrumentation entire world ocean under instantaneous continuously recording biological parametetsis tion to provide data to help man_ -ethe harvest of strongly urged. the ocean. Figure 13 illustrates a system of satellitesand buoys to collect and distribute datauseful to the (2.) SatellitesfbrNavigation and Detection Ocean upwellings (where schools ofsurface andfisherman. near-surface fish congregate, andplankton, the basic food of fish, flourish) are directlyobservable by satellite_ The open ocean hardly has beentouched by commercial fishermen except whalersand tuna long-liners. The old live bait tuna clipperdid not range far because: (1) it wastied to coastal sources of live bait, (2) it traditionally remainedin known tuna areas, and (3) flocks ofbirds, which do not venture far from land, were relied uponto indicate schools of tuna_ However, modern tuna purse seiners now are working 500 to600 miles offshore. The fisherman frequently is led to tunaschools by porpoise schools that can bedetected also by satellites. Possibly, satellites will be able to spot tuna schools directly. Fishschool spotting by shipborne and shorebased aircraft hasbeen a sardine, and normal adjunct of tuna, mackerel, Figure 13.Artist's concept showing satellites anchovy fishing in the easternPacific and ofand buoys used for collecting anddistributing menhaden in the Gulf and Atlanticfor a genera-data (Bureau of Commercial Fisheriesdrawing) 208 VI-147 Greatly improved computerthrough empirical trials; some areancient con- (4.) Data Reduction quite facilities will be required to assimilate, store,andcepts, including nets and traps; many are convert into usable form the vastquantities ofinefficient. data gathered by satellites. The fisheryscientist The combined talents of biologists, economists, will become increasingly involved with ocean,engineers, and physicists must beapplied to weather, and space scientists indeveloping pro-increase harvest efficiency. Passive fishing systems grams to provide data to fishermen.Initial collabo-utilizing large automated traps withelectricity, ration is being developed by the U.S. Bureauofsound, or light to herd fish are but oneexample. Commercial Fisheries with the National Aeronau-Large pens or traps can be attached to the seabed electrical tical and Space Administration, the U.S.Navy, andwhere ground fish migrate. Mechanical or other agencies working principally offCalifornia,barriers can help herd fish into traps for pumping in the Gulf of Mexico, and the tropicalAtlantic. into vessels or to processing plants ashore.Figure 14 illustrates this method. Floating traps canbe (5.) Satellites for Data TransmissionThe satel-used to harvest pelagic fish. Automatedlift nets litesystem alsocan relay computer data to can discharge fish into holding pens_ fishermen at seathe link in the chain requiring least development. Facsimile chartsalready are being transmitted by Japan for fishermen at sea_ Receiver costs are reasonable for oceangoingfish- ing vessels, and communication satellitescould provide this service to vessels far from port.

c_ Fish Detection SystemsLocating fish schools is very time consuming and costly. Toreduce this time, methods to detect fish schools shouldbe investigated, including acoustical systems, pulsed laser systems, chemical techniques todetect organic residues left by fish, and devices todetect electromagneticandtemperaturedisturbances caused by fish. Active sonar for locating and passive acoustic devices for identifying marine life by characteristic noises are being used (the latter by the Russians). Figure 14_ Artist's concept showing fish being Underwater television might also be used forpumped into a vessel.(Bureau of Commerczal detection and identification. Except active sonar, Fisheries drawing) such devices are not developed fully, and more importantly, are not in general use because of high costs.Successfulapplicationof current and A brief review of possible future techniques improved technology will depend on mass produc-follows. tion, volume purchases, and cost reductions. (1.) Chemicals Fish respond to chemical concen- d. Harvesting SystemsEfficient harvesting oftrations of considerably less than one part per pelagic fish populations will require the capabilitybillion_ Chemicals have been used to attract or control the movement of species, and torepel fish. It is possible chemicals can be developed to and concentrate them for capture. Variousmechanical,to concentrate commercial species selectively chemical, acoustical, optical and electricaltech-repel predators during harvesting_ niques have been used with varied degreesof success to fence in desirable species, tofence out(2.) AcousticsLittlescientific effort has yet predators and to attract and immobilize species forbeen exerted to develop acoustical devices to repelled harvestPresent methods have beendevisedattract or repel fish. The Russians have

VI-148 2 0 9 schools of fish successfully by transmitting whale Many excellent fishing grounds from the stand- predator noises; the fish, seeking shelter, concen-point of size, reasonable depth, availability offish, trated against the bottom. A trawl net, towedand nearness to port are not beingutilized because along the bottom, thereby yielded a greater catch.of rough bottoms. One such area off the coastof Bubble fences to repel predators or guide fish toWashington contains over 1,000 square miles made entrapment devices may depend on acoustic ef-unfishable mainly by scattered small boulders. fects. Considerable research into the principles ofExplorations have located only a few small tracts operation has been conducted without muchthrough which fishermen can tow nets safely. The success to date- Nevertheless, the industryhas notarea could be a major fishingground through use exploited the results of acoustic gear research toof pots, traps, and rugged trawling equipment. the fullest. Undoubtedly, one reason is the inade- A primary objective of technological improve- quate means of communication among the re-ments must be to reduce present fishery produc- searcher, the typical user of acousttc gear in othertion costs. It should be economically feasible to: (2) fields, and the fisherman. (1) fish in areas of low species concentration, fish in depths not worked now by surface fishing operations, (3) harvest species lower on the food (3-) OpticsLights to attract and direct certain species are well known and widely used in variouschain, and (4) fish ocean floor areas too rough for forms to improve catch. These methods are empir-present gear. ical and not based on behavioral research which could permit optimizing such variables as inten-3. Long-Range Future sity, spectral content, geometry, and direction. Current experience indicates that such researcha. Fishing-UpOne long-range concept to help will be fruitful. develop U.S. leadership in the world fishing community might be to fish-up (to fish waters above (4.) ElectricityElectrical devices to fence, at-from a position on the ocean floor) on the U.S. tract, and immobilize species have received muchContinental Shelf. Probably many of the tech- interest, and their potential appears promising.niques discussed earlier would be utilized in a Immobilization is relatively predictable, and crudefishing-up system. If successful, the Nation's fish- design criteria are available. An electro-trawl foring capability would be increased and the competi- shrimp developed under the Bureau of Commercialtive position with foreign nations on our own shelf Fisheriesis now on the market. An electricimproved_ Foreign countries, obviously, could stimulus causes shrimp buried in bottom sedimentsdevelop a similar competitive advantage on their to jump into the path of the trawl. Despite the shelves. interest in such devices, some feel its use in salt water will be confmed in the near future to just ab. Modification of the Environment Modifying few fisheries because of economics. the enviromnent to improve productivity of se- Future harvesting techniques will make increas-lected species is not practiced on a commercial ing use of underwater technology, including: (1)scale. However, thepossibilities of increasing system designs to view catching devices in opera-nutrientconcentrationthroughfertilizingor tion, (2) more effective catching devices resultingartificially-inducing upwelling, of providing arti- from redesign based on direct observations, andficial cover (artificial reefs or floating plastic kelp (3) submersibles for various supporting functions.beds), and of improving or creating spawning In the future, it should be possible to harvestconditions (probably in shallow bays, lagoons, and whole communities of organisms, particularlyestuaries) should be considered. those in the deep scattering layers. Typically these Increased knowledge of the ecology and physi- layers contain concentrations of 10 to 12 inter-ology of desirable species must be obtained if such mingled species from a half inch to two inchesmodifications are to be economically feasible. long that rise to the ocean surface at dusk.Further, economic fea&ibility probably will require Technological developments should help in har-establishing systems to utilize organic wastes for vesting the larger organisms for volume productionnutrition and waste heat to induce upwelling or of protein concentrates. temperature control in confmed waters. A much

VI-149 210 - product form. greater understanding of organicnutrients and theproducts, most do not change the beforeFigure 16 shows a rn-nhaden reductionplant, and effects of organic wastes must be obtained processing fertilizing can be effective. The technologytoFigure 17 illustrates frozen shrimp implement these operations is availableif basictechniques. information can be obtained.

C. Processing 1. Present Status The object of research in processingtechnology is to ensure the greatest variety of fisheryproducts of consistently high quality and nutritionalvalue at lowest cost. Processing the U.S. catch and raw imports is done in more than 4,000 plantsthroughout the location and estimated country. The regional Figure 16.Menhaden reduction plant for fish number of workers employed in 1965 areshownmeaL (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries photo) in Figure 15.

Figure 15 PROCESSING FACILITIES 11965/

Persons Engaged Average Average Establish- for seasonfor year Section ments

8,398 New England 532 12,583 Middle Atlantic 488 6,787 6,008 7,026 Chesapeake 621 9,679 South Atlantic 443 7,826 5,541 Gulf 847 18,056 12,645 16,746 Pacific Coast 557 26,207 Great Lakes 256 2,923 2,429 wvalistasstsriuTot itionottotwitin Mississippi inniaras7lw River 417 2,368 2,160 voasnru Hawaii 24 435 357 Totall 4,185 86,864 61,310 These totals do not include U.S. Territories. Figure 17.Processing frozen shrimp. (Bureau Bureau of Source:Fishery Statistics of the U.S., 1965, of Commercial Fbheries photo) Commercial Fisheries, U.S. Department ofthe Interior.

package A summary of processed productsfrom domes- Of 4,185 plants, 1,057 process and Figure 18. fresh or frozen fish and shellfish products,324 aretically caught fish for 1966 is shown in 160 manu- While domestic production has beenessentially fish and shellfish canning plants, and domestic con- facture industrial fish products. While manyplantsstatic over the past 30 years, the also perform a wholesale function, theremainingsumption has increased at a much faster rate than demand 2,644 firms are primarily wholesalers andbrokers,the population. For example, in 1945 the performing minor aspects of proceSsing butpri-for fish and fish products in the United States was marily concerned with distribution.With the53 billion pounds or 41 pounds per capita in exception of a few firms who dry and curefishterms of round weight, the same as thecatch is

VI-150 211 about Figure 18 ven in. The domestic demand in 1967 was 14 billion pounds or over 72 pounds percapita.4 WHOLESALE VALUE OF PROCESSED The major increase during this period was to PRODUCTS FROM augment domestic animal and poultry feeds. As DOMESTICALLY CAUGHT FISH (1966) the demand for animal protein continues to grow, the market for fish products shotdd continue to increase rapidly. Item ($ thousand) The trends in production and consumptionof fishery products are shown in Figure 19. Recogniz- Packaged ing that U.S. exports have been minimal, one can Fresh 118,329 estimate the round weight consumption bysimply Frozen 367,402 adding domestic catch to imports. Canned 495,231 Cured 54,166 Industrial 82,830 4Comparable BCF figures are in terms of edible meat weight per capita. Such figures show a static trend of Total 1,117,958 10-12 pounds per capita over the past 20 years.

Figure 19

PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION TRENDS OF FISHERY PRODUCTSIN THE UNITEDSTATES, SELECTEDYEARS,1945-1967

1945 1950 1955 1960 1965 1967 1953 Population, Millions' 129.1 150.2 162.3 178.2 191.9 Edible Fish (round weight) 2,385 Domestic Catch, Million pounds. 3,167 3,307 2,597 2,498 2,586 Imports, Million pounds 6803 1,128 1,332 1,766 2,576 2,683 Total, Million pounds 3,847 4,435 3,911 4,264 5,162 5,068 Per Capita Use, pounds . 29.8 29.5 24.1 23.9 26.9 25.9 (10.6) (meat weight)2 (9.9) (11.8) (10.5) (102) (10.9) Industrial Fish (round weight) Domestic Catch, Million pounds . 1,431 1,594 2,230 2,444 2,190 1,677 7,442 Imports, Million pounds . 314 639 980 1,515 3,182 5,372 9,119 Total, MiNion pounds . . 1,462 2,233 3,210 3,959 28.0 46.6 Per Capita Use, pounds . . 11.3 14.9 19.8 22.2 Total Fish (round weight) Domestic Catch, Million pounds .4,598 4,901 4,809 4,942 4,776 4,062 Imports, Million pounds 711 1,757 2,312 3,281 5,758 10,125 Total, Million pounds 5,309 6,668 7,121 8,223 10,534 14,187 Per Capita Use, pounds . 41.1 44.4 43.9 46.1 54.9 72.5 1July 1 population eating from civ-lian supplies, excluding Armed Forces overseas: beginning1950-50 states. 2Computed per capita consumption on edible.or meat weight basis with allowancesfor exports and changes in beginning and end-of-year stocks. 3Estimate based on 1946 relationship of round to imported product weight. 4 Estimatebased on the 1946 ratio of round weight to industrial productweight. Source: Office of Program Planning, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.

VI-151 212 A start has been made in developingless Figure 20 conventional uses forfish. For example, the BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, United States can be credited with first using BRANCH OF PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY, canned tuna, breaded shrimp, and the fishsand- PROGRAM FUNDS, FISCAL YEAR 1968 wich. Processes have been established to manufac ture fish protein concentrate from lean species. New methods are being developed to preserve and Location ($ thousand) increase shelf life of fishery products. Two tablesindicatethe Federal effortin Seatt le, Wa shington 660 processing technology. Figure20lists the Bureau Pascagoula, Mississippi . 135 of Commercial Fisheries program funds in process- Gloucester, Massachusetts 4701 21 shows ing, Fiscal Year1968.Figure distribu- College Park, Maryland . . 670 tion of Bureau personnel engaged in processing Ann Arbor, Michigan 1651 research by position and location, Fiscal Year Ketchican, Alaska 285 1968. Terminal Island, California 135 2,520 2. Problems Total 11 ncludes contributed funds from other agencies. a. InspectionWith increasing mechanization and efficiency of handling and processing, factors affecting quality must be considered. The quality of U.S. fishery products varies greatly; only a smallcanners of the Pacific Northwest under an agree- percentage is inspected by the Federal Govern-ment with the Food and Drug Administration.In ment for quality or health hazards. Under thegeneral, the canners (particularly salmon and tuna) Department of the Interior's voluntary inspectionhaverelativelyrigidstandards and inspection services,260million pounds of fish and fisherysystems. However, it appears that much more products were inspected during1967. effective inspection is needed for fresh and frozen However, inspection may be conducted by suchfish and for small-operator plants. other groups as the States and the National A small number of food poisonings involving Canner's Association. The latter inspects salmonfishery products have occurred and have been

Figure 21 BUREAU OF COMMERCIAL FISHERIES, BRANCH OF TECHNOLOGY,DISTRIBUTION OF PERSONNEL BY TYPE OF POSITION AND LOCATION.FY 1968 Terminal College An n Ketchikan, Seattle, Pascagoula, Gloucester, Island, Type of Position Park, Arbor. Alaska Washington Mississippi Mass3chusetts Maryland Mich igan California 14 4 4 2 Chemist. 22 5 15 4 Chemical Engineer 3

Mechanical Engineer 1 1 6 1 Food Technologist 1 Physicist 1 Health Physicist 2 1 Microbiologist 3 2 1 Statistician 1 2 Animal HusbandrY Nutritionist 1 1 Home Economist 6 Technician Miscellaneous Personnel (includes clerical, aides, and 30 6 1 1 part time) 17 4 10 21 8 3 Total (179)' 46 12 34 55

'Total number of authorized positions, including vacancies.

2_13 widely publicized. Instances involving other foodsinvolved mostly with biological and conservation also have occurred but their public image has notresearch, not having studied the environment on a been damaged asseverely as that of fisheryscaleof interesttofishermen. By 1960 the products. situation had begun to change. Now not only can The consumer is developing increased awarenessthe scientist inform the fishermen beneficially, but of the need for quality and health protection in allin the near future scientific data may reducethe classes of foodpoultry, meat, and fish. As afisherman's production costs substantially, ena- result, mandatory inspection of fishery productsbling him to harvest a much larger percentage of soon may be instituted by Federal andStatethe sea's living resources. However, no presently governments. satisfactory mechanism exists to transmit data to the fisherman similar to the county agentorgani- b. New Products Emphasis also will be placed onzation in agriculture. convenience products manufactured from currently abundant and under-utilized marine resources. It is estimated that over half theseafood2. Environmental Effects on Fish Location products on the market today were unknown a Pelagic fishermen in particular, but bottom decade ago. These include breaded fish portions,fishermen increasingly, require a more precise breaded shrimp, heat-and-serve fish sticks, frozenappreciation of the effects of environmental fish dinners, and other convenience items that arechanges on Esh availability than any Government the American a basic part of seafoods used by service can provide now. consumer. Great emphasis frequently is put on the lack of c. Technical Barriers A chemical change intheprecision in scientific prediction. However, each oil of stored, frozen, or processed fish is one majorfisherman must make decisions daily whether factor causing quality to deteriorate. As yet,scientific information is available or not. If scienti- successful control has not been developed. Thefic information, theory, and models improve the antolytic enzymes in fish flesh rapidly bring aboutprecision of predictions by five per cent, the effect undesirable textural and flavor characteristics inon his economic success wo=ilei be measurable. frozen fish. Moderate quality is maintained for an average of only three months. Methods to control enzyme activity have not been developed. How-3. Navigation and Bottom Charts ever, the use of anti-oxidants is reportedly extend- The fishennan has long used Government navi- ing the shelf life of fish meal and fish oil. gational and bottom charts to great advantage. However, fishermen need precision navigation be- 3. Promising Technological Breakthroughs yond that now provided by Governmental services. Controlled atmosphere storage could retardSatellite navigation equipment is too expensive degradation of fresh fish and increase shelf life. and bulky. Many fishing areas are not covered by Such protein products as fish protein concen-Loran C; and Loran A, a system of reasonable trate could become commercially available asprice and bulk, does not adequately cover major supplements to foods nutritionally deficient infishing grounds to the south of the United States. animal protein. They also could be used in graviesIt is of interest that a private navigation system is and soups. deployed along many foreign coasts and is used by Fish oil could become a component of humanthe U.S. Navy for special applications. It has high food in the United States. For example, fish oil inaccuracy, reliability, simplicity, and low cost. Europe is normally used to make margarine. Navigation by bottoin type and character always has had great value to fishermen.Bottom D. Government Role trawlers require much better knowledge of the continental shelf and slope than is available on 1. Technology Transfer Government charts or likely in the near future. Until 1950 fishermen knew more about theMost knowledge has been acquired by individuals ocean and fish than scientists did. Scientists werethrough experience.

VI-153 21 4 possibilities for 4. Emphasis :ra the Bureau ofCommercial Fish-protein concentrate (FPC) presents vast increases in demand; processtechnoiocry is a eries key factor here. The Bureau of Commercial Fisherieshas a small Production from the fishermen's viewpoint number of college trained engineers inexploratorydemands major consideration. Since thefishing fishing and gear research (Figure10). The magni-industry is quite heterogeneous, it is naturalthat tude of engineering problems in thefishing fleetthe fishing fleet should also bedescribed in the indicates that the Bureau should expand its oceansame fashion. Somefisheries, such as those of engineering and exploratory fishing effortssub-tuna, shrimp, and Alaska kingcrab, have fairly stantially. modern fleets; but some are static orrapidly The Bureau must expedite engineeringof newdeclining as a result of foreign competition or vessels, gear, and equipment for search,detection,fishery depletion, giving the entireindustry a and harvesting. This should be closelycoordinatedsimilar reputation. Part of the NewEngland with the Sea Grant College Programs,especiallygroundfish industry is an example. Thedomestic the at-sea technician training. fleet is second only to Japan in number ofvessels; moreover an examinationof gross tonnage shows E. Conclusions the U.S. fleet is essentially a coastaland inland waterway fleet. However, tLis shouldnot neces- The status of the domestic fishing industry can because the of 4sarily be regarded as a disadvantage, be summarized as follows: annual production predom- to 6 billion pounds, static for nearly 30 years;U.S. domestic fish production is obtained inantly from fishery resources adjacent to our market for about 14 billion pounds, growingmuch off thecoasts. more rapidly than population; resources In addition to the vessel, the production aspect U.S. coast for a catch of at least 30 billionpounds arises as to how theinvolves search, detection, and harvest.Fish hunt- per year. The question ing has been estimated to require an averageof 50 domestic fishing industry can leave thelust figure, for theper cent of the fisherman's seatime, but in some move toward the second, and prepare fisheries it may be considerably more,thereby third. itself fisheries isconstituting a very costly factor. Hunting As in other industries, technology in consists of two steps: searching for thegeneral applied to supply, deraand and productionprob- and then lems. With respect to supply, technology is re-areaof commercial concentrations detecting the precise position of the fish.Long- quired to assess and assure the continuedavailabil- mapping with fisheries.range search involves broad-scale ity of fish stocks supporting traditional information. developheavy dependence on environmental In addition, it is required to assess and from fisheries for under-utilized resources (e.g.,AtlanticUltimately, it could receive much support Effortssatellites, buoys, and computers withappropriate and Gulf thread herring, Pacific hake, etc.). equipment. directed toward traditional resources encompassinstantaneous(realtime)sensing the technology of supporting biologicalresearch,Search iscritical to pelagic fishing. Detection criti- as in preventing overfishingand ensuring thatrelying on sonars, fish odors, and lasers is conservation laws and treaties are based soundlycal with respect to groundfish. Additional technological There are many quite fertile under-utilizedfish on research, not emotion. Because of effort is required to prevent destructionof stocksresource areas adjacent to our coasts. by pollution. The effort directed towardunder-this and the costly time expended in huntingfish, utilized resources poses such newtechnologya concentrated effortshould be made toward problems as harvesting species of low concentra-improving vessels and gear in the hunting process, tion or fishing in depths not now feasible,Aqua-resulting in an immediate fmancial return to our culture promises to increase the supply ofediblecoastal fisheries. the The United States has paid relativelylittle fish in fresh water and estuaries, especially and luxury species. attention to radically new fishing methods With respect to demand, it is estimated thatsystems linked to broad analysis ofoceanographic the over half the fish products ontoday's market werevariables. In this respect, we are far behind unknown a decade ago (e.g., fish sticks, etc.). FishSoviet Union, despite the inherently greaterindus-

VI-154 trial and research capacity available to American A field service mechanism should be established industry. by the Federal Government analogous to the Vessel and gear engineering (as distinct fromDepartment of Agriculture Extension Service to biological science) and eventually thc benefits offacilitate transfer of technical information to the fundamental marine technology will play a largerfisherman at the county or fishing port level. For role in general fishing technology. Benefits fromexample, the Government should provide pelagic advanced marine technology will arise from devel-and bottom fishermen with information on the opments in such areas as materials, advancedeffects of environmental change on fish availability sonars, exploratory submersibles, buoy networks,and knowledge of the latest domestic and foreipi satellites, and underwater stations. advances in fishing gear. An updated survey should be completed of promising coastal fisheries and distant water fisheries, improving knowledge in the case of our Recommendations: traditional stocks and delineating resources in the Fishing technology should be directed towardcase of under-utilized species. The survey should maximum utilization of food resources and devel-be updated continually and should include sport opment of efficient means of exploiting them. Thefisheries because of the ecological interactions. major portion of the effort should focus on Improved charts should be provided for bottom maximizing efficiency in catching fish (as con-trawlers in particular to portray more information trasted to the processing phase), emphasizing thoseon the continental shelf and slope. The charts also fisheries not in danger of depletion. should have overprints of predicted areas of To achieve a more immediate economic return,fishery stocks. effort should be concentrated initially on prob- The ocean engineering progain in the Bureau lems more amenable to near-term solutions. Thisof Commercial Fisheries should be expanded and includes primarily learning how to reduce the timeadequately funded. A National Vessel and Gear spent in search and detection. Methods showingDevelopment Program within the Bureau of Com- promise include optical, infrared, electrical, andmercial Fisheries should be established to conduct acoustical. basic bio-engineering studies and provide technical Additional improvements in harvesting gear andsupport of biological research relating to new techniques should focus on: harvesting systems, new and improved fish detection systems, and improved performince of new Minimizing escape of fish within reach of fishingfishing vessels. This should provide support and gear. coordination to theactivities of the present regional laboratories. Leading, herding, or aggregating fish to increase The staff of this national progam should their availability to harvesting systems. include engineers and biologists (or bio-enffineers), Developing techniques to harvestthe mo renaval architects, and other scientists to undertake abundant smaller fish in the food chain. basic studies and provide effective liaison with private engineering finns and academic institu- High speed, automated vessels should be uti-tions. A substantial share of the program's budget lized wherever possible in coastal fisheries, in ordershould be used for contract studies with industry to improve efficiency and become more competi-and private histitutions. A submersible should be ' tive with foreign fishermen. available to study fishing gear performance, the For some fisheries attention should be directedreaction of fish to the gear, and to explore novel toward use of specialty vehicles for different tasks.methods of detection. A modern gear research This might include a high-speed vessel or aircraftvessel capable of handling types of harvest systems for fish detection, another type vessel for harvest-lacely to be developed would be necessaty to ing and a third for transporting catches (as mightdemonstrate such systems to the fishing industry. be used in distant water fisheries). At present weA dose working relationship should be estab- combine all three functions in one vessel andlished with Sea Grant Colleges, industrial firms, thereby pay a penalty for it. and the fishing industry.

216- VI- 1 5 5 In the United States, there is a relatively small H. AQUACULTURE but intensiveeffortto advance the field of Aquaculture today often is discussed as oneaquaculture, specifically for the most desirable part of a long-range solution tofeeding the billionsspeciesfortheluxury market. Examples are of people expected to inhabit the earth.Some shrimp, oysters, abalone, lobster,salmon, trout, authorities claim that (except in a fewcases) pompano, clams, and scallops.Efforts to produce aquaculture is not a viable solution to this prob-the more common fish are minimal,primarily lem. In this section acquaculture will bediscussedbecause of consumer disinterest. In Hawaii, exten- as a potential supplemental sourceof food. Some sivestudies are being conducted in breeding of the technology needed to enhance aquaculture mullet, a highly prized fish food in the islands. will also be described. As a matter of interest, the US.shrimp Aquaculture may be defined as a systematicindustry grossed $96 million in 1966 and was our and scientific farming program in restricted watermost valuable fishery. Oysters in the same year areas including inland waters,coastal waters andranked fifth with a catch worth $26 million.Thus. open sea.5 This defmitionof aquaculture is notthe American palate seems to be betterpleased by intended to include advanced techniques for im-gourmet seafoods. proved conventional fishing. The pages following discuss examples of aquaculture being undertaken with certain gourmet A. Present Status and Trends species. This is not intended to encompass all areas of aquaculture interest but illustrates afew to 1. General Activity show the promise in this field. Aquaculture, often discussed as impractical or too visionary in the United States, is nolonger a 2. Shellfish dream. Examination of the status and success of Shellfish farming, primarily oysters, clams, and aquaculture in other parts of the world reveals thescallops, has been practiced for many years in practical applications of this source of food morebays, estuaries, ocean shelves, and othershallow clearly. A report by the Institute of Fisheries,salty waters. A more intensive meths.,d ofshellfish University of British Columbia, states that Main-farming utilizing special methods of seeding, grow- land China in 1960 produced 2,000,000 tonsofing, and harvesting in ponds orsheltered enclosed fish by fresh water culture of a total 4,000,000areas is practiced also. tcas for the entire nation's inlandfish catch, thus Shellfish cultivation equipment is quite differ- 50 per cent of inland fish production in Red Chinaent, depending on whether in largeshallow ocean was by aquaculture. In the sameperiod, theareas or small ponds andenclosed areas. In the United States produced a total of 1,249,000 tonsocean areas fish cultivation requiresboats, dredges, of fish for human consumption.6 nets, etc., and is to some degree amechanized In 1966, pond culture in Israel yielded 9,454operation. In small ponds and enclosed areas tons of a total 24,503 tons of fish producedby all cultivation is done where seeding, growth,and methods. Pond culture realized approximately 40harvest can be regulated carefully. It iswidely per cent of total production in thissmall country.practiced in low labor-cost areas, as it currently Japan, long an aquacultural leader through therequires considerable manual labor. Becausethis necessity of feeding her population, continues tointensivecultivation achieves greatly increased be a leader. Today 13 per cent of the total valueofproductivity per unit area (or volume), and be- Japan's marine products is derived from aquacul-cause it is now largely a handoperation, it is a ture. fruitful field for new equipment development. Further, specialized heavy equipment is needed to prepare new growing areas. President s Science Advisory Committee, Effective Use of the Sea, Report of the Panel onOceanogaaphy (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1966), p. 10.3. Salmon 6National Council on Marine Resources and Engineer- ing Development, Marine Science AffairsA Year.of Plans Another example of U.S. aquaculture is the and Progress (Washington: Government PrintingOffice, salmon hatchery program on the Columbia River_ 1968), p. 224. V1-156 217 In1967 the Columbia River system produced about 15 million pounds of salmon by aquacul- 80 tural methods, coAtributing to a totalUS. salmon catch of 202 milliOn pounds. While only seven per 79 cent of total production, thiscontributionis indicative of the potential of aquaculturaltech-

77 niques. (17 CC The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries conducted LaJ a benefit-cost ratio (B/Cratio) analysis of the w 76 Coho and Chinook salmon produced atthe Columbia River hatcheries in relation to salmon o 75

caught by fishermen and the results were startling. 74 Coho ran as high as 7.8 to 1.0 andChinook ran from 2.5 to 4.5 to 1.0. This ratio is conservative 73 but representsareasonable reflection of the advances aquaculture can provide.7 72 work progressinginthe Inadditionto 71 Columbia River, Dr. Lauren Donaldson atthe is College of Fisheries, University of Washington, 70 1966 pectoral marks excluded doing extensive work in aqua-ailture bybreeding 1966 pectoral marks included A I I I I I _L salmon.8 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 Dr. Donaldson's Chinook salmon dataafter YEAR has been eight cycles indicates some progress Figure 22. Trend of body length on return made. Studies of the returns of Chinooksalmon toyear of three-year-old Chinooksalmon females. the Universiry holding pond for1960 through 1967 revealed increase in growth,length and weight, as well as a significant increase infecun- dity for both the three-year-old andfour-year-old females (Figures 22, 23, and 24). The emphasis in selection has been onthe three-year-oldreturning Chinook salmon.Al- 7 though the variation from year to year is great,the increase in length for femalesexcludingthe returns of 1966 with the pectoralmark' averaged about a centimeter per year over the pasteight years (Figure 22). Also the averageyeariy increase in weight for three-year-old Chinookfemales was about 200 grams (Figure 23). In the pasteight cycles,egg productionforthethree-year-old salmon increased at a fairly steady rate.The yearly

7This B/C ratio was based on the ex-vessel price (fish gutted and gilled but not headed and not processed). s The material on Chinook salmon and trout in subsections 3 and 4 was taken from reportsby Dr. Donaldson. 1966 pectoral marks excluded 9For the brood years 1960 to 1966, the young salmon 1966 pectoral marks included fingerlings were marked by amputation of a fin or the maxillary bone. This procedure handicaps the fish in 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 varying degrees and makes exact interpretation of the YEAR results of the selective breeding difficult. Removal of the pectoral fins from the 1963 brood year fmgerlings, which returned during the fall of 1966 as three-year-old adults, Figure 23. Trend of body weight on return was especially damang. year of three-year-old Chinook salmon females.

V1-157 2 1 8 has changed dramatically. In 1944, the first year a fair number of spawning fish of the two-year age 5400 class was available, the fish averaged 36.3 centimeters forked length. By 1968, the average length fortwo-year-old spawning rainbow trout had 5000 increased to 60.4 centimeters, an average increase three-year-old cn of acentimeterayear. The 0 0 spawners in the past 14 years (1954 to 1968) have us u_ 4600 increased from 50.5 centimeters forked length to cc us 68.1 centimeters, an average annual increase of co 1.25 centimeters. An actual example (Figure 26) shows the results of controlled rearing techniques. 4200

B. Future Needs

3800 Thereisa need to develop an integrated systems approach to the field of aquaculture, 966 pectoral marks excluded 1966 pectoral marks included consisting of effective collection, trapping, hatch- ing, stowage, and processing facilities. If such a so 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 YEAR system were adopted, industry would be able to contribute heavily to expand the program. An example of the systems approach is found in the Figure 24.Trend of fecundity on return year of three-year-old Chinook salmon females. oyster industry. Suspended culture of oysters is performed now in small areas, the oysters growing on strings average increase was about 200 eggs perfemale,suspended from floating rafts or underwater racks. from 1960 through 1967. Seeding the oysters, setting the racks or rafts, and Sea survival of the Chinook salmon has beenharvesting are hand operations. It is technically good, returns exceeding 1 per cent of the finger-possible to make racks (with suitable oyster lings released (1.0 to 3.25 per cent). The programattachment materials alreadyin place) to be has now become stabilized; 250,000 select fmger-installed by hand but seeded automatically from lings are released each year and 2.5 to 5 millionnearby seed beds. Properly designed, an entire rack eggs are obtained when the fish return.Five to 10 select stock.could be conveyed to a harvesting device for per cent are selected to continue the removing the mature oysters mechanically or Excess eggs and fmgerlings are transferred to otherhydraulically, sorting them and packing them in streams, where we hope they will contribute to commercial and sport fisheries. one continuous operation. The entire growing medium could be regulated, using three-dimensional units and controlling the 4. Trout oysters' growth with properly regulated water and A program of selective breeding of rainbownutrient flows. The enneer would work closely trout has been carried on at the Universityofwith the marine biologist who would determine Washington's College of Fisheries for the past 36optimum temperature, nutrient level, and water years. Changes during the past 13 years have beenturnover required to maximize shellfish growth pronounced (Figure 25). When the program wasand quality. initiated in 1932 the trout reached maturity in He would treat the oyster farm as a system their fourth year at an average weight of 11/2(including both the physical and biological param- pounds and produced 400 to 500 eggs at their firsteters established by the marine biologist and the spawning. economic limitations imposed by product value After 36 years, the males of select stock reachand the local labor market) to achieve the best rate maturity in the first year and the females allof return on investment. In a region of high labor mature in the second year. The rate of growth alsocosts, the environmental control system might

VI-158 219 Figure 25 SIZE AT SPAWNING AND NUMBER OFEGGS PRODUCED BY SELECTED RAINBOW TROUT BROOD STOCK Number Number of eggs from each female Spawn- Age at of Fork length at spawning ing recorded females (centimeters) Average Maximum year spawning spawn:ag Average Maximum 2,121 2 12 36.3 39.0 1,653 1944. 2,982 1946. 2 39 41.9 48.0 2,011 3,094 2 78 41.2 50.0 1,958 1948. 2,097 1950. 2 129 35.5 45.5 1,315 3,810 1952. 2 51 40.9 45.0 2,145 2,032 3,631 1953 . 2 27 38.9 43.5 2,377 3,960 1954 . 2 47 44.6 51.5 6,106 3 36 50.5 57.0 4,042 3,894 5,123 1955. 2 28 50.7 56.5 8,850 3 28 59.6 67.0 5,029 5,915 2 84 49.0 53.5 3,281 1956. 7,331 3 9 59.2 65.0 6,149 - 9,639 2 58 46.4 55.0 3,161 1957. 11,475 3 14 67.4 72.0 7,117 - 5,617 9,077 2 57 57.6 66.0 1958. 16,839 3 2 73.5 74.0 15,767 - 6,960 2 39 60.0 63.0 5,224 1959. 11,580 3 6 70.2 73.0 8,689 8,268 2 63 59.6 68.0 5,132 1960. 11,186 3 6 70.8 72.0 9,030 4,809 6,838 2 29 52.9 59.0 1961 . 13,515 3 5 67.1 71.0 9,092 - 13,407 2 73 57.8 68.5 6,080 1962. 16,482 - 3 20 66.1 72.0 9,176 1963. 2 83 52.5 63.0 - - 3 8 67.6 70.5 - - 66.5 6,091 8,845 . 2 48 59.1 1964. 13,684 3 12 64.0 74.0 9,768 - 11,826 1965. 2 81 58.5 65.5 6,274 11,556 16,160 3 30 68.3 78.0 16,872 2 131 57.0 63.0 7,798 1966. 19,922 3 32 68.7 74.5 13,304 13,707 2 36 60.7 67.0 7,335 1967 . 20,602 3 29 67.2 73.5 11,090 - 9,259 18,144 2 70 60.4 66.0 1968. 21,288 - 3 8 68.1 72.0 11,718

VI-159 1:51' ," '.

Figure 26.Results of controlled rearing techniques with lake trout. Lower two fish grew - under normal conditions.

_ 10- include pumps, temperature controllers, automatic monitoring of nutrients, etc. In a region having Figure 27.Mackerel reared on plankton from cheaper labor, the system might be largely a ocean. Nutrient-rich deep waters brought to manual operation with a minimum of capital the sunlit surface support prolific plant life on which fish thrive. Waste heat from fossil or nu- investment. clear power plants may benefit aquaculture and Artificial upwelling techniques, artificial reefs, selected fisheries.(Bureau of Commercial and control of environmental temperatures can Fisheries photo) increase fish production further. As an example, the University of Miami has a research grant for raisingshrimp, using waste heat from power Engineering aspects of shellfish fanning (partic- generation plants at Turkey Point, Florida toularly equipment employed, means for enclosing control water temperatures. Thermal energy dis-farming areas, and methods for controlling the sipated from nuclear installations offers a wholegrowth environment) need concentrated attention new field of development, particularly in aquacul-for improvement and economy. Very little has ture. The New England lobster populationis been accomplished in practical demonstration of declining becasue long-range climatic cycles haveopen sea aquaculture techniques to date. With the reduced water temperatures below the levels favor-proper encouragement to industry, the techniques able to their growth. needed will be developed, leading to increased Heat from man-made sources, if properly ap-catches, improved efficiency, and better fulfill- plied, potentially could benefit aquaculture andment of needs for fish protein. selected fisheries. Basic understanding of how A concept of an open sea aquacultural opera- waste heat can be used is being investigated in ation is illustrated in Figure 28. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries project to rear mackerelartificially under controlled environ- C. Conclusions mental conditions (Figure 27). The United States can contribute substantially Aquaculture can make a major contribution to to development of new and improved techniquesthe war on hunger, by applying recent scientific in aquaculture by applying its experience andand technological advances to existing practices or competence in such fields as pathology, ecology,by development of new techniques in such fields microbiology, nutrition, genetics, chemistry, andas pathology, genetics, nutrition, ecology,and engineering. Application of techniques in devel-engineering_ oping countries could aid materially in the war on Aquaculture is practiced in the United States to hunger. Immediate benefits to the United Statesvarious degrees in raising luxury crops or augment- would be increased production of food items nowingnaturalstocks. Aquaculture programs are considered luxuries because of limited supplies. scattered among several groups. Real progress will

VI-160 221 should be made of the rationale of changing escapement quotas in certain estuaries on the West Coast.

OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS A. Scope of Offshore Industry I. Worldwide a. Investment Cumulative investment, now near $18 billion, is likely to triple in the next decade_

b. ProductionReservesFree World offshore production, quadrupled since 1960, now represents about 8 per cent of Free World output. Offshore proven reserves, tripled since 1960, now Figure 28. Artist's concept of open sea aqua- account for about 14 per cent of the Free World culture.(Westinghouse photo) total.If the figures include production from protected waters, (such as Venezuela's Lake Mara- caibo, which alone produces 2 million barrels per require recognition of the need for a systematicday (b/d) and bays such as along the U.S. Gulf approach and a cooperative relationship betweenCoast) the percentage rises from 8 to 16 per cent. Government and industry. The Persian Gulf in the Middle East has most of Widespread, low-intensity aquaculture, as prac-the Free World's offshore oil reserves and provides ticed in many developing countries where largeabout one-fourth of current world offshore pro- areas are available for the purpose, may result induction. relatively low yields and profits. The potential of Figure 29 depicts offshore activity in the 80 Free World countries; it does not include pro- aquacultureisgreatestin these places where improved technology may be expected to increasetected waters but represents true continental shelf activities. Thus, whereas the figure shows 1967 yields greatly_ Free World production at 2.4 million b/d, it is Recommendations: almost 5.0 million b/d if Lake Maracaibo and other inland water areas are considered. The Far A program to coordinate and foster aquacultureEast and Mrica represent the fastest growing areas. should be established and managed by the FederalItis estimated that by 1980 total over-water Government. This program should focus on tech- production from the continental shelves and pro- nology needed for potential commercial applica-tected waters will rise to 20 million b/d, or about tions. Use should be made of Government, State, one-third estimated total production. academic, and industrial facilities. The program Offshore activity ranges from early seismic goals should be directed toward both domestic and work to full-scale production operations. The pace world aquaculture needs. has been increasing sharply since1960 in all An intensive program to strengthen and expandgeographicareas.Most jack-up and semisub- the scope of Federal laboratories engaged inmersible offshore rigs built in the past two years aquaculture would be of great benefit to industryhave gone into foreign service because of the and would allow further research in fertilization,expected increased offshore activity in those areas nutrition, population ecology, pathology, predatorin the next few years. and pest control, soil chemistry and biology, and design and construction of ponds, lagoons, and2. United States estuarine impoundments. In view of the improvement in salmon produc-a. InvestmentThe petroleum industry has intion, an economic, political and ecological inquiry vested about $73 billion in offshore Louisiana,

VI- I 6 1 333-091 0-69-15 222- Figure 29 EXTENT OF OFFSHORE CONTINENTAL SHELF ACTIVITYIN THE FREE WORLD' Latin Far Free Europe Africa Mideast World Category Year U.S.A. Canada America East 6 5 4 24 1960 5 2 Countries with Offshore Activity2 . 12 8 66 1964 15 8 21 26 14 11 80 1967 18 9 _ 3002 . 1960 Offshore Concession Acreage . . 34 422 807 1964 7 154 87 48 56 (Millions of acres) 53 760 1,345 1966 9 202 125 69 127 135 93 5 6 31 Geophysical Crew Months 1960 26 35 546 1964 273 22 12 133 45 (Marine seismograph) 47 140 828 1966 461 26 18 103 33 181 396 1960 190 Crude-Oil Production 684 7 1,272 1964 449 59 8 65 (Thousand b/d) 1,184 50 2,356 1967 870 77 10 165 14,750 16,770 1960 1,700 220 100 Proven Crude Reserves 32,300 100 35,910 1964 2,200 260 100 1,050 (Million bbl) 3,150 43,350 1,400 52,550 1967 4,100 330 220

'Does not take into account activity in such protected waters as Venezueltes rich LakeMaracaibo. tExcludes countries where onshore concessions extend into offshore areas and wherethere is no offshore activitY. 36reakdown not available. Source: TheOil and Gas Journal,May 6. 1968. P- 77-

commercial and its operations have recoveredabout $3.5United States, the Free World's only billion in revenue from oil and gas salesa $4 offshoregas areas liein the North Sea, off stillAustralia, and in the Adriatic. Some however,will billion net deficit." Yet, the U.S. industry Gas regards the offshore as its last big frontier. be large producers in the future. Britain's Council estimates England's share of NorthSea gas reserves at 25 trillion cubicfeet; the search for gas b. ProductionReservesLatest figures from theis just beginning on the Netherlands'side of the American Petroleum Institute place U.S.offshoresea. oil reserves total at 43 billion barrels,including There is a strong possibility that the Free 2.4billionoff Louisiana and L4 billion offWorld offshore gas production will follow thetrend California.U.S.offshoreoilproduction hasof offshore oil with a sudden growth spurt inthe climbed from 335,000 b/d in 1960 to overnext few years. Any offshore gasdiscovered near 1,300,000 b/d in 1968. One major companysizable market areas will fmd outlets. reports that offshore Louisiana accountsfor over However, expensive failures have occured off one-third its total production; another reportsthatNorway and Sweden. All efforts in the German half its production increase in North Americanpart of the North Sea ceaed after about adozen liquids will come from Cook Inlet, Alaska. expensive dry holes were drilled.

b. United StatesIn this country offshore natural 3_ Natural Gas gas is becoming big business, and muchfuture a. Free World Six per centof Free World naturalgrowth in supply is expected to come from gas production comes fromunderwater areas,close-in offshore areas. For example, one company compared to 16 per cent for oil. Outsidethereports that its offshore Louisiana reserves represent over half the company's total_

i°Wilson, J. E., "Economics of Offshore Louisiana," presented before the Louisiana-Arkansas Division,Mid- Continent Oil and Gas Association, Sept- 12,1967. "The Oil and Gas Journal, May 6, 1968, p_ 77.

V1-162 223 4. TechnologyThe Broad Picture began in the summer of 1968 and shallow holes have been successfully drilled in 17,500 feetof a. CapabilityExploratory wells have been drilledwater. from floating rigs in waters deeper than 600 feet, and exploitation wells have been drilled from hugeB. Background of Offshore Activity fixed bottom-mounted production platforms in waters deeper than 300 feet. Recently, one com-1. History pany invested almost $200 million in lease bonuses Offshore oil was first produced about 1894 in for 47 tracts in the Santa Barbara Channel, ofCalifornia from wells drilled from wooden wharves which 16 are in water deeper than 600 feet, sixor from wells directed seaward fromthe beach. deeper than 1,200 feet, and one in 1,800 feet ofPetroleum operations in the Gulf of Mexico began water.Exploratorywells are presently beingin 1936. The first offshore well completed beyond drilled in depths up to 1,300 feet, and production off Louisiana in 1948; a 400 feetthe sight of land v,ra may be established in waters as deep as typical early platform is shown in Figure 30. The during 1969. It is expected that by 1980 industryfirst offshore pipeline was completed the following will have the capability to explore for and produceyear_ Today production has been established more hydrocarbon reserves in almost any area of thethan 70 miles from shore and in water depths to world; however, alternate sources of petroleum340 feet. Production pipelines have been laid probably will enter the energy market before petroleum deposits are exploited in deep oceansuccessfully in 340 feet of water. The first subsea well with all components under water was com- areas. pleted in Lake Erie in 1959; there are now 50 to b_ Equipment There are about 180 mobile drill-100 throughout the world. ing rigs throughout the world, valued at about $1 billion, 35 per cent floaters.12 It is estimated that by 1980 there will be about 400 mobile units, about 60 per cent floaters. To reduce the cost of development drilling, it may be necessary to use multiple drilling rigs on a single floating platform. In the Santa Barbara Channel it may be more economical on some leases to complete wells on submerged platforms connected to and controlled from operating platforms in shallower water_ Extensive tests with actual underwater wells, coupled with experiments to determine diver and diverless capability have provided confidence that the technology to install and operate underwater facilities in the Santa Barbara area can be de- veloped_ The method used for each lease will be governed by economics, safety, and environmental considerations. Using Federal funds, a group of oceanographic Figure 30.Early offshore platform beyond sight of land, in 50 feet of water. Designed to institutions has contracted with industry to drill ahouse a crew of SO, it was completed in 1948 series of core holes to 2,500 feet below the sea and is stffl in operation. floorsin waters to 20,000 feet deep inthe Atlantic, the Pacific, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Caribbean Sea.This program, called JOIDES, Drilling capabilityin the last 10 years has progressed from water depths of less than 100 feet to more than 600 feet_ In addition, leases have 12Rigs that do not touch bottom but maintain position by anchoring or dynamic positioning. The other twobeen granted by the Department of Interior for types of mobile drilling rigs are submersible and jack-up_petroleum exploration and production more than

VI-163 100 miles off the U.S. shores and in waters up to be conducted, the actual cost per mile is about 1,800 feet deep. About 100 core holes havebeen one-third as much as on land. A sound pulse is drilled beyond the U.S. Continental Shelves, some generated, a portion of which is reflected from the in waters nearly 5,000 feet deep in theAtlantic layers of sediment and rock under the ocean floor. Ocean and Gulf of Mexico. The reflections when received at the surface are recorded on a graph showing an approximation of the depth and characteristics of underlying geolog- 2. Phases ical structures_ In earlier surveys black powder or dynamite was used to generate the sound pulse. Offshoreactivitiesareconducted inthree Today, electrical sparking systems, air guns, con- phases: tained-gas explosions, mechanical boomers, and Exploration consists of geophysical surveys toother nonexplosive eneru sources are used. Seis- locate subsurface structuresfavorable for themic data are recorded routinely on magnetic tape accumulation of hydrocarbons, followedby ex-and processed by digital computers, enhancing ploratory drilling to determine the presence or quality and reliability. absence of oil or gas under the ocean floor_ The above-mentioned geophysical techniques Production involves development drillingfol- are indirect methods for examiningstructures lowed by installation of equipment forproduc- under our continental margins. The most satisfaction, well service, and maintenance_ tory method to date for obtaining geologic sam- Storage of the product and transportation toples of rocks on or at shallow depths under the sea shore is the fmal phase of offshore activity_ floor has been with small coring devices operated from a surface ship_ These devices drill a hole C. Exploration several hundred feet into the sea floor and recover samples of rock for further study. Similar holes 1. Geophysical Surveys and Geological Analysis have been drilled in the U.S. continental margin Exploration encompasses the broad reconnais-beyond the shelves to 1,000 fee beneath the sea floor in waters from 600 feet to 5,000 feet deep. sance surveys followed by moredetailed surveys that actually delineate the geological structures Coring in such depths has been accomplished from explora-floating, dynamically positioned vessels_ As long that may contain oil or gas deposits (i.e., holes were forago as 1961, several experimental core tion activities involve locating promising areas drilled in 11,700 feet of water as part of the early drilling activities). Exploration begins withgeolo- of thephase of Project Mohole. gists making a general study of the structure Exploration technolou has made rapid strides earth to select an area with characteristics possiblyin new seismic energy sources and receiving sys- favorable for oil or gas recovery. tems. Computers permit analysis of thedata while After selecting a promising area, tests pinpoint ihe site to probe further for possible reserves.under way at sea. The Navy Navigation Satellite takenSystem will permit seismic teams to determine These can be simple magnetometer readings more accurately survey locations in remoteareas. from an airplane or ship. By showing a variationin theearth's magnetic field, thetests indicate geologic structures below the ocean floor.In2. Exploratory Drilling addition, towed marine gravimeters can determine Determining the presence of oil or gas requires very small variations in theearth's gravity field_full scale drilling operations at the site, a much Both types of geophysical surveys can be madeinmore difficult and expensive task thandrilling any depth of water and at any distancefrom land.shallow core holes. Multiple strings of casing must However, in themselves, they usually do notbe set in the hole to keep it opcn. To control provide information of sufficient accuracy tadrilling fluids or fluids in the rock, large blowout permit siting an exploratory well. preventers must be installed should high-pressure The most successful technique tolocate testoil or gas be encountered_ The drilling rig must drilling sitesis seismic profiling. Such surveysmaintain position at the wellsite for many weeks require much more expensiveequipment butor months_ More than 10;000 wellsalready have because of the high speed at which the surveys canbeen drilled into the U.S. Continental Shelves. V1-164 223 Most of these are for exploitation purposes and Figure 31 shows the categories of offshore have been drilled from fixed platforms, artificialdrilling platforms, their cost, daily operating rate, islands, or directionally from shore. and depth capability. There are three general types The petroleum industry has more than SIof mobile platformssubmersible, jack-up, and billion in offshore drilling equipment presently atfloating. work_ Drilling contractors, hired by operating oil The jack-up rig is mounted on a buoyant hull to firms, generally bear the burden of the capitalwhich extendable legs are attached. The legs are investments for this phase of the operation. raised for moving the rig and lowered to the ocean While the types of platforms used to supportfloor to lift the platform above the ocean waves the drilling rigs vary greatly, the rigs are fairlyduring drilling operations (Figure 32). The number standardized. They consist of: (1) a tall steel towerof jack-up rigs has grown steadily. with about 75 to hoist the bit, pipe, and other equipment in andin operation in depths to 300 feet. Designs have out of the hole, (2) a system to rotate the pipe andbeen proposed for jack-up rigs for 600 feet of bit, and (3) a system to circulate fluid to thewater. Recent innovations include a self-propelled, bottom of the hole. jack-up rig resembling a ship, to operate in 300 Fixed platforms supported by pilings werefeet of water. constructed in shallow offshore waters as the The submersible rig is mounted on a submers- drillers followed the seaward extension of oilible hull that is ballasted with water and sunk to fields. As the industry moved into deeper waters,the ocean floor for support during drilling opera- it continued using this type of foundation fortions (Figure 33). The largest submersible rig is exploitationdrilling. However, for exploratorydesigned to drill in 175 feet of water with 25-foot drilling, where the incidence of dry holesis deck clearance; however, most submersible rigs are inherently higher, fixed platforms soon becamelimited to 100 foot water depths. About 35 too costly_ submersible rigs are in use currently, a number The industry then began to develop mobilealmost constant since 1958 due to depth limita- drillingplatforms. This minimized the capitaltion and the increasing popularity of jack-up rigs. investment chargeable to each well site. The first The advantage of the jack-up and submersible mobile platforms were submersible barges forrigs is that they rest on the bottom while the operation in 20 to 40 feet of water and evolvedplatform stands clear of the highest waves, ena- from the barge-mounted drilling rigs used inbling them to operate in rough seas. The jack-up southern Louisiana marshlands.Later, jack-uprig has more depth flexibility and capability while mobile platforms were developed for greater waterthe submersible rig, a monolithic stmcture, can be depths. towed more readily from one location to another.

Figure 31 COSTS AND DEPTH CAPABILITIES OF OFFSHORE DRILLING PLATFORMS

Initial Cost' Day Rate2 Typical Operating Cat egory (B million) ($) Depths (Feet) 0-300 Fixed Platforms. . . _ 1.0 to 15_0 5,000- 7,000 Mobile Platforms . . . . Bottom Supported Submersible . . . 3.0 to 5.0 6,000-10,000 20-175 Jack-up 4.0 to 8.0 6,000-15,000 20-300 Floating Semisubmersible . . 7.0 to 10.0 12,000-17,000 130-600 Ship-shaped . . - 3.0 to7.0 10,000-15,000 50-600 Depends upon soil conditions; wave, wind, and ice loading; and the number of wells supported by the platform. 2Includes rig, labor, transportation, routine daily services, and routine expendable materials.

VI-165 226 The semisubmersibles are floating platforms supported on tall columns which rise from buoyant barge-like hulls or cylindricaltorpedo-shaped tubes (Figure 34). Upon arrival on location they are ballasted so thatapproximately one-half the unit is below water. Their advantage overdrilling ships or bargesis that the major structure is located above or below the region of most severe wave action. This configurationprovides improved stability by itslargeinertia, and by having a vertical natural frequency of movement which is affected little by wave forces_

G2CE:s. ,

ro`

Figure 32.Self-elevating (jack-up) mobile drilling rig. Open fabricated legs increase strength without substantially increasing resistance to waves. (The Offshore Co. photo) -

WO.

Figure 34.Semisubmersible rig (SEDCO 135) measures 300 feet on a side and in drillingposi- tion displaces 16,800 tons.(Southeastern Drill- ing photo)

The semi-submersibles can be raised by pumping ballast water from the tubes and columns. Finally, they can be used to drill while resting on the sea floor if in sufficiently shallow water. Ship-shaped platforms consist of a drilling rig Figure 33.Submersible drilling rig.(Shell Oil supported on a barge or self-propelled ship. A photo) barge, because itis not self-propelled, must be While floating platforms lack the stability ofmoved by tugs to new assignments, but it has the the bottom support type, they are not as restrictedadvantage of low initial cost. The ship-shaped to a given depth of water and are cost-competitiveplatform can transit at higher speeds and at less at 200 feet or more. The floatingplatformexpense. A disadvantage of theship-shaped vessel includes two major categories: semi-submersiblesplatforms is that much drilling time can be lost in and the ship-shaped type_ bad weather due to vessel motion; however, this vr-166 may not be an important consideration in protected drilling locations (Figure 35). The floating platforms candrillin depths exceeding 600 feet, with some of the latest exceeding 1,000 feet. The floating drilling vessels normally are held over the drill hole by a system of anchors; however, some of the newer vessels are held by various types of multidirectional thrust systems (Figure 36). Most companies plan on conventional anchoring in depths to 1,300 feet. Drilling explo:ation wells often requires being on station for long periods (100 days, for example) and excessive fuel would be consumed if dynamic positioning were used_ However, in comparatively sheltered waters with moderate winds and sea states, the costs of dynamic positioning systems compare favorably with conventionalmooring systems.

460 Figure 36. Artist's concept of dynamically positioned drilling vessel designed to maintain a fixed position without anchors(Esso Production photo)

3. Delineation Drilling Drilling a delineation or appraisal well (combination exploratory and development well) is becoming a common practice in the United Kingdom sector of the North Sea. The operators use the wells to define or appraise a geological structure 'Figure 35. Self:propelled drilling ship Glomar once it has been confirmed by a successfulwildcat Sirte measures 380 feet x 64 feet. displaces 9,500 operation. The practice has been to re-enter tons, and is one of the largest drilling ships in operation.(Global Marine photo) previously suspended delineation wells and equip them for gas production, thus realizing considerable capital savings. Should a drill snip be compelled to abandon its station, upon return it must be able to relocate theD. Production seafloor wellhead and reinsert the drill string.1. Present Capability Recently, acoustic systems have been designed and tested for hole re-entry. Sea floor pingers or Recently a fixed platform was installed in 340 transducers will be increasingly used -for precisefeet of water in the Gulf of Mexico_ At the time of repositioning, for effectively relocating the well-installation this depth was a world record. This head, and for accurately guiding the drill string. 2,900-ton structure, towering more than 550 feet

22$, VI-167 from the bottom of its legs to the top of the Sometimes a contractor will be engaged differ- drilling mast, can drill as many as 18 directionalent from the one involved in exploratorydrilling. wells_ Figure 37 is a photograph of thisplatform.because of the changed nature of the drilling in the Some companies believe permanent fixedplat-development phase. Usuallyseveralholes are forms can be installed in depths of more than 600drilled before the platform is established to pin- feet. Generally, various well and production con-point the oil pool in quantity and quality. The trol equipment is located on the platform. initial well usually is drilled vertically, but subse- In some cases the subsurface reservoir is closequent wells usually are drilled slanting outfrom enough to shore that the wellhead and producingthe platform to cover a wider area. Depending equipment can be located on land; in other casesupon depth and other considerations,reservoirs man-made islands have been built to support thesemore than a mile horizontallyfrom the platform facilities. Obviously, these approaches are confmedcan be reached in this manner.Such wells usually the wellheads to fairly shallow waters. are completed conventionally with above water on a platform. With such a platform, italso is possible to connect more distant wells toproduction-handling equipment on the platform. Such wells cannotbe drilled from the platform itself and require a floating rig. Some may be completed using existing underwater completion techniques. (Underwater completion is discussed in a subsequent section.)

3. Installation of Producing Equipment After development drilling, therigs are removed, and producing equipment is installed. Since crude oil usually is accompanied bylarge volumes of entrained and dissolved gases (and eventually water), a major purpose of the platform operation is to separate these materials. Ifthere is too much gas or water mixedwith the oil, it cannot be pumped ashore efficiently or econom- ically_ Provisions are made on the platform for:

Measuring accurately and controlling flow rate Figure 37. World's largest fixed platform located in 340 feet of water in Gulf of Mexico off the from oil or gas wells. mouth of the Mississippi River.(Shell Oil photo) Cleaning the flow lines to remove sand and paraffm deposits.

2. Development Drilling Injecting chemicals for control of corrosion, scale, or hydrates in the well and the flow lines. After oil is found through exploratory drilling Separating entrained gases and water from the (usually with a mobile platform), the exploitation and natural gas cycleisbegun.Firstis development drilling,raw product. (0il, gas, water, almost all done from a fixed surface platformliquids seldom occur as pure products in thefield.) and using land technology. Associated activities Accessibility for periodic maintenance. problems involving separation and subsequent storage and transportation of the hydrocarbons Storage before subsequent transportation. generally dictate use of a surface platfomi as a base of operations. Facilities for supplementary recovery operations.

VI-I 68 223 Facilities for pumping the oil wells after they stop flowing by natural pressure.

4. Lag Between Exploratory and Production Drill- ing Capability The ability to explore and drill for petroleum resources in deep water exceeds the capability to produce once it is found. Recent lease acquisitions in depths beyond 600 feet exceed present production capability. Also, the problems and expenses of underwater production and well maintenance are much more extensive than those of exploration. Oil and gas in relatively shallow water are easier to produce on fixed pl?tforms, because the production systems and pipelines are not significantly different from those on land. Many of these fields have been producing for years, but of hundreds of wells drilled in water depths greater than 200 feet, only a few have been brought into production. Costly production platforms on legs 200 to 300 feet high have rendered many recovery operations Figure 38.The monopod located in Cook Inlet, economically impractical. Wells in great water Alaska. The single-leg platform. installed in 1966. has minimized effects of ice loading and lends depths also present problems of maintenance, and itself to rapid instaPation in strong currents. the pipelines required to connect these distant (Brown and Root photo) platforms to shore are proportionally more expensive. Some underwater wells in deep water already5. Automatically Controlled Platforms have been capped to await such developments as: A completely automatic platform complex has (1) an increase in the price of crude oil and gas, (2)been installed in the North Sea for gas extraction. enough adjacent discoveries to justify a jointThe entire platform and all its generators, pumps, pipeline, or (3) technology advances that willdehydrators, and other equipment run completely make recovery from them profitable. unattended with only occasional visits by super- Costs in shallow water can approach those ofvisory and maintenance personnel. This platform is deep water under special high risk conditions as inmonitored from shore by closed circuit televion Alaska's Cook Inlet. Platforms in this locationthat could also indicate fire or illegal trespassing. must withstand tidal currents up to eight knots Such offshore wells are remotely controlled which in the winter move pack ice as much as sixthrough automatic valve actuators receiving in- feet thick past the installation four times a day.structions usually via microwave. In addition, Each platform costs more than $10 millionanthese systems require communications equipment expenditure for a stable base that is a minimal costand an electric power source to operate the valve on land. motors. Pneumatic or hydraulic valve actuators The largest four-legged platform is a 3,200 ton,can be used, but these require continuous high- 43-well unit to be installed in 75 feet of water inpressure air or hydraulic fluid. Cook Inlet. Another unique platform rests on one column which stands on a base. Steel in theE. Pipelines 28-foot diameter column ranges from one to two inches thick, the thicker sections being in the areas Pipelines are laid in an offshore field to gather buffeted by the pack ice (Figure 38). the oil or gas produced from individual wells into

VI-169 220 ; where itis pumpeddropped to the bottom during severe weather.In a central collectiikg point accounted ashore via a large pipeline oi storedfor loadingthe Cook Inlet operation, shutdowns onto a barge or tanker. In some cases,portablefor more than half the elapsed time. the platform to storage facilities are installed near The use of a short allow production to begin beforethe piperme isb. Short Curved Stingers curved stinger with tensioning devices is analterna- complete d. of reducing Inthe production phase, theoffshore oiltive having the principal advantage and gas industryis largely a single industry.laying stresses. The advantage of tensiondeclines Historically, additions to the gas reserveshaveas pipe diameter increases,since the effect of come chiefly via the oil producers.Only in recenttensioning is to lessen normal laying stresseswhich years has the search for gas as anindependentincrease in proportion to the square of thepipe's commodity begun in offshore areas. Theprincipaldiameter. activity of the gas industry in the oceans hasbeen related to pipelines. All offshore gas isbrought2. Present Status and Problems ashore by pipelines. Offshore contractors have developedmethods of laying I 2-inch diameter pipelines indepths up 1. Laying Techniques to 340 feet. Lengths of pipe arejoined aboard ofspecially designed barges. The joints arewelded, Most offshore pipelines are laid using either concrete-coated as two methods: a long stingerstretching from thex-rayed, primed, wrapped, and lay barge to or close to the bottom or ashortthe pipeline is fed off the endof the barge_ An estimated 5,000 miles of pipe, ranging insize from curved stingerin conjunction with tensioning trunk lines, apparatus. Both have limitations. Figure39 showssmall diameter flow lines to 26-inch now traverse the sea floorin the Gulf of Mexico; a conventional pipelayingbarge with a long stinger in the which allows the pipe to follow a gentle slope tolarge-diameter lines have been installed of about 100 the bottom during the laying operation. Persian Gulf (to 48 inches) in depths feet. Figure 40 shows a novel reel bargewhich was developed to lay up to six-inch diameterflow lines a. Long StingersUnless efficient lomting and the pipe as it is control instruments are developed, theusefulnessat high rates. Rollers straighten underlaid. The tide-swept Cook Inlet haspresented the of the long stinger is limited, especially ..d installation costs in this adverse tide and weather conditions as inthe Cooktoughest problem, Inlet or North Sea. Frequently thestinger isarea have reached$500,000 per mile even for relatively small-diameter pipe-

Figure 39_ Conventional pipe-layingbarge with Figure 40_ Barge laying small-diameterpipe a floating stinger allowing pipeto assume a pipe operation. from reel at a high rate. Rollers straighten gentle slope ta bottom during laying as it is laid.(Shell Off photo) (Shell Oil photo)

VI-1 70 her Depth is probably the most immediate problemWall thickness and welding improvements offer facing offshore pipelaying. Distance is also anpromise of reduced costs. important but less urgent problem. Crude oil pipelines have been laid in 340-foot waters. How-a. Wall ThicknessWall thickness of onshore ever, methods for laying the largediameter,pipelines is governed by operating pressure.Off- high-pressure gas pipelines have not been tested forshore itis governed by stresses encountered in water depths greater than 300 feet. Pipelines havelaying and heavy-wall pipe is used to lower such been laid up to 100 miles in shallow water in thestresses. It is estimated that $2.7 million couldbe Gulf of Mexico. An 88-mile, 22-inch line was laidsaved in the construction of a proposed30 inch recently in the Persian Gulf in 300 feet of water. ARed Snapper line offshore Louisiana if thewall French firm demonstrated in 1966 that under-thickness were reduced from 0.562 to 0.500 inch. water pipelines can be laid in greater depthswhenSubsequent studies found that withadequate they laid an experimental, small-gauge line in thehandling equipment, the 30-inch, 0.500 inch wall Cassidaigne Deep near Marseille in waters as deepthickness pipe could be used safely in 150feet of during the as 1,080 feet. water and that the factor of safety The low cost of tanker transportation may limitlaying operation could be increased by continuous the laying of long-distance underwater lines. Be-applications of tension to the pipe. Thesefindings fore the Suez Canal was closed, oil could beemphasize the need for further improvement in shipped around the Arabian Peninsula from thepipelaying procedures. Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean at the same cost as it was moved Iess than a third thatdistanceb. Other Factors Increased acceptance of micro- across the peninsula by pipeline _ wire and fully automatic welding will contribute With costs declining as tanker sizes increase andto lower costs_ The pace of welding is apredomi- with offshore lines costing two to five times asnant factor determining the rateof offshore much as onshol-e lines, the probability of manypipelaying; the other is keeping the pipelaying Iong-distance underwater pipelines being con-barge supplied with pipe in rough seas. Any structed seems to be diminishing. On the otherdevelopment that saves time and reduces delays hand, the new supertankers have such deep draftswill cut costs. that they are unable to enter many major ports and must be loaded and unloaded offshore. In4. Forecasts addition, mooring a large tanker is very difficult in open, unprotected waters. Finally, long-distance Since natural gas pipelines require large diam- underwater lines require the same support facilitieseters, they are more expensive and present more as onshore lines (e.g., stations, valves, operators,difficulttechnologicalproblems. Hencetheir manifolds, etc.) plus much more .._---Lpensive corro-depth and distance to shore are more restricted sion protection. than oil pipelines. Tankers could be used when The problems of gas pipeline support appearthese depth-distance limits are exceeded; however, similar to those of oil pipelines in the oceanto do this the gas must be liquefied. Cryogenic environment and in some cases are intensifiedliquefaction of natural gas is economical only for because of special characteristics of gas pipelines.long-distance transportation and requires major For example, their greater diameters cause han-installations for liquefaction, handling, and stor- dling and fabrication to be more difficult andage_ Such a program is already planned orunder make the pipelines more vulnerable to disturbanceway between Algeria and France, betweenLibya, and damage by subsurface ocean currents and deepItaly, and Spain, and between Alaska and Japan. turbulence created by storms. It is difficult to predict what, if any, future advances may allow production of natural gas from greater water depths or longer distances from 3. Cost Factors shore.Itappears that offshore pipelines will Laying an offshore line is at least twice andcontinue in use primarily to transport offshore more often five times as expensive aslaying anproduction to onshore facilities over relatively onshore line, making costs a major consideration.short distances, less than 200 miles.

vI-171 F. Subsea Operations The fact that the industry is buying leases in ever deeper waters implies that the bidders expect 1. Potential Advantages and Philosophy that it will become economically and technically The potential advantages of having an under-feasible to produce in deep water. Any discussion of subsea operations must be water operating capability are: preceded by qualification of the type of field involved. Each field is different in water depth, Extension of production capabilities to geatersize, and product nature; in closeness to shore; and depths than those for which fixed platforms arein many other factors which must be taken into economical. Fixedsteel platforms (similar to account. Figure41)can be designed for very deep water, but there is an economic and technical limit to their The requirement for collection, storage, or maximum height. Moreover, to emplace them istransportation a few miles off Santa Barbara, extremely risky, particulaxly when the site is farCalifornia, is not expected to resemble those in areas distant from shore as in the Gulf of Mexico. from available fabrication sites. In the Santa Barbara area a simple pipeline Removal of operations from the often turbulentwithout underwater separation facilities may suf- surface environment to avoid loss of platfomis infice, while in the latter, production and storage hurricanes or damage from severe storms andfacilities may be necessary for intermittent de- shifting foundations. livery to shuttling tankers_ In each case, however, it is possible that employment of some subsea Elimination of navigation hazards. completion, production, and maintenance features may enhance the system's economic appeaL It is Additional operational options in such hazardous difficult to predict which system will ultimately ice areas as Cook Inlet prove most practical, but it is likely that several different techniques will be employed. In conclusion, future economical production in deep water will depend on a choice among surface, completely underwater, or some hybrid technology. It is reasonable to assume that the industry will continue in prototype technical work to: Make the best economical estimates of these options. Take maximum advantage of deep water opportunities found by exploration. Select an option that can be used side by side with its more familiar surface technology.

2. History The first subsea wellheads were installed on gas wells by divers on the shallow bottom of etc; Great Lakes in1959.The first oil well was completed in 1960in the Gulf of Mexico in55feet of water. Underwater wells in the Santa Barbara Channel Figure 41.Two derrick barges installing section have been producing since1964in waters more of fixed platform. Equipped with 500-ton capacity revolving cranes, barges are erecting a than250feet deep. There are presently between 650-ton crude oil storage deck on permanent drilling and production platform in Gulf of 50 to 100 subsea completions throughout the Mexico. (Brown and Root photo) world. They are still considered experimental in

V1-1 7 2 most cases. Limited subsea capability presently exists to ocean depths of 600 feet. Subsea wellhead equipment may be used when directional wells drilled from a single, deepwater platform cannot reach all parts of a reservoir. In this case, satellite underwater completions could be used. However, almost all existing underwater completions are for wells producing directly to shore without a production platform; several such installations exist off the coasts of California and Peru.

3. Characteristics of Subsea Production The industry already is studying and developing methods for sea-floor well completions, for pro- aev duction and collection techniques, and for separation, treatment, and storage facilities. The particular choices made by the operator depend on the size of the field, the location, depth, etc. a. Underwater Christmas Tree The heart of the well system is the underwater christmas treea Figure 42. Underwater christmas zree, installed after drilling and completion operations, being series of pipes and valves at the wellhead used toemplaced in Gulf of Mexico. (Shell Oil photo) control the well during drilling and production phases (Figure 42). It is installed on the subsea landing base by a mobile rig during or after drilling. Although most underwater trees are designed for installation by remote control, divers often must lend a hand. Recently an experimental robot was built to perform limited operations on a specially designed christmas tree.

b. DiversThe use of divers is being extensively investigated, and studies are under way to determine the usefulness of divers working with diver- lockout submersibles. Divers for years have had the capability to work at moderate depths, but only recently they have extended their operations considerably below 200 feet. Even so, diving at great depths is considerably more costly than in Figure 43 Diving bell and decompression shallower water where decompression time is chamber. Using saturation diving techniques, much less. divers can perform usefd work to depths of The choice of whether divers should be an 600 feet (Ocean Systems photo) element in the system also affects the choice of a specific technological system. Now that divers can In deeper continentalshelf areas,a fixed work at 600 feet or more, it is possible to chooseplatform can be erected to extend up to shallower between diver-assisted completion methods, ordepths and hence be more readily accessible to automated or remote control completion systems.divers and yet deep enough to escape the major These choices also are available for subsea installa-effect of surface waves. Controls, instruments, tion inspection and maintenance (Figure 43). power sources, etc. could be located on the

23 4 V1-173 platform to be tended by divers. Only thatnonproducing well in which all normal operations equipment absolutely needed at thewellheadwere performed. Later, an ocean floor completion would be located on the ocean floor. was made in 60 feet of water about one mile from Saturated diving techniques with diver lockoutan existing platform, and the tests were repeated. and decompression chambers have been utilized by Dual flow lines were run to the platform to the oil industry to the limit of diver capability.provide for remote production maintenance opera- During testsinthe summer of 1967, diverstions in this simulated deep-water satellite well. performed functional tasks on a simulated well-Four hydraulic control lines also were run to the head in 600 feet of water in the Gulf of Mexico,platform on the surface for remote operation of demonstrating man's ability to do useful work inthe underwater christmas tree valves_ A submarine such depths. cable connected the tree with the production Diver systems willrequire development ofplatform to transmit pressure and valve position power units to augment divers' underwaterphys-data. Another important feature tested satisfactorily icalcapabilities_ Subseaoilfield hardware is massive; useful Work by divers is limited by lack ofwas a remote flow line connector for independent power tools and equipment for directapplicationinstallation and removal of both the christmas tree to subsea hardware. The utility of divers inand the flow lines. The flow lines and the tubing offshore petroleum activities will continue to bestrings were two inches in diameter to permit the marginal until underwater work systems are devel-use of pump-down tools; the flow lines provided lope d. access to the well tubing. The technology of remotely controlled tools demands much ingenu- c Manned Submersibles The need toplace sub-ity to insure reliability. Thus, sending a tool to its merged wellheads deeper than routinedivingproperly intended location, locking it into place, depths opens new opportunities for submersibletesting it to insure proper seating, performing a vehicles. Several one and two-man submersiblestask, and retrieving the tool are an important feat_ have been designed to operate at depths in excess Mter completion of the test well, all produc- of 1,000 feet and could be considered for use intion maintenance and well control operations were future offshore oil. fields. Many present submers-performed successfully from the remote producible vehicles are unable to develop enough torquetionplatform. The well produced atitsfull in their mechanical arms to flange-up wellheads orallowable rate over an extended period and suc- do other heavy work; however, their mechanicalcessftilly withstood several hurricanes with no arms can operate small power tools and valves ordamage whatsoever to the underwater christmas make adjustments on instruments and controls.treeor the flow lines.Experience with the Submersibles are of limited usefulness in strongpump-down tools indicated good overall reliability currents_ Future vehicles can be designed toof this system for remote production maintenance overcome most of today's limitations. operations. This test demonstrated feasibility of d. Diverless Remote Control Systems Manysuch a system and will permit large oil fields on studies and successful tests already have beenthe ocean floor with only a few strategically made on servicing underwater wells with remoteplaced platforms. A number of wells can be drilled controlled televiewing robots employing through-within a radius of several miles, using the platform the-flowline treatment tools, hydraulically con-as home base. trolled surface lines, and acoustically controlled Suitable power is needed to control ocean floor valving systems powered by conventional andwellheads. An isotope unit to generate power at isotope energy sources. the location may be used or a battery pack A recent report described an ocean-floor well-designed for easy replacement by wireline methods head completion and production maintenancefrom a surface vessel. A power source combining system.13Tests were made with an onshorean isotope unit with batteries has beenperfected to operateelectric motor driven valves. This 13Rigg, A. M., T. W. Childers, C. B. Corley, Jr.: "Asystem has been installed, and has operated for Subsea Completion System for Deep Water," presented atseveral months. This, however, fulfills compara- Society of Petroleum En&eers of AIME Symposium, May 23-24, 1966. tively low power requirements only. An urgent

Nr1-1. 74 23S need exists for a power unit in the intermediatef. Floating Production Station A floating pro- range between the trickle chargers and the largeduction station moored over a submerged platform stationary units on land. or subsea wellhead could be used insteadof a fixed platform. e. Acoustics Remote control and monitoring by a physical link to the surface have been described_4. Underwater Drilling and Storage However, there are obvious advantages of having no hard wire link, relying instead on a coded Some petroleumoperatorsforesee a time underwater acoustic link to command the subseawhen drilling and collecting oil in water depths to system to activate a particular valve mechanism.3,000 feet or more will be common. Indeed, An acoustic interrogator could be used to monitorrecent reports suggest the possibility of petroleum valve position, read pressure, and obtain otherdeposits on the contine-ital margin in waters as desired data. One acoustically controlled, isotope-deep as 15,000 feet. Not everyone in the industry powered wellhead was installed recently in theagrees on the direction in which the required Gulf of Mexico. technology will proceed. The large power require- Acoustic links also may fmd an important rolements of the drilling rigs (several thousand horse- during the drilling operation itself in conjunctionpower) and the advances made in mobile rigs make with blowout preventers used to control thethe economics of underwater drilling controversial. tremendous pressures in deep formations encoun-Some feel that total underwater drilling will not be tered during drilling_ Figure 44 shows an under-economically justified except for large, highly water blowout preventer. productive fields. Acoustics also have been used with bottom- The French have developed a subsurface coring mounted transponders in water depths to 5,000rig, remotely operated from a tender ship, which feet to enable a drilling ship to pinpoint thepossibly could be extended to deep coring. A preciselocation of asubsea wellhead whensubmarine drilling rig design of the late 1950's returning to it for hole re-entry. proposed an automatic drilling rig mounted in a submarine which would canythenecessary 4IPr drilling mud, drill pipe, casing, and supplies to drill fullscale wells. Aside from the formidable problems of generating power for Such a rig, the overall economics were so unfavorable that it was never seriously considered.It is possible that future _L coring rigs could be controlled acoustically; however, it is more likely that some type of hydraulic- mechanical control will be employed similar to that used by the French rig. Nevertheless, various ambitious conceptual designs are being examined. At least one oil company - is studying the feasibility of housing both the drilling equipment and crews in structures on the ocean floorOne concept envisions an entire undersea community. The habitat, as described at a recent offshore oil conference, would enable 50 men to live and work in depths to 1,000 feet for extended periods. The problem of oil storage arises when the pipeline investment becomes too high. One solution is to store the oil on or near the production platform and transport it to shore in barges later. In very shallow and well protected waters, barges Figure 44.Underwater blowout preventer. (Shell Oil photo) often provide both storage and transportation. 2 3 VI-175 experi- Various portable tanks, similar tothe submersiblestorms, fortunately the industry has not barge type of mobile rigs, haveserved as tem-enced a maximum intensity hurricane moving porary oil reservoirs indepths to about 40 feet. Ifthrough a highly developed offshore area. Such a production increases or new discoveriesjustify astorm will involve a combinationof extremely pipeline, these storage units then can bemoved tohigh winds and low barometric pressure withslow forces another location. In the relativelycalm waters ofstorm progress causing tremendous wave hulk was used towhich will persistfor several hours, as with the Persian Gulf, a large tanker the store as much as250,000 barrels of crude, and aHurricane Carla. One can only speculate about 360,000-barrel tanker was used to store oiloffextent of damages such a storm could cause. Nigeria. Transport tankers movedthe oil from Problems involving environmental prediction and modification, therefore, continue tobe the these storage tankers to the market. prime category in which FederalGovernment Subterranean nuclear blasts below the ocean toefforts could have a major benefit to industry. floor some day could carve out huge cavities Progress in hurricane research has been disap- store petroleum as it is extractedfrom the earth.pointingly slow; better predictions of path and This might be far cheaper than storagemethods value. A the explosive for aenergy dissipation would be of great now in use. Under one plan, reasonable goal would be to attain considerably million-barrel cavity would be lowered through aimproved hurricane understanding within the next small diameter drilled hole 1,400 feet belowthe fiveyears and limited hurricanemodification ocean floor and detonatedfrom the surface_ The feetwithin 10 years. Improved accuracy of weather blast would create a cavity approximately 200 information, wave data and predictions, and ocean wide and 600 feet high; all nuclear contaminantscurrent measurements would be extremelyuseful. would be sealed far underground, preventing theirMeasuring wave heights during an actual hurricane escape into the atmosphere. is a promising subject for investigation.There is a Summarizing, various oil companies anticipatecritical need for this data. It is extremely expen- that many installations in deep or hazardous areas sive to install wave measuring equipment atfixed by 1980 will be on the bottom of the sea, not onlocations and then to wait possibly for yearsfor the surface. Drilling most likely will continuefrom and somethe arrival of a large hurricane at the particular the surface, but oil well operations site. Seeking out a hurricane and taking wave temporary facilities will be on thebottom. measurements from an airplane, for exar-ple, would yield much more information on platform storm damage criteria than yearsof monitoring G. Government Role waves from a fixed platform. 1. Legal-Political Environment 3. Information and Technology Transfer The Government should maintain a properlegal and political environment to assurethe con-a. From Indust tyThe petroleum industry has tinuance of the necessary incentives asindustrydeveloped independently a technology for working moves into the more speculativeoffshore areas.at sea_ Many companies engage incost-sharing These incentives will encourage continuingdevel-programs under unique arrangements encompass- opment of the required exploitationtechnology.ing research and basic engineering on environmental prediction, platform design, underwater completion, materials studies, welding techniques, 2. Environmental and HurricanePredictions and other subjects. Cooperative work is being Hurricane Betsy in 1965 churned apathperformed among elements of the industry, uni- through investments by the oil and gas industry versities,and Government. Much engineering valued at $2 billion, causing damageexceedingknowhow evolved by the industry could be of $100 million. In the preceding year Hurricanegreat value to the Government. In addition, many Hilda raged through an area involving $350 millioncompanies continue to encourage the Government in capital, causing over $100 million indamages. to make use of their platforms for immediate and While Hurricanes Betsy and Hilda werelargehistorical measurements.

VI-176 b. From Government While most Federal effortslocating a well site. The release of the Navy in ocean technology were not intended to provideTRANSIT System is an excellent first step. benefits to any particular industry, there have been developments of particular value to the6. Traffic Control offshore oil industry. As the Nation accelerates its Development of marine traffic control methods ocean programs and as the industry continues to Better technologicalfor congested waters should be accelerated. move into deeper water, increased delineation of shipping lanes would be an excellent knowhow will augment greatly oil compzny efforts. Such Government efforts should hasten thefirst step. day when the petroleum industry will engage technically and economically in total or partial7. Surveys subsea operations. For example, the Government The petroleum industry makes a very strong should encourage development of basic scientificdistinction between broad regional and detailed and engineering data and knowledge beyond theexploratory surveys. Detailed exploratory surveys economic scope of an individual industry butshould be left to private enterprise. In general, the justified by multi-industry and Government needs.traditional guidelines established by the U.S. Geo- Examples includemeteorology, oceanography,logical Survey (USGS) on land are believed to power sources, materials, and life support systems.represent an appropriate separation of the proper Each industry would further develop and applyGovernment and industry responsibility in the sea. the technology peculiar to its own business. Thus, it is felt that the USGS should step up its reconnaissance mapping program of our Conti- 4. Technology Requirements for Major Oil Spillsnental Shelf. The modest USGS program of subbottom mapping is also of value to the industry The petroleum industryis concerned withand should be continued. preventing and combating disasters such as the EnvironmentalScienceServices Administra- Torrey Canyon grounding, and it has supportedtion's (ESSA) bathymetric charting of our Conti- coordinated efforts with the Government to solvenental Shelf also should be continued, with com- such problems. In fact, the industry providedpletion of most of the shelf within two years. In considerable information on the subject to theaddition, ESSA should start now to make plans for joint pollution study conducted for the Presidentextending bathymetric chart coverage of the conti- by the Departments of the Interior and Transpor-nental slope and rise. tation. Improved methods must be developed to mini-H. Conclusions mize the probability of major oil spills, to optimize countermeasures, and to develop technolog- Free World production from offshore fields is ical means to identify the parties responsible forabout five million barrels of oil per day, about 16 pollution. Joint efforts of the industry and the per cent of total land and offshore production. By Federal and State governments must be acceler-1980 this should climb to 20 million barrels per ated. International restrictions against pumpingday, about one third of the projected total Free bilges and slush tanks into waters anywhereinWorld production. The Far East and Africa are the harbors or at seamust be established and en-most rapid growth areas_ The Middle East holds forced. most of the Free World's offshore oil reserves and provides about one-fourth of current offshore production. S. Navigation and Positioning Systems Offshore oil was first produced in 1894 in Many do not consider this subject to have theCalifornia; petroleum operations in the Gulf of high priority of environmental forecasting. Never-Mexico began in 1936, and the first subsea well theless, more emphasis must be placed on position-was completed in Lake Erie in 1959. Today ing accuracy and repeatability in the order of 50production has been established more than 70 feet as far as 200 miles from shore. Such accura-miles from shore and in depths of 340 feet, and cies are required when delineating boundaries andmore than 50 subsea wells have beencomplete&

VI- 1 7 7 333-091 0-69-16 Production pipelines have been laidsuccessfully in Most remote control and monitoring tests have 340 feet of water. employed a physical link to the surface; however, Drilling capability in the last 10 yearshasthere are obvious advantages to having no physical progressed from water depths of about 100feet tolink. An acoustic link has been used to command a more than 600 feet. Leaseshave been granted bysubsea system to supply electric current to operate the Department of the Interior for petroleum ex-a particular valve, to monitorthe position of a ploration and production more than 100 milesoffvalve, and to obtain various data such as pressure. U.S. shores and in waters to 1,800 feet deep.AboutAcoustic links also are beginning to fmd an 100 core holes already have been drilledbeyondimportant role during the drilling operation when the U.S. Continental Shelves, some inwaters nearlyused in conjunction with blowout preventers. 5,000 feet deep. It is expected that in 1969Acoustic bottom mounted transponders arebeing production will be established in waters as deep asevaluated to enable a drilling ship to return to the 400 feet, and exploratory wells will be drilled inprecise location of a subsea well head and as anaid the Santa Barbara Channel in water depthsranging to re-enter a hole on the sea floor. to 1,300 feet. The fact that the industry is buying leases in The fact that leases already have been sold inever deeper waters implies that thebidders expect water exceeding 1,800 feet does notnecessarily it will be economically and technically feasible to mean that the industry now isprepared to buyproduce in deep water. However, each field is leasesthis deep in other world areas. Manydifferent in water depth, reserves, size and nature favorable factors pertaining to the Santa Barbaraof the reservoir, closeness to shore, value of the Channel more than compensated for thedepths: product, production rate, and many other perti- the prospectivefieldsareclose to land; thenent factors. oceanographic and meteorological conditions are For collection, storage, or transportation a few less severe than in such other locations as theGulfmiles offshore a simple short pipeline system of Mexico; oil is in short supply in that area;andgenerally will suffice; in a distant sea, storage may there are no allowable restrictions. have to be provided for intermittent delivery to Underwater operationoffers the followingshuttling tankers. In either case, some subsea potential advantages: completion, production, and storage features may enhance the system's economic capability. In any particular area it is likely that several different Extension of production capabilities to greater techniques will be employed. depths than those for which fixed platforms are Future economical production in deep water economical. will depend on the most favorable choiceof Minimization of damage to platforms because ofsurface, completely underwater, or some hybrid hurricanes, severe storms, and shifting founda- technology. :The industry will continue to engage in prototype undersea operations in order to make tions. the best estimates of cost and benefit trade-offs Elimination of navigation hazards. and to take maximum advantage of deep water reserves. More flexibility in operating under ice. In summary, various oil companies believe that by 1980 an increasing number of installations will be on the bottom of the sea, riot on the surface. In Many studies and successful tests already have been made to service underwater wells withthese areas drilling will continue to be conducted robots,withessentially from the surface, but oll well opera- remotecontrolledteleviewing be through-the-flowline maintenance and treatmenttions and some temporary storage facilities will tools, with hydraulically controlled surfacelines, on the bottom. and with remote acoustically controlled valving systems operating from conventional and isotopeRecommendations: energy sources. The technology of remotely oper- legal ated tools in itself has required ingenuity to insureThe Government should maintain a proper and political environment to support industry asit reliability.

VI-178 239- moves into the more speculativeoffshore areas.Detailed exploratory surveys should be left to These incentives will encourage continued develop-private enterprise. ment by industry of much of the requiredexploi- The ESSA bathymetric chartingof our Conti- tation technology, provided that the incentives arenental Shelf also should continue, adhering toits advanced sufficiently ahead of the need for theschedule of completing most of the sherwithin technology. It must be clearly understood that atwo years. In addition, ESSA should start nowto lag of five to 10 years exists from the time alargemake plans for extending bathymetric chart cover- rise. fieldis discovered until volume production isage to the continental slope and achieved- A mechanism should be established to ensure optimum information exchange betweenGovern-IV. OCEAN MINING ment and the petroleum industry. ThisindustryA. Introduction has successfully developed a major technology on its own for working at sea. Considerable engineer-1. Interest in Ocean Minerals industry ing experience accumulated within the the could be of great value to the Government.In The following are the primary reasons for addition, many oil companies continue to encour-development of a domestic ocean mining industry. age the Government to make useof their plat- a_ Act of CongressStrongnational impetus forms for realtime and historical measurements. industry The Federal Government should take full advan-toward development of an ocean mining on the U.S. ContinentalShelf is provided by two tage of these opportunities. objectives stated in the Marine Resources and The Government should seek a considerablyEngineering Development Act of 1966:14 improved understanding of hurricanes within 5 years and capability for limitedhurricane modifi-The accelerated development of the resourcesof cation within 10 years. the marine environment. Problems involving physical environmental prediction and modification continue to be the primeThe encouragement of private investment enter- technological area in which Federal Governmentprise in exploration, technological development, efforts could have a major impact on theindustry.marine commerce, and economic utilizationof the Progress in hurricane research has been disappoint-resources of the marine environment. ingly slow. Two hurricanes in successive years, 1964-1965, caused over $200 million in damage tob. Income to Nation The PresidentialProclama- the industry. Efforts to improve accuracyoftion of Sept. 28, 1945, and more recentlythe weather information, wave data predictions, and1958 Geneva International Conference on the Law ocean current measurements wouldhave a signifi-of the Sea, effectively added, with respect to cant impact on offshore economics. natural resources, about 810,000 square miles to Improved methods must be developed to mini-the area of the United States or approximately25 mize the probability of major off spills, to opti-per cent of total U.S. dry-land area.The Nation mize countermeasures, and to develop technolog-should gain knowledge of the potential resources ical means of identifying responsible polluters.of this tremendous area and should expect in- Contingency plans should be established to permitcome from leases and royalties onthe exploita- immediate action to contain and clean up majortion of its wealth. Ultimately, the stimulationof a expenditures for sala- oil spills. new industry will result in ries, capital, and taxes, contributing greatly tothe More emphasis must be placed on achievingNation's economy. l'his income should exceed positioning accuracy in the order of 50 feet at many times any expenditurefor Government distances as great as 200 miles from shore services to support this exploitation. The U.S. Geological Survey shouldaccelerate reconnaissance mapping of our Shelf. The modest of USGS proggam of sub-bottom mapping is also 14Public value to the industry and should becontinued. Law 89-454, Section 2(b).

VI-1 7 9 2 4 0 developedat least for the continentalshelves. c. Potential Shortageof MetalsItis to the Nation's interest to promote and encourage oceanHowever, unless a deposit large and rich enough to population in-offset the higher cost of underwater operationsis exploitation not only to support to creases but to supplementdwindling land re-found, ocean mining development will continue sources. It has been predictedthat total demandmove rather slowly. for metals between 1965 and the year2000 will The mining industry on the U.S.Continental metals consumedShelf consists of little more than dredging non- amount to more than the total The latter by all nations cumulatively until the presenttime.metallic deposits and sulfur extraction. Therefore, technology will have to be developed tois mined through a drill hole and isrelated to obtain minerals from such newlocations as thepetroleum in its exploration and recoverytech- mining sulfur and tinniques and problems. There are, however, success- ocean. Thus, companies of the already are forced to look more to the sea. ful ocean mining operations in other parts world where the legal and economicclimate is d. Dependence on Foreign SourcesIt is advisablemore favorable and where theexistence of sizable ofdeposits has been established. for the United States to have alternate sources off supply so that in an emergency itwill not be There is or has been exploration for gold overly dependent on foreign sourcesfor criticalAlaska (depth of 200 feet), phosphoriteoff North Carolina and California (to 600 feet), and manga- metals. nese and phosporite nodulesand crusts on the feet) and Mining companies are inter-Blake Plateau (depth of 2,400 to 3,600 e. Industry Growth the Pacific. ested in the sea for various reasons.They mustat even greater depths, especially in keep abreast of the technology of offshore extraction if for no other reason than tohave a good3. Types of Mineral Deposits working knowledge of the competitiveposition of Ocean minerals can be divided broadly intotwo those marine minerals that eventuallymight en-categories encompassing those mineralsfound on hance or jeopardize their business.In addition,the bottom and those that mightbe found in the they mus be able to make rationaldecisions in sub-bottom (within bedrock), as shownin Figure choosing between ocean and land resourcesfor45. Within one or the other categoryis a diversi- investment in new production facilities_ fied group of minerals such as copper, iron,gold, manganese nodules, oyster shells, etc. 2. Present Activity Each involves variations in the explorationand recovery types of equipmentrequired. Hence, the Not counting coal and iron presentlymined nature_ million ofindustry's needs will be of a heterogeneous from on-shore openings, about $200 Sea water colurrm mining is discussedin Subsec- mineral products is mined world-widedirectly sand,tion V, "Chemical Extraction". from the ocean floor annually. This includes The principal operations involvedin ocean gravel, oyster shell, sulfur, and tin and iron ores exploration and from themineral exploitation follow: (1) but does not include minerals extracted evaluation, (2) recovery, and (3) transportation water column. If one excludes sand,gravel, oyster discussed below. is and processing. These will be shells, and sulfur, the remaining ocean mining However, prior to this a brief descriptionis given only about $50 million per year for tin and ironof some of the basic technologicaldifferences sands, heavy minerals, anddiamonds." between hard mineral mining and the recoveryof Por the most part, the present market repre-oil and gas. sents unique local deposits that servelocal mar- sulfur. It kets. The notable exceptions are tin and B. Hard Minerals vs. Oil and Gas is believed that once a substantially richdeposit is found, technology to exploit it will bereadily The geology controlling the occurrenceof oil and gas commonly extends predictablyoffshore, and the technology and techniquesused to fmd and recover oil offshore have, for the mostpart, 15 Barnes, S., "Mining Marine Minerals," Machine De- Exploration April 25, 1968, p. 26. been very sinulax to those on land.

V1-180 2 4:1; Ocean Minerals

Bottom Sub-Bottom (loosely consolidated)

Deep Ocean (basaltic rock Chemical which may con- precipitates Continental Shelf tain chromite, (manganese, platinum, etc.) phosphorite BiolOgical nodules and crusts) Sedimentary Igneous and metamorphic IOyster (oil, gas, 1Coral sulfur, rocks contain- shell Deep ocean coal, ing vein and sediments iron) massive deposits Detrital (red clay, of non-ferrous (sand, oozes, etc.) and precious gravel, 1 metals placers)

Figure 45. Categories of ocean mineral&

costs arehigh because the target (deposit) isa mineral discovery is made offshore the drill hole concealed, but the industry has had long experi-cannot be utilized as a producing unit. At that ence on land in searching for concealed targets.point, the explorer must decide whether to risk Once an oil or gas targetis discovered, theinvesting a large amount of capital to delineate the discovery hole can be converted into a producingdeposit to determine its potential profitability. well more readily than for hard minerals. More- The transition from discovery drill holes to an over, because of highly developed geophysical andoperating hard rock mine will require either geological techniques used in locating oil and gasdevelopment of a very large open pit or the reservoirs, the ratio of target discovery holes topenetration of the ore body by a vast underground total exploration holes is highon the order of onenetwork of tunnels and excavations. in five in the Gulf of Mexico (one in 13 country- Oil and irr:aeral targets differ in relative size. Oil wide, onshore and offshore). targets may be tens of miles across, while some On the other hand, the hard mineral explorer isgreat metal deposits are tiny by comparison. For faced with an entirely different set of problemsexample, one of the largest copper deposits in the than the oil explorer. Most rich ore deposits thatworld is only about one square mile in horizontal have sustained our Nation to the present time werearea. This compares with an average of more than exposed at the surface and discovered by surfacethree square miles for the more than 200 oil prospecting. Only in the last 15 to 20 years has thereservoirs that have been developed in offshore mining industry seriously attempted to find de-Louisiana. Thus, the ability to discover deposits in posits not indicated by surface characteristics. certain formations and structures appears to be Techniques to discover concealed subsurfacegreater for oil than for hard minerals. mineral deposits on land are less developed than Whereas a single test hole can indicate the oil those for oil and gas. Offshore, virtually a wholeand gas potential of a formation over a compara- new technology to discover sub-bottom lode andtively large area, hard mineral exploration requires bedded deposits will have to be devised. Further, ifextensive close-spaced drilling to determine poten-

VI-181 tiaL In addition, such indirect measurements asbottom profiles, much more highly developed pressure and electric logging maybe very helpfuldevices and techniques will be needed. in evaluating fluid (oli and gas) potential,but direct measurements of recoveredsampies are3. Geophysical and required in most cases to evaluate the amount Geophysical survey methods used on iand have quality of mineral deposits. proved readily adaptable to the marine environ- Placer deposits and nodule deposits are easier to ment. explore for than concealed sub-bottom bedrock Magnetic anomalies discovered in marine sur- deposits but still pose considerable difficulties.veys can indicate the major rock types,faults, and Placer deposits may not extend across the shoreother structural features below the oceanfloor. line, and in many cases, the beach separates mineralThey also indicate the occurrence of magnetic environments containing different kinds of ores. Marine magnetometers allow accurate meas- occurrences. urements while under way. A great many samples must be taken to define a The gravity survey also is useful in locating placer deposit. As with gold and diamonds, theanomalies. Marine gravimeters have been devel- best material is often in cracks and depressions inoped recently for shipborne surveys and for use the bedrock and is difficult or impossible to reach. near the sea floor. While the accuracyof a ship Placer or nodule mining in deep water requires than relatively expensive equipment, and operatingmounted unit is an order of magnitude lower that of analogous sea floor equipment, more data costs also are high, especially where sea statecan be provided in less time. Gravitydata is useful conditions are frequently unfavorable. in broad reconnaissance studies for interpreting The ratio of ore discoveries to targets exploredlarge subbottom structures. However, such data is may be as low as one in1,000 onshore and maybest used together with the results ofother be even lower offshore. Exploration of theshelf geophysical data. for hard mineral deposits will be very speculative Seismic surveys indicate structure, stratifica- for the foreseeable future, and mineral explorerstion, and sediment thicknesses. In addition,sub- will require strong incentives to apply their energymerged beaches, which may contain placer concen- will and skill in an activity where good fortune trations, may be indicated. Present sub-bottom also be required.. profiling techniques, however, cannotevaluate mineral deposits. Sophislicated methods maybe C. Exploration and Evaluation able to provide much higher resolution informa- and I. Types tion including acoustic velocities, densities, acoustic impedances.. thereby helping to identify a Mineral exploration in the ocean requires aparticular materiaL sequence of activities, many similar to those on Recently, electrical methods, such as measuring land. These include bathymetric, geophysical,andresistivitycharacteristics of rocks, radiometric geological surveys, followed by sample analysis. techniques, and heat flow methods have been suggested as additional tools for detecting anom- 2. Bathymetric alies. For more efficient exploration, mathematical Modem echo-sounders can, when used withsearch models have been used in laying out grids shipboard recorders and underwater devices, deter-for geophysical surveys, sampline, drilling, and mine details of bottom relief to within one fathomother exploration work.' 6 Efforts also havebeen shallow in deep water and even more precisely in made to apply computer techniques and mathema- water. Bottom contours, representing such fea-tical models to the probability of findingminerals tures as submerged river channels (frequently a favorable location for placers), can be detected. Interpretation of echogram characteristics also helps to identify the type of sea bottom; i.e., rock, 6United Nations Economic and Social Council, "Re- sand, or mud. Although side-looking sonar repre-sources of the Sea, Part One: Mineral Resourcesof the sents a start towards more effective scanningofSea Beyond the Continental Shelf,'" Feb. 19,1968, p. 44.

V1-182 in certain areas. Such approaches are as applicable Petroleum core drilling systems with steel bits un 'zrwater as ashore. penetrate softer rock to 20,000 feet. Small diameter diamond core drills have penetratedharder rock to about 14,000 feet, although most conven- 4. Geological tional rigs are equipped to penetrate 4,000 or Confirmation of the actual minerals present can4,500 feet. be accomplished only by sampling andsubsequent analysis. Methods of direct observation on-site are5. Shipboard Integrated Survey Systems limited in usefulness to such items as outcrops, Shipboard integrated geophycal systems have type of bottom (sand, mud, etc.), and nodules. become available recently, including automatic Methods of direct observation include those by divers and observers in deep submersible vehicles.sensing and recording devices. These measure simultaneously many parameters from magnetom- Deep towed vehicles provide indirect continuous readings monitoring by television and by still and motioneter, gravimeter, echo sounder and seismic picture photography. Observation supplementedwith reference to a synchronous clock, navigation by bottom sampling is the most likely methodoffixes, and ship's course and speed. The data can be evaluatthg occurrences of manganese noduhs onproduced in both analog and digital form, includ- the sea floor by estimating area coverage,noduleing recordings on magnetic tape, for computer processing often while still underway. size, and shape. Because of the overriding importance of coring, major emphasis should be given to techniques for6. Required Supporting Technology taking more samples and deeper cores. Coring Ade from ships currently used for mineral provides samples for chemical and mineralogicalsurvey work, the role of submersibles isbeginning analysis. tobe appreciate& Newer versions will have Much sampling today employs conventionalgeater depth and cruising range capabilities, per- tools originally developed for oceanographic re-mitting them to survey and sample. As an ex- search. Excluding coredrilling systems, manyample, the Alvin has been used to recover sea floor bottom sampling devices cannot probe deeper thanspecimens and perform geological studies in the about 20 feet, although cores of up to 90 feet haveWest Indies and near Woods Hole. been taken in very soft sediments. More recently, a An accurate navigation fix is critical in undersea vibratory corer has been developed that can take aprospecting, and as the search becomes more 100-foot core six inches in diameter. This hasdetailed, less error in positioning can be tolerated. proven very useful in evaluating mineral concentra-The tolerable error also depends on the distribu- tions on the shelf. tion of the mineral deposits. When distribution is Commonly used sampling devices are: broad and uniform, positioning requirements for exploitation arereduced, and atleastinitial Free fall grab sampleruseful for deep nodules.exploitation will be little concerned with precise positioning. If distribution is patchy and concen- Wire line dredge samplersused since the Chal-trations arelocalized,precision positioning is lenger days; the disadvantage of dredging proce-essential both for evaluating deposits and for dures is the lack of knowledge concerning theexploiting them efficiently. exact location of the sample. Free fall corerscannot penetrate rock or gravel; remote controlled rotary corers poweredandD. Recovery controlled from a mother ship, will enable obtain-I. Dredging ing short cores from rock. Onshore placers and other various unconsoli- Jet lift corerusing water or air pumped down adated deposits have been exploited commercially pipe. for many years throughout the world. Underwater Vibratory corernewest type developed. mining recovery can presently be accomplished for

2 44_ VI-183 zi., , a number of oredeposits,J5ttech (1% tliS°f 4 aSkw". 414 150 feet. Current recoveo dreZtt.Lrha; bocket.elle: 131:!Q, and clamshell dredge, aitAift orIcIPan dredges employing ktIcti aulio systems. Or Clartl'N a. ClamshellDredge vlicick11 e Otp,11 Analee'tline dredges use large grab e(ed tO11, and t°1°,1,11- h4;,41sea other digging and liftia c)°,01.0Y floor on flexiblesteelCah7r% "viark ill ethe adalte 1..' -_41-, 4..- -1-:-1-, advantage of being cablez \Veer ...-.;-:- ':.,-,, , - '''.. -...:0 ''...7,.. ' ..,,, ..,:"...,./..,:',..." ,',: .--'''- .- depths to 350 feet.flav'f.2,.°440 ,c1' MeV v:...,,:e' ch "--lki"cu,rilts 400e eit fieW Or /adder also can be used inareas i: Wave Front 4 Ro4,21ucker,hotc9 ettze disadvant4i1frof this ;tuba Nt, motions. The main bet4thod -sqlovvit% r are the cost ofoperatiotisin Nsictafer tuft3 cljnytWithkek,,,of the cycle time (whichillaeriasl1111,e-of ,. elle-vater depth) and uncertainty diepdg.p.!4-s(fe/eeth.eell.::sfzil withdrawals. Clamshell Y"--tillts -d in Thailand to recover tiO0r- '0hicie W.) to 130 feet. Packet.

Wee' .11-1.ei _st eel b. Bucket-Ladder s c 0 mablMdet --'411'1114C dredge employs anendles , to dig into the bortht.Theqretigand q4letlt 1% jk ti ss el the 1 t drawn continuously 1117.,to vAtide yoreeNped. and figUre 4.) dder drect The material is then000ketpol;f dre(qqt g leW Of?) i0() fe gas5), s JR ear ins to have off ulahcp1411 riep, off i/ At concentrating Ihriakid frfirnest:. cptet good digging capabllitY, BOincozotuorSin% (o) konatril- -,ut..,N.gittfv.fd 1:ciallY: ph0 useful for placer mini17 of th Watec depths of about 150fee- '''e e so e rigid Olethoclit°00firled dranii dredging ladder, this c-HYIN 1.5,.°14641.13.tel Pr°:i P'edge tected waters orfairAlie,natilprier either k '0-lie suctio.the tijoliques..t.1 "vof lif crjef0SitSiSer''' bucket-ladder dredgesrtin'f'' "or_ , 1967do is 4j-lift. iptotht4bteCt, of 4 " off Indonesia in 60 to l°: -eel stilmner:ctea_fe thaat-otits len.1413e 8ter. A Bucket-ladder dredge' 1esvetr 1.}10't."1,:tseizi density51 rau_orial is 12:;4.1f °led in the w;eyoing of,111e41 the United States in thelate"tx0t the cohtIfferer or-wattrt)doC.,.tife to tlik.perd in air,have+, seen major service ininPfidbater5- W efl 41f3Y cill g u`e the Piptihri 0.1, flow (st powerts.IA" igion at epozithlzittg all 6..0g Up 1 suci' mineral deposit at the ti,ad.t.in, tbe bott IV; the parcs and (waste) at Kludge sa!The barren materials 0new% 5 votes, gavel ehclrn c"..ieo in 4 14 10:01utne automatically advancespont \..e5eof thQ yr)echaVeiw,osists ,c11*ge pipes vvi's Wa:":0 be jjties Figure 46 shows a sl.itie.91 ip °per .`.31-Icket". constriOn c`", the silt tive waited %;_kich ladder dredge, YubaNO-21- vv}ti tedOtjjeoltiwits yessed !lop fa erate. Califeeng%ri,g,COIlacer Opp..k11:111. Ncl it onis 0owel,th reclos a oriuPJy ittto avihen the Yuba River, --, - rnifv- Q -11;ation itt _ace and one of the last goId aitlinitie.,e$ thCa eperatto, a.00 f of wilf;otethch 4ssistre:10,1Lioch :Atte-reltconbe the United States_Withfoot cailga-ipucket4e4ty other s p\r'icesily is14.th at -on OCktliftS5t of 107 feet and 18 cubic used 4 co oo efficie/icit it Ilassupp1y.41cien fill! depthe eon& an excellent recordofview cl. 19. 0, Figure 47 is a rear with k on riy.kir at foovableof drpipe &sell, e are bucket-ladder dredge,jZilielesepi:srifilayvec,1 triin. '131'; ftc:at with 4 'the 014 laclo jlge, 3 p,offolountt stwP°flo4 tt. W11gewjdg in depth of 100 feet oo .111 digV Sumatra. oo lttlg

VI-184 semi-consolidated sediments or soft to mediumrelative to the bottom mining area. The ore could hard rocks, a cutter head (normally of the rotatingbe dredged and piped to the surface for loading h011ow bit type) usually is employed. The head isinto ore barge; tor transportation to shore facili- mounted on the lower end of the suction pipe toties. The ore might be concentrated at sea to lessen break the ground and direct the flow of solidsthe amount of material that must be transported. into the suction pipe. A similar system designed in Canada recom- The suction dredge method is best suited formends a light-weight medium (such as kerosene recovery of largequantities of unconsolidatedinstead of airlift or suction) to actuate a very high material. For example, this technique is used forvelocity upward flow through the conduit, lifting channel maintenanceas well as mineral recovery.the heavy nodules faster than they can sink it s water depth capability isup to 200 feet.through the stream_ Dredges using a riod ladder are limited to pro- One of the more sophisticated ocean mining tectedwaters or fair weather operation. approachesisaself-propelled bottom mobile Recent improvements in size and capacity ofmining system in which a suction dredge is hydraulic suction dredges for engineering construc-mounted on a bottom mobile crawler or wheeled tionwork have caused renewed interest in theirvehicle. The power required for mobility, naviga- application for offshore mining. Preliminaiy de-tion, and dredging is supplied by cable from the siVis have been made to recover sea floor nodulemining control vessel at the surface. The product depositsat depths greater than 4,000 feet by thismust be lifted to the surface by supplementary Method. At such depths it probably will beequipment. necessary to establish additional submerged pump- Deep ocean mining will require development ing capacity- Hydraulic dredging will almost cer-and evaluation of many new types of equipment tainly be applied in deep sea mining. heavily dependent on marine technolou advances_ Examples include:(1) submarine crawlers and bottom hovering vehicles to explore for and 2- Deep ocean Mining recover deposits, (2) stationary or neutrally buoy- The mining of deepsea manganese nodules hasant platforms, (3) drilling rigs on the ocean floor, attracted serious evaluation and interest_ It has(4) submarine dredges, (5) high capacity, low cost beenasserted that nodules constitute a renewablevertical transport systems, rind (6) high capacity resource, their estimated renewal rate exceedingequipment for horizontal transfer. the Present world rate of consumption for the Typical basic engineering needs of deep ocean elements containedin them (chiefly copper,mining: (1) sufficient power to lift thousands of nickel, cobalt, and manganese). tons of minerals from great depths, (2) ultra-high However, this may not be of practical siglifi-strength, corrosion-resistant hoisting cables, (3) canee because in the limited areas economic tolong,flexiblepipes for deep water that can oune, the rate of renewal is not adequate towithstand the anticipated bending and shearing sustain continuous mining. Technolou for thestresses, and (4) the ability to provide three-phase economic exploitation of deep sea nodules has notflow through long pipes. Further, very high asyet been demonstrated. The problem is not onlycending water velocities probably will be required that of economic recovery but also of economi-to lift even small manganese nodules, requiring CA' separating the elements from the raw nod-larger manganese nodules to be broken into small ules. pieces on the sea floor or retrieved differently_ Various design studies have been made onOther difficulties may be encountered where a nodule recoverY. One such method conceives ofansolid crust of manganese or phosphorite covers the atr lift or suction dredge mounted on a wheeledsea floor. vehicleor sled towed along the ocean floor by a flexible pipeline securedto a surface vessel_ The3. Sub-Bottom Mining direction and sPeed of the mining device would be controlled by the heading and speed of the surface Except for sulfur (Frasch process) and coal and ship- An underwater acoustic transponder systemiron (tunnels from land) the task of extracting ores would monitor the position of the mining devicefrom rocks beneath the continental shelf is an

VI-1 8 5 24C processing or enrichment of the oregenerally will order of magnitude more difficultthan dredging Yet this type ofnot be necessary if storagefacilities are adequate, shelf depth, on-bottom deposits. high_ attention. although desirable if transportation costs are mining justifies continuing Transportation from the sea surface toland can be Present sub-bottom coal and iron mining opera- land under the bottomby surface vessel or barge, bypumping slurry or tions extending out from liquid through a pipeline, or by conveyorbelt. involve only incidental marineproblems, seepage theFloating or underwater storage tanks arepossible, the main concern. As mining progresses, tankers can be surface entranceand transfer to transport ships or horizontal distance from the accomplished in the same manner astankers are increases, accompanied by corresponding costin- limit of such mining isloaded or discharged today. creases. When the economic Mining operations conductedcompletely inde- reached or as deposits far fromshore are dis- remote mustpendent of land (as in the deep sea or covered, mining through a sea floor entrance shallow banks) will result in entirelydifferent be considered. problems. Ore will Although openings in the sea floorhave beenprocessing and transportation be loaded directly into barges,tankers, or ore made for tunnels and dam foundationcaissons, transports. Immediate initialbeneficiation or pro- water depths at the sites rarelyexceed 150 feet. reduce weight Opening the sea floor for a permanentshaftcessing may be necessary at sea to or bulk although this mayrequire large processing serviced from a surface platform or asubmerged operations problems andequipment on the dredging ship. If all base presents formidable engineering are conducted from asingle vessel, this will further costs, especially at depthsbeyond practical diving each trip. If bereduce the amount of ore collected on limitations. Ultimately such objectives may anticipated, one underseamultiple vessel operations are accomplished with sea floor entrance and collecting and processing vessel could operate transfer capabilities, much of which mayresult continuously while transport vesselsshuttle to from technology developmentsfunded under mili- port. tary programs. The techniques to recover offshoresulfur are similar tothosefor offshore oil production,2. Attractiveness ofTransportation at Sea making use of fixed above-surfaceplatforms in drilling rigs, The relative economy oftransporting bulk shallow water. The platform supports economic charac- warehouse, heliport and livingmaterials at sea is an attractive power plants, shops, density cargoes can quarters. The power plant heats the sea waterusedteristic of working at sea. High in large quantities, to melt the sulfur, supplies thecompressed air tobe transported in bulk carriers, lift the sulfur to the surface andprovides theand at low unit costs. Thus, ahigh-grade deposit in electric power to operate the rigs andothera remote location onland could be unprofitable because of the costs required toconstruct roads equipment. workmen. By con- Wells are drilled directly from theplatform intoand community facilities for sulfur-be-sing formations. Hot water isforcedtrast, an offshore deposit mightbe more feasible melt theeconomically_ These considerationsalready have through pipes into the formations to where trans- sulfur, which is then lifted to thesurface byinfluenced sand and gavel operations portation costs are high relative toproduct value. compressed air_ Molten sulfur must be maintained is another degrees Fahrenheit Mobility of recovery platforms at sea at a temperature above 240 dredging equipment is during handling operations. attractive feature. Since limited to a few basic types, many systems maybe applicable to othcr operations. Thismight provide E. Processing and Transportation an opportunity forflexibility for a company mining certain minerals in thenorthern latitudes in 1. Techaiques the summertime but forced todisband operations willdue to winter weather. The miningships could Problems of processing and transportation climate and mine a different be different for ores recovered fromshallow watermove to a warmer recovered inmaterial. In addition, economicfluctuations in the very near to land compared to ores could make deeper water remote from land bases.Immediatevalues of minerals being produced

VI-1 86 247 mining certain bottom deposits more attractiveG. Government Role than another. The present Government program to encourage the development of an ocean mining industry F. Forecast considers the vital need to provide information for Figure 48 represents an estimated forecast forsound economic evaluation of ocean mineral de- economic ocean mining endeavors. To date oceanposits. Because of technical difliculty and high mining has not attracted sipificant private capitalcost, it is most logical that the Government should for noteworthy domestic commercial operations.sponsor the initial broad surveys. When sufficient There is, however, sufficient international activitydata are accumulated to warrant further action, to serve as a foundation for future domesticthe emphasis should shift to assistance in develop- commercial venture& However, before any sizeableing fundamental technology useful for exploita- commercial ventures are attempted, much addi-tion.However, major hardware commitments tional exploration of the ocean is required. Thereshould be the responsibility of industry. is not enough knowledge to motivate even the As far as the Department of the Interior is boldest managements to commit the large sumsconcerned, the task of broad-scale location and required for a deep ocean venture. The assurancedelineation of mineral deposits is divided between of attractive ocean bottom deposits is simply toothe Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines. meager for more than exploratory company com-The former is concerned principally with general mitments. Stimuluswouldbe addedifgeologicalcharacterization, while the latteris Government-sponsored bathymetric and geologicalconcerned with techniques for resource evaluation survey programs provided enough information toan d recovery technology. enable managements to make confident decisions There has been recent increased emphasis in the leading to serious ocean prospecting and subse-Bureau of Mines program for marine minerals quent commitments to mining system hardware.because of immediate needs for new sources of

Figure 48 ESTIMATED OCEAN MINING TECHNOLOGY TIME TABLE' Depth of Water (feet) 50 300 600 1,000

Underwater Photographic Reconnaissance (analogous to aerial photographs) 1960 1964 1970 1975 Submersible (for exploration coring) 1965 1967 1970 1970 Barge Dredge (ladder) 1900 1970 Barge Dredge (suction) 1930 1970 1980 1985 Stationary Mining Platform 1960 1970 1975 1980 Mining Using Air Lift Device 1960 1970 1975 1980 Mobile On-Bottom Mining Platform 1970 1972 1975 1980 Buoyant Submersible Platform . . 1975 1980 1985 Solution Mining (Sulfur, Potash) . 1960 1980 1985 2000 Hardrock Mining (tunneling from land, approximate dates) 1900 1920 1950 1960 Shaft Mining 1950 1970 1980 2000 Underwater Open Pit Hardrock Mining 1968 1980 1990 2000

Mining in this table refers to the recovery operation. Source: Adapted from Pehrson, G. 0., "Mining Industry's Role inDevelopment of Undersea Mining," MTS Transac- tions, Exploiting the Ocean: 1966, p_ 195.

V1-187 248 what are called heavy metals, represented mostDetermining the topography and physical charac- "enportantly by gold. The program is handicappedter of the sea floor. .. .Some of the existing by the sketchy nature of pertinent informationgeophysical tools such asdensity probes, under- derived as a by-product of studies directed towardswater cameras, and mannedsubmersibles, will be be other aspects of oceanography. It also isrestrainedutilized and, with modification, doubtless can by the need for more advanced and more reliablemade more useful for mineral deposit delineation. tools and techniques for ocean bottom sampling.But the precision that will be required in making A most urgent need is for research and develop-these determinations, and the necessary measurement in delineating and evaluating marinemineralment of additional properties such asparticle size, deposits. Most of the Bureau of Mines' presenthardness, and strength make it inevitable that new effort is concentrated on (1) data collection andtools will have to be developed. . . - analysis and (2) sampling equipment and methods.Research leading to efficient methods for breaking In the former, liaison is being established to obtain sea-bottom ores.. [ However] , thc urgency of this from theoceanographic community data onproblem cannot be de :ermined nov.% It is probable known and potentially mineralized areas. that, for some time, attention will be directed Development of equipment and techniques to principally to unconsolidated sediments... sample sea bottom mineral deposits will proceed much faster and more efficiently as a Government-[M] aterials handling, or the gathering and trans- industry partnership venture. Here, industry al-porting of minerals from the ocean floor. As with ready .is a principal participant, and its involve-fragmentation, details of the research that must be ment can be expected to increase. Figure 49showsdone will become clear as work progresses in the the RIV Virginia City, a Bureau of Mines researchexploration and delineation phases of the pro- vessel. Once a naval ocean fleet tug, this vessel hasgram. .. been completely refitted by the Bureau of Mines Marine Minerals Technology Center for researchResearch on the problems of waste disposal. ... on marine mineral problems. [U] nwise dumping of the tailings, if not carefully planned, could quickly foul a mining operation. Furthermore, the compatibility of a marine mining operation with exploitation of the other resources of the sea, particularly the food resources, will depend principally on the effectiveness of the tailings-disposal system.

Ultimately, the bulk of the Bureau's research in the marine minerals field should be concerned with the technology and economics of production. Now, however, the state-of-the-art and lack of adequate knowledge of the resources make it necessary that most of the effortbe devoted to Figure 49. Bureau of Mines research vessel acquiring information that will enable deiming the R/V Virginia City, shown operating off coast of Nome, Alaska. (Bureau of Mines photo) mining possibilities.

H. Conclusions The recent Director of the Bureau ofMines, prob- Ocean mining is a heterogeneous industry. It W. R. Hibbard, has identified several key found on the lems, examples of which are:1 7 mn be divided broadly into minerals bottom and in the sub-bottom (within bedrock). Despite intense interest in ocean mining, most recent activities have been conceptual andexplora- 11-libbard, W. R., "The Government's Prowam for Encouraging the Development of a Marine MiningIndus- tory. In fact, not only is information on ocean try," MTS Transactions, Exploiting the Ocean.1966, pp- floor mineral deposits sparse, but the tools and 202-203. VI-188 249 techniques for sampling in sufficient quantity and Of various design studies made on nodule quality require further development.During therecovery,allrequire making use of advanced decade of 1970-1980 there wiil continue to beundersea technology_ The problems of providing many gaps in the required technologf-The great-sufficient power to lift thousands of tons of est current need is to characterize the geologyofminerals from great depths; the need for ultra- our Continental Sheif as it is critical.,to Planninghigh-strength, corrosion resistant hoisting cables; economic exploitation. It is anticipateu that mostthe requirement to design long, flexible pipes or major technical problems could besolved by thehoses for deep water that can withstand the ocean recommended decade of aggressive technologicalcurrent drag and the resulting bending and shear- development during the 1970's. ing stresses; and the problem of three-phase-flow typical of basic Sand, gravel, and oyster shell dredging (localthrough such long pipes are enterprises oriented to local situations), and sulfurengineering problems. extraction (related to petroleum in its recovery The task of extracting ores from rocks beneath techniques and economic problems) essentiallythe continental sheIf is an order of magnitude shelf depth comprise the mining industry on theU.S. Conti-more difficult than that of dredging nental Shelf. There are, however, successful seabottom deposits. Yet this type of mining justifies mining operations in other partsof the worldcontinuingattention.Incontemplatingsub- where the legal and economic cliniate is morebottom mining far from land, mining through a sea floor entrance must be considered. Ultimately, favorable and where the existenceOf minablesuch objectives Iriay be accomplished with sea deposits has been established. Nevertheless, there is or has been activity involved in exploringforfloor entrance and undersea transfer capabilities, gold off Alaska (depths of almost 200 feet),much of which may result from technology phosphorite off North Carolina and Californiadevelopments funded under military programs. (depths of almost 600 feet), and manganese and The shaft required for mining production is phosphorite nodules and crusts on theBlake Pla-much larger than a mining core drill hole or a teau (depths of 2,400 to 3,600 feet) and at evenpetroleum production hole. Furthermore, to bring Ocean. a mine located by coring into production requires greater depths, especially in the Pacific the cutting of many thousands of feet and even Except for coal and iron, mined frorn tunnelsmiles of costly tunnels and underground excava- started on land and extending out under thetions radiating from the mine shaft. In addition, seabed, there is essentially no sub-bottorn miningthe process of bringing up tons per day of solid of solid minerals. Present mining concentrates onminerals requires very expensive hoisting equip- bottom deposits that require dredging operations.me: Of dredges in current use, a modified airlift In conclusion, deep ocean mining will require hydraulic dredge presently has the Potential todevelopment of many new types of equipment operate to 1,000-foot depths; concePtual designsheavily dependent on marine technology advances. have been made of suction dredges capable ofPossible examples include: (1) submarine crawlers recovering nodules at 4,000-foot depths- and bottom hovering vehicles for exploration and Mining deep sea manganese nodules has at-recovery of deposits, (2) stationary or neutrally tracted serious evaluation and interest- However,buoyant platforms, (3) drilling rigs on the ocean mining technolou for economic exPloitationoffloor, (4) submarine dredges, (5) high capacity, deep sea nodules does not exist. The Problem islow cost vertical transport systems, and (6) high not only that of economic recoverybut that ofcapacity equipment for horizontal transfer. economically separating the elements from raw nodules. Small scale sampling of the deep sea floor toRecommendations: locate mineral deposits and securesamples forMany mining spokesmen have indicated that indus- specific laboratory analyses only recently hasbeentry will undertake the costs of detailed surveys and conducted. Sampling of the deep seafloor still isdevelopment of mineral recovery technology. The so time consuming that adiscouragingly smallGovermnent's role should be to provide the number of samples come from a day's Work. following:

VI-1 89 2:5 0. Proper legal-political-fiscal environment to per-Provision of topographical andsub-bottom maps much ofof our Continental Shelf overprintedwith gravi- mit the industry to develop on its own othor geo- the required recovery technology. metric, magnetic, bottom type, and logical information. Reconnaissance scale bathymetric, geophysical and characteri- and geological maps. Provision of topographical maps zation of the deep ocean basins. Technical services encompassing large-scale facili- moni-Establishment of a mechanism toaccumulate ties, technology transfer, and environmental applicable to off- toring and prediction. and disseminate technical data shore mining problems, including Navydata, available to industry with aslittle restriction as Identification of basic engineering problemsNational security permits. associated with exploration and exploitationand Establishment of improved systems forprecise development of tools and instrumentation re- and on the quired for exploration should be undertakenlocation at the sea surface, mid-depth, jointly between the private sector and theFederalbottom. Govermnent in a properly coordinated program. Specific technology needs identified for Gov-V. CHEMICAL EXTRACTION ernment support of the ocean miningindustry are as follows: A. Introduction

1.Elements in the Ocean Characterization of the geology of our Conti- The total volume of the oceans is estimated to nental Shelf as a guide to further and morespecific be 320 million cubic miles.18 Althoughsalinity of delineation of mineral deposits in particular areasthe several seas varies somewhat, the averageis by industry. approximately 35,000 ppm of dissolvedsalts, Development of devices for rapid underwaterequivalent to 165 million short tons per cubic exploration for minerals. Examples include equip-mile. The world oceans, therefore, repreent a ment analogous to airborne magnetometerequip-storehouse of about 50 million billion tonsof ment employed for large-scaleexplorations ondissolved materials. shore and devices for more rapid deposit sampling. Figure 50 lists a few of the more important dissolved elements. Some 77 elements,including Information on soil properties of continentalatmospheric gases, have been detected. It isquite shelves and deep ocean bottoms in areas in whichlikely that all naturally occurring elementsexist in undersea mining operations may be undertaken orthe ocean. The lack of detectionof the trace facilities constructed. This includes load-bearingcomponents is due to analytical limitations.As can capacity, stability, possibility, of submarineland-be seen from the table, the first eightelements slides, etc. account for over 99 percent." (Oxygen and hydrogen elements are notincluded.) Provision of large facilities for simulating deep ocean environments to develop, test,and calibrate materials, instruments, and other devices. 2. Extent of Present Extraction Development of materials for cables havinga. Overall ProductionThe chemical industry exceptional strength-to-weight ratios, highfatigueextracts various chemicals from the seawater resistance, and the ability to retain strengthincolumn in commercial operations. The processes seawater. Improvements hi predicting, monitoring, and 18Shigley, C. M., "Minerals from the Sea", Journal of andMetals, January 1951, p. 3. controlling major storms, earthquake waves, 19 McIlhenny, W. F., "Chemicals from Sea Water," other environmental hazards to vessels and struc-Proceedings of the Inter-American Conference onMate- tures. rials Technology, May 1968, p. 120.

VI-190 2 1 Figure 50 The mineral with the largest tonnage and the PER CENT CONCENTRATION OF DISSOLVED greatest value is sodium chloridecommon salt ELEMENTS IN SEA WATER' accounting for about 45 per cent of the total value. The other four products include, in order of Nr cent of Total dollar value: magnesium metal, desalinated water, Element Dissolved Elements bromine, and magnesium compounds. No materials other than salt, water, bromine, magnesium, and Chlorine 58.3 its compounds are extracted now in commercial Sodium 32.2 quantities from sea water. It is also ofinterest, 4.1 Magnesium looking at this table, to note the importance of sea 2.7 Sulfur water as asource of magnesium metal and bro- Calcium 1.23 mine. About two-thirds of these minerals are 1.17 Potassium obtained from the ocean. Bromine 0.20 Figure 52 indicates the analogous figures for Carbon 0.09 production in the United States.21 The value of All others (about 70 annual output of these minerals and desalinated Trace different elements) water is $135 million. Magnesium metal, magne- Total 100.0 sium compounds, and bromine account for almost 1Excludesoxygen and hydrogen. 90 per cent of the value of materials extracted in the United States from salt water (today saltand desalinated water make up only a small portion of are well developed and economicallycompetitive. recovered from sea water in This oceanic area of interest has probably receivedthe value of products much less attention by the public than is justified.the United States). As van be seen from Figure 51, nearly $400b. SaltThe technique of obtaining common salt million of chemicals or chemically related materi-by means of solar evaporation is an ancient process als are recovered from sea water each year.2° Thisdating back to 2200 B.C. when it was fri-bt includes desalinated water as well as the four typesrecorded in Chinesewritings.22It was discovered of minerals listed in the table. 21Information supplied by W. F. McIlhenny. 20IbicL, p. 119. 22Shigley, C. M., op. cit., p. 3.

Figure 51 WORLD PRODUCTION OF CHEMICALS THAT CAN BEOBTAINED FROM SEA WATER'

World Annual Per cent from Value from Production (million tons) Sea Water Sea Water Sources From Total (S million) Chemical Sea Water 173 Salt 118.6 34.62 29 75 Magnesium Metal . . 0.17 0.113 65 51 Desalinated Water . 241.0 142.0 59 45 Bromine . . . . 0.15 0.104 67 - Magnesium Compounds 11.42 0.692'3,4 6 41 385 Total . . . .

1Estimated values for each commodity based or, values reported in 1965 MineralsYearbook. 2 EStirnated, figures not available. 3includes magnesium from dolomitic lime. 4Includes sea salt-bittern.

252 VI-191 Figure 52 US. PRODUCTION OF CHEMICALS THATCAN BE OBTAINED FROM SEA WATER' SeaWater US. Annual Pmduction Per cent Annual Vauel Per cent U.S. (million tons) from Sea from Value of Water Sources Total From Sea Water Total World Value Chemical Sea Water ($ million) 5 Salt 35.0 1.42 4 8 57 76 Magnesium Metal . - 0.09 0.0813 90 16 Desalinated Water . 60.6 22.9 38 8 30 67 Brom ine . . . . 0.14 0.0685 50 Magnesium 34 32 78 Compounds4 - - 1.37 0.475 35 Total 135 iMostly1966 figures. 2Includes solar sea salt and other solar salt. 3The only U.S. sea water magnesium facility is at Dow inFreeport (1965 figures). 4Includes magnesium chloride which, in turn, is used formagnesium metal. sI ncludes sea salt-bittern. quite early that salt helped prevent decay in many 1941, extracted from the Gulf of Mexico by the foods. Present chemical usage for sodium com-Dow Chemical Company. The process was adapted pounds is so extensive that salt is one of theand improved from a Dow Chemical metallic primary raw materials upon which the chemicalmagnesium extraction plant near Midland, Michi- industry rests. About two-thirds of the salt con-gan, using brine from inland wells.Some 65 per sumed in the United States is by the chemicalcent of the world's production comesfrom the industry. Salt is produced from the ocean inonly two magnesium metal plants that process sea commercial quantities in about 60 countries. Morewater. These are the Texas Divisionof Dow than 29 per cent of total world production is fromChemical at Freeport, Texas, and the facilities of sea water. In the United States, theproductionNorsk Hydro-Elektrisk in Norway. from sea water is centered in California and In order to furnish the needs of Dow plants and accounts for only about four per cent of theU.S.the adjacent bromine plant of the Ethyl-Dow grand total. Chemical Company, almost two million gallons per minute of sea water are pumped, an amount equal c. Magiesium Metal Magnesium isthe third mostto that pumped by all other process users of sea abundant element found in sea water. Over 90 perwater in the world combined Sincethis figure cent of magnesium metal produced in theUnitedincludes water required for cooling, it may be said States is obtained from sea water. It is estimatedthat the Dow plants pump approximately one that a cubic mile of sea water contains roughlysixcubic mile of sea water per year, equivalent to million tons of magnesium. However, thisisalmost threebillion gallons per day. This is equivalent to about only one-sixth ounce perapproximately equal to what would have been gallon, worth about 0.4 cent.23 The first U.S.pumped by the Bolsa Island dual purpose power magnesium metal from sea water was produced inand 150 mgd desalination facility had it been approved and constructed. Demand for magnesium is high during wartime, 2 3Spangler, M. B., "A Case Study Report onthe Extraction of Mapiesium from Sea Water,"Nationalas it is used extensively in airplane constriction Planning Association Report to the National Council onand also is employed in incendiary bombs. Magne- Marine Resources and Engineering Development,Sept. sium is outstanding in its use as a sacrificial anode 11, 1967.

VI-192 253 to protect metal surfaces against sea water corro-to be pumped as high a vertical distance as Dow's sion, and as a widely used constituent of alumi-inland wells which are about 5,000 feet deep. num alloys. That lower sea water concentrations represent The factors involved in extracting magnesiumno handicap was demonstrated by comparative from sea water are somewhat different from thosecosts published after World War II. The Velasco, of bromine.24 From an oceanographic or climaticTexas, plant built for the Federal Government standpoint, location is not as critical. For example,bettered by nearly 30 per cent the lowest cost of water temperature has little effect on the magne-other Government plants using more concentrated sium recovery process. More important is a loca-magnesium sources from inland brines. tion favorable to the supply of raw materials and power. The proximity of abundant natural gas, thed. Magnesium Compounds Magnesia (magnesium fuel for Dow's electrical power gene_ation, isoxide) is the princirl product of the magnesium paramount. The process also requires a cheapcompounds industry. It is widely used as a basic source of lime. For this, Dow purchases oysterrefractory for metallurgical furnaces. A moderate percentage of these compounds is still mined from shells dredged inexpensivelyfromnearby Galveston Bay (Figure 53). Another raw material,old geological basins in Ohio, Texas, and Michigan, with wells being drilled as deep as 5,000 to 6,000 sulfur, also is produced in south Texas and needs to be shipped only a short distance. feet. There are at present eight plants in the United States producmg magnesium oxide and depending on the ocean as a source of raw material.One plant produces these compounds from sea-salt bitterns, although such operations are expected to stop soon.25 As Figure 52 shows, the United States produces 78 per cent of the world-wide output of those magnesium compounds extracted from the sea water. e. Bromine Of all the minerals extracted commercially from sea water, bromine is the least concentrated, about 65 parts per million. All facilities directly processing sea water use a modification of the blowing-ont process developed originally for use on underground brines.26 In 1931 the process was modified to use sea water as a raw material. The Ethyl-Dow facilities at Free- port, Texas, have been operating since 1940. Large Figure 53. Oyster shells from Galveston Bay sea water plants are also in operation in France, serve as a cheap source of lime, required in the Sicily, and England. magnesium extraction process. (Dow Chemical photo) There are a few inland brines, as in Arkansas, having very high concentrations of bromine approaching 5,000 ppm. Bromine also has concentra- One aspect of extracting magnesium from seations approaching 5,000 ppm in the Dead Sea. water, vis-a-vis extraction from inland brines, is ofInland brines are subject to depletion allowances, special interest. The lower concentration of mag-but this is not true of sea water sources, as they nesium in sea water requires more water to beare considered unlimited reserves. pumped. However, since the Freeport plant is only nine feet above sea level, the water does not need 25McIlhenny, W. F., op. cit., p. 123. A bittern may be defined as a bitter solution remaining in saltmaking after the salt has crystallized out of sea water or brine. 24Shigley, C. M., op. cit., p. 7- p. 124.

V1-193 333-091 0-69-17 4 0 Though bromine exists in the oceanwith aprecipitation of magnesium hydroxide from sea concentration only one-twentieth that of magne-water; oyster shell is used in Texas anddolomitic sium, its price per pc,und is one-thirdless thanlimestone in Norway. is magnesium. This apparent anomaly isdue to the In the Dow process in Texas, sea water fact that the bromine extraction processis muchbrought into the plant through a system of flumes less costly in power, labor, and capitalequipment.and intakes and then is screened and chlorinated condi-for control of biofouling (Figure 54).Either Favorable oceanographic and climatic or caustic soda from a tions are paramount in extractingbromine fromcalcined oyster shell requirements are neces-caustic-chlorine electrolytic cell is used toprecipi- sea water." The following magnesium hydroxide. The precipitated say: tate High and constant salinity convenientlyavail- .. able. Source free from organic contaminationand undiluted by major fresh water rivers. Favorable circumstances to dispose oflarge quantities of processed water without mixingwith unprocessed water. Location in a warm climate since bromine canbe removed at a greater rate from warm sea water. Location near economical raw materialand power. For example, inFreeport, chlorine, sulfur, heated sea water (cooling water fromother Dow productionfacilities), and natural gas are in Figure 54. Sea water intake for magnesium relatively good supply. extraction. Incoming sea water passes through a screen to prevent fish and debrisfrom entering canal. (Dow Chemical photo) B.Present Techniques for Extraction28 Techniques for extracting salt and magnesium compounds from sea water were mentioned on previous pages. Almost 30 per cent ofworld salt production is from sea water, chiefly bysolar evaporation in open ponds. While some magnesium compounds also are produced in this way, most are from a process similar tothe first steps employed in magnesium metal recovery. Being more complexprocesses,theextractionof magnesium metal and bromine is describedbelow.

1_ Magnesium Metal The only two plants that extract magnesium metal from sea water (in Norway and Freeport, Texas) employ electrolytic processes, although Figure 55- Outdoor setding tank: for magne- initial sium extraction. Lime is slaked with water, each is different. However, both depend on added to sea water, and pumped to outdoor settlktg tanft Soluble magnesium in sea water reacts with lime to form insolublemagnesium hydroxide, which settles to bottom and is re- 27Shigley, C. M.,op. cit., p. S. moved for further processing. (Dow Chemical 2 8McIlhenny, W. F., op. cit., p. 123. photo)

VI-194 2 hydroxide issettled in large ponds, collected, filtered, and washed (Figure 55). Thehydroxide is neutralized with byproduct hydrochloric acid and dried in fluo-solid driers to produce a dry, free- flowing hydrous feed for the magnesium cells. Electrolysis is conducted in large, bathtub-shaped, -7- electrolytic cells filled with a fused salt mixture upon which the molten magnesium(liberated 17'1' .187. during electrolysis) floats (Figure 56).The molten - magnesium is transferred in largecrucibles for casting metal ingots.

Figure 57.Ethyl-DOW bromine plant at Kure Beach, North Carolina, as it appeared in 1940. (Dow Chemical photo)

Figure 56.Elextrolytic cell for magnesium ex- added, and the reaction products are absorbed in traction. Cells operate at about 700°C, using an aqueoits acidsolution. The acid solution is greater than 100,000 amps of direct current. Each cell rests in a brick-lined furnace. Magne- rechlorinated and steam-stripped to produce a high sium chloride is fed to cell and electrolyzedto quality brtimine which can be reacted with ethyl- magnesium metal and chlorine. (Dow Chemical photo) ene to produce ethylene dibromide. C. Future ExtraCtiOn of Other Chemicals 2. Bromine 1. Future Possibilities All facilities directly processing sea waterbrines use a modification of theblowing-out process Figure 58 shows the abundance of several developed originally by Dr. Herbert H. Dow forcritical elements contained in sea water. Magne- underground brines. In about 1927 when it be-sium and bromine also are shown for comparison. came apparent that additionalproduction facilitiesUranium is by far the most valuable element per would be required, the process wasmodified tocubic mile. Bromine, the least concentrated of the use sea water as a raw material.A plant wascommercially produced elements, is over 30,000 constructed at Kure Beach, No.tillCarolina, intimes as plentifuls uranium and over 10 million 1933, was expanded several times, and operatedtimes as plentiful as gold. until 1946. Figure 57 shows the KureBeach plant Several sequential operations are required to as it appeared in 1940. The presentEthyl-Dowproduce a chemical from a raw material like sea bromine production facilities at Freeport, Texas,water. The desired element must be separated, have been operating since 194.0 andhave beenconcentrated, and processed to a marketable quality. Processes have been proposed or developed to enlarged several times. In the blowing-out process, incoming sea waterrecover almost all the dissolved elements.How- is screened and acidified to pH 3.5.Chlorine isever, when all costs are considered (e.g.,handling added to ^xidize the bromide to bromine, which isthe large volumes and the amortization and main- stripped from the sea water by a countercurrenttenance of the necessary equipment), they cannot stream of air. The bromine-laden vaporis led intobe supported by the value of the chemicals a baffled mixing chamberwhere sulfur dioxide isrecovered.

VI-195 Figure 58 2. Long-Range Technology ABUNDANCE OF SOME CRITICAL To obtain minute quantities of elements it is ELEMENTS IN SEA WATER necessary to modify the presentphilosophy of Average processing 100 per cent of sea w-ter, 96.5 per cent Element Concentration of which is water, to recover only verysmall Mg/Liter' amounts of chemicals. It may be preferable to Presently produced: remove desired solids from the sea waterat sea and Magnesium 1,350 then handle only the useable material. Bromine 65 Present desalting methods concentrate brines Not Produced: by a ratio of about two to one.However, Uranium 0.003 concentrations of up to three to one have been Silver 0.00004 reported feasible, and pretreatment processes such Tin 0.0008 as ion exchange mayallow concentration ratios as Gold 0.000004 high as five to one. Future techniques may further Zinc 0.01 increase the ability to concentrate brines.Im- Titanium 0.001 proved extraction processes using concentrated brines (as may be available from desalting facili- Note that 1 part per million equals 1.026 Mg/Liter. Source: Goldberg, E. D., "Minor Elements in SeaWater," ties) wffi permit more economical recovery of Chemical Oceanography, vol. I, J. P. Riley and G. Skirrowvarious chemicals. (ed.), Academic Press, London, pp. 164165. Extraction directly from the sea using natural processes, another potentialmethod of recovery, will require considerable additional basic research into sea water chemistry, biology, andextraction Most dissolved elements found in the ocean are processes. For example, iodine hasbeen extracted being recovered more economically from othercommercially from certain seaweed that concen- sources. Possibly the next material to be extractedtrates the element. Some marine organisms con- commercially from sea water will be uranium. Thecentrate trace elements in ratios as great as English are reported to be experimenting with a100,000 to 1, as with vanadium. Lead is concen- uranium process, but prospects for its commercial trated as much as 20 million to1in certain fish utilization are not known.2 9 bones. The economics of bromine versus magnesium Biological concentration suggests future tech- extraction is a good illustration of why one shouldniques of recovering valuable trace elements by not be too pessimistic about the commerciallearning which organisms can concentrate the possibilities of extracting less concentrated ele-desired elements best, culturing them in sea water, ments. Sea water contains only 65 ppm (parts perharvesting them, and extracting the elements, or million) bromine versus 1,300 ppm magnesium.learning the processes and adapting them to Yet bromine sells for about 25 cents per pound versus 35 cents for magnesium.The bromineindustrial practice. extraction process is less costly than the magnesium process because it requires only 2 processD.Conclusions steps to extract and convert the bromine to a salable form, whereas 10 steps are required for Extraction of magnesium compounds, magne- magnesium metal. sium metal, bromine, and salt from sea water is This indicates that other elements, even thoughhighly successful. World-wide, salt is the most less concentrated than bromine, may be producedimportant product. Almost 30 per cent of the at lower costs per pound than bromine if thetotal world production of salt is from sea water. technology can be developed Jong with the tJ.S. industry hasbeenprofitably extracting required market. magnesium and bromine from sea water for over 25 years. About 90 per cent ofall magnesium metal and 50 per cent of all bromine production inthe 29Spangler, M. B., op. cit, p. 9- United States is derived' from sea water.

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L611-8 The Secretary went on to say: It is not always practical to attempt to assign a reasonable market value to water. One thing is The new program that has been devised to advanceabsolutely clearthere is no water as expensive as desalting technology will change the character ofno water. .. The costof water itself becomes less the program by placing greateremphasis onimportant when considered in the light of the engineering problems and the development ofeconomic impact of water rationing. Many indus- hardware for prototype plants ranging up to 50trial plants require great volumes of water for million gallons per day. processing, and water use restrictions can cause production cutbacks which diminish profits and The increase in water use in the United Statespcychecks. But even more important than eco- has been phenomenal. At the turnof the century,nomic consideration is the relationship of water 40 billion gallons per day (gpd) wereused_ Bysupply to human needs, especially the detrimental 1920 use had doubled; it doubled againby 1944effects on health that can result from water and still again by 1965. The use of water now ...shortages. Inadequate supplies of fresh water serve estimated at 375 billion gpd. It has been predictedto compound pollution control problems. Without that by the year 2000 our population will double,sufficient water for dilution of the effluents we and within another 35 to 40 years it will doublepour into our rivers and streams, they can become again, but the problems involved in maintaining anso choked with pollutants as to lose their natural adequate supply of water are compoundedby theability to regenerate the water to a usable condi- factthatpercapitademandisconstantlytion. To alleviate this adverse situation, we suggest increasing. that it is now time for saline water conversion Thomas K. Sherwood, Professor of Chemicalplants to be considered as a practical supplemental Engineering atthe Massachusetts Institute ofsource of fresh water supply. Technology, testified in 1965 that:31

The most significant water statistic is the rate ofA. History and Trends "consumptive" use of water. This refers to water1. Past Activities withdrawn from streams, lakes, and aquifers, used once, and then lost by evaporation or inother For many years desalination equipment was of ways so as not to be available for reuse. Themajor interest only to the maritime industry. consumptive use of water within the continentalFor this use there were two principal criteria: United States is not known accurately, but isreliability of operation and the space required for evident ly between 10 and 20 per cent of the totalthe equipment. Cost of conversion was amino; fresh water which might sometime be obtainedconsideration. from natural sources by present technology. Not In 1952, the Congress, through the Saline ,:',"ater only are the demands increasing steadily, butAct of 1952 and by subsequent legislative amend- water supplies vary enormously with timeandments, authorized the Secretary of the Interior place, so to me this is a frightening figure. I amthrough the Office of Salin- Water to conduct a further convinced that desalination is one of theresearch and development program for new or several practical approaches to the problem Two-improved lo\ *-cost desalination processes. Primary thirds of the population lives in the 25 statesobjective was to lower the cost of desalted water which border on the oceans, and many of theso that desalination will be a feasible. ,Lernate other 25 states have large supplies of brackishsource of fresh water to meet future needs. water. Generally, the U.S. Government p-ogram has been conducted by supporting research and develop- With respect to the importance of water, Mr.ment grants and awarding contracts to individuals, Frank Di Luzio, former Assistant Secretary ofuniversities, private research organizations, indus- Interior, has stated that: 3 2 trial firms, and other govtanment agencies. Desalting processes were improved as they 31Senate Hearings, M ay 1965, op. cit., p. 212. advanced through laboratory and pilot plant stages 321bid, P. 144. tc..,prototype and operation. In 1958, Congress v1-198 5 9 authorized $10 million for constsuction of several Figure 59 shows three separate groups: (1) demonstration plants. Each plant was to utilize aworld total, (2) world total built by the United different promising desalting process. By recentStates, and (3) total located in the UnitedStates, legislation these plants are now designated as testincluding U.S. possessions and military bases. beds for experimental operations. While there are only 28 sea water feed plants During 1952 to 1967, public funds totalinglocated in the United States, there are almost 100 approximately $88 million were invested in effortsU.S.-built plants around the world, indicating that todevelop desalting processes and to lowerU.S. investments are located mostly abroad. In costs.3 3 fact, more than 50 per cent of all sea water desalination plants throughout the world were 2. Current Status built by the United States. Figure 60 shows the The present value of desalinated water fromgeographical distribution of desalting plants and world-wide sea water plants is about $50 million aplant capacities as of Jan. 1, 1968. year, accounting for about 15 per centof the Government activities have been focused on the world's total production of chemicals from seaoperation of demonstration plants and special water. By contrast, the value of desalinated waterprocesses as the key to economic desalting.Four produced in the United States is about $8 million,plants in the continental United States have representing only six per cent of the total chem-capacities of at least one million gallons per day icals produced from sea water. (mgd); three are OSW demonstration plants. The Figure 59 indicates there are over 150 land-largest, with a capacity of 2.6 mgd, became based desalination plants throughout the worldoperational in 1967 in Key West, Florida. using sea water. Actually there are more than 600 Overall, Government has recognized the follow- plants, but as in the United States, most are foring examples of how desalting facilities can help powerhouse boiler water production and operatemeet water needs in the United Statesand the on brackish or slightly saline water. world: To supplement an inadequate existing water 33Letterto the panel from W. F. Savage, Assistant supply by furnishing water as in the arid zones and Director, Engineering and Development, OSW, Dec. 20, 1967. supplementing existing sources to meet the de-

Figure 59 PRODUCTION CAPABILITY OF DESALINATED WATER, 1966 Annual Capacity Numberof Production Plants' (Million GPD) Value ($Million)

AllFeed Water Sources2 World Total 6693 158.6 Built by U.S. 3763 74.8 Located in U.S 4 289 40.9 Sea Water as Feed Source World Total 153 51 94.1 Built by U.S 87 24 45.2 Located in LIS 4 28 8 15.1 1All greater than 25,000 GPD. his includes plants which operate on brackish or slightly saline water. 3 Approxirnate capital investment: $200 million, and $115 million respectively. 4IncludesU.S. Territories and military bases. Source: Unpublished information compiled by W.F. Mcllhenny, based on Appendix Eof the 1966 OSW Saline Conversion Report.

VI-199 mands of rapidly growingmajor population cen-3. Future ters. a. Near-Term ForecastsDuring the past 7 to 10 existing supply byyears, the growth rate ofcommercial facilities has To improve the quality of an year. At this upgrading water where a supplyis adequate but ofbeen approximately 30 per cent per desalinated waterrateitis estimated that the total commercial substandard quality (mixing gallons per with the natural supply),supplementing water incapability should be about one billion where pumping groundday by1978.With this capacity. the sale of inland or coastal areas $250million per water has resulted inbrackish or sea-water intru-desalinated water would exceed 75cents per thousandgallons), sion, and serving as one ofseveral tools to convertyear (based on 1966value. Total polluted water into usable water. approximately five times the investment in 1978 should approximate$1 billion (estimated at the rate of $1 pergallon per day). of desalting Mr. Frank Di Luzio, in thisregard, has stated:3'Figure61shows construction starts plants world-wide during1967by number and It is anticipated that costcompetitiveness withcapacity. sources will noralways water from conventional Future giant facili- constitute the fzrst limitingfactor to the utiliza-b. Role of Distillation Plants Eventually, everyties obviously could alter greatlythe figures given tion of saline water resources. difficult to pin major water utility mayincorporate a desaltingabovl. Although firm plans are A water-quality con-down, a list of giant facilities beingcontemplated unit in its treatment plant. As presently foreseen they scious population is likely toinsist on higher-than-is shown in Figure62. standards. will be based on the distillationprinciple. minimum water-quality To help delineate the role offuture facilities OSW has been conducting studies onthe potential usefulness and feasibility of desalting as a wayof 34 Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 146. drought-proofmg northern New Jersey and New

Figure60 PLANTS WORLDWIDE GEOGRAPHICALDISTRIBUTION OF DESALTING AND PLANT CAPACITY, INOPERATION OR UNDERCONSTRUCTION AS OF JAN. 1, 1968 - 25,000GPD CAPACITY OR GREATER

Number of Total Plant Continent or Country Plants Capacity (MGD) 288 39.6 United States . 15 7.5 2.U.S. Territories 11 8.4 North America exceptU.S. and its Territories 3. 24 16.9 Caribbean 4. 20 3.7 South America 5. 77 26.3 Europe (Continental) 6. 62 14.1 7. Engl.and and Ireland 7 1.9 8. Australia 18 2.1 Asia 9. 63 50.1 Middle East 10. 35 10.8 11. Africa 7 40.9 12. Union of Soviet SocialistRepublics 222 3 Grand Total 627

Source:I nformation supplied by OSW. VI-200 - York City involving 100 to 300 mgd facilities. Thec. Role of MembraneProcessesIt is predicted metropolitan areas of eastern Pennsylvania, Newthat within the next 10 years numerousinland Jersey, and New York City experience cycliccommunities in the United States may have to drought during which the water supply is inade-shift to some new, more effective form of water quate to meet demands. The study indicates thatpurification for their progressively more brackish appropriately placed desalting plants in this sizewater supplies. Estimates indicate that over3.5 range, integrated with the exisng water system,million people in 1,150 U.S. inland communities could provide the additional supply needed. have water supplies exceeding 1,000 ppm total One of the most ambitious studies is that beingdissolved salts; over 6,000 communities with a conducted jointly with Mexico under the auspicespopulation of more than 40 million have waters of the International Atomic Energy Agency. Waterthat do not meet the 500 ppm Public Health requirements of portions of the states of BajaService recommended water standard.35 California and Sonora in Mexico and of California Dr. Dcald F. Hornig, Director of the Office of and Arizona, with needs for electrical power, areScience and Technology, in testimony before the being projected through 1995. At present, parts of this area are irrigated with water from the Colo-SenatepointedOUt: 36 rado River and from underground aquifers. It isOne of the complicating features of research on anticipated that the prospectivedual-purpose,desalting brackish and waste waters is the wide nuclear-powered electric generation and one bil-diversity in the chemical composition of these lion gallons per day desalting plant will satisfy thewaters. A process which is highly uiccessful in one power needs as well as providing irrigation waterapplication may encounter serious difficulties in to irrigate the vast arid region and to supportothers. That is not an insurmountable obstacle, growing municipal and industrial needs. Additional comments on the possibilities of desalination for 35 Water Desalination Report, Vol. IV, No. 24, June 13, irrigation are made in Subsection C, Projection of 1968, p. 2. 36 Water Costs. Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 31.

Figure 61 DESALTING CONSTRUCTION STARTS IN 1967 Plant Capacity Number of Plants Continent or Country (MGD)

United States and Its Territories 13 10.63 Canada 1 0.20 Mexico 1 7.50 Bermuda 1 0.10 St. Martin/French 1 0.13 Honduras 1 0.17 Gibraltar 1 0.23 Europe (Continental) 7 14.10 England and Ireland 3 1.24 Australia 1 .22 MiddleEas-i. 10 15.72 Ascension Island/British 1 .03 CanaryIs lends/Spanish 1 5.28 Asia 3 2.83 Grand Total 45 58.38

Source: Information supplied by OSW.

V1-201 2 62 Figure 62 CONTEMPLATED NEW PLANT CONSTRUCTION FOR DESALTING (Greater than 10 MGD)

Location Size (MGD) Owner Operation Gulf of California 1,000.0 U.S.-Mexico Israel-Jordan . . 1,000.0 Israel (public-private corp.) Bo lsa I sland 150.0 Metropolitan Water District of Southern California (Cancelled) Almeria 130.0 Spain 1970 Donbass Region 130.0 U.S.S.R. Sidi Kreir 100.0 U.A.R. 1970-1972 Athens 500 Pueblo Power Corp. Escombreras 26.0 Spain 1970 Kuwait 12.0 Kuwait 1970 Kuwait 10.8 Kuwait 1970 Source: Water Desalination Report, Vol. IV, No. 1, Jan. 4, 1968, p. 3. but simply another variation that must be copedWhen we concentrate ocean water, for example, witlt about twice its natural level of salt concentration we still do not have a brine that has great value as The membrane processes may also prove useful ina source of by-product recovery. If our technology processing waste water from industries and munici-continues to improve, that is,our ability to ptzlities for reuse. Some 60 billion gallons of suchprevent scale formation, our ability to minimize waste waters are produced daily. They containcorrosion, and we are able to go to higher from a few hundred to perhaps 2,000 parts perconcentration ratios, we will come to a point million of salts. These waters because they arewhere by-products can be effectively recovered. already at centers of use, may be reclaimed at costs competitive with the cost of providingI think it must be kept in mind, however, that if "new" water in many irstances. we depend upon by-product recovery as a means of making desalting plants economically valuable, In the long run, it seems likely that membranewe are chasing an ever diminishing circa?, because processes can be developed to the point wherewith the chemicals from the brine we could they will become the most effixient means ofsaturate a good portion of the earth with chem- desalting sea water. This possibility is certainly noticals,and obviously they would become less practicable now, but the membrane research whichvaluable as supply overtakes demand. is currently aimed at small-scale plants is likely to provide the technological base for future genera-It does have potential, but it is not a solution. tions of large-scale plants. [I] n the west coast test center near San Diego we have made an arrangement with a sea water salt d. Potential of By-Product RecoveryA questioncompany to take our brine effluent, which is arises as to the potential value of solids removed asconcentrated by a factor of two, and somewhat byproducts from the concentrated brine in thewarmer than ocean temperature. In that operation desalting process. Dr. Jack Hunter, Director ofwe will determirwhether there if zconomic OSW, has answered this poin* in the W.-lowingbenefit to the production of sea salts. Way.37 We have also conducted some examination, and 37Hearings before the Senate Subcommittee on Waterindustry has on its own conducted additional and Power Resources of the Committee on Interior and investigation of the economics of Wraction of Insular Affairs. 90th Congress. First Session, on S. 1101, March 1967. p. 22. by-product chemicals.

VI-202 263 In general, where we now have concentration 63 OF ratios of two, studies indicate that we begin to CLASSIFICAT1014 4SALTING have economic potential if we reach concentration .rEcHNIOLJEa ratios of about 5 to 7. The principal chemicals in which we are interested are phosphates, chlorine, Type bromine, sodium, and magnesium. Distillation Submerged Tube As a result of continued research in this area, it Ships. Offshore has been demonstrated that it is feasible to raise Platforms concentration ratios to around four to five. Film Climbing Film Submarirles e. Long-Range EstimatesLong-range estimates osw Test indicate that by the year 2000 world desalting Multiple Effect Falling Film FreeportTexas, 1961 production should be about 30 billion gpd com- 1 mgcl pared to about 0.10 billion gpd today.38 This Example: Long long-range forecast is significant in stating the Tube Vertical unquestioned need for at least this much addi- Evaporation tional fresh water above and beyond the natural (LTV) supply. The 30 billion gpd capacity, while seem- Flash °SW 'restBed inglylarge,isabout eight per cent of U.S. Single Effect a domestic consumption today and presumably less Multiple Stage than one per cent of present world consumption. Flash (SEMB) It is within our technical and fmancial abilities to IGmte9cir trtsfstearrg:ds)to build and put into operation 30 billion gpd capacity by the year 2000_ An overriding need for OSIN -r_ water suggests that the long-range forecastis Combinationoffilm perhaps conservative. and flash (Clair 15 San b:e909 Example: Mujpie r4dCalifornia, B. Techniques of Desalination EffectMulti-Stage 1967.11 Flash (MEIVIs) 1. Classification OSW Figure 63 shows a listing of various major Vapor Compression Mexico, techniques of desalirzation. The processes can be 7:6311:.elI,New divided into four broad categories: distillation, crystallization, membranes, ane advanced pro-Crystallization cesses in initial development. Direct or Vacuurn Freezing 4°ii Plant. Carolina, 2. Distillation 120.00Nocgrtpdh a. Multiple-Stage FlashAlmost all large desalina- Secondary Refrig_ tion units now in operation or under construction °SW Pilot Plant, North use multiple-stage flash distillation. Incoming sez erant Freezing water and recirculated brine are preheated by the condensation of product water in a series of stages Hydrate at consecutively higher temperatures. The heated oNotiPeileot.oPlilnaart sea water is elevated to the maximum operating temperature by condensing steam from an external Membranes OSW source. The hot sea water is allowed to flash to Reverse Osmosis -Hot plants: Cblorcio. 38Water Desalination Report, Vol. IV, No. 1, Jan_ 4, IVie)(1co.s0,000 9Pd 1968, p. 4. (Cortihuedor,foll°vvirl9peae)

264 V1-203 Although somewhat costlier, the processhas Electrodialysis OSW Test Bed Webster, South the following important advantages over themulti- Dakota, 1962 stage flash concept: 250,000 gpd Lev, pumping power required. Advanced Processes as OSW Mobile Pilot Less inherent temperature losses. Ion Exchange Plants Fewer stages or effects required. of flash chambers, each vapor in a successive series The hottest brine is generally more dilute, an at a lower temperatureand pressure. The flashed vapor is condensed bythe circulating sea wateradvantage in scale control. and is collected. A fmalcondenser, using addi-A smaller volume of sea water handled. tional cooling sea water,maintains the final 39 this technique will be used vacuum. It is anticipated that The advantages of thisflash method are aswith increasing frequency in thefuture. follows:4° c. Multiple-Effect,Multiple-StageBoth multiple- It has been demonstratedsatisfactorily in severalstageflash and multiple-effect processeshave moderate-size plants throughoutthe world. certain advantages; some designers now areconsid- ering various combinations of the two. Oneis the The equipment configurationand process flowmultiple-effect, multiple-stage concept. In this are relatively simple. design, several stages of a conventional multistage the injection is within presentplant are grouped into one effect to provide Scale control by acid heat .input for another group of stages oreffects. technology. Principal advantages are: (1) It appruachesthe plant was built in Sangenerally more efficient multiple-effect concept An OSW demonstration while retaining most of the structurally simple Diego in 1962 rated at onemillion gallons per day. the Guan-features of the multistage flashdesigr, and (2) the It subsequently was transferred to plant tanamo Bay Naval Base inCuba in 1964 and wasbrine concentration at the hot end of the produce 2.1 mgd; it stillnormally approximates that of sea waterrather expanded by the Navy to water is operating on a day-to-daybasis to provide thethan being the douFe concentrated sea total water requirements of tnebase. often used in multistage flash plants. The Clair Engle OSW Demonstration Facility (Figure 64) completed in 1967 uses this technique. b. Mutli'ple-Effect, Falling-FilmMultiple-effect, falling-film distillation, sometimes referred to as vertical tube evaporation, hasbeen used successfully to produce fresh waterfrom sea water in the Office of Saline Water TestFacility at Freeport, Texas. Sea water il evaporatedfrom a thin film on the interior periphery of an evaporatorin a series of effects. Heat re!asei bythe condensation of vapor from a previouseffect is used to vaporize the water, and the condensed vapor iscollected as the plant product. A largedistillation plant now under construction in theVi4n Islands will use multiple-effect, falling-tilm distillation. Figure 64. San Diego saline water ter: facility, 39 Malhenny, W. F., "Chemicals from Sea Water," Clair Engle Plant. The one-rnillion-gallon-per- Proceedings of the Inter-AmericanConference on Mate-day desalting plant tests advanced design multi- rials 'technology, May 1968, P- 125- effect, nuati_stage flash distillation sea water Water 40 Desalination by Distillation," Com...Sionprvcess. (Office of Saline Porter, J. W., "Water photo) Ocean Industiy, Vol. No. 8: 39-45, 39, August 1967.

VI-204 265' While in operation only since August 1967. iterant process also is in operationat Wrightsville already has achieved a performance ratio of 20 Beach.4 2 pounds of product water for every pound of steam Freezing has 1g unique role to play in brackish input, double the performance ratio of the plant and polluted water conversion in thesalinity range OSW operated in San Diego in 1962-1964. of 9,000 to 20,000 ppm, as well as in Plant sizes from one to 10 million gallons perday. Electra' d. Vapor Compression Vapor compression distil-dialysis, although suitable for lowersalin;ties,is of 9 n lation is very competitive in small portable plants. too expensive in the salinity range ;-4gh110 :or In addition, it has primary application to plant20,000 ,,pm. And, because of thetypical systems where water, rather than a combinationofconcentrationof scale-forming compounds in nower and water, is produced. It is also of interestbrackish waters, evaporation or distillationproc- for the following reasons: (1) It may be considered esses require expensive treatment toremove these :Alen only electrical energy is available, and(2) compounds. Freezing, because of low operating unlike the multiple-effect and multistage flash temperatures, largely eliminates scale- In addition, distillation processes, no large heat sink is re- it requires considerably less energy.43 mobile vaetnon quired. This can be an advantage at inland sites. In view of these potentials, a The largest plant of this type is the OSW Testfreezing pilot plant now is underconstruction attd Bed at Roswell, New Mexico, operating on brack-will be tested on a number of brackish %vaters to ish well water, producing one million gallons perdetermine basic system economics. day. Multiple-stageflash can be combined with 4. Membranes vapor compression or vertical tube evaporation to Membrane processes involve diffusionthrough better utilize thermal enerT Such combinationssemipermeable membrane. While still in the livid have been termed hybrid processes, and work nowstate, salt solution taid water are seParaU.d_ The is under way on analytical investigations of such major types ere electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. processes for a wide variety of ',rater delivery rates. membranes with plication wherebyThe electrodialysis process uses One such study considers an electric current as the driving force.This process the shaft power from a gas turbine will drive the has reached commercial acceptance in brackish vapor compressor, and waste heat will be used to .ter applicable up to 500,000gpd and salinities inamultiple-stageflash preheatthe water up to 5,000 ppm. Modificationsof this Process are systei n.41 being sturied to reduce capital costsw---ehbi could result insubstantial reductions in the cost of 3. Crystallization water. The major crystallization process is freezing, I:. the reverse osmosis process, Pressure is the involving separation of pure water solids (ice) fromdriving force. Pressure in excessof the osmotic a saltsolution. Crystallization also can occurpressure of the saline feed isapplied to a special through a process whereby a hydrate-formingmembrane and water passes through- material combines with water to form a solid. Of Both processes appear to be economical for efforts also the two processes, vacuum freezing and secondarydesalting brackish waters. However, refrigerant freezing, the former is more advanced.being directed toward developmentof membrane sea The vacuum freezing test bed, which producesprocesses economical for desalting Water- over 100,000 gallons per day of fresh wa.er at thePresently, the reverse osmosis process is in the Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina, has been run-pilot plantstage and is considered advanced ning life tess to determine long-term maintenancetechnology for ultimate application in converting and operating problems and system economics. The first pilot plant utilizing the secondary refrig- 42 Text of presentation to the Marine Enginectin and Tcetmology Panel by W. F. Savage, OSW,Nov. 16, fsi67, p_ 2. 4tHear._igs before the Senate Subcommittee on Water and Power Resources -if the Committee on Interior and 43 Senate Hearings, May 1965, testimony_byw °ate, Insular Affairs, 90th Congress, Second Session on S. President of Struthers Scientific & Internationalcoillx7r'.a... 2912, February 1968, p. 24. tion, pp. 37-38. aft Vr,-2C5 according to Senate polluted water. flute modular designs arebeing installations around the world, further stated that: tested at plant sizes ranging from 1,000 to5,000testimony in 1965.46 It was gpd. It is believed that this process willhave commercial application in sizessuitable for major municipal and industrial use in the next twoto three years.

a. ReverseOsmosis The unique membranes utilized in the reverse osmosis process resistthe passage of most dissolvedcontaminants. As a result, the process promises to be usefulin a variety of applications. Therejection of ordinary salinity, the major sea watercontaminant, and of hardness, scale and alkalinity factorspredominant in many brackish waters makeits use obvious for such purposes. Furthermore, the membraneshold Figure 65. Electrodialysis testbed at Webster, major South Dakota. In operationsince 1962, plant back organic matter, including detergents, a converts brackish well water to250,000 gal- constituent of waste water. The membranealso lons of fresh water daily.(Office of Saline rejects bacteria and virus so that the productis Water photo) sterile. Mine drainage water also may bepurified of being a contaminated byElectrodialysis has the great virtue by this process as well as water reliability. It is andradioactivesimple process with high operating chemical,bacteriolocal, good for small towns in thatthe conscientious agents.4 4 personnel available in small towns cando the job One major problem this technique is the easily as shown in Buckeye andin Coalinga, Calif development of longer-life membranes. good bit of his Virtually all potential advantages of the reverseIn Buckeye, the operator spends c repairing cars and osmosis process derive from it, roomtemperatureday with other duties, such as ortrucks. Constant attention to theplant is not operation. No intermediate formation of steam during the is required which, for the distillationandneeded and no attentk-n is provided ice it does not involve compli- freezing processes respectiveiy, leadsto the ex-two night shifts. Since cated, high-pressure equipment, butelectricity, thc penditure of large quantities of energy. Reverse for help when osmosis, on the ether hand, requires onlypressuri-local utility can be called on zation energy, and the energy cost is relativelyneeded low. Furthermore, there is practically no scaling of and little corrosion resulting in low maintenanceFurthermore, the only sure, long-range source water for most communitieswill be water that is costs; these advantages combine to promise an has its cost.4 5 reused Water once used by a community extremely low total operation 400 parts per OSW has defined 10 types of brackish watermineral content increased by 300 to million. Normal water treatmentplants remove tYpically found in the UnitedStates. It plans to the min- develop data concerning the best process forthesuspended and organic matter, but not als. Mild salinity of this ordlr ofmagnitude is ideal particular type of water. for economic processing bygectrodialysis. b. ElectrodialysisFigure 65 is a photograph of Although electrodialysis works well in Arizona the OSW Test Bed at Webster, South Dakota.It isand South Dakota, it requires asubstantial chem- rated at 250,000 gpd and uses the electrodialysisical engineering effort to learn howto pretreat principle. Electrodialysis is currently in use at125 these brackish waters so that the processoperates efficiently. Thus, if iron manganese is presentin 44Senate Hearings, May 1965, testinony byDr. B. Keilin, Aerojet-General Corporation, p. 81. 46Senate Hearings, May 1965, testimony by R_ L. Haden, Jr., President of Ionics, Inc., pp.130-131. 45Ibid., p. SI.

VI-206 brackish water it would foul up the membranetotal. Only about five per cent was for labor and unless an adequate iron manganese removal filtergeneral administrative expenses. The remainder were inserted.. comprised materials and electric power. Figure 66 OSW program for 1969 will test electrodialysisshows the proposed Bolsa Island dual nuclear techniques on 10 types of brackish water typicalpower and desalting plant that was to belocated of those found in the U.S. west central area. near Los Angeles. Recently the Bolsa Island plans were termi- 5. Advanced Processes in Initial Development nated by mutual agreement of all participants, because escalating costs over the past three years The quest for new processes has led to promis-made it uneconomical. However, the Office of ing findings in ffie area of electrode demincralizers,Saline Water has indicated new plans are being environmentally modulated ion absorption beds,prepared for an alternate dual purpose desalting- new hydrate processes, eleetrogravitational separa-power plant having a comparablecapacity at a tion techniques, and the transport depletion andmore favorable location. eiectro-sorption processes. Recent developments A reduction in water costs is enabled by useof indicate that ion exchange may be competitive as adual purpose plants. During the 1965 hearings Mr. means of desalting brackish water havingless thanDusbabek stated:4 9 3,000 ppm. When a sea water distillation plant is coupled with C. Projection of Water Costs a steam powerplant, both plants benefitfrom the more efficient use of heat. If all of thebenefit is Mr. Frank Di Luzio, in testimony before theascribed to the waterplant and, depending upon Senate, stated:4 7 the economic situation, we would expect a reduc- The factors that influence the cost of water to ation in water costs. customer fall into two main areas: First, factorsSuch reduction in water costs has been estimated that occur "within the skin" of the plant itselfmore recently to be about 20 to 25 per cent. engineering optimization of such effects as heat Figure 67 is a recent projection of desalting transfer rates, steam temperatures, ehemistiy ofcosts made by OSW for a range of plant sizes. It is feed water, scaling, corrosion, fuel cost, constnie- based o Idistillation technology. Note that the tion costs, and many other factors. The second setprice per thousand gallons is expected to decrease of factors are those outside the characteristics ofto 50 cents fce: plants with capacities up to 10mgd the desalination plant. These include the cost ofduring the five years 1969 to 1973. Indications money: the amount of water needed for a specificalso are that during the same period, the larger areathat is,size of the plant: availability of adual-purpose plants, 50 to 151; mgd capacities, properly sized storage and distribution system,- themay produce water for 20 to 30 cents per geographical need for large blocks of power in thethousand gallons. Such cost reductions would often we case of a dual-purpose plant. Much too attract municipal and industrial users where water concentrate on the first set of factors and ignore is in short supply or of poor quality. the second. Beyond 1975 the cost of desalting in large size plants may decrease sufficiently for such water to Testimony from Mr. Mark Dusbabek of thebe used for agricultural irrigation. However, these Fluor Corporation, Ltd., during the same hearingsdecreases hinge on technological innovation in emphasized several points in estimating costs for largescaledesalting developments and on the the Metropolitan Water District of Southern Cali-attainment of such low-cost heat sources as nu- fornia (MWD); i.e., the Bolsa Island 150 mgdclear breeder reactors. distillationplant.48Cost for heat energy and During the 1967 Senate hearings it was pointed capital amounted to about 70 per cent of theout that even at 22 cents per 1,000 gallonsof water (slightly more than $80 per acre-foot), this 4 7 Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 137. 4 8Ibid., p. 123. 4 9Ibid., p. 123.

V1-207 -

desalting plant near Los Angeles, once Figure 66.Proposed Bo Isa Island nuclear power and scheduled for completion in the 1960's, wouldhave been rated at 150 million gallons per day. (Office of Saline Water photo) providing additional incremental water for irrigation, or perhaps better quality water for irrigation, then I think we are much closer to economic practicality than people think.

In a subsequent dialogue at the same hearing

ISS71¢0 between Senator Jordan cf Idaho and Dr. Jack Hunter. Director of the Office of Saline Water, Senator Jordan pointed out that even at 16 cents acre-foot), possibly ,66mnd per 1,000 gallons ($50 per achievable with a billion gallon per day plant,this is still not cheap enough foragricultural water. However, conceivably at that cost it might beused once in several years as asupplemental supply of irrigation water to save a citrus crop or a citrus orchard.5' Mr. Hunter's reply indicated a subtlepoint:"

1011 ges 1965 1070 107S Figure 67.Proiection of seaater desalting I would also again like to remind you that the high costs for a range of plant siz quality water that we are speaking of has avalue is a long way from being applicableeconomicallybeyond much of the natural water available in, for forirrigation. However, Mr. Di Luzio pointedexample, the Southwest ... For example, 10-cent out:" desalted water might have equal value with 5-cent natural water. If you mean the cost of the presentirrigation water, Senator, the answer of course is,"Yes." If you would expand that statementto include 51lbid., p. 23. °Senate Hearings, Marrli 1967,op. cit., p. I I. 521bid.,p. 23.

VI-208 2 9 Incertainlocations following a droughtit and chemical Industrie!: has shown an ex zellent might take as much as seven years to replace apayoff record. Research of this kind is a form of seriously damaged crop. This being so, it is cheaper gambling, but the odds are excellent. in the long run, even now, !o employ desalting plants selectively for this purpose (as is being done 2. Seientific Problems with olive trees in Cyprus). Desalination processes are limited by lack of knowledge. Typical questionsto D. Desalination Problems fundornental which we have incomplete answers are:5 4 1. General - Why is the aqueous component sosensitive to In testimony before the Senate Committee onheat and to voltage while salt is not? Interior and Insular Affairs, Thomas K. Sherwood, professor of chemical engineering at the Massachu--Why does pressi re affect water so much more setts Institute of Technology, discussed the re-than salt? search ond engineering problems to besolved:5' --Why isif that some natural membranes can The desalination program would appear to havedesalinate? two objectives-first, to du better with the proc--What takes pkat and near the surfaces o develop esses we have; and second, to discover and growing ice crystals? a new and much better process. The first willbe accomplished by engineering-by simpler design Thus, research in desalination must remain as an concepts, inventions of process modifications, theimportant aspect of our national program. use of cheaper materials of construction,and the development of more efficient system coinpo- 3. Engineering Problems nents. To accomplish these things the engineers will draw on the fruits of the basic research Although large desalination facilities have been program devoted to materials, corrosion,scale, built (in the one to five mgd range) and much properties of brines, and on the supply of datalarger ones are being planned (in the 100 mgd basic to the design of the heat and mass transferrange), almost alldistillation plants built were equipment which is involved. based on empirical designs relying mostly on art as a primefactor.Severalplants did not meet Itismost important to do better with thecapacity or economy requirements and in some processes we now have, if only for the reason that cases had to be scrapped. Occasionally, a different we may never find better ones. Even modest cost technique was suPistituted, without reductions would justify the expenditure of a great distillation deal of money for research and development. A much better results. A major challenge to the Nation is the require- cost reduction of only 10 cents per 1,000 gallons ment to build giant desalination facilities (100 to would mean a saving of $73 million in the 20-year200 mgd size) to augment water tupplies for large lifetimeofu single100-rnillion-gallon-per day population centers and as a possible forerunner to plant. large agro-industrial complexes which may require The second part of the desalinatkm program1,000 mgd sizes. To supply such large water encompasses the basic research which wouldleadcapacities may require full-scale model testing of to a really cheap process. Scientists, engineers, andcritical parts to improve present reliability levels. inventors must be intngued, stimulated, and sup- A typical engineering problem in distillation ported. New ideas must be tested and promisingfacilitiesisgiven toillustratethis point. The leads pursued. It is a matter of faith that some-problem involves guaranteeing the proper rate of thing enormously important will come of this, butheat transfer for a fixed performance ratio at a research on similar problems in the petrochemical 54Hearings before the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, U.S. Senate, 90th Congress, First Session, on Scientific Programs in the Department of the Interior, 53Senate Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., pp. 212-213. May 18,1967, pp. 80-82.

270 V1-209 given top operating temperature. To increase plant The least understood of the various components in the overall heat transfer coefficient is the capacity from 1 to IC mgd, the heat transfer surface area must be increased tenfold to maintain fouling factor, a strong function of the system's the same heat transfer rate (assuming a linearcleanliness and thedegree of deaeration and extrapolation). deearbonation of the foed sea water. A research Going to 50 or 100 rngd would then requireprogram is needed to isolate thefouling factor still further size increases. It is clear this wouldexperimentally and to study its dependence on result in undue requirements for plant size and system variables. corresponding increases in material costs. In otherc. Scale ControlFormation of calcium carbon- words, how can a plant be sealed up so its new sizeate, magnesium hydroxide, and calciumsulfate need not be increased in direct proportion to itsscales is a major problem in sea water distillation. new capacity. Formation of the first two compounds can be Many substantial technical factors other thanprevented by injecting acid into the circulating heat transfer rates must be considered, such asbrine stream and through subsequent deaeration. scale control and construction materials. They are However, this does not prevent calcium sulfate discussed in greater detail below. deposition. The single most The accepted scale control technique in multi- a. Materials of Construction stage flash distillation is to inject about120 ppm important capital cost item in a multistage flash of sulfuric acid into the sea water feed followedby distillation systemis the condensi.r tubing (as&aeration. Calcium sulfate scaling is prevented much as 20 to 30 per cent of cost). The condensersimply by operating the plant at temperatures aud tubing's longevity is, of course, very important,concentrations at which the solubility productof and much more must be learned about thecalcium sulfate is not exceeded. materials exposed to hot concentrated brine. The addition of sulfuric acid normally adds The diversity of opinion regarding tube material about three to four cents per 1,000 gallons to is demonstrated by a recent group of conceptual water. Accordingly, it might be economieal to designs requested by the Office of Saline Water. manufacture sulfuric acid at the plant site, partic- Three contractors specified titanium, three chose ualarly in the case of very large plants. aluminum-brass, four selected 90-10 copper-nickel, and two chose 70-39 copper-nickel, while three 4. Brine Disposal used some combination of these materials.The 70-30 copper-nickel has had somewhat longer Disposal costs of the brine from desalination be as exposure to hot brine in actual operationsthan the processes must be considered; they may 90-10 combination. However, the latter indicates amuch as one-third of desalting expense for in:and higher life expectancy, which could result in lower sites. It may be necessary to dispose of the brine in overall costs. The 150 rngd Bolsa Island facility man-made evaporation ponds. Membranes have would have required about 15,000 miles ofbeen developed to curb pond leakage and prevent aquifersorother underground copper-nickel tubing. contaminating water sources. b. Heat Transfer RatesBasic heat transfer in a Concerning sea disposal, primary effort will be multistage flash plant is from condensing steamto determine the ecological and other effects of through a tube wall to the circulating brine, An contaminants resulting from the plants themselves: increase in the heat transfer coefficients wouldcopper from heat exchanger tubes; ironfrom reduce the tubing area and result in reduced costs.water boxes, evaporator shells, and piping; and Resistances to heat flow from condensing steam trace elements from several sources.' 5 to circulating brine are found in the brine's film resistance, tube wall resistance, outside or con-S. Inland Brackish Water Resources densing steam film resistance, and in a fouling Although unlimited sea water exists, many factor that includes the resistance due to scale orareas where additional fresh water supplies are dirt on the tube or to non-condensable gases in the system. Senat Hearings, February 1968, op. cit., p. 24.

VI-210 271 needed are too far inland for sea water desalina-We propose to maintain a bakuwed program. This tiontobefeasible. One alternativeisinlandis whar we keep repeating over and over again. We brackish waterbut, at present, knowledge ofare not going to sacrifice reasonable expendi.'ure these resources is very limited. Because the feasi-of fiords in these other areas which are also the bility of inland desalination will depend greatlyresponsibility of the Office merely to put on a upon improved information as to availability andspec tacular. characteristics of inland brackish water resources, the need for regional and individual project studies The desired role of the private sector as seen by and inventories is immediate. OSW was expressed by Mr. Di Luzio during the A starthas been made to determine these1967 Senate hearings:5 8 inventories (OSW with the U.S. Geological Sur- vey), but this program should be accelerated andThe private sector is involved in our cycle of expanded. development from the beginning. Most of our pilot plants and most of our programs are proposed by 6. Computers the private sector. In many cases, private firms have designed pilot plants. OSW can carry this The diversity of world-wide economic condi-technology up through the largest practical units tions necessitates consideration of many differentto demonstrate, one, its technological capability to costs for steam, power, interest, insurance, and taxproduce water; and two, the economics of the rates (the last as they apply for Government orproduction of water. Industry will take over as private customers). A tabulation of variables willsoon as we have demonstrated this technology to yield about 80,000 different cases, requiring aour satisfaction, and to the satisfaction of the computer to establish a suggested optimum designcustomerwhich, if you will consider for a mo- for each case. Such a program for multistage flashment will be government bodies of various kinds. and vertical tube evaporator types of distillation isThese plants are not being bought by private presently under way by OSW. individuals, they are being purchased by villages, towns, states, and federal agencies. We think that E. Government-Industry Roles putting money into carrying this technology to the The U.S. Government's future role will con-absolute proof of the economic feasibility of the process and the design of the hardware is the better tinue to beoneof encouraging increased use of science and technology to lower water costs. way of spending our money, and as soon as we Nearing completion in San Diego is a very nnpor-prove that, industry takes it from that point on. tant facility for the OSW engineering development program, a module of a 50 million gpd multistageF. Conclusions flash distillation plant. Several of these modules1. Background would make up a full-size plant. This provides an economical method of confirming the essential The term desalting generally refe s to ob aining process and structural designs required for theusable water by removing salt from sea water. efficient and economical design, construction, andPerhaps equally as important, it also encompasses operation of verylarge desalting plants. Theremoval of such other impurities as those found in experimental module will produce about 2.5 mil-inland brackish water and pollutants from waste lion gpd, using pumps, evaporators, and otherwater. components sized to 50 million gpd production.5 6 The U.S. Government has been in a substantial Mr. Di Luzio has stated that OSW intends toexpansion phase of its desalting program, with increase its activity in brackish water areas andincreasing emphasis on engineering development take a hard engineering look at the potential ofthrough module and prototype plant construction. desalting acid mine waters. This would comple-The program recognizes the needs in the United ment the effort on large plants:5 7 States and the world community, which include supplementing an inadequate water supply and 5 p. 7-8. 57Senatc Hearings, May 1965, op. cit., p. 146. 513Senate Hearings, March 1967,op. cit., pp. 9-10.

V1-211 improving the quality of existing water.These full-scale model testing of ciitical parts to improve needs stem from the rapid depletion ofavailable reliabilitylevels.Engineering problem,:include natural sources of water, severity varyingwith heat transfer rates, suitable materialsniaterials specific locality. In addition, the quality ofexist-presently constitute up to 20-30 per cent of total ing waterisbeing degaded in many places.capital cost), and scale control techniques. As an Desalination techniques applied to sewage treat-example, long period operating experience with ment and bracIdsh water represents apowerfulseveral types of materials is needed urgently, under tool for meeting these needs. vilrying conditions of temperature, oxygen content, brine oincentration, and flow velocity. Technology Status and Problems 3. Outlook Desalination processes can be divided into four broad categories: distillation, crystalltzation, mem- Desalination is in an embryonic stage with a branes, and advanced processes in initial develop-veryriptimisticfuture. Many ideas arc being ment. Four operating plants in thecontinentaladvanced to bring costs down, some either about United States have capacities of atleast oneto be or already in practice. These include dual million gallons per day; all use thedistillationplants for simultaneous electricity generation and zechnique. Three are OSW demonstrationplants.desalting, the use of waste heat from incinerator Indeed, the distillation technique, in a very ad-plants, the ability to concentrate the brines suffi- vanced state of development, is being usedwidelyciently to extract useful chemicals economic2iily, and will be tne basis for all very larbe plants(50 toand the use of chemically pretre2ting brackish 100 rngd) in the near future. water. Finally, low-cost, small desalinationplants Nevertheless, no single technique is best for allfor islands and hotels appear to be a promising kinds of water. While distillation willproducesource as soon as improved technologypermits fresh water from any kind of water, it may notbe costs and reliability to improve. economical. It should not be used to desalt water with 9,000 parts per ntillion or less. At present,Recommenda tions: numerous small communities useelectrodialysis onThe OSW research and development program available inland brackish water supplies. Yet evenshould continue to be directed toward solutionof electrodialysis cannot process all kinds of brackishtwo problems: water, nor can reverse osmosis, the newer membrane technique being developed. This isbecauseDevelopment of technology to supply large-scale there are certain kinds of contaminants in water asregional water needs, including those of metropol- silicates, calcium, and iron which willfoul theitan areas near the coast, utilizing such tools as membranes very quickly. dual-purposc power plant-sea water conversion The freezing process, operating at low tempera-complexes. As a long-range consideration, efforts tures,is not fouled by contaminants in certainshould be continued on technology requiremenrs kinds of brackish water. For all the processesto meet agricultural water needs. mentioned for brackish water, pretreating may be an important key, rather than attemptingto designDevelopment of processes to make use of brack- a plant to treat all kinds of water. ish water supplies adjacent to inland communities While the reverse osmosis membrane process isand to purify waste water from industries and in the pilot stage, the technique is beingconsid-municipalities for reuse. ered as an advanced technology to be used ultimately in converting of polluted water to fresh. Greater emphasis should be placed on solving A major challenge to the Nation is the capa-engineering problems in those processes now tech- bility 'o build giant desalination facilities (100-200nically feasible in order to maximize plant relia- mgd) to augment water supplies for large popula-bility, lengthen plant life, and minimize water tion centers and as a forerunner to large agro-costs. Development of hardware for prototype industrial complexes producing 1,000 mgd.Sup-plants ranging up to SO million gpd and more plying such large water capacities might requireshould be pursued.

VI-212 -73 The OSW desalination program should continue discharges located seaward to minimize thermal to encompass basic research on the newer mem-effects. The second category encompasses genera- brane processes for use with brackish and wastetion of electric power from the energy of ocean waters. tides,waves,currents,thermal gradients, and OSW's prime mission shmild continue to begeothermal sources. advancing desaltingtechnology, not supplying Energy devices of lesser magnitude carried into water. The final step in developing new or im-the undersea environment to supply power for proved processes should be based on two majorsubrnersibles, habitats, etc., are discussed in Chap- approaches, bothincooperation with private ter 5, Subsection IB, Power Sources. ind ustry A. Power Generation in the Ocean Environment OSW sponsorship in constructing and operating prototype or demonstration plants. 1. Current Situation OSW paticipation with water Ripply agencies ina. Nuclear Power Station Concept The concept constructing and operating such plants. of huge nuclear electric generating stations built on the ocean floor or on artifical islandsprovides a Thus State, municipal, and private water supplypossible alternative to the use of increasingly rare agencies would have an opportunity to utilize newland sites. In addition, it represents the possibility desalting technologyinafirst-of-a-kind plantof the system's effects being utilized to ecological wherein the risk is shared through Governmentadvantage rather than creating a thermal pollution financial support. problem in rivers and estuaries. To permit reduced water costs,the OSW The role of nuclear power systems in the sea's program should direct engineering efforts onheatexploration and exploitation is as certain as man's transfer rates, steam temperatures, feed waterabilityto develop the technology, equipment, chemistry, scaling, and corrosion. Emphasic alsoplans, and support operations to delve into the should be given such other factors as the cost ofenvironmentand his determination to do so. In money, amount of water needed for the specificfact, nucleas energy already is playing a role of area, geographical need for large blocksof powergrowing importance in oceanic activities in the in the case of a dual-purpose plant, and availabilityform of electric power from nuclear land sources of properly sized storage and distribution systems. supplied to various locations by undersea transmission cables and of propulsion systems for submarines and surface ships. VII. POWER GENERATION Although conversion of nuclear energy to electricity is relatively new, the growth and acceptance Major power generating concepts to exploit theof nuclear electric power over the past few years is ocean's potentials fall in two categories: (1) thosespectacular. While total world electric power con- which employ the advantages of the sea environ-sumption is increasing steadily, installation of nu- ment and (2) those which derive power from theclear sources is growing much faster. In 1960, for various forms of abundant energy found in the sea.example, about one-tenth of one per cent of total The first category includes power plants (conven-electric power was derived from nuclear sources. tional and nuclear) installed on the ocean floot, onIn 1967, nuclear capacity was one per cent of total artificial islands, or possibly on large stable surfaceelectric power. But the real period of explosive or subsurface59 platforms moored off the coast.growth, based on projections of current orders, This category also would include power plantswill occur between now and 1980. Nuclear capa- built on shore with their cooling water intakes and city will vow to an estimated 12.5 per cent by 1974 and about 30 per cent by 1980. Most recent estimates are 50 to 100 per cent higher than 5 9Vacre the water is deeper than 200 feet, a neutrally buoyant subsurface platform moored at a 150 to 200 footforecast three to four years ago. The effect of this depth would be advantageous, being easily accessible,demand for nuclear plant construction is a six to clear of surface traffic, and beyond the effects of waves and winds. eight year backlog of orders.

274 VI-213 Largerindividualplantcapacity,increased e. Plant DesigiTwo basic designs were exam- greatly from earlier years, makes nuclear electricined, both dependent on the not-so-obvious fact power more economically competitive.Nuclear that nuclear reactors do not need air to operate. fuel costs are lower than fossilfuel costs in a The first design places the reactor with the heat growing number of locations. The equipment to exchangersontheoceanfloor.The power- generateelectricityisvery expensive, whetherproducing turbines and generators are above the conventional or nuclear. Planners for undersea water surface, resting on a platform with founda- operations also will have to take such factors as nous in the sea bottom. A vertical pipe carries the se, distance from shore, and weatherconditions superheated steam from the reactor to the tur- into account when considering the costs of their bines. projects. The second design calls for both the reactor and electrical system on the seafloor. While the reactor can operate in a liquid environment, the b. StudiesSeveral studies have been made by turbines and generators require a gaseous envelope industry and government to determine the phys-to function properly. Hence, a caisson must be ical and economic feasibility of placing a nuclearbuilt around the power-producing unit. If the gas veactor with its power generating plant on theU.S. pressure insideis the same as the hydrostatic Continental Shelf. One such study made by thepressure outside, the structure need support only University of California, Davis Campus, described, the pressure difference between the top and the as an example, advantages anddisadvantages ofbottom of the caisson or pressure vessel, allowing a such a system in the New York area. shell structure of considerable cost saving. The first consideration was reactor safety. The A platform with foundations on the sea floor radiation shield usually found on dry land reactorsmust be built for the first design, in which the would be replaced by the water surrounding the generating station is above the surface. At depths pressure vessel. To be safe, a minimum of aboutof 150 to 300 feet,itis possible to build this 100 feet of water between the top of the vessel structureusing modern offshoreoil platform and the surface had been set; this put the bottom technology. on which the reactor is placed at about150 feet. A compact system of turbines and generators The additional 50 feet of water overburden wouldwill be arranged on the platform located immedi- a reduce the spread of radioactivedebris in ately above the reactor so the platform legs can the unlikely event of an accident involving the support the steam-carrying pipes. The turbines and core. generators are of conventional design, requiring a The oceanographic characteristics of the seaminimum of maintenance. The steam cycle is south and southeast of Long Island were very closed, the steam of lower temperature and pres- important from a viewpoint of currents as well assure returning to a condenser located onthe sea climatic conditions. floor. Having concentric pipes, carrying the hot More important for their potential to damage steam upward within the innermost pipe, reduces underwater structures are the large number ofheat losses to the sea. storms and hurricanes in this area. However, when In the second design, the turbine-generator a storm has reached as far north as NewYork, itsystem is installed underwater beside the reactor, Las usually diminished substantially in intensity.eliminating the platform. The gaseous environment Except for the largest storms, little disturbance isin a caisson allows personnel to enter regularly to produced at depths greater than 200 feet. operate the system, to perform maintenance, and Interference with the maritime and fishingto respond to accidents. They can stay indefi- industries was considered. The reactor must notnitely, inconvenienced only by the prescribed impede existing shipping lanes, and the fishingdecompression cycle when returning to the sur- industry must not be affected by contamination offace. Alternatively, the entire plant may be oper- fish near the reactor. Further, system design plans ated by remote control, personnel entering only have provided for a possible nuclear accident oroccasionally for regular maintenance or in case of explosion. accident.

VI-214 d. Construction `,'obuildeitherplant.large sedimen,s, making excavation rela ively inexpen- sections must be preassembled on shore. Modules sive. weighing up to 1,000 tons would be transplanted Embedded reactor design was studied recently on barges, sunk in place, and assembled under-by the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and the water by methods similai to those developed forBechtel Corporation. They proposed an artificial vehicular tunnel construction. island one-half mile from shore in which a caisson- enclosed reactor is embedded to a depth of 130 e. Storm ThreatThere are no technological orfeet.Total costs estimated by adding cost of physicalimpossibilitiesinconstructing a plantbuilding anartificialisland and the enclosing having its generating equipment on the surface.caisson plusthe cost of a conventional plant However, the frequency of storms on the Atlanticashore appear unsatisfactory. Coast cannot be ignored, and provision must be A plant built for the ocean bottom is similar made to evacuate and secure tne station beforeexcept that the compact and efficient high temper- large storms. The surface structure and equipmentature gaseous reactor is placed in an excavation at issubject to the fullforr..: of the storm. Thea depth of 150 to 200 feet. (The excavation could structure could be made sturdy to withstand abe made by nuclear explosion like those of Atomic 500-year storm,'O but this is not economicallyEnergy Commission Plowshare projects.) No cais- feasible. son would be required, and water and sea floor The plant having generating equipment on thesediments would serve as the radiation shield. The ocean floor is protected from storms, as the largest turbine-generator system on the sea bottom at 50 storms would produce only minor disturbances atto 60 feet would be filled with air at ambient 150 to 200 foot depths. However, transportingpressure. At this depth, decompression is minimal, manpower to and from the sea floor station,simplifying maintenance problems. performing maintenance on the large turbines and generators, and providing personnel quarters andh. CostsA roughcost compa, son with an subsistence would increase operating costs. onshore site can be formulated, although this is not possible if an onshore site is not available. The f. TransmissionExtra-high voltage cables in oil-first major savings are in land cost and construc- filled pipes could be laid on the ocean floor to ation of the radiation shield. distribution net ashore or to undersea sites. How- Large units (500 to 1,000 tons) of the sub- ever, the maximum length of cable would be aboutmerged nuclear power plant would be built on 20 miles due to power losses; relay stations forshore, floated to the site, and sunk in place, longer distances add considerably to the cost andmaking the cost of the turbine-generator equip- difficulties. Both designs require a site at 200 feet;meut the same as for an onshore plant. The cost of the mean distance of such sites from the U.S.excavation on the U.S. Atlantic Shelf could be less Atlantic Coast is 50 miles. A 50-mile line with twothan building a suitable island to support the relays could be a very costly venturean excessiveplant. The other large item of expense is the amount for power transmission. structure containing the turbine-generator system. g. Embedded and On-Bottom PlantsOn the Atlantic Coast or Gulf Coast distance between the2. Future Needs power plant and the shore must be reduced. Five miles from the Atlantic Coast the depth averages With the continued need of nuclear power about 60 feet. The reactor could be placed at theplants to supply economical power, offshore sub- required depth by embedding M the ocean floor. Amergen plants must be given serious consideration. hole 100 feet deep in the sea floor would provide a The foregoing example of a submerged nuclear total depth of 160 feet. The sea floor of the U.S.power plant illustrates the feasibility of such a project. Added advantages which improve eco- Atlantic Continental Shelf isbasicallyalluvial nomic considerations are use of the ocean as a heat sink, improving ecological situations, and avoiding 60A 500-year storm is the most severe storm predicted to occur in such a period. thermal pollution problems ashore. An artist's

276 V1-215 concept of a submerged nuclear power plant isPower Project was not economically feasibleunder IJC said that the shown in Figure 68. present conditions. However, the combination of the Passamaquoddy TidalPower Project with incremental capacityat Reuben Rapids on the Upper St. John appeared feasible.In May 1961,the Secretary of the Interior was requested by the President to review and evaluate the report. In December 1961, thePassamaquoddy Upper St. John Study Committee ofthe Department of Interior had a load-and-resourcesstudy made in the New Brunswick, Canada-NewEngland areas (Figure 70).Its study clearly indicated thatthe Passamaquoddy Tidal Power Projectwould be feasible if developed as a peaking powerplant sized for 1,000 megawatts instead of300 megawatts as studied in the IJC report. This isconsistent with Figure 68. Artist's concept of submerged nu- utility industry (Westinghouse photo) current practices in the electric clear power plant. that tends increasingly to use largethermal conventional nuclear electric generating unitsto meet thebase load arid to use conventionaland B. Power from Ocean Energy pumped-storage hydroelectric power to meetpeak project 1. Tidal Power demands. The study concluded that the was economicallyfeasible (benefit-cost or B/C a. Current Status The conceptof harnessing tidesratio of 1.27/1.0) and should beinitiated. has as a commercial source of electrical power m order to validate therecommendations, a been studied by several countries in close proxirn-review of power values used in theDepartment of ity0 large tidal channels, specificallyin France,the Interior report was made by theFederal Power Australia, Siberia, Canada, and the United States.Commission at the request of the Bureauof the One example dramatizing feasibility of such aBudget. Due tothe then-lower power values project is the International Passamaquoddy Tidalpublished, the benefit-cost (B/C) ratio dropped Power Project (Figure 69) between Maine and Newfrom 1.27/1 to 0.89/1. As a result, furtheraction Brunswick. on the project was stopped. (1.) Passamaquoddy An eminent American engi- actual neer, Dexter P. Cooper, proposed anlant in 1919(2.) Other Tidal Developments The only to harness the high tides in thePassamaquoddydevelopment for tidai electric power under full- Electric power was to be generated byscale construction is the La Rance Tidal Project in area. has building dams and sluiceways in the openingsintoFrance, the largest such project in the world. It the Bay of Fundy and a powerhouse betweenan initial power installationof 240 megawatts in Passarnaquoddy Bay and Cobscook Bay. The24 turbinesets and could have an ultimate proposal lay dormant until 1956 when the Inter-installation of 320 megawatts. It represents the national Passamaquoddy Engineering Board wascontinued effortof French engineers over a appointed jointly by Canada and the United20-year period to harness the tides at San Maio States. The board determined that a tidal powerwhere ideal conditions exista narrow estuary project could be built and operated inthe Passa-with a tidal range of 131/2 meters (about 44feet). maquoddy area and that a two-pool arrangementThe La Rance Tidal Project is operated for peaking was best suited for the site and waterconditions ofcapacity or energy. Since the units are reversible, Passamaquoddy and Cobscook Bays. (Figure69.)the project is designed to take maximum advan- to In April 1961 the International Joint Commis-tage of the flood and ebb tides to supply power sion (DC) declared that the PassamaquoddyTidalthe French electric system_

V1-216 277 Figure 70 PEAK ELECTRIC POWER DEMAND ESTIMATES FOR 1960, 1970and 19801

1980

Peak Peak Peak Re- Require- Demand Demand Demand serves ments (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW) (MW)

UNITED STATES Maine 575 920 1,390 167 1,557 New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, 16,990 Ahode Island, Connecticut . . . 5,820 9,740 15,170 1,820 Upper New York State 4,900 8,800 12,900 1,548 14,448

CANADA New Brunswick 227 520 1,190 178 1,368 Nova Scotia 258 610 1,460 219 1,679 36,042 TOTAL 1 ,780 20,590 32,110 3,932

1Obtained from the Federal Power Commission and the New Brunswick Electric PowerCommission. Peak loads are expected to occur in December. Source:Department of the Interior, The International Passamaquoddy Tidal PowerProject and Saint John River, United States and Canada, Load and Resources Study, Report to Passamanuoddy-saintJohn River Study Committee (Washington: Department of the Interior, 19611, p. 2.

b. Future NeedsThe U.S. electric power indus- 2. Other Ocean Power try needs economical peak capacity to satisfy future demands. In the New England area, the a. Current StatusSeveral concepts have been Passamaquoddy project, if economically feasible, suggestedto harness natural ocean energy of couldcontributetopeak power needs.Re- waves, currents, thermal gradients, and geothermal evaluation of this project should be made, con- sites. The best known devices to harness ocean sidering recreational values. Techniques developedenergy on a small scale have been in use for by the Atomic Energy Commission in Project yearsbell buoys and whistle buoys, simple mech- Plowshare to reduce darn construction costs also anisms that convert ocean wave energy to sound should be evaluated. energy. A few other small test projects have been Recreationalaspects of the Passamaquoddy conducted, but no significant technical break- TidaldevelopmentPassamaquoddy Bayand throughs have been accomplished. Cobscook Bay, wl!ere the Passamaquoddy Tidal Ocean waves, generated mostly by winds, Power Project would be locatedoffer a panorama possess tremendous kinetic energy. A four-foot of water and scenic views complemented by the wave striking the coast every 10 seconds expends Fundy Isles of Campobello, Deer Island, andmore than 35,000 horsepower per mile of coast- Grand Manan. line, but only an extremely small fractionis The power project itself would be the principaluseable. In an attempt to harness such energy on attraction to tourists. Operation of this engineer-the Algerian coast, waves are funneled through a ing marvel would feature the rise 'And fall of the V-shaped concrete structure into a reservoir. Water tides, the impounding of water in two naturalflowing from the reservoir operates a turbine to pools, navigation locks for unrestricted movementgenerate power. of boats, emptying and filling gates, and power Temperanirr differences between surface and transmission. deeper waters are a potential source of energy.

VI-217 333-001 0-69 is 278 BR "SW1CK

51.egolle

PASSAMAQUODDY Andre BAY

H IGH POOL

PENDLETON PASSAGE

OC E A N

D ER I A N D

POTENTIAL SUM POWER PLAN

POWERHOUSE G FILLING GAM COBSCOO BAYMITER teen EMPlYING GATE PLANT LOCK

LOW POOL

INTERNATIONii jimpf cOmmismom PitssA moony TIDAL POWER SUNIgT TIDAL POWER PROJECT SELE-GTED PLAN ',..GENERAL ARRANGEMENT

OGIFIED BY DEPARTMiNT OF THE"-IWENIOA) July_143

Figure 69. Source: Department of theInterior, The International Passamaquoddy TidalPower Project and Upper Saint John River HydroelectricPower Development, Report to President, 1963.

V1-21 279 However, practical utilization is not likely to benation to do so. It is technically feasible todesign competitive except where thermal gradients areand build an underwater nuclear reactor plant. The large and near the consumer. One power plantcost effectiveness of such a systemdepends on applying this principle near Abidjan in West Africa many factorssite, distance fromland, depth of has been under development for several years but water, local use, and consideration of suchadvan- and is not yet in operation. tages as thermal effect for ecological benefits safety to the populace. b. Future NeedsPower generation from waves, currents, thermal gradients, geothermal sites,and Recommendations: other ocean sources offer potential. ContinuingProceed with a program to construct and operate effort should be applied to improve our capability as a National Project an Experimental Continental to exploit these potential power sources. Shelf Submerged Nuclear Power Plant in the ocean. Periodically evaluate the feasibility of a tidal C. Conclusions power project, particularly in the New England this project, if proven A tidal power plant is technically feasible under area. The funding of special geographical conditions to meet peaking economically acceptable, should be by private power requirements. The New EnglandPassama- capital. The Feden.l Government should assist in quoddy Bay area offers the most logical U.S. site such areas as navigation, safety, and recreation. Implement a continuing study project to moni- for such a proposed project. tor progress and seek technical and economical The role of nuclear power systems in the from exploration and exploitation of theseaisas means to generate large amounts of power certain as man's ability to develop the technologytides, waves, currents, thermal gradients, ocean to utilize the ocean environmentand his determi- floor geothermal wells, and other ocean sources.

VI-219 Commercial lecovery of brominu from seawater,1933; magnesium from seawater, 1941 Introduction of nylon purse seine, 1956-58 First 1 million gal. per day desalting plant. Freeport,Tex., 1961 MOD), Key West. Fla., 1967 First city to use seawater for water supply (2.6 Sea Level 0 U.S. Government approval of FFC, 1967

20 First workable scuba. James, 1825 CONE.HELF I, 1 wk., Sept. 1952 36 CONSHELF II, 1 mo., June 1953 50 First oil well offshore. beyond sight of land. La 1948

85 CONSHELF I, 5-hr. work day, Sept. 1962 CONSHELF II, 1 wk,, June 1963 'Aqualung," Cousteau & Gagnan, 1942 (approx. 100') 00 100

165 CONSHELF II, work camp, June 1863 192 Sea lab I, 10 days, July 1964 200 First at-sea saturation dive. Stenuit, 1 day, Sept. 1962 200 205Sea lab II, 45 days, Aug.-Sept. 1965 220Scuba dive, Dumas, Oct. 1943 243Squa /us recovery, 1939 Oil productionCaiilornia 1961 250 Oil productionGulf of Mexico. 1966 300 285 328 CONSHELF III, 22 days, Sept. 1955 340Oil productionGulf of Mexico, 1967 400 432 Open sea saturation, Steiruit & Lindbergh, 48 hrs., June 1964 500 25 011 well repaii, 25 min., Sept. 1964 600 630Exploratory oil wellGull of Mexico, 1965 `To 700Diver lockout from Deep Diver, May 1988 835Navy lab.aaturation with excursion to 1,100, Feb, 1968 1,000Open sea bounce dive, Keller, 1962 v- 1000 Navy/Duke lab.saturation, Dec. 1968 1,300Exploratory oil wellSanta Barbara channel, 1968

U.1 2000' 2000 2,500H-bomb recovery, April 1966 28 "Balhysphere,- Seehe & Barton, 10 4

4,000Deepstar 4000-500th dive, Nov. 1966

5000 6,000Alvin, April 1965

,310Deepquest, Feb. 1968 8,400T riesto recovery of portion of Thresher, June 1963 10,0-00' 10,000 2,000 Scorpion located, 1968 13,267FNRS-3, 1954

20,000' 20,000

5,800' Deepest Deep Trenches dive by man, 36,000 2% of Bottom Area Trieste, 1960

Landmarks in the Development of Ocean Technology

VI-220 Chapter 7National Projects for Marine and Undersea Development

A series of National Projects in the 1970's isI. FIELATIONSHIP OF NATIONAL PROJECTS recommended to help assess and develop the most TO THE DEVELOPMENT CYCLE economical methods for this Nation to advance into the oceans and to provide a springboard for Itis suggested that the Ten-Year Program of continuing developments in the period 1980 toUndersea Development can achieve technological 2000. The United States can and should be theprogress more rapidly by integrating fundamental unquestioned world leader in ocean technologytechnology development with a series of national well before the turn of the century. facilities, programs, and projects generically called Extensive ri.w benefits from the oceans willNationalProjects.NationalProjectswill help requh-e hard work, and not all will be brimediatelyadvance fundamental technology, broadening the apparent. Unfortunately, today, most marine oper-base for better future utilization of the ocean ations are restrained by tradition and outmodedenvironment. Accomplishment of these projects technology. A bold, challenging, and carefullywillgiveincentive and support to nunierous planned marine engineering and technology pro-subsystem and component developments. The gram is essential to the national goalof establish-knowledge, experience, and confidence gained will ing the capability for exploring, occupying, utiliz-enable the design, construction, and operation of ing and managing theoceans. The series ofmany operational systems. These willproduce National Projects will assist materially in develop-manifoldexpectedbenefitseconomic,social, ing the capability to reap the ocean's potentialpolitical, scientific, and military. benefits and to establish a foundation for future The sequence of steps in Figure 1 suggests that national growth. numerousinterchangesandfeedbackswill

NATIONAL PROJECTS

Fundamental Technology - Subytum and Component Development

' . - 4

.._ ,., ed Beriotits 0 a ior-§ ems ,

Figure 1.Simplified marine technology development cycle.

111-221 strengthen the entire cycle. Subsystem and compo- D. Operational Systems nent developments will make possible new opera- Operational systems will be built by the inter- tional systems. Expected benefits havebeen aested group and operated to achieve expected primaryconcerninselectingtheseparticular benefits. For example, a commercial firm might National Projects.Itis difficult to foresee andestablish a large scale shrimp raistng operationfor define all the expected benefits; some endeavors origi- profit, based on advances in technology resulting will yield substantially greater benefits than from the national fisheries and aquaculture pro- nally anticipated. History proves that newand unexpected applications will evolve as technology gram. expands. E.Expected Benefits Expected benefits from each National Project A. Fundamental Technology are highlighted in each projectdescription. These The encouragement and advancement offunda-benefitswill accrue in many areas, including mental technology is mandatory to provide theeconomic, social, politi. I, scientific, and military. knowledge base for expanded and improved oceanII_ DESCRIPTION OF NATIONAL PROJECTS operations. Upon this planners and engineers can make decisions on future programs and projects. The essence of each suggested National,Project In many cases this improved fundamentaltech-is outlined on the following pages, togetherwith a nologywill be directly applied to or furtherpictorial representation of the more significant developed through the mechanism of Nationalelements. The projects are described in some detail trade-offs Projects. but considerable additional studies and must be conducted before a givenprojectis considered firm. It is expected that the advisory B. Nationol Projects committee recommended by the panel will review projects prior to initiation to recommendtheir National Projects is the generic name used to Projects identify projects, facilities, and programs large ingoals and sponsoring agency. National scale and best accomplished by a unified andha-e the following characteristics: concentrated effort. Proper planning and execution of these projects often will facilitate applica-Scope sufficient to engender widespread usage tion of fundamental technology initially to sub-and support by many sectors of the economy. systems and components and later tooperational Established in anticipation of future national systems. Several projects have been selected for needs. consideration which span the field of technology. More details on these projects can be found in the Challenging for a spectrum of technologyand latter part of this chapter. Conservative enoh to assure success. C. Subsystem and Component Development Capable of providing education and training. New subsystems, component developments, and pilot developments will be undertaken byGenerally in need of major U.S. Government government, industry, and the academic commu-participation. nity. These tasks may be performed at a facility provided by a National Project or by application These National "?rojects have beendeveloped, of information and experience originating from a reviewed, and evaluated with emphasis onthe that project. Results will supply information, experi- ultimate expected benefits, avoiding projects ence, skills, and confidence applicable to opera-would be mere spectacular performances.The tional systems. The responsibility and cost of aprimary orientation of some Nojects is industrial, task will be borne by the interested group orwhile others are directed more towardrnilitary, mission agency. scientific, and regional needs.

VI-222 28 Several projects include the need for facilitiesextensive investigations to understand the environ- which the Federal Government will establish andment, develop less expensive equipment, or im- continue to operate in close coordination withprove procedures tor undersea operations. industrial and academic communities. Where suit- It is anticipated that industrial groups would able facilities already exist, the project will utilizeinitiate projects that essentially are commercial them to advance ocean technolou and engineer-operations, to be assisted by the Federal Govern- ing. All National Project facilities will be availablement in ways appropriate to the particular project. tointerestedparties on a cost-reirnbursementExpected primary and secondary beneficiaries of basis, affording an economical means to conductvarious projects are shown in Figure 2. Figure 2 LIST OF NATIONAL PROJECTS Beneficiaries (P-Primary S-Secondary) Federal National Projects Industry Regions Science Government N.tional Undersea Facilities 1. Fixed continental shelf laboratory 2. Portable continental shelf laboratories 3. Mobile undersea support laboratory 4. Seamount station 5. Deep ocean stations National Marine Programs 6. Pilot buoy network 7. Great Lakes restoration program 8. Resource assay equipment development program s 9. Coastal engineering and ecological studies program 10. Fisheries and aquaculture program NationalMarine Projects 11. Experimental continental shelf submerged nuclear plant 12. Large stable ocean platform P 13. Long-endurance exploration submersibles with 20,000-foot capability 14. Prototype regional pollution collection, treatment, and processing syst m P 15. Prototype harbor development project

VI-223 1. FIXL0 CONTINENTAL SHELFLABORATORY the sea is limited by sea keeping capabilities ofsurface TheU.S. capability to perform useful tasks in support vehicles. In an area of suchhigh work concentration as an offshore oilfield an economic and 2,000-foot depth range would be fixed on thebottom. effective support facility, in the 200- to should include one The design of the Fixed ContinentalShelf Laboratory suggested by the panel atmosphere living and working quarterscomplemented by specially configured sections which canbe pressurized to support divers performinglong endurancesaturationdives. An exit and entrance lock for easy access to the underseawork area and the pressure complex forcomfortable decompression are needed. Logistic support for crews of 15 to150 men will be supplied from shore, surface umbilicals, or submerged power sources. Additional support eanbe achieved via support submersibles with a mating capability. maintenance and repair functions necessary inoffshore A diver is uniquely suited to perform routine in an oil fields and to support mining, fisheries,and undersea test ranges. The laboratory will provide economical and timely manner the large amountof underwater operating time needed to evaluate undersea concepts. In addition, much L'neficialtechnology will be gained for the future developmentof manned undersea military stations.

2. PORTABLE CONTINENTAL SHELFLABORATORIES Exploration and resource development of thetotal continental shelf dictate the need for several Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories for mannedhabitation to 2,000-foot depths. Similar in many ways to the fixed station, a portablelaboratory allows the utilization of a broad ocean area with arela- tively small number of portable habitats. Withthe ability to deballast and be towed to anotherlocation, these laboratories, capable of supporting from5 to 75 men, will provide comfortable one atmosphere living. Divers will be able to operate from anddecompress in the pressurized section. The three laboratories proposed will befunded initially by the U.S. Government. Government agencies, private industry, and scientific institutionswill be able to utilize the facilities on a cost development_ The flexibility of the portable concept reimbursement basis for scientific tasks or resource could for resource exploration and developmentprovides access to all continental shelves. Military use hiclude training, logistics, and technologydevelopment as well as quick seaction monitoring tri areas requiring intense surveillance. NATIONAL PROJECTS 1. Fixed ContinentalShelf Laboratory 2.Portable Continental Shelf Laboratories

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Survey equipment Fish survey methods Decompression techniques Fish attraction methods Helium speech unscrambler Artificial upwelling Coastal ecology Foundation techniques Geophysical sampling methods Soil mechanics Group interactions Submerged submersible support Oiver suits and tools Pilot underwater fuel storage Toxic materials Submerged oil well completion methods Navigation and positioning In-bottom tunneling and lock construction Power sources Mating of transfer vehicle to habitat Corrosion and fouling prevention Mid-depth pipeline support Underwater viewing Local resource surveys Anchoring and mooring devices Experimental dredging techniques Data handling Underwater maintenance techniques Environmental considerations Underwater logistic support

VI-224 Opera ional Systems Expected Benef its

Economic Economic Bottom based fishing system Fishing Attraction devices Reduced harvesting costs Pumping to surface Selective harvest On-site processing Conservation Artificial upwelling Market demand Improved quality of catch Bottom based oil production system Drilling Petroleum and Minerals Completion Lower off shore costs Crude treatment Increased reserves Storage Coastal activities Ocean pipeline Improved dredging Fresh water Undersea construction industry Petroleum Larger bulk carriers Chemicals F.eedom of terminal location Slurry Feasible ocean pipelines Generally lower offshore costs for Continental shelf mine services and activities Completely in bottom Preliminary processing

Deep water (100-500 feet) dredge Social Dredging for channels minimized Greater recreation potential Reduced thermal pollution problem Reduced urban congestion Technology for coastal management

Economic-S,,Lial Political-Economic Undersea petroleum tank farm Food from the sea programs Protected access for US. industry to Off shore bulk terminal shelf resources Increased raw material reserves Nuclear station on shelf Better international bargaining position Electricity on shelf definition Fresh water Safety

Scientific Scientific Ocean monitoring station Scientists in the environment Currents regardless of diving qualification Pollution Data Nutrients More reliable Fish populations More easily collected Military Military Undersea command and control system Improved undersea capability Stronger industrial and manpower base Concealment and hardness

V1-225 1 l'oq1,1111,1111 1,1 , 40",toal III I I

ILWARialfil A'Atinureapt nano " 111 a

3. MOBILE UNDERSEA SUPPORT LABORATORY The hostile interaction of the ocean surface with the air is the major limiting factor toeffective ocean support activities. A specially configured nuclear submersiblevehicle capable of operating in the I ,000-foot depth range will be of great value in eliminating this difficulty for awide variety of underseas tasks. The Mobile Undersea Support Laboratory will possess long endurance and ahigh degree of mobility and maneuverability necessary for support and work missions. As asubmerged support ship, it can carry subrnersibles to mate with Fixed andPortable Continental Shelf Laboratories, scarnount stations, and other deeper ocean habitations for the purposesof effecting routine logistics, crew rotation, and emergency support. A broad suit of operationalinstrumentation, manipulators, lights, and observation ports, plus a diver lock-out capability will permitobserving fish population densities, resource exploration and develcpment,salvage tasks, and insurance investigations. Much beneficial technolou from the construction of this submersiblewin be applicable to possible future naval and commercial undersea capabilities. It will serve as anideal test bed for instrumentation and equipment development.

NATIONAL PROJECT 3. Mobile Undersea Support Laboratory

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Survey equipments Fish population surveys in selected areas Navigation Mineral surveys in selected areas Anchoring and mooring Study of deep scattering layer Environmental data acquisition Upwel ling using waste heat from reactor plus --- Circulation patterns in selected areas for :,, _. Most of the advanced fundarn 1,r, 0 aviie- P-sit migration velopments associated with th ortable "ilbtion dispersal ith the added da .4 . :,,,, Continental Shelf Laborato Use of sularriais"/ s part of an integrated fishing and experience gained fro ng rom one marine system environment to another utine basis. Submerged salvagr pr,eparation Selected drilling fel' - Broad ocean data collëtion completely submerged . and using submersib VIZ tad Benefits OParati AY:stem icntific Whenever tllserver is remote from the area under examine the question arises as to the meaning and v: J.N1 f the samples and measurements taken. *6: his mobile undersea laboratory will prov following advantages: ' Bottom based fishing w Physical Ocean .1 y Continental shelf min '4. Raise confide ctor in oceanographic measurements since by u bmersibles associated with Bottom based oil fiI the mobile laborat ican actually view the . In general, the system developments and instruments workin-. benefits will b o those listed under the Fixed Geological Occanograp and Portable tal Shelf Laboratories, the main diffe le n that this mobile laboratory will ereby provide . Can take selective samp prov in in selected areas which pertain a more effective means to ob data. (oil, gas, ore;fish) of interest. .#' , . Biological Oceanography , At present, conventionally acquired biologi data is in doubt because of the difficulty of knowing what samples are actually being taken. _

VI-229 4. SEAMOUNT STATION A natural evolution and extension of the FixedContinental Shelf Laboratory will be a Seamount Station permanently fixed on a submerged seamount at a depth lessthan 2,000 feet. The station, capable of supporting a crew of from 10 to 50 men for long periods, will receive powerfrom a nearby nuclear reactor. Because of its size and cost, it is anticipated that the Seamount Station willbe funded by the U.S. Government and will be available to other Federal agencies, universities and privateindustry. Located on a seamouut such as the Cobb off the Stateof Washington, it can serve as a traffic and weather monitoring station. It also will provide an ideal stationfor taking geophysical data and the operational testing of broad ocean surveillance and data collection systems. Many tasks and experiments would beprogrammed for the Searnount Station. One task of considerable interest is the establishment of a secondary stationtunneled into the bedrock below to provide additional living space and work area. The tunneled areacould provide lock-out facilities for both divers and submerged vehicles. Experience gained intunneling will provide teclmology of value to subsea petroleum and mineral production. NATIONAL PROJECT

4. Seamount Station

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development Open ocean Fish surveys Attraction techniques Group interactions Upwelling Long range communications Diver installed transducers "'Cable laying and protection Information handling _ Environmental data acquisition ShiPrend7submarine tracking Soil mechanics Geophysical aptivity measurements plus Data transmissidn , Continuance of fundaMental technology listed Nuclear plant it'44111 to support deeper stations under Fixed and Portable Continental Shelf Labora- Tsunami measurerinirits,, _= ,-,, tories Submerged tunnelingv, Expeo*d Benefits OperatiOnWirStems Legal and Pelitieat, Ocea.1 weather station`C V Improve knoWledge and confidence for inter- Ocean surveillance station national negodeiiiihs on legal status of seamounts Command and control station Scientific t Undersea broad ocean support site Tsunami warning system -, Mid oceatide measurements

In situ laUor4tOry, Military Generally improved undersea capability Extended sea iiViee,,, 1 mproved broad'Ziatimurveillance k Broadened ocean SO t44,Independent of surface IP ., Ttt

VI-230 -

Figurge 9- .5"?t2 trzatent static:in.

carer 10- Thenarnis ,gencratcd Lay szsbrnar-inc car heawalces cn- slides ma}, st.rikcwith clisas- tmtzs cifect srver- thrwusands 4=4" macs. sevcrckv damaging- and tc,ssin,g- bc;Pats and evcri ships huncalrecfs ckr f-cct inland. A scarncment staticon c-du Id ,r,mv icle value:1171e iripz.i r ter) er tsurzami warnin8- system.(E".5-.S.4 pfricite:P) =- ioL ir.m 1 1 Lep 4r".c.e.7rz sAarienstz.

IFig i rfe 1 2- 11-Yarzgyreiese- rzePeri-eles .goc-ezzrz JRe.c etf" pzecizzls will lne<114 ir EireW1=7 C?C'dt71.2 crc-ce.s-s jranw,- mireerz.g.- ewernti,cpris. .1;tes- reirrice. bervvee....-1 snefeonelwe trzerrics (7),r7 title is .17bc7zz 4L,Pie _yeircY.(131.4?-e,c714 .etr .11-Terws rylz,eort9.)

5. DEEP OCEAN STATIONS Utilizing the technology and techniques developed for shallower facilities, Deep Ocean Stations will be establithed on the continental slope, on the midocean ridge, and in the deep ocean up to 20,000 feet. Continental slope and midocean ridge stations will be in depths of about 8,000 feet and will be autonomous facilities supported by their own nuclear power plants. Accommodating crews of from 10 to 50 men at one atmosphere and supported by deep diving submersibles, these stations will be located in unique geographical ueas. The deeper 20,000-foot depth station will serve to advance fundamental technology for understanding and utilizing the deep ocean. These stations should be made available to the scientific community and private industry to pursue scientific or resource development programs. These stations will serve to increase the Nation's fund of basic knowledge while evaluating the economic and military significance of deep ocean systems. As an example, deep ocean stations will be requirA if we are to develop techniques for deep ocean petroleum production and the mining operations for copper and nickel nodules abundant in certain areas of the deep ocean.

NATIONAL PROJECT

5. Deep Ocean Stations Continental Slope Midocean Ridge Abyssal Depths

Fundamental TechndLogy Subsystem and Component Development

Small group interactions Open ocean surveys with submersible vehicles operated from station Materials and structures Work tasks with submersibles 1.4141L ansducer placement Construction techniques eying and protection hic sampling Buoys and moorings Ship and su tracking techniques High pressure sealing teiqUes Geophysical easurernents Buoyancy control Logistic support t es Personnel exch Supplies External mainten_ Acoustic nieasurerne ents and effect of different depths

ctod Benefits Operational Systems

Legal and Politr Ocean surveillance station and confidence for inter- Improve kno Deep undersea broad pport site national negatiat f gal status of continental anywal depths slope, ocean ridge Command and contr Ion Scientific I n situ laboratory Military Deep broad ocean undersea sup

Improve understanding of tactical advan of three-dimensional naval operations

VI-233 S. PILOT BUOY NETWORK for oceanographic data and globalweather prediction information has An ever increasing demand will provide information accompanied the increased use of the ocean.A network of data-gathering buoys influences of the oceans on global required to utilize more fully the seaand understand and predict the climate and weather. logical next step in the developmentof a world-wide system. The Pilot Buoy Network program is the and withstand sea forces, a Included in this program will bedevelopment of buoys to support sensors handling system to launch and Lit-plantbuoys, and a sensor suit requiring buoy service ship including a of deep ocean anchoring, minimum maintenance and repair.Techniques and developments in the areas be undertaken. improved instrumentation, systemreliability, and data transmission will for maritime, oceanographic,fishing, and resource development Meaningful engineecing information generated in the pilot program industries will be generated. Inaddition, the engineering developments be applied to other national ocean progams. will provide technology which can by military, space, airline, The Pilot Buoy Network will be tiedinto existing data centers maintained effort will complement other national programsfor rapid taking, sorting, and maritime groups. TWs economical operations on land as evaluathig, disseminating, and storingdata to assure safer and more well as at sea. NATIONAL PROJECT 6. Pilot Buoy Network

Subsystem and Component Development Fundamental Technology

Buoy handling and maintenance Long life power systems arious anchoring concepts Corrosion resistant materials ' didate Anchoring and mooring device ents , . ge techniques Environmental data acqu Data lesion techniques Materia I nformation handlm Buoy spacing Operati n Ex Benefits Scientific Complete system of c. -1 buoys Acquisition of that will improve weather prediction World buoy system Acquisition of tific data to increase greatly stems for selected areas oceans and the Special purpose buo knowledge of interest atmosphere

Economic-Mil/re Provides a valuabl nigation aid

Social-Political Provides a program sa y ,, -s of many Federal agencies

The world buoy system will establish a for international cooperation

VI.234 Figure 13.Pilot buoy network.

Figure 14.Above, hurricane winds battering the Florida shore. Below, storm damage to a shore residence. Improved weather lbrecasting and storm warning on land or sea require data gathered simultaneously from hundreds of locations on the world's oceans. (Upper photo by Otis Irnboden. tip National Geographic Society; lower photo by B. Anthony Stewart, National Geographic Society)

- -

'eLA

VI " 5 4 9 Fi ure 15. Great Lakes restoration.

Figure 16. Down Ohio's Cuyahoga River glide iceberg-like masses of detergent suds carrying large quantities of nutrients to overly enriched, severely polluted Lake Erie. (Photo by Alfred Eisenstaedt. Life Magazine rime Inc.)

MIPMECE-

V1-236 7. GREAT LAKES RESTORATION PROGRAM Increasing populations, industrialization, and pollution have createdwithin the 20th century a decluie in fresh water resources. The fresh water resources of theGreat Lakes and major rivers must De protected and controlled. The establishment of the Great LakesRestoration Program will provide the knowledge and teclmoloor necessary to reverse the disastrous trendsof declining natural fresh water resources. Pollution can be controlled through newabatement teclmology coupled with effective legislation. These steps are necessary before a fresh water restoration piogam canbe implemented. Emphasis will be placed on basic ecological understanding of the GreatLakes. Possible restorative actions might include algae removal, restocking, the introduction ofvarious forms of beneficial plant and animal life, and artificial destratification. Considerations must be made of the beneficial and detrimental effects of increasedpopulation centerS and their basic social needs. A complete cost-benefit analysis will be aloOcal first step. Techniques successful in the Great Lakes will be applicable to other fresh water resources.

NATIONAL PROJECT 7. Great Lakes Restoration Program

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Pollution measurement Aeration techniques Light transmission Outfall design of additives Air and oxygen solubility ; Fresh water ecology a-1 "xing techniques I ntrodu i, ious forms of plant and animal life Effect of blocking nlight Use of artificial botto , rings

Use of thermal heat for ..,.Ili_gg Filtering of inlet Harvesting algae

,-d Benefits Operatio, ystems Economic All out program to I p the Great Lakes tv ., ry of fresh water renovation Develop a whole ne. Reservoirs and art .?-r -.-1 ekes for urban areas Protect and entrance co Perty values Control static) ...rnbat unfavorable Oflactt on fresh w .E Social -.; .., . Provide additional fresh water a ugh for : 'V..' to accoiriplish clean-up tasks, e.g. recreation tion of water . Artificial bottoms Provide satisfaction that pollution is not a nece Circulator result of civilization and that the trend can be Surface c,.,...Ts reversed Algae removal Destratification

298 111.-297 8. RESOURCE ASSAY EQUIPMENTDEVELOPMENT PROGRAM Before any meanLngful national program toutilize the world's oceans can be effectivelyimplemented, brought to bear precise surveys of the ocean must beconducted. UtilizUig every resource which can be upon the problem, the UnitedStates must begin immediately to surveyaccurately the continental shelves and deep ocean and measure and sampleanomalies of interest. exploration, utilization, The Resource Assay EquipmentDevelopment Progam is a cornerstone for management, and development of ocean resourcesfor commercial, scientific, and military proL *ms.It is considered that this program willprovide the basic broad scale resource information necessaryfor industry to plan and evaluate commercial operationsrealistically.

NATIONAL PROJECT

8.Resource Assay EquipmentDevelopment Program

Ftmdamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development Evaluate a variety of platforms Survey techniques Magnetic Surface ships Acoustic Submarines Gravimetric Airplanes Towed and untethered Towed devices ,. ._ Iklntethered vehicles

_...7 Testing techniques v , - Evaluate seriscOlor particular applications Environmental consIderatiOs Oil

Navigation and positionlng Metals Fish ,'_,I,,,- Underwater viewi Aquifers ments Data handling Evaluate sample extracti n _ Soil mechanics

%., , ed Benefits Operational Systems

Enornic ,.. rce assay ProyiJe data for ind ake decisio on- U.S. condnental sh '. of slope, rise, and cerninv exploitati ean resources followed by deep ocea

- Military

Provide data to assess status and availability of critical raw materials

V1-238 29 9 Figure17. Resource assay equipment development.

Figur* 18.ECHO soundings allow accurate depth measurements from a transitory ship. Great areas of little known ocean bottom and the need to evaluate resource potentials require yet more sophisticated and advanced rapid survey equip- merit and systems. (Coast and Geodetic Survey photo)

3 0 VI-239

9. COASTAL ENGINEERING AND ECOLOGICAL STUDIESPROGRAM The persistent natural and man-induced coastal process,considered in light of requirements of a growing population for living and recreational areasalong the coasts, dictates that coastal zones be well understood and carefully managed. Requfrements for increased useof coastal lanes for transportation, mining, fishing, and waste disposal complicate this multiple-usesituation. Systems solutions must be sought. Particularly, the national program todevelop valuable waterfront must concern itself with the possible disastrous effectsof coastal development on the ecology of marshes, rivers, estuaries, and the near ocean. This area includesthe spawning grounds of the majority of the ocean's living resource. Its natural balances arefragile and can be disastrously disarranged by seemingly minute adjustments of marine ecology. Changes in waterquality can make waters aesthetically undesirable and unsafe for recreation. The Coastal Engineering and Ecological Studies Program stands as a majorrequirement for maximiz ng the benefits and utilization of coastai areas.

NATIONAL PROJECT 9. Coastal Engineering and Ecological Studies Program

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Power sources and machinery Outfall design

Materials Lame scale mixing techniques Tools Introduction of various forms of plant and animal life

Coastal engineering gfflects and use of waste heat ,, Biomedicine 4 L'altditives Underwater viewing Applied coa eering Beach ere Environmental conside Beach repl Data handling Aeration techniqu is

Coastal ecology

Soil mechanics a diment transport Modeling techni Mathem Hydrauli Ecologic

E ed Benefits Operationa: , em conomic Develop an entirely dustry of coastal and All-out program to cl U.S. estuaries and estuarine water ren t n coastlines party values Protect and enhance coa Stations for co ter quality control Social New in r water quality renovation Provide additional coastal areas c recreation ;AI= alteration Provide satisfaction that pollution is not a nece ' result of civilization and that the trend can be reversed

302 VI-241 10. FISHERIES AND AQUACULTUREPROGRAM The phenomenal expansion of worldpopulation has challenged the ability toproduce and distribute combined resources of protein vitally needed for nutrition andhealth. A national program utilizing the science and engineering to increase the quantityand quality of marine life is a necessity. the life cycle Some knowledge has been gained in increasingmarine population growih and shortening the compilation of marine organisms M controlledexperiments. The continuation of this effort requires of information on species' behavior andthe development of scientifically based resourcemanagement distribution systems schemes. In addition, harvesting andprocessing technology in combination with controlled aquacultural projects. must be developed, with regard toboth natural marine populations and Available resources such as waste heat,chemical additives, and natural nutrients canbe coupled with predator control, species control andselection, and improved processing anddistribution techniques to derive from the ocean increased amountsof protein rich foods.

NATIONAL PROJECT

10. Fisheriesand Aquaculture Program

Fundaments! Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Feeding rates Fence effectiveness Air screen Chemical Hanresting methods Nets ditives Acoustic ,.- Ecological engineering Use o Environmental ethods Predator con r Small fish prot Metabolic co , Special feeding prio rvQst

Selective breeding , Larva control

ed Benefits Operational Systems Fish farms for high-valu .ecies Economic n entirely new marine food Lobster The developme Clams industry Oysters Salmon MOre stable and reli urce of selected marine Scallops products Shrum. Cr Setter quality control infish for low-cost protein Mullet Milk fish Mussels Farms for com ercially useful algae

VI-242 303 Figure 21.Fisheries and aquaculture.

Figure 22.The world's growing food problems call for active fisheries and aquaculture programs to help meet nutritional de . mands of an expanding world population. (Photo by Terence Spencer, Life Magazine Time Inc.)

204 V1-243 Figure 23.Experimental continental shelf submerged nuclear plant.

A thickly populated coastal area. The Figure 24. _ increasing scarcity of large, unpopulated areas suitable for nuclear power stations will require construction of plants in the sea. (Port of New York Authority photo)

_ 1 II

V LI1 11. EXPERIMENTAL CONTINENTAL SHELFSUBMERGED NUCLEAR PLANT Generation of large quantities of power will be requiredfor the development of the resources of the continental shelves. In addition, expanding populationand industry require increasingly large amounts and of economical electrical power. The intensivedevelopment of coastal regions for living, recreational, commercial purposes greatly limit the availability oflarge tracts of land needed for nuclear power generation facilities. Shallow submerged areas where adequate coolingcapacity is available provide idee near shore locations for the establishment of submerged nuclearfacilities. The development of an Experimental Continental Shelf Submerged Nuclear Plant will provethe feasibility and cz:st effectiveness of placing future large power generating stations in close proximity tomajor urban areas. Other benefits expected to be derived from this experimentalfacility are support for subsea oil and minerals production, aquaculture and continentalshelf laboratories. Power generation for deeper ocean tasks will evolve logically from the technologydeveloped in this program.

NATIONAL PROJECT 11. Experimental ContinentalShelf Submerged Nuclear Plant

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development Comparison of operation at one atmosphere versus Soil mechanics ambient pressure Underwater construction methods Use of waste heat for useful applications: = Upwelling Handling heavy loads at sea = Warming swimming area

. Melting harbor ice Materials ,.. quaculture Comb! -11!;:. desalting plant with nuclear plant

.. nits anal Symms

4-,

= p tO 500 megawatts) Economic-Soc,a1 Large municipal located at sea p , Technical solu 1..ir\:.. he thermal pollution problem POwer that presen , :'"reatens many rivers and estuaries Fresh water and will w 1.:; 110 threaten coastal waters Warm wa Aquacult Source of po , nd fresh water close to source of Ice removal demand Recreation

Availability o i7,` e heat to improve other activities Modest sire (2,000 tO 10,000 kilowatts) underwater Aquas power source to sup.,, exploitation of shelf Recrear resources Harbor i. oval Oil and Ga Mining Release valuable inc for more people-oriented Fishing uses Survei ation ' - Economic-Milr'rery Less vulnerable system for p ion and fresh water t

Power for future commercial and military undersea operations

VI-245 30 6 12. LARGE STABLE OCEAN PLATFORM Scientific investigations and resource explorationin remote ocean areas wiB benefit greatlyfrom a by the multipurpose Large Stable Ocean Platform. Theutilization of semi-submersible drilling platforms petroleum industry has proved that thisa-weather concept is technically sound andeconomically acceptable. Self-propelled, relatively insensitive to adverse seaconditions, and large enough to support the heavy equipment necessary for deep ocean work, theLarge Stable Ocean Platform will provide ahighly flexible multipurpose island which can remain on station in the open oceanfor long periods of time. Similar platforms located for resource recovery ormilitary considerations, could also provide at-sea subsurface vessel bases for weather monitoring, afrcraft trafficmonitoring and control, and surface and replenishment. By virtue of its great size, stability,storage capacity, and long endurance stationkeeping capability, the Large Stable Ocean Platform will be amid-ocean facility of great military, commercial, Ekrid scientific significance.

NATIONAL PROJECT

12. Large Stable Ocean Platform

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Fabrication techniques Deep ocean drilling Support a wide range of oceanographic investigations Wave motion dynamics in broad ocean areas Mobile breakwaters theory Resource surveys Darnage stability criteria ,!, -. Oil and gas ... inerals Concrete construction ' IL Large deept: teavy lifts nefits Op e [jk)al, Systems

Social Off shore airport . Move activities - r m the coastline Off shore city Scienrilic Mid ocean basing sy a military Provides valua,lr. 1, e base platform for scientific - Observation investigati ,i, broad ocean areas - Surveillance - Logistic support Military -Air field Provides knowl o the usefulness of a mobile ocean basin m. It would allow support of Fishing system with t e facility to: operations i Iar corners of the world without making the c .- ment necessary when most - Process c logistic supp ovided from the land - Provide , - Store a until pick-up by ship

Economic ..._ top side facility to: Provides inexpensive top 4 I ort for as-yet Mining undefined ocean resour ing systems ess ore rovide power - Store product untilpicked up by ship i---"ast4Egin*row--

V1-246 :307 Figure 25.Large stable ocean platform.

SPOP

Figure 26.Turbulent sea surface. Hazardous conditions of working on the ocean surface will necessi tate development of large stable ocean platforms. (Photo by Ellsworth Boyd)

o 8 VI-247 13. LONG-ENDURANCE EXPLORATIONSUBMERSIBLES WITH 20,000-FOOT CAPABILITY Effective utilization and management ofthe deep ocean must be based on thorough knowledge of the environment. The 20,000-foot depth capabilityprovides access to 98 per cent of the total ocean bottom area. Many military, scientific, andindustrial programs could benefit from an ability to do useful vork for long periods in the deep ocean. There is no substitute for human involvement in a remoteenvironment. A long endurance capability must be developed to operate effectively at great oceandepths. Since the commercial value of the deep ocean areas is asyet undefined, the U.S. Government should assume responsibility for the initialdevelopment of these submersibles. Technology created in this program will have far reaching benefits not onlyin submersible technology, but also in almost all other areas of undersea exploration and usage. Based on experience and expertise developed todate, the Long-Endurance Exploration Submersible can be started immediately. Theutilization of this submersible will benefit many ocean programsand will be especially important to support subsea laboratoriesand stations.

NATIONAL PROJECT 13. Long-Endurance Exploration Submersibles ith 20,000-Foot Capability

Fundamental TechnologY Subsystem and Component Development

Power sources and machinery Deep ocean resource surveys

Materials Acoustic propagation ., Test facilities surveys

Navigation and positionin. Equipmec.... rurnunt uvaluatiun

Vehicle tools Navigational rete

Communications

Underwater vi 1

Environmenta - 5 iderations

Buoyancy ma ed Benefits Operational Systems

Political Deep ocean station (de tinv'., 20,000 feet) Improved knowle d confidence for international negotiat;ons o i atus of deep ocean basins Military m lt:)- Scientific Long ientiflc investigations Short term (few days .. , rneasurements Military Su J., traffic control Improved understanding o '..i rq dvantages of s truly three-dimensional n --, . Economic Improved technology available for a variet vet-to-be-determined tasks

V1-248 309 L.) 43,6z1 4.4 1.1)41q,z, no; ocro*0141 Q4,01:1 L 4.14..N1,019,211%:;16'Z a,r'4 ' f011,PNO IN:411,f k es, Ntrk 4,)1 IL0440:44:14V Z:4C0;10140 = - 14. PROTOTYPE REGIONAL POL LIMN COLLECTION, TREATMENT,AND PROCESSiNG SYSTEM To date, one of the penalties of Increased population and industrial centershas been Mtensified pollution of rivers, estuaries, and bays. At the same time, requirements forfresh water and recreational areashavebeen increasing. The construction of a Prototype Regional PollutionCollection, Treatment, and Processing System will serve as an important step in a long range program tostem the disastrous effects of pollution while providing additional fresh water and other usable pic ducts. It is well within existing teelmical capability to design and construct thistype of system. Conversion of formerwasteproducts into usable products may well serve to offset the costs of the systemfor municipalities or public utilities. The disposal of uhtreated or partially treated poLlutants into fresh andsalt water areas greatly reduces their utility. As populations Mcrease and available land areas diminish, spacerequirements for urban pollution treatment systems will becomemorecritical. ln-Juediate implementation of this program is of real importance to the national interest.

NATIONAL PROJECT 14. Prototype Regional Pollution Collection, Treatment, and ProcOSSin ern

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Develop ent

Basic treatment technology Development of useful and marketable products

Contaminant measurement devices Rational division between primary industry treatment and that performed by regional system Coastal ecology

- Environmental considerations - .... Coastal engineering - Expe nefits onal Systems

Social-Economic Regional pollution c on treatment and processing system Opening of man -- sral areas closed becauseof excessive po , n

A technology t ill save presently unpolluted areas from e pollution

Reuse of meter at are prewntly discarded. This is of in ng economic importance as raw material es become more expensive to extract

Creation of a new po equipment industry

Improved health and enjoym en and future generations

VI-250 1 1 Figure 29.Prototype regional pollution collection, treatment, and processing system.

Figure 30.Typical urban water pollution. Growing Mdustry and increasing population burden local waste treatment plants, making it necessaly as well as economical to construct regdonal pollution collection, treatment, and processing systems. (FWPCA photo)

431 2 V1-251 441-

Figure 31,Frotozype harbor development proiect

Figure 12.A crowded, degenerated waterfront area. New supertankers with deep drafts and container ships with requirements for new cargo handling systems will compel construction of new offshore harbor facilities, releasing former waterfront lands for urban development. (Fort of New York Authority photo)

013 VI-252 15. PROTOTYPE HARBOR DEVELOPMENT PROJECT Growing international trade requires larger ships and more efficient handling systems. kntiquated port facilities severely limit the application of improved ship designs. New harbors andhandling systems must be developed and existing facilities improved. Private industry, stimulated by fundsfrom various levels of government, should take the lead in harbor development programs. A Prototype Harbor Development Project will serve as a model program upon which to create newand improved techniques for cargo handling and storage, all-weather navigational aids, ship handling concepts, fast and accurate record keeping, and data processing facilities. Additional benefitswhich will derive from the prototype harbor project will include new underwater construction techniques, increased knowledge of soil mechanics (of particular importance in the areas of anchoring and mooring), and sediment stabilization technology. In addition, consideration will be given to the very important problems relating to labor, urban population, pollution, and the economic impact on business.

NATIONAL PROJECT

15. Prototype Harbor Development Project

Fundamental Technology Subsystem and Component Development

Soil mechanics Methods of moving various dry cargoes by: Pipeline Underwater construction Conveyor Barge Coastal engineering

Environmental data acquis' Unde chment methods

Anchoring and moor Off shore bul

Various mobile br

Undei water navigatio

ed Benefits Operationa ms

Social-Econo Large, deep-draft dry bulk carriers Minimize dr and associated harmful effects Entire new port comples remote from present cities which have m effect on coastline Increased free f port location Offshore bulk termi A technology tha s design of future systems to minimize co conflicts

Construction and oper considerably more cost effective ships

More coastal areas available for ot commercial and industrial uses

1 4 VI-253 Appendix A Acknowledgments

Many persons and organizations were contacted by panel members and staff during the preparation of this report. Following are the names of those individuals who contributed through interviews, conferences, submission of written materials, and review of report drafts.' Every effort has been made to make this list inclusive and the panel apologizes for any inadvertent omissions. Although the report reflects these contributions, the recommendations are those of this panel, arrived at after study of all materials and comments.

Name Organization Name Organization Abel, Robert B. NSFSea Grant ProgramCome, G.T. (R) Westinghouse Electric Corp. Allen, Robert C. ..U.S. Navy Mine Defense LaboratoryCompton, Frank . .. . North American Rockwell Corp. Anderson, Richard...... Battelle Memorial Institute Corell, Roger The Oceanic Foundation Andrews, Dan ...... Naval Undersea WarfareCenter Corley, C.B., Jr. Humble Oil and Refining Co. Arata, Winfield A1AA NorthropCotter, Edward Delaware River Port Authority Battelle Memorial Institute Arnold, H.A. (R) ...... National Council onCoyle, Arthur J. Marine Resources and Engineering DevelopmentCraven, John P. (C) ...... Navy Department Aron, William (R) Smithsonian Institution Cristen, Robert E. . U.S. Navy Mine Defense Laboratory Austin, Carl Naval Weapons CenterCulpepper, William B. U.S. Navy Mine Defense Bagnell, Fred (R) Westinghouse Electric Corp. Laboratory Bankston, G.C. Shell Oil Co. DOton, George F. ... MTSGeneral Electric Company Barker, Samuel B. University of Alabama Damskey, L.R. Bechtel Corp. Bascom, Willard (R). Occan Science and EngineeringInc. Davidson, WM. .. .Transcontinental Gas Pipeline Corp. Bates, Charles Coast Guard Headquarters Davis, Berkley (R) General Electric Company Bavier, Robert N. Yachting Publishing Corp. Davis, James Wilmington (North Carolina) Port Beck, Earl Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory Authority Bennett, J. E Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.Dean, Gordon (R) Bureau of Mines Beranek, Leo (R) Bolt, Beranek and Newman Dishman, M.K. Shell Oil Co. Bermas, S Columbia Gas Systems Service Corp Doig, Keith (R) Shell Oil Co. Bernstein, Harold (R) DSSPNavy DepartmentDonaldson, Lauren Univetsity of Washington Beving, Lcdr. D.U. Naval Material CommandDonner, Hugh Marcona Corp_ Blake, F. Gilman Chevron Research Company Duffy, Ben King National Council on Stanford, Russel. Staff, House Armed Services Committee Marine Resources and Engineering Development Boatwright, V.T...... General DynamicsElectric Boat Dunsmore, Herbert J. U.S. Steel, Lorain Boller, Capt. Jack W. USN (R) Navy Department Eckles, Howard (R) Department of the Interior Bolton, G.H. . ... Columbia Gas SystemsService Corp. Ela, D.K. Westinghouse Electric Corp. Booda, Larry Undersea Techrology Eliason, J. (R) Battelle Northwest Borop, Capt. J.D.W., USN ....U.S. Navy Mine Er..,rense Elliot, Francis E. (R ) General Electric Company Laboratory Ephraim, Frank G. Maritime Administration Boyd, Walter K. Battelle Memorial Institute Evans, W. Naval Undersea Warfare Center Brauer, Ralph ...... Wrightsville MarineBio-Medical Fell, George Corps of Engineers LaboratoryFeldman, Samuel DSSPNavy Department Breckenridge, R A. Naval Civil EngineeringFlack, Newton D. Cleveland Electric Laboratory Illumination Company Breslin, John AIAA Davidson LaboratoryFortenberry, J.F. Tennessee Gas Transmission Co. Britain, K.E. Tennessee Gas Pipeline Co. Foster, William C. (R) Ralston Purina Co. Brown, G. Edwin (R) ... Atomic Industrial Forum,Inc. Fries, Robert Battelle Memorial Institute Bugg., Sterling ..... Naval CivilEngineering Laboratory Frosch, Robert (R) Navy Department Burk, Creighton (R) Mobil Oil Co. Full, Ray Kishman Fish Company Burkhardt, William .. Naval Civil Engineering LaboratoryFulling, Roger (R)..-E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. Bussrnann, Charles Undersea Technology Garrison, M.E...... Offiee of the Oceanographer Cain, Stanley Department of the InteriorGascoigne, Earl Cedar Point, Inc. Caldwell, Joseph Coastal Engineering Research Gaul, Roy D. Westinghouse Electric Corp. CenterCorps of EngineersGermeraad, Donald . .AIAALockheedMissiles and Carpenter, Cdr. M. Scott, USN. DSSPNavy Department Space Company Carsey, J. Benjamin ...... American AssociationofGeyer, Leo AIAAGrumman Aircraft Petroleum Geologists Engineering Co. Carsola, Alfred . Lockheed California Co.Gillenwaters, T.R. State of California Cestone, Joseph DSSP Navy Department Gilman, Roger H...... Port of New York Authority Chapman, Wilbert M. (R) Van Camp Sea Food Co Glasgow, James S. Battelle Memorial Institute Clark, Allen F. Philadelphia Port Corp. Glass, Cdr. C.J., USCG Coast Guard Headquuters Clark, John Lorain County Regional PlanningGluntz, Marvin Society of Naval Architects Commission Clark, Robert Hayden, Stone 1(C), Clay, E J. Hahn and Clay Consultant, denotes persons who provided broad Clotworthy, John H. Oceans General, Inc.policy guidance and review; CR),Reviewer, denotes Cloyd, Marshall P. Brown and Root, Inc.personswhoreviewedportionsofpanelreport Coates, L.D. (R) Lockheed California Co.preliminary drafts.

VI-254 Name OrganizationName Organization Goehring, RAdm. Robert W. USCG Coast Guard Koch, Robert 0. . -Tex- s Gas Transmission Corp. HeadquartersKonecci, Eugene University of Texas Gonne Ha A M Boeing Company Kozmetsky, George University of Texas Goodfellow, RAdm_ A Scott USN Naval Kraft, W.W. ... American Institute of ChemicalEngineers Material CommandKrenzke, Martin .... Naval Ship R&D Center,Carderock Goodman, M.W...... Westinghouse Electric Corp. Kretschmer, T. _ .. Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory Goodwin, Harold L. (R) NSFSea Grant Program Kruger, Frederick C. (R)...... Stanford University Gordon, William (R) Bureau of CommercialKuebler, Wolf...... _NorthrupCorporation FisheriesKumm, W.H...... -. Westinghouse Electric Corp. Gosser, Stuart Cedar Point, Inc.Kylstra, Johannes ... _ ...... , Duke University Gould, Gerald . ... Naval Underwater WeaponsResearchLaCerf'', John Florida Commission on Marine and Engineering Station, Newport Sciences and Technology Gould, Howard -- ...... American Association ofLaQue, Francis L (C) International Nickel Co. Petroleum GeologistsLarson, Howard Outboard Marine Corp. Grosvenor, Gilbert Natio al Geographic Latham, William C. National Geographic Hahn, Welford G. Saline Water Research StationLeDoux, John C. Flow Corp. Nuclear Division Halstead, Bruce W. MTS World Life Research Leigh, F. Donald . ... . , Shell Oil Co. Institute LeMaire, Ivor P. - Naval Undersea WarfareCenter Hansen, Whitney Lockheed Missiles and Space Co.Lesser, Robert . . , ...Lockheed California Co. Harlan, Willi- m Battelle Memorial InstituteLill. Gordon .... _ .. MTSLockheed CaliforniaCo. Harvey, D. B. .. Westinghouse Electric Corp. Link, Edwin A. Ocean Systems, Inc. Haydon, John Oceanographic Commission ofLitchfield, John H Battelle Memorial Institute Washington Longfelder, J.H. Boeing Company Hayes. Earl Bureau of Mines Lowe, B. James (ft) Westinghouse Electric Corp. Hedgepeth, Charles (R) Ocean Systems, Inc. Lowe, Capt. G.H. USN .. Navy Undersea Warfare Heindemann, T.E...... Boeing Company Center Heinemann, E.H General Dynamics, Inc. Lowry, Frank W. L.M.B., Inc. Heroy, William Teledyne Corp.Lubinski, Arthur Pan American Petroleum Corp. Heater, T I' Honeywell, Inc. Lubnow, Harold A. U.S. Navy Mine Defense Hodgman, Capt. J., USCG . Coast Guard Headquarters Laboratory Hogge, Ernest A. U.S. Navy Mine DefenseLundell, Ernest AIAAGeneral Dynamics Corp- Laboratory Luskin, H.T...... A -nerican Institute of Holden, Donald Society of Naval Architects Acronamics and Astronautics Holm, Carl H. (R) . ... North American Rockwell Corp. Lynch, Capt. Edward, USN Navy Department Horton, Thomas I'. Oceans General, Ine.Lynch, John F. Sea-Land Service Howe, Richard J. (R) Humble Oil & Refining Co. Lyons, Carl J. Battelle Memorial Institute Howley, Lee C. .... Cleveland ElectricIllumination Co. MacCuteheon, Edward M... . SNAMEEnvironmental Hull, Seabrook Ocean Science News Science Services Administration Hunter, J.A. (R) Office of Saline WaterMacovsky, Morris S. (C) Westinghouse Electric Corp. Huth, J.FI Naval Ship Systems CommandMariott, Frank F. . . Westinghouse Electric Corp. Irwin, John R. Battelle Memorial InstituteMarkel, Arthur L. Reynolds Submarine Jackson, Charles B MTS San Diego Section Services Corp. Jackson, Capt. L.L., USN Atlantic Undersea Test Martin, George (R). .. . Lockheed Missiles and SpaceCo. and Evaluation Center Martin, William R. MTSSan Diego Section. Battelle Memorial InstituteMaxwell, Arthur Woods Hole Oceanographic Jamieson, William M. Institute Jasper, Norman H...... U.S. Navy Mine Defense Laboratory McAnneny, A.W. Trunkline Gas Co. Jenkins, Capt. Walter USCG Coast GuardMcDonald, Capt. C.A.K. USN (R).. . Navy Department HeadquartersMcGinnis, Joseph Ocean Systems, Inc. Jentzsch, Richard A. Lorain County Regional McHugh,JL. Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Planning Commission McIlhenny, W.F. (R) Dow Chemical Co. Jones, Douglas Office of Congressman McIntosch, Billy McDonnell Douglas Corp. Alton Lennon McLean, Noel B. Edo Corporation Jordan, Arthur Cape Fear Technical Institute McLean, William (C) __ .. Naval Undersea WarfareCenter Jordan, Samuel Westinghouse Electric Corp. MeNitt, RAdm. R.W. USN Nay:" Post-Graduate Jorgenson, John H. R) National Security School, Monterey Industrial Association Meloy, Thomas P. Melpar Kane, Eneas D. Chevron Research Company Mero, John L. Ocean Resources, Inc. Kapland, Mitchell (R) Trident Engineering Associates, Inc. May3rs, Kenneth . .. MaritimeAdministration Lockheed Shipbuilding and Kavanaugh, Thomas .. National Academy of EngineeringMiller, William 0. Keach, Cdr. Donald L. USN Naval Material Construction Co. Command Minor, LE. Brown and Root, Inc. Naval Undersea Warfare Center Keim, Russell (R) .... National Academy of EngineeringMoore, Donald (R) Keller, Karl Naval Ship R&D Center, Annapolis Moothart, K. U S. Navy Underwater Sound Kelty, Kenneth General Electric Co. Laboratory Kennedy, A. Booing Company Mourad, George A. MTSBattelle Memorial Institute Kies, Joseph A Naval Research Laboratory Mueller, Joan , Life Magazine Kildow, Alfred G. American Institute ofMunk, Walter .... Scripps Institution of Oceanography Aeronautics and AstronauticsMurphy, RAdm. Charles P. USCG .....- ... SNAME Killgore, A.B. Brown and Root, Inc. Coast Guard Headquarters Kimball, Keith . General Electric Co. Myers, H.E. Mobile Chamber of Commerce Kinne, Ivan L. Battelle Memorial InstituteNakatsuka, Lawrence ...... ,_ Office of Senator Fong Kirk, Will W. International Nickel co. Nash, Harold ...... U.S. Navy UnderwaterSound Kirkbride, ChalmerC.. C) Sun Oil Co. Laboratory

VI-255 0 rganation Name Organization Name Schuerger, Richard G. Cleveland Electric Nelson, J. Naval Undersea Warfare Center Gulf Publishing Co. Illuminating Co. Nelson, Thomas W. Schuh, Niles U S Navy Mine Defense Laboratory Nib lock, Robert W. Oceanology Week Science Laboratory Nicholson, Capt. William H. USN DSSPNavy Sezack, Stanley .. .. Naval Applied Department Shaw, Frederick G. Port of New York Authority Shaw, John .. ...International Nickel Co. Odom, William T. (R).. .. U.S. Navy Mine Defense ...... Shaw, Milton .. .. _ ... . AtomicEnergy Commission Laboratory SNAMEElectric Boat Company Olson, V.A. Society of Naval ArchitectsSheets, Herman Columbia Gas System Shigley, C. Monroe (R) Dow Chemical Co. Orlofsky, S. (R) and Space Co- Service Corp. Shumaker, Larry ... . .Lockheed Missiles Deputment of Transportation Shykind, Edwin B. (R) National Council on Osborne, J. Marine Resources and Engineering Development Osri, Stanley M. American Institute of Chemical Engineers Siebenhausen, C.H. (R) Shell Oil Co. Sieder, E. (R) Office of Saline water Owen, Lynn W., Jr. ..U.S. Navy Mine Defense Laboratory Simons, Manley Marine Technology Society Simons, Merton (R) Phillips Petroleum Co. Paden, John Department of the Interior Departrr-nt of the Interior Page, Rye B. Greater Wilmington Chamber Singer, S. Fred of Commerce Singleton, Leon Lull Publishing Co. Office of the Oceanographer Palmstrom, William National Georgraphie SocietySmall, Fred Smeder, RAdm= O.R. USCG ...... Coast Guard Parker, John M American Association of Petroleum Geologists Headquarters Smith, Blakely Houston, Texas Parkinson, John B. .... AIAANationalAeronautics and Space AdministrationSmith, Cdr. Frank USN Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation Center Paszyc, Alex Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory and Space Co. Penberthy Electromelt Smith, H.J. (R) ...... LockheedMissiles Penberthy, Larry ...... Naval Civil Engineering Laboratory Peterson, Stanley S. U S. Navy Underwater Smith, Ray J. Sound Laboratory Snyder, Capt. J. Edward, USN...... Navy Department Naval Material Command Sorenson, James E. Battelle Memorial Institute Petrie, Benjamin R. Naval Ship Systems Command Podolhy, William United Aircraft Corporation Sorkin, George Port of New York Authority Sorrell, Samuel Gulf Publishing Co. Pomponio, Albert Spadone, Daniel (R) DSSPNavy Department Porter, Ruber FL Battelle Memorial Institute Westinghouse Electric Corp. Porkolab, Alfred Lorain County, Ohio Sparks, William L. Trunkline Gas Co. Speakrnan, Edwin A. ... Departmentof Transportation Prior, W.W. Scripps Institution of Oceanography Pruitt, M.E. Dow Chemical Co Spiess, Fred Bureau of Commercial Fisheries Spodak, William DSSPNavy Department Pruter, Al (R) Steele, Harry Water Resources Council Quick, Stanley S. (R) ... WestinghouseElectric Corp. Stephan, Edward (C) ...... Ocean Systems, Inc. Rawls, John University of South Alabama Boeing Company Stephen, Charles R...... FloridaAtlantic University Ray, C.T. AIAALockheed California Co. Raynor, Albert C . CoastalEngineering Research Stout, Ernest CenterCorps of Engineers Stover, Lloyd A. University of Miami Stowers, H.L Texas Gas Transmission Corp. Rechnitzer, Andrew (R) ..... NorthAmerican Rockwell Office of Saline Water Rice, RAdm. J.E., USN ASNENaval Electronics Strobel, Joseph J. R) Systems Command Styles, Fred . Bureau of Outdoor Recreation Sullivan, E. Kemper Maritime Administration Rich, G.E...... LockheedMissiles and Space Co. Fisheries Association Sutton, Sheldon S. Westinghouse Electric Corp. Richards, Ralph A. .... Alabama Memorial Institute Richter, Cdr. T. USN Bureau of Medicine and Swain, James C. .. - - .Battelle Surgery Swift, Ward (R) Battelle Northwest Atomic Energy Swigum, George Naval Material Command Rickover, VAdm. H.G. USN Taggert Inc. Commission Taggert, Robert ...... SNAMERobert Talkington, Howard R...... NavalUndersea Warfare Robb, J.E. (R) Bechtel Corporation Center Marcona Corp. Robinson, Charles W. Tate, Robert H. Greater Wilmington Chamber of Rockwell, Julius Department of the Interior Commerce House of Represent.tives Rogers, Hon. Paul G. Teague, Dorwin Dorwin Teague, Inc. Romano, Frank Naval Ship Systems Command Battelle Memorial Institute University of Rhode Island Thomas, Bertram D. Rorholm, Niels Thompson, Floyd L. American Institute of Rowley, Louis N. American Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics Mechanical Engineers Tibby, Richard B. ... University ofSouthern California Russell, .1 S Boeing Company Battelle Northwest Goodrich, Avon Lake Touhill, C. Joseph (R) Rylands, R. N...... B.F. Treadwell, Capt. T.K., TJSN. NavalOceanographic Office Saunders, Capt. E.M., USN = .... = ... NavalFacilities International Nickel Co. Engineering Command Tuthill, Arthur (R) Vaeth, Gordon (R) Environmental Science Services Saunders, Capt. L.N_, Jr= USN Naval Civil Administration Engineering Laboratory Annapolis, Maryland University of New Hampshire Valerie), Gerald A. Savage, G.H. Van Antwerpen, F.H. American Institute Sava, William Office of Saline Water of Chemical Engineers Coastal Engineering Research Saville, Thornkike Vetter, Richard C National Academy of Sciences CenterCorps of-Engineers Ohio Edison Company Sawyer, George Battelle NorthwestVidal, Numa Oceanographic Office Vine, Allyn Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute Shaefer, George V.. .M1SNaval Vyhnalek, Henry J.. Cleveland ElectricIllumination Co. . Natural Gas Pipeline Co. Schafersman, Di ale ...... Wakein, James H., Jr. (C) Ryan Aeronautical Co. of America Navy Department Scheel, Alvin J. U S. Steel, Lorain Waters, RAdm O.D., USN Wedin, John (R) .-Staff, Senate Commerce Committee Schmidt, Howard R. .. LockheedMissiles and Space Co.

317 Name Organization Name Organization

Weinberger, Leon Department of the Interior Williams, William H...... U.S. Navy Mine Defense Weir, Carl L...... - Maritime Administration Laboratory Weisnet, Donald . . . . . Naval Oceanographic Office Williamson, William R. (R) Antuican Machine and Weiss, A.M. Natural Gas Pipeline Co_ Founthy Co. C G Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Wolff, Capt. Paul USN .. Fleet Numerical Weather Wenzel, James G. . . Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Facility Wheaton, Elmer P. (C) Lockheed Missiles and Space Co. Wolff, Richard Garcia Corporation Whiddon, Frederick University of South AlabamaWood, L.A. Boeing Company Wieskopf, Al Mobile Chamber of CommerceWoodbury, Brig. Gen. H.G. U A .... Corps of Engineers Wilcox, R. Howard Naval Undersea Wa_rfare Center Wooldridge, Dan E. Ohio Edison Company

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