Part 10 English

The dominant sense of the for English­speaking people is a book which presents in alphabetical order the of English, with information as to their , pronunciation, meaning, usage, rules of grammar, and in some, their etymology. It is closely related to lexicology, which deals with the same problems: the form, meaning, usage and origins of units. Although our concern is not to make dictionaries, yet a good knowledge of dictionaries will certainly be of great help to us in the use of dictionaries and ultimately the use of English words. In this chapter, we shall make a general survey of different types of English dictionaries, examine their contents and characteristics and discuss how to make an effective use of dictionaries.

10.1 Types of Dictionaries

10.1.1 Monolingual and Bilingual Dictionaries

Monolingual dictionaries are written in one language. That is the headwind or entries and defined and illustrated in the same language. The Monolingual dictionary is rather a late development because as the earliest dictionaries were all bilingual. The target population of monolingual dictionaries are general native speakers or second language and foreign learners who have reached the intermediate and advanced stages. LDCE and CCELD published in Britain are both monolingual dictionaries. Bilingual dictionaries involve two languages. The main entries are generally defined or explained in the same language with translations as Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English with Chinese Translation, and Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English with Chinese Translation. Or rather the are defined in another language or given their foreign equivalents. A good example is A New English­Chinese Dictionary and the like. Another kind of is A Modern Chinese­English Dictionary (1988), in which the Chinese words and expressions are translated into English.

10.1.2 Linguistic and Encyclopedic Dictionaries

Linguistic dictionaries aim at defining words and explaining their usages in the language. They usually cover such areas as spelling, pronunciation, meaning, grammatical function, usage and etymology, etc. These dictionaries can be monolingual and bilingual. Encyclopedic dictionaries can be further divided into encyclopedia and encyclopedic dictionaries. An encyclopedia is not concerned with the language per se but provides encyclopedic information concerning each . There the reader cannot find pronunciation or meanings or usages but other information. The well­known ones are The Encyclopedia Britannica in 20 volumes and The Encyclopedia Americana in 30 volumes. Encyclopedic dictionaries have the characteristics of both linguistic dictionaries and encyclopedia. In such dictionaries one can find the general information as in a linguistic dictionary and limited encyclopedic information as well. Take wind for example. Apart from the definition of what the wind means, the dictionary provides additional knowledge about winds such as types and names of winds, their velocity, force, etc. Moreover, the entries have a wider coverage including names, historical events and the like. Although most modern American dictionaries are tinged with encyclopedic features, the dictionaries which are really worth the title are few. One example is Chamber's Encyclopedic English Dictionary published in 1994. The dictionary provides all the characteristics of an English dictionary and a comprehensive world encyclopedia as well, for example , comprehensive coverage of history, politics, current affairs, the arts, science, modern culture and lifestyle, industry, law, economics, religion, institutions, and sports. It has a collection of 200,000 references and altogether 2,000,000 words of text.

10.1.3 Unabridged, Desk and Pocket Dictionaries

1. Unabridged dictionaries. As the name indicates, an unabridged dictionary is an unshortened one. Theoretically, it is a complete record of all the words in use (actually no dictionary can contain all the words in the language). But such a dictionary is the most complete description of words in use available to us. It provides a great quantity of basic information about a word: its origin, meaning, pronunciation, cognates, usage, grammatical function, spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, derived forms, , and homonyms. Many words that are listed in the dictionary are new, specialized or may have fallen out of use. Therefore, it should be large in scope and size, containing at least 200,000 headwords. The best­known unabridged dictionary is Webster's Third New International Dictionary《韦 氏新国际词典（第三版）》 (450,000). A book which deserves a special mention is The Word Book Dictionary《图书词典》. It contains 220,000 entries in two volumes. Its definitions are simple and clear, most with quotations and their sources. In addition, it includes study sections which differentiate synonyms and discuss their usages. The supplementary matter which provides useful information concerning different respects of use of language make up over 100 pages. As the dictionary is intended for the use of grade school and high school students, it is easy to read and so appropriate for Chinese readers among all the unabridged. 2. Desk dictionaries. Desk dictionaries are medium­sized ones containing words ranging from 50,000 to 150,000. As they are dictionaries that one finds most used on desks, they are called desk dictionaries. Among the best­known British dictionaries are The Concise Oxford Dictionary, New Edition (1982), Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary, 3rd Edition (1980), Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, New Edition (1987) and Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (1987). Some of the most known American desk dictionaries are Webster's New World Dictionary, 2nd College Edition (1980), and Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary (1983). 3. Pocket dictionaries. These dictionaries have about 50,000 entries or fewer. Such a dictionary provides only the spelling and pronunciation of each word with a few most common meanings. They contain only a few or no examples. Their advantages are being inexpensive and easy to carry. For someone who needs a dictionary by their side to check spelling, or the meaning of an occasional word from his/her reading, a pocket dictionary can be good. 10.1.4 Specialized Dictionaries

Special dictionaries concentrate on a particular area of language or knowledge, treating such diverse topics as etymology, synonyms, , pronunciation, usages in language, and computer, engineering, literature and a variety of other subjects. These dictionaries may not be very large in size, yet each contains much more detailed information on the subject than you can find in a general unabridged one. Among the well?known specialized dictionaries useful for learners of English are: The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, by C. T. Onions, Revised Edition (1982), Practical English Usage, by Michael Swan, (1980), ColLins COBUILD English Usage, (1992), Longman Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs, by Rosemary Courtney, (1983) Oxford Dictionary of Current Idiomatic English, (Vol. I) by A. P. Cowie and R. Mackin (1975), and (Vol. II) by A.P. Cowie, R. Mackin and I.R. McCaig (1983), Webster's New Dictionary of Synonyms, the late version seen in 1978, Longman of Contemporary English, by Tom MacArthur (1981), to name just a few.

10.2 Use of Dictionaries

10.2.1 Choice of Dictionaries

1. Monolingual or bilingual. Linguistically, there are monolingual dictionaries and bilingual dictionaries with the former written in one language and the latter in at least two languages. For learners of English as a foreign language, both dictionaries can be useful. To decide which to use, one needs to take into consideration the linguistic level of the specific users. For beginners and elementary and lower?intermediate learners, a bilingual dictionary is essential as they do not know enough of the target language to understand fully a monolingual dictionary. And they need to know the native equivalents to the words being learned. Some learners find that they can memorize words better if they know the meaning in their own language. In spite of this, for the post intermediate and advanced learners, it is more advisable to use more of a monolingual one. There are a number of advantages. Apart from the increase of exposure of the language, avoidance of misunderstanding by translation, users have to think in English, understand meanings in terms of other English words, thus enlarging vocabulary, learn the precise meanings of words and usage through definitions and examples. Moreover, the effective use of a monolingual dictionary will give learners a sense of satisfaction and self?sufficiency and greater confidence in their ability to solve language problems. Nevertheless, even after studying the English definition, learners still cannot figure out what the word means, they are advised to consult a bilingual dictionary. It is particularly good for dealing with technical terms such as names of trees, plants and animals, science and technology. 2. General or specialized. This is a much easier decision. General dictionaries are meant for ordinary users for spelling, pronunciation, meaning, and grammar. In some cases, such a dictionary may provide encyclopedic information such as names of people and places, table of measurement and table of irregular verbs. In addition one can find etymological information, idioms, collocations, usages, etc. more or less there. But all this is quite limited. To find more detailed information, one will have to go to a specialized dictionary. Specialized dictionaries are particularly good for language teachers and researchers. For example, if one wants to know whether a pair or mathematics takes a singular or plural verb, a dictionary of usage is likely to supply the best answer. If one knows the conceptual meaning of fable, fiction, legend, myth, story, tale, but wants to find out the difference between them, the ideal book is a dictionary of synonyms. If one wishes to express a certain idea but does not know the word, the best source is a 分类词典. In a word, each type of dictionary can be best in its own field of study. 3. British or American. For general use, a fair­sized desk dictionary published either in Britain or in the United States will be good as any such dictionaries are likely to contain all the commonly used words. But there is a general difference between British and American dictionaries. American dictionaries contain more encyclopedic information in the main body than the British, for example, names of famous people, places of historical interest and the like whereas British dictionaries, especially learner's dictionaries, include more grammatical information. Generally speaking, one may find British usages in an American dictionary. But as for American usages, users are advised to consult American dictionaries because chances are that such words are excluded from a general British one. If a reader has both British and American dictionaries at hand, the advice is to use the British while reading things written by the British and refer to the American while dealing with stuff produced by Americans. 4. Early or late. The date of publication makes a big difference in dictionaries. The language is never at a standstill because the world is changing and the changes are inevitably reflected in the language. New dictionaries keep appearing in order to keep up with the time. But this is in fact impossible. As a dictionary takes time to compile, once it is published, it is out of date in a sense. Nevertheless, a latest dictionary is supposed to include the latest changes and developments in terms of new words and new meanings. Take any two editions of the same dictionary published at different dates and one may find the difference without doubt. Therefore, to read modern literature of any discipline, a reader is sensible to use the latest edition of a dictionary that they can lay their hands on. Yet this does not mean that all dictionaries of an earlier date are undesirable. Dictionaries are the products of the ages. One of any age is expected to capture the age specified. If one deals with material of a past age, it will be good to use a dictionary that marks the same time. Of course, for production, the best choice is always a contemporary dictionary.

10.2.2 Content of the Dictionary

Everyone has at least one dictionary. But each may use it in a different way. Some people consult dictionaries just for spelling and meaning. Some may refer to them for production to a limited extent. A good many users benefit from them far less than dictionaries can offer. To make full use of the dictionary, one needs to have a good idea what exactly it contains. Despite the difference in scope, length, and depth, readers will find the following areas of information. 1. Spelling. The dictionary is the poor speller's best friend. It gives the accepted spelling for all words, including any alternate in bigger dictionaries with the standard first followed by their variants. In a British dictionary, the first spelling form is naturally British followed by the American (if any) e.g theatre AmE theater or vice versa in an American dictionary. Besides, one can find the different forms of irregular verbs, e.g. go, went, gone, going; various forms of irregular adjectives, e.g. bad, worse, worst; forms of compounds, e.g. boardwalk; double clutch; body­building, and syllabication of words in some dictionaries, e.g. in.op.er.a.able; capitalization, e.g. Labour Party but labour union. This will guide the user in correct spelling and `style'. 2. Pronunciation. Just like spelling, British and American dictionaries present their respective standard pronunciation. In some, one can find the British followed by American or vice versa. Some dictionaries provide variants, with the first preferable. But the systems of marking differ considerably. British dictionaries generally use International Phonetic Alphabet, American ones employ Webster's systems. Whatever systems the editors use, there will be guides or pronunciation keys given before the main body of the dictionary or at the foot of the page. To get correct pronunciation, one should refer to the guides and keys. 3. Definition. The main body of a dictionary is its definitions of words. As most words are polysemantic, the senses of words are arranged in different ways. Some dictionaries list meanings chronologically, i.e. the earliest meaning first, as in Webster's New World Dictionary. Most desk dictionaries probably arrange literal uses before figurative, general uses before special, common uses before rare, and easily understandable uses before difficult. The approach to definition differs too from one to another. Generally, words are defined in phrasal explanations, synonyms, illustrative sentences, and even with pictures to make meanings clear. We also find definitions given in full sentences as in CCELD to demonstrate use of the word, e.g canal: 'A canal is a long narrow stretch of water that has been made for boats to travel along or to bring water to a particular area.' Some use a controlled vocabulary to make definitions easy to understand as in LDCE. Most contemporary medium­sized dictionaries give context to illustrate the meaning and usage, e.g. pelt: `They pelted the speaker with rotten tomatoes.'(LDCE) This example provides a typical situation in which pelt might be used, and it also shows the kind of things that people throw when they pelt someone. 4.Usage. Most desk dictionaries provide usage information for example: (1) usage level: standard, substandard, non­standard, illiterate; (2) Style: formal, informal, colloquial, slangy, biblical, poetic; (3) currency: old­fashioned, archaic, obsolete; (4) register: law, chemistry, medicine, BrE, AmE; (5) colouring: appreciative, derogatory, euphemism, humour, pomp, and others. These will serve as a guide for learners of English in language use and help learners to use words correctly and appropriately. 5. Grammar. Apart from the usual coverage of word classes and inflections, dictionaries include various amounts of grammar information. ALD, CCELD and LDCE are all good examples. They supply a good system of verb patterns which are arranged as supplementary material before the main body (ALD) or located properly in the main text (LDCE) or in an extra column alongside each sense of the word in the main body (CCELD). This will also be of great help to users. 6. Usage notes and language notes. Usage notes explain the slight differences between words of similar meanings; difficult points of grammar and style; important British and American differences; pragmatic use of words such as the suggestive meaning or attitude that cannot be known simply by understanding the literal meaning of the words. All these are difficult areas of . On top of this are language notes, which give an extensive treatment of a number of key areas of language use, covering topics like 'Collocations', 'Articles', 'Idioms' as in LDCE and special entries like 'Title', 'Name', 'Age' and 'Date' as in CCELD. Each is an extended discussion of the area at issue. These form an important component part of language use and can be very helpful. 7. Etymological information. Most American desk dictionaries and some British ones give information concerning the origins of words. A little knowledge of etymology may help deepen our under­standing of the meaning of words. This is particularly valuable to researchers and language professionals. 8. Supplementary matter. Besides words and their definitions, most dictionaries include some of the following information: Abbreviations, Names, Weights and Measures, Irregular verbs, Word?building elements, etc. Such encyclopedic information is often helpful and convenient. In many cases, this saves the trouble of going to a specialized dictionary.

10.2.3 Use of the Dictionary

When we have made a decision on the type of dictionary to choose, the next step is to make use of the content. There is often such a situation in which different people use the same dictionary but some people find more information than others. The reason is that efficient users know better how to use the dictionary. To use the dictionary to the full, one needs to follow a few steps: 1. Read the contents page to find out quickly what information is included in the dictionary because this page usually provides a detailed list of the content, including supplementary matter. 2. Read the guide to the use of the dictionary, where the compilers explain in detail how to use the dictionary. Take grammar in LDCE for example. The guide lists all aspects of the grammar information included in the dictionary: word classes, inflections, grammar codes and phrasal verbs. Then it goes on to explain what exactly it refers to. LDCE is noted for its elaborate grammar information. It has a good system of easy?to?use grammar codes (new edition). Here, examples are given to explain what the codes look like, where they are put and what each refers to and so on. The verb patterns are indicated by such codes as [+obj(i)+obj(d)], which is explanatory by itself. The guide also explains 'A verb that takes two objects, an indirect[obj(i)] and direct object[obj(d)].' This is followed by an example 'I handed her the plate.' Dictionaries are reference books and helping tools. Their value and usefulness depend on the user rather than in themselves. To use them well one needs to get to know them well. The more familiar the user becomes with them, the better he can use them, and the more information he can obtain. A good reader may find a good dictionary a rich source of knowledge and a best teacher.

10.3 Three Good General Dictionaries 10.3.1 Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE) New Edition (1987)

LDCE was published first in 1978 and proved an immediate success with foreign teachers and students. It was noted for its wide coverage of new words, new meanings and new usages, for its simple and clear definitions and for its controlled 2,000 words used to define words and illustrate usages, and above all for its meticulous and complete grammatical information. Unfortunately, the last point seems to overshadow its success because the complicated codes have proved helpless to general readers. The new edition (1987) is the result of radical revision. It has 56,000 words and phrases, covering both American and British English with special emphasis on new words. Words such as space­time, space­shuttle, women's lib, generation gap, fax, laser printer, nuclear­free, ELT, TESOL are not found in the old edition. It contains 83,000 meanings of words and phrases with 75,000 realistic useful examples and additional 500 new helpful illustrations. As the new edition still uses a controlled vocabulary of 2000 common words, the dictionary is easy to understand. Apart from these, a few others features are worth mentioning. 1. Clear grammar codes. The grammatical codes are redesigned and become user­friendly but with no less information. The dictionary concentrates on three major classes of words nouns, adjectives and verbs. Take verbs for example. Verbs are divided into intransitive[I], transitive[T] and linking[L] verbs. Their actual usages are indicated by easy­to­recognise sentence patterns: [+to­v] verb + infinitive [+v­ing] verb + v­ing [+obj+to­] verb + object + infinitive [+obj+t­v] verb + object + infinitive without to [+obj+v­ing] verb + object + verb in ing form [+obj+that] verb + object + clause with that [+obj+wh­] verb + object + clause with wh­ [+obj+v­ed] verb + object + past participle [+obj+adj] verb + object + abject etc. These patterns are arranged right after each definition. For example, after the 2nd meaning of see, among the codes is [+obj+v/v­ing], followed by an example 'I saw him leave the house/saw him leaving the house.' If the code is not clear, with the help of the example there should be no mistake. For nouns we may find such labels as [C](Countable), [U](Uncountable), [P](Plural), [S](singular), [the](used with the), [the](without the), [+sing/pl.v](with singular or plural verb), [+to­v](followed by infinitive). These and others indicate clearly the actual use of every noun including proper nouns. 2. Usage notes The columns of usage notes have always been welcomed. It covers discrimination between synonyms and near­synonyms, explains about difficult grammar and stylistic points, differences between British and American usages, etc. For example, following the definitions of the word child, there are further notes explaining the differences between child, baby, infant, toddler, teenager, adolescent, youth and kid. Moreover, the definitions are dotted with synonyms and antonyms printed in capital letter, which is of great value to readers. 3. Language notes This new edition has enclosed 20 language notes, which are arranged alphabetically in the main body of the dictionary. They are special entries, each being an article discussing a special topic such as 'Apologies', 'Collocations', 'Idioms', 'Requests' and 'Criticism and praise'. Take 'Addressing people' for example. The entry explains how to address people on different occasions, different types of people: How to talk to strangers, to people of various professions, to friends and family, etc. It also supplies special forms of address: Ladies and gentlemen (a formal opening of a speech), Your Excellency (to an ambassador), Your Highness (for a prince or princess), MR/Madam President, Prime Minister. In addition, the definitions are revised and updated. Much improvement is reflected in the arrangement of meanings. Many meanings are reordered from the last to the first or vice versa. All the changes manifest current usages of the language, a significant move to keep abreast with the times.

10.3.2 Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary(CCELD)(1987)

CCELD is a brand new dictionary, similar in scope and size to Longman. Apart from the good points of Longman which it has absorbed, it has some unique features. 1. Definition. Firstly, the definitions in this dictionary are all in full sentences, the most readable of its kind; the definition itself throws light on the grammatical use of the word in question. For example, the definition of aide is 'An aide is a person who works as an assistant to someone with an important job, especially in government or armed forces' against the definition in LDCE 'a person who helps, esp. a person employed to help a government minister.' This definition tells us immediately that aide is a countable noun which should take an (not a) to show its singular number. Secondly, CCELD contains more meanings and covers more information in comparison with some other dictionaries of the same scope. Thirdly, the order of meanings indicates the semantic changes of words. Take gay for example. This word has a number of meanings, among which `homosexual' is usually labelled slang and arranged as the last meaning in many other dictionaries but the first and commonly used meaning in CCELD, which is true of actual use of the word. 2. Extra column. If we say the use of sentences to define words as a breakthrough, the use of extra column to deal with grammar information is no less significant. Against the traditional practice of , CCELD creates a extra column arranged alongside the definitions. This is where you find part of speech, usage instructions, synonyms, antonyms, superordinates, verb patterns and so on. Each meaning listed in the definition has a corresponding extra note put side by side. For example, the verb deprive is given such a note in the extra column 'V+O+A(of)', which means the verb is followed by an object plus an adverbial usually introduced by 'of'. In the main column there is an example " 'I'm not trying to deprive you of the necessities of life,' I explained." All the codes are explained and arranged as entries alphabetically in the main body of the dictionary like a word. So far as the content of the extra column is concerned, COBUILD is comparable with LDCE and is better in some way. For example, apart from all the information provided for adjectives one can find in LDCE, CCELD labels adjectives as 'adj classifying, adj colour, adj qualitative' and suggests the word order if the three types adjectives appear together: adj qualitative + adj colour + adj classifying. Suppose scarf has woolen, big, yellow to modify it at the same time, the order should be 'a big yellow woolen scarf' as big labelled 'adj qualitative', yellow 'adj colour' and woolen 'adj classifying'. The number of synonyms, antonyms and superordinates provided in CCELD exceeds all other dictionaries of similar scope and many large dictionaries as well. 3. Usage examples. In CCELD, almost every meaning of a word has an example to show its meaning and usage, most in sentence form. These examples are all selected from actual usage, not invented by compilers in some other dictionaries. This gives the dictionary high degree of authority. In short, CCELD is a good reference book for teachers of English as well as students. Using the dictionary is not just to find information about the word but reading practice, a process of learning the present­day English. The extra column is a miniature of a grammar book and the user is able to see the usage notes at one glance.

10.3.3.A Chinese­English Dictionary, Revised Edition (CED) (1995)

CED compiled by the English Department Beijing Foreign Studies University with Wu Jingrong as Editor­in­Chief was first published in 1978 and was well received both at home and abroad. It was the first medium­sized Chinese­English dictionary compiled by mainland Chinese on the basis of modern Chinese used in the People' Republic of China. However, as the compilation started in 1971, the dictionary was inevitably characterized by the historical period of the time, particularly in the selection of entries. In 1983 the work of revision got under way. The new edition met the public in 1995. It is noted for the following features: 1. ON the basis of the first edition, the new edition has an addition of 800 single character entries and of 18000 multi­character entries including catchphrases, sayings and proverbs. Altogether, it has a collection of 80000 entries. Among them are a large number of newly created words that appeared in the press. For instance, kala OK (karaoke), 霹雳舞 (break dance), 香波(shampoo), 抬轿子(carry sb. in a sedan chair­flatter rich and influential people), 菜篮子(food basket, food supply), 精品(quality goods, articles of fine quality), 拳头产品(competitive products), 扶贫(aid­the­poor program [a government programme for providing assistance for poor areas of the country]), 爬格子(crawl over squared or lined paper­write, esp. in order to make a living), 宏扬 (carry forward, enhance) are not found in the old version. Under the headword 拜, the old lists 15 entries but the new edition increases to 29, adding such words as 拜师 (formally become a pupil to a master), 拜堂 (old [of bride and groom] make ceremonial obeisances­perform the marriage ceremony), 拜天地 (same as 拜堂). 2. The new edition revised some old entries. For example, it adds notes to polysemous words and their definitions: 嫁 (of a woman) marry, 黄粱美梦(Golden Millet Dream [from the story of a poor scholar who dreamt he had become an official but awoke to find the pot of millet still cooking on the fire] ­ pipe dream). Some entries have new meanings added to them and some new examples. Under the entry 中途 (halfway, midway), we find the sentence 开会不要中途退场 (Don't leave before the meeting is over./Don't leave when the meeting is in progress.) 3. The new edition keeps the previous alphabetical order of entries, which makes the dictionary easy to use. It changes the method of marking academic or subject areas and word classes. In the old edition, the marking was done in Chinese, but in the new was turned into English. Moreover, alongside some simplified versions of Chinese, the compilers add the old complicated versions. 4. The dictionary boasts of the quality of the English equivalents it provides for its Chinese items. For example, 吃软不吃硬 was translated by 林语堂 into 'bully the weak but yield to one who fights back', but into 'open to persuasion, but not to coercion' in this dictionary, a version somewhat closer to the original in spirit. Another good example is 布衣素食 which is rendered as 'coarse clothes and simple fare' instead of 'wear cotton clothes and eat vegetable food', which would be certainly misleading to westerners. According to Wang (1980:190), real equivalence means equivalence not only in sense, but also in tone, sentiment, atmosphere, impact, style. The compilers' endeavour in this respect is reflected in the following examples: 没词儿(can find no words in reply/be struck for an answer), 他很会哄孩子 (She has a way with children.), 他想拉拢我­ 没门(He wants to rope me in­ Not a chance.) 帮倒忙 (be more of a hindrance than a help), 一个唱红脸，一个 唱白脸 (One coaxes, the other coerces.), 他脑挨克, 都皮了(He gets scolded so often that he no longer cares.) As a general Chinese­English dictionary, this one is the most complete and up­to­date, most elaborately treated. For general readers including teachers and translators this new edition makes a good companion.