SLOVAK IMMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES IN LIGHT OF AMERICAN, CZECH, AND SLOVAK HISTORY

By Gregory C. Ference

Although one can generalize about began trying to establish a homogenous population grew about sixteen percent immigration and immigrant groups in national state. Herein lies a major to 3 million,3 making the by the United States, whether they are difference between the and 1910 an estimated one-fifth of all Czech and Slovak or Croat and Slov­ Slovaks. The majority of the Czechs subjects of the .4 ene, each group has had a distinct immigrated to the United States from This numerical increase of the over­ experience. On the surface, Czech and the Austrian half of Austria-Hungary to whelmingly agrarian Slovak people Slovak immigration may appear to be better their economic lot or to escape eventually led to their subdividing their quite similar but underneath they are particular crises like the crop failures of peasant landholdings into smaller plots not. This points to a serious, ongoing the 1870s or the agricultural depression that could no longer support even problem in Czechoslovak studies where beginning in the 1880s. Others left subsistence farming. The territory of scholars tend to know one group, either Bohemia and Moravia to acquire , largely mountainous and ill­ the Czech or the Slovak, better than the greater political freedom in response to suited for agriculture, further exacer­ other', and thereby make generalizations Habsburg suppression of the 1848-49 bated the situation. Although serfdom that do not accurately reflect the expe­ revolutions, Habsburg anti-socialist was abolished in 1848 and a land re­ riences of either or of the whole pic­ legislation of the 1880s, or periodic form instituted, so that theoretically ture. This article attempts to clear up conflicts with the Bohemian Germans. anyone could purchase property, large some of the misconceptions about Unlike a majority of Slovaks, most of estates (latifundia) remained. These Slovak immigration in relation to that these Czechs came to the United States great estates, protected in part by entail of the Czechs, with emphasis on the with the intention of settling here and pri~ogeniture, were seldom broken pre-1914 era. permanently. down into smaller plots that were Given the general repression of the As for Slovak emigration, overpopu­ affordable to the peasantry. The conse­ Slovaks and other non-Magyar minori­ lation was a major cause. After the quent general overpricing of land ties in the Lands of St. Stephen or the Turkish threat to the Habsburg Monar­ divided the peasants into two catego­ Kingdom of Hungary, it is easy to chy diminished in the late seventeenth ries: "dwarf plot" landholders and the deduce that these minorities would century and relative calm was restored landless.5 search for a way to escape oppression, in this part of central , the esti­ Along with the landless peasants, and that is why they emigrated. But, mated number of Slovaks in Hungary "dwarf plot" landholders became sea­ for the most part, nothing can be fur­ rose considerably, from 700,000 in sonal farm laborers on the large estates ther from the truth. Especially from 1720 to 2 million by 1780. 1 The twelve to support their families . The pay was 1848 to 1918, other circumstances­ Slovak-dominated counties (, low and the work lasted, at best, five to particularly overpopulation, a lack of Gemer, Hontian, Liptov, , Orava, six months. With the advent of farm farmland, unemployment, and pov­ Saris, Spis, Tekov, Trencfn, TurCian, mechanization in Hungary, these jobs erty--overshadowed the Magyarization and ) amounted to approxi­ were threatened, since one reaper could policies of the Hungarian government. mately one-third of the total inhabitants do the work of fifteen men.6 These determinants originated many of Hungary in 1720; but this percentage Even the cottage industries in Slo­ years before the Magyars in 1867 dropped to about one-fourth by 1787, vakia suffered a fatal blow with the due to the even more rapid population beginnings of industrialization in the growth in other parts of that kingdom. 2 Habsburg Monarchy. Starting in the Dr. Gregory C. Ference is professor of By 1850 the number of Slovaks had late 1860s government contracts went history at Salisbury State University. Salisbury. Maryland. increased to around 2.5 million. Dur­ to large factories, primarily in the ing the next sixty years, the Slovak Austrian half of the empire, causing

130 Ference· Slovak Immigration to the U.S. widespread unemployment and further could be found in various sections of stricken area further enticed others to aggravating the problem.7 Conse­ the United States. The beginnings of emigrate. Moreover many Slovaks quently, Slovaks sought employment in the mass migration started around earned enough money after four to five growing industrial cities, such as 1880, with the immigrants coming years to return home as boMci (rich Budapest or Vienna. By 1910 the primarily from eastern Slovakia, where men), thereby captivating the Old number of Slovak laborers had risen to overpopulation and unemployment Country Slovaks with the wealth to be 20.3 percent in industry and dropped to were most acute. 10 Slovaks who immi­ made in'the United States. Nonethe­ 61.8 percent in farming.s grated did so without any intention to less, the pull of America only suc­ The introduction of mechanized settle in the United States permanently. ceeded in starting mass emigration in farming, the destruction of cottage They came with the purpose of earning areas where the local populace had a industry, and general overcrowding in money as fast as possible and then successful past in this migration rural and urban areas produced a sur­ returning to the Old Country to buy process. 15 plus population that could not be ab­ land with their hard earned dollars. I I Many of these boMb decided to re­ sorbed by the relatively late-starting Between 1873 and 1883 Slovaks emigrate, some makirtg the trip several industrialization of the Habsburg Mon­ contemplating the move to America times before deciding to settle perma­ archy, especially its Hungarian half. were helped by Daniel Sustek (1846­ nently in America because of the eco­ Bad harvests in the 1870s and the 1873 1927). This journeyman carpenter nomic benefits. Approximately sixty depression further aggravated the wrote over this ten-year period about percent of all Slovaks who had emi­ situation. Slovaks had no recourse but his experiences in the United States in grated eventually returned prior to to look outside the monarchy for a the Slovak monthly Obzor (Horizon), World War 1. 16 Young single men, at livelihood and increasingly turned for published in Skalica in western Slo­ the height of their physical strength, work to the United States, where a vakia. In this journal, Sustek, besides arrived first. In the 1880s women technologically advanced and rapidly telling about the difficulties of living in started to come to the United States to growing industrialization easily ab­ a strange country with its different life­ satisfy the need for Slovak spouses. sorbed them.9 They started to come in styles, gave much needed information A married man usually traveled alone, large numbers in the 1880s, unlike the and advice on traveling to America, and after earning enough money, he Czechs who had a good twenty years locating employment, anticipating either returned to the Old Country to head start, and became part, along with wage and salary ranges, and engaging bring his fa{l1ily to America, or sent the Czechs, of the "new" immigration in business or personal relations with funds to family members to purchase or those people entering America from non-Slovaks. 12 rail and steamship tickets to America. 17 eastern and southeastern Europe. This Complementing Sustek's advice, The l a r~ely agrarian, uneducated, Slovak immigration to America acted American agents of industrial and and nationally unaware Slovaks settled as a safety valve for the Slovaks as well mining companies seeking employees mainly in the Mid-Atlantic and Great as for the Hungarian authorities. A began to work in Slovakia and pre­ Lakes , particularly in western potentially dangerous situation was sented very positive pictures of life in Pennsylvania, taking low skilled jobs in avoided as large numbers of economi­ the United States. Representatives of heavy industry, such as coal mines and cally disaffected persons left the Lands great steamship lines later joined indus­ steel mills. IS As compared to Hungary, of St. Stephen. trial agents in encouraging people to in America they had year-round em­ The first known Slovak to travel to emigrate so that their companies could ployment with wages five to six times America was Andrej Jelik, who arrived profit by large scale migration. 13 higher. A person working in heavy approximately one hundred years Yet the greatest pull for Slovak industry could expect to earn in one before the mass immigration began. In emigration came from the letters of day what he would have received in 1840 a family of Slovak tinkers, the relatives and friends in America de­ one week in the Old Country at a sea­ Komada, established the first Slovak scribing the benefits of life there as sonal job.19 Although sixty-eight business, dealing with wire and wire compared to Hungary. These letters percent of the immigrants between products, in Philadelphia. By the also often contained large sums of 1899 and 1913 had agricultural back­ 1850s Slovaks immigrated more fre­ money,14 to pay debts, purchase addi­ grounds, almost ninety percent received quently, yet these immigrants usually tional property and farm equipment, employment in i.ndustry.20 In 1909 were isolated cases. Around the year and build homes with tiled, instead of Slovaks accounted for approximately 1874 more began to arrive, and by thatched, roofs. This new found and ten percent of all iron and steel workers 1879 pockets of Slovak immigrants widely observed prosperity in a poverty in the United States.21

131 Nebraska History· FalllWinter 1993

The exact number of Slovaks who In America, the Slovaks settled in 37 began to offer the same to an exclusive came to or remained in America cannot states and in almost 700 different Slovak clientele as soon as sufficient be precisely ascertained. The commis­ communities and contributed to the numbers of Slovaks were present.33 sioner of immigration stated in his multiplicity of American society.28 Yet, these early societies were not yet 1919 report that 480,286 Slovaks had Like other ethnic groups in America, nationalistic enough to divorce them­ arrived in the United States between they tended to settle in neighborhoods selves from the Hungarian homeland. June 30,1899, and 1919, the majority where their co-nationals had already Many called their organizations "Hun­ by 1914.22 concentrated. As soon as their numbers garian-Slovak" while utilizing the The commissioner further noted that sufficed, they established their own Hungarian national colors of red-white­ the Slovaks furnished the sixth largest churches, fraternal and cultural organi­ green on their emblems and flags. 34 number of immigrants during this zations, and newspapers. Initially these societies offered period, and, of the Slavic groups to The Slovaks, unlike the Czechs or inexpensive life and workman's com­ enter the United States, only the Poles, any other Slavic group, are split reli­ pensation insurance, which at that time with over one million persons, outnum­ giously into four major denominations. virtually did not exist in the United bered the Slovaks. 23 Among Slovaks by 1910, Roman States. Soon these groups became the A better indicator of the extent of Catholics numbered approximately centers of social activity. They orga­ Slovak immigration into America seventy percent, Lutherans fourteen nized picnics, dances, theatrical pro­ would be the Fourteenth Census of the percent, and Calvinists and Byzantine­ ductions, and athletic events. They United States. Taken in 1920, and Rite Catholics five and seven percent also raised money for various causes by based upon mother-tongue as opposed respectively.29 This distribution could raffles, with many churches being built to country of origin, it lists a total of be seen throughout Slovak life in and maintained in this way. By 1890 619,~66 Slovaks.24 Yet the census America. Slovak neighborhoods could forty different Slovak fraternal organi­ cannot be considered accurate because have several churches, based on reli­ zations based on religious, political, American enumerators often confused gious as well as geographic differences. and county differences existed in Slovaks with Slovenes, a Slavic people For example, in Cleveland in 1918, America; and the majority of these later from southeast Europe, or each of these there were one Calvinist, four Luth­ associated or merged with one of the groups with other or simply eran, and eight Roman Catholic Slovak larger, stronger national fraternal be­ classified some as "Slavs" in a general churches. The majority of each congre­ nevolen.t societies. 35 Women's soci­ category.25 Nonetheless 650,000 Slo­ gation usually came from the same eties, associated with the large national vaks is thought by immigration histori­ regions of Slovakia and tended to live fraternals, also sprang up . ans to be the best estimate, which among one another near their church.3o Mo ~ t of these organizations pub­ signifies that approximately one-fifth A similarly complex situation could be lished newspapers for members; and of the Slovak nation emigrated from found among Slovaks in Pittsburgh.31 every such periodical expressed opin­ the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy to the Fraternal benevolent societies also ions and ideas that reflected the ideol­ United States during the forty years flourished, and by 1920 over one-third ogy of the parent society. Thus did the from 1874 to 1914. 26 of American Slovaks held membership Slovak-language press begin to flourish A smaller number of Czechs than in one or more such organizations.32 in the United States, whether sponsored Slovaks came to America. Approxi­ The early Slovak immigrants usually by private individuals or fraternal mately 350,000 highly skilled and joined an existing American immigrant benevolent groups. Slovak newspapers literate Czechs arrived before World association, whose members spoke a became powerful tools to express War 1. This one-sixteenth of the Czech language they understood and whose grievances against the Magyars and nation tended to be better educated and programs could serve their needs with­ conditions in the Habsburg Monarchy, more wealthy upon arrival than the out offending their ethnic or religious as well as covering controversial issues one-fifth of all Slovaks, who arrived sensibilities. One such example was that arose in America. The advent of with little or no money.27 In intelli­ the Cesko-Slovansky Podporujfcf the Slovak-American press was the gence, ambition, and capacity for hard Spolek (Czecho-Slavonic Benevolent most important event in increasing work, the two groups were equal; but Society), founded by Czechs in 1854 in Slovak awareness and consciousness the greater educational and material St. Louis (fig. 23). Slovak immigrants both on the North American and Euro­ resources of Czech immigrants facili­ associated with Czech or Polish societ­ pean continents. Life in the United tated their more rapid entry into farm­ ies soon learned the benefits and ad­ States allowed formerly oppressed ing, small business, and the professions. vantages of these organizations and people to express themselves freely in

132 Fig.23 . The "Strength in Numbers" fostered by Czech-American organizations recalls the ancient Czech legend of "Svatopluk and his sons," portrayed on the allegorical proscenium curtain from the Clarkson (Nebraska) Opera House. Svatopluk asked each son to break a single stick, which each did easily. None of them could break a bundle of three sticks. (P . Michael Whye, NSHS C998.1-443) their native tongue without fear of success of Slovensky's newspaper Slovak-language American newspapers. 39 reprisals. With this new freedom the others sprang up throughout the coun­ Overall, Slovak consciousness flour­ majority of the Slovak people, although try wherever a community of Slovaks ished in the United States through the divided in America by religion, Old could be found. At the beginning of activities of ethnic churches, organiza­ World regional biases, and dialects, the twentieth century, Slovak-language tions, and journalism in a way which rallied around literary Slovak. They journals and newspapers published was not possible in the Old Country, endeavored to keep it alive, along with about 80,000 copies a week. 37 In where the Hungarian government and the national spirit, and to encourage its Pennsylvania alone, the state with the its Magyarization policies thwarted use by non-nationalistic Slovaks, as largest Slovak population, over twenty­ such freedom of expression and action. well as Americans of Slovak ancestry. five new Slovak-language journals Slovak-American periodicals, secular The first Slovak newspaper in the were launched between 1914 and associations, and churches actively United States appeared in 1885. It was 1918.38 Editors of the Slovak-American cultivated ethnic consciousness and published by the information officer of press vigorously responded to every strove to aid their beleaguered co­ the Austro-Hungarian consulate in injustice, imaginary or real, committed nationals in the Old Country. The Pittsburgh, Jim Slovensky (1856­ against their compatriots in the Old clergy, considered leaders by the Slo­ 1900).36 Prior to this, Slovaks read Country by the Hungarian government. vaks in the United States as well as in Czech-American newspapers, which So popular and influential did this press Hungary, promulgated political and did not cover adequately events rel­ become that the Hungarian authorities national concepts among the masses. evant for a Slovak audience. With the soon forbade the importation of many Slovak-American societies spon­

133 Nebraska History . FalllWinter 1993 sored literary competitions and helped tives of the Czechs and Slovaks in the the Pittsburgh Pact of 1918. finance aspiring writers, especially in United States. Both documents As for Slovak-American support for the Habsburg Empire.40 One such stressed the individual nature of the the rebirth of after its writer was the great poet and national Slovaks and guaranteed autonomy for destruction by the Nazis in 1939, one leader Svetozar Hurban Vajansky Slovakia in the soon-to-be-established must keep in mind that a Slovak repub­ (1847-1916), who received more than Czechoslovak Republic.42 lic existed from March 15, 1939. Al­ $300 a year by submitting pieces, Tomas G. Masaryk, Edvard Benes, though a puppet state of the Nazis, it banned by Budapest, for publication in and Milan Rastislav Stefanik, leaders was , nonetheless, a Slovak one. Many Slovak-American newspapers and of the Czechoslovak liberation move­ American Slovaks supported it; and almanacs. ment, championed the idea that the two until December 1941, they urged the Slovak-American organizations also ethnic groups were branches of the United States government to recognize sent funds to help many other Old same nation in an attempt to win Allied it. Only upon America's entry into the Country Slovak nationalists meet edu­ approval for a Czechoslovak state since Second World War and Slovakia's cational, cultural, and legal expenses, no support could come from the declaration of war on the U.S. on De­ such as those connected with Father Habsburg Slovaks due to their wartime cember 21 , 1941, did this mood change Andrej Hlinka's imprisonment in 1906. oppression by Hungarian authorities. out of necessity. With the United States' Dollars also helped subsidize the Hun­ Despite Allied awareness of this op­ recognizing the Benes govemment-in­ garian election campaigns of the Slo­ pression, the advocates of an indepen­ exile as the legitimate government for a vak National party. In the same year, a dent Czechoslovakia needed some reconstituted postwar Czechoslovakia, fund established by the American popular Slovak manifestation of ap­ Slovak-Americans backed their National Slovak Society, with over proval for such a state. Mass popular adopted country's policy, but many did $10,000, helped elect six Slovaks to the support for Czechoslovak indepen­ so begrudgingly. Hungarian Diet. 41 dence could only be found in the After World War II there occurred Slovak national life in every aspect United States with its large immigrant another great influx of Slovaks from prospered in America because the Slovak population. To rally Slovak­ central Europe, but not on the scale of ri gorous controls imposed by the Royal Americans to the cause, leaders of the the pre-1941 immigration. For the Hungarian government were not revolutionary Czechoslovak National most part this small immigration, con­ present. Due to this freedom in their Council (Narodni rada) and representa­ sisting of former officials or sympa­ new homeland, American Slovaks were tives of American Czech and Slovak thizers o~ the Slovak Republic, took able to assert their Slovak national organizations drew up the two above­ control of many Slovak organizations identity in a manner that benefitted all mentioned agreements. in the United States. As such, the Slovaks. Therefore the American After World War I, the Czecho­ mood of Slovak-American opinion Slovaks must be considered part of a slovak Republic, organized as a cen­ received its coloring or slant for the worldwide Slovak national entity until tralized state with a representative next two-and-one-half years. Prior to the creation of the Czechoslovak state government, continued to perpetuate 1948, these Slovaks advocated Slovak in October 1918. the notion that the Czechs and Slovaks autonomy, or to a lesser degree inde­ During World War I , the vast major­ were branches of the same nation. The pendence, while being apologists for ity of Slovaks, with the exception of government pursued this concept pri­ the Slovak Republic and its actions some Lutherans, did not subscribe to marily to increase the preponderance of between 1939 and 1945. After the the theory that the Czechs and Slovaks the 's Slavic element vis-a-vis 1948 Communist coup in Czecho­ were two branches of the same nation. its German citizens, whose numbers slovakia, the American Slovaks If the Slovaks fought Magyarization, exceeded those of all Slovak inhabit­ changed their priorities. Rabid anti­ they certainly were not going to be ants of the country. This "Czecho­ communism came to mark their think­ merged with the Czechs or slovakism," along with the centralized ing and facilitate their creation of "Czechized" against their will and structure of the government, horrified another common cause with American wanted documented assurances from many Slovak-Americans, especially Czechs. Advocacy of Slovak au­ the Czechs that no such efforts would Roman Catholics. During the interwar tonomy or independence did not die but occur in a common Czechoslovak state. period, they repeatedly cited all of received a lower priority. With the fall Hence the rationale for the Cleveland the wartime agreements recognizing of communism in Czechoslovakia in Agreement of 1915 and the Pittsburgh Slovak individuality and autonomy late 1989, the common enemy for the Pact of 1918 between the representa­ and demanded the implementation of American Czechs and Slovaks disap­

134 Ference· Slovak Immigration to the U.S. peared. Just as rapidly vanished their 8 Ladislav Tajtak, "Slovak Emigration and 27 Karen Johnson Freeze, "The Czechs," in cooperation in opposing what had been Migration in the Years 1900-1914," Studia Thernstrom, ed., Harvard Encyclopedia of Historica Slovaca 10 (1978): 48. American Ethnic Groups, 261-65. Communist repression, allowing American Slovak support for an inde­ 9 Hanzlik, "Zaciatky," 72. 28 Carl Wittke, We Who Built America: The Saga of the Immigrant (New York: Prentice­ 10 Ibid., 56-58. pendent Slovakia to return quickly to Hall , 1940),417. the forefront. II Julianna Puskas, Emigration from 29 Slove~ska vlastiveda (Slovak Civics), 5 Hungary to the United States Before 1914, Slovak immigration to the United vols. (Bratislava: Siovenska akademia vied a States was in many respects unique. It Studia Historica ASH, no. 113 (Budapest: Akademiai Kiad6, 1975),7. umeni, 1943-48), vol. I, 197. See also June helped a beleaguered nationality retain G. Alexander, The Immigrant Church and its individuality, which might other­ 12 M. Mark Stolarik, "From Field to Fac­ Community : Pittsburgh's Slovak Catholics tory: The Historiography of Slovak Immigra­ and Lutherans 1880-1915 (Pittsburgh: Uni­ wise have faded. Life in America tIOn to the United States," International versity of Pittsburgh Press, 1987), 4. awakened many nationally unaware Migration Review 10 (Spring 1976): 82. 30 Stolarik, "Slovak Migration," 27-30. Slovaks to the extent that before World 13 Hanzlik, "Zaciatky," 76-77. War I, Slovak national life was cen­ 31 See the thorough study by Alexander, 14 Ibid., 79. The Immigrant Church and Community. tered not in Slovakia but in the United States. With the creation of Czecho­ 15 Puskas, Emigrationfrom Hungary, 16. 32 Stolarik, "From Field," 86. slovakia, Slovaks in America continued 16 John Bodnar, The Transplanted: A 33 Stefan Vesely, "Prve slovenske spolky v to take great interest in the welfare of History of Immigrants in Urban America Spojenych statoch americkych" (The Early (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, Slovak Fraternals in the United States of their co-nationals abroad. But their 1985), 153, 166. America), Slovaci v zahranici 4-5 (1979): influence on Old World developments 11-14. 17 Hanzlik, "Zaciatky," 58-61. never reached the level of the prewar 34 Ibid. , 12. era. From the establishment of the 18 M. Mark Stolarik, "Slovaks," in Stephan Thernstrom, ed., Harvard Encyclopedia of 35 Stolarik, "Slovak Migration," 44. Slovak 'Republic and destruction of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge, Mass. 36 M. Mark Stolarik, "The Slovak Press in Czechoslovakia in March 1939, Slovak and London: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1980),928. John Bodnar, the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries With independence, though side-tracked for Particular Emphasis on the Immigration and Industrialization: Ethnicity Siovak-Am~rican forty years by anti-communism, re­ Press, 1885-1918," a paper prepared for the In an American Milltown (Pittsburgh: Univer­ conference on "The Role and Function of the mained the agenda for Slovak America. sity of Pittsburgh Press, 1977) presents an Media in Eastern Europe," Indiana Univer­ illuminating discussion of Slovak and other sity, Bloomington, Ind., Nov. 9-11, 1983,2. Notes immigrant workers in the mills of Pittsburgh. 37 Ladislliv Tajtak, "K zaciatkom Amer­ 19 Puskas, Emigrationfrom Hungary, 16. I Robert A. Kann and Zdenek V. David, ikansko-Slovenskych novin" (The Begin­ "The Peoples of the Eastern Habsburg Lands, 20 Ibid., 7. nings of S)ovak-American Newspapers), in 1526-1918," in A History of East Central Pohsensky, ed. , Zaciatky ceskej a slovenske'j' 21 Hanzlik, "Zaciatky," 80. Europe, vol. 6 (Seattle and London: Univer­ 195. ' sity of Washington Press, 1984),247. 22 U.S., Department of Labor, Report of the Department of Labor: 1919: Report of the 38 David E. Washburn, ed., The Peoples of 2 Jan Hanzlik, "Zaciatky vysfahovalectva Pennsylvania: An Annotated Bibliography of zo Siovenska do USA a jeho priebeh az do Secretary of Labor and Reports ofBureaus (Washington, DC: GPO, 1920),486-87. Resource Materials (Pittsburgh: University roku 1918, jeho prfciny a nasledky" (The Center for International Studies, University Beginnings of Slovak Immigration to the Take note that Slovak immigration reached its peak during the years 1905 through 1907 of Pittsburgh: Distributed by University of USA and its Growth to the Year 1918, Its Pittsburgh Press, 1981), 206. Causes and Consequences) in Josef with 132,630 persons and that with the advent Polisensky, ed., Zaciatky ceskej a slovenskej of World War I it dropped drastically. 39 Tajtak, "K zaciatkom," 195 . emigracie do USA (The Beginnings of Czech 23 Ibid., 369, 487. 40 Hanzlik, "Zaciatky," 88. and Slovak Immigration to the USA) (Bratislava: SA V, 1970), 50. 24 U.S., Department of Commerce, Bureau 41 Stolarik, "Slovak Migration," 104. of the Census, Fourteenth Census of the 42 The creation of Czechoslovakia is 3 William V. Wallace, Czechoslovakia United States Taken in the Year 1920. Vol. discussed at greater length in this issue of (Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1976), 62. 11. Population 1920. General Report and Nebraska History in Karel Pichllk's article Analytical Tables (Washington, DC: GPO, 4 Hanzlik, "Zaciatky," 50. 1922),973. titled "Relationships Between Czechs and 5 John Kosa, "A Century of Hungarian Slovaks in the United States during the First Emigration 1850-1950," The American Slavic 25 Ibid., 968. World War." Appropriate bibliographical citations will be found there. and East European Review 16 (December 26 M. Mark Stolarik, "Slovak Migration 1957): 502-3. from Europe to North America 1870-1918" Slovak Studies 20 (1980): 22. ' , 6 Hanzlik, "Zaciatky," 71-77.

7 Ibid., 63.

l35