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Groundwater Behaviour in Madeira, Volcanic Island (Portugal)

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Groundwater Behaviour in Madeira, Volcanic Island (Portugal) Groundwater behaviour in Madeira, volcanic island (Portugal) Susana Nascimento Prada · Manuel Oliveira da Silva · JoseVirg´ ´ılio Cruz Abstract Madeira Island is a hot-spot originating from a pendant le Post Miocene,` il y a 6000–7000 ans. Les eaux mantle plume. K-Ar age determinations indicate that the souterraines sont cantonnees´ dans des aquiferes` perchees´ emerged part of the island was generated during Post- qui se dechargent´ par des sources a` grands debits,´ avec Miocene times 6000–7000 years B.P. Groundwater oc- des valeurs d’approximativement de 3500 l/s, ainsi que curs in perched-water bodies, spring discharge from them dans les dikes. Une importante quantite´ des eaux souter- is high, about 3,650 l/s; in dike-impounded water and raine se trouve sur la forme d’eau de fonds, formant une basal groundwater. Basal groundwater is exploited by tun- nappe basale, qui est exploitee´ par des tunnels (1100 l/s) nels (1,100 l/s) and wells (1,100 l/s). Hydraulic gradi- et par des puits (1100 l/s). Les gradients hydrauliques ents range from 10−4 to 10−2 and transmissivity ranges ont des valeurs dans l’intervalle de 10−2 a10` −4, tandis from 1.16×10−2 to 2.89×10−1 m2/s, indicating the het- que les transmissivites´ se rangent entre 1.16×10−2 m2/s erogeneity of the volcanic aquifers. Water mineralisation et 2.81×10−1 m2/s, ce qu’indique la het´ erog´ en´ eit´ ede´ is variable, and electrical conductivity ranges from 50 to l’aquifere` volcanique. La mineralisation´ des eaux est aussi 3,300 µS/cm. There is a difference between groundwater variable avec des conductivites´ electriques´ qui se rangent discharging from perched-water bodies (43–201 µS/cm) ente 50 mS/cm et 3300 mS/cm. Il y a une difference´ entre and from basal groundwater (109–3,300 µS/cm). Ground- la conductivite´ des eaux provenant des aquiferes` perchees´ water average pH is 7.37, with waters acid to slightly al- (30–201 mS/cm) par rapport a` la conductivite´ les eaux de la kaline (6.13–8.4), and generally cold. Nevertheless, a few nappe basale (109–3300 mS/cm). Le pH moyen est de 7.37 samples associated with fault zones can be classified as avec des valeurs de 6.13 pour les eaux acides et de 8.4 pour thermal waters. les eaux a` faible alcalinite.´ En gen´ eral´ il s’agit des eaux froides, mais quelques echantillons´ provenant des zones Resum´ e´ L’ˆıle de Madeira est un point chaud, provenant faillees´ peuvent etreˆ classifies´ comme des eaux thermales. d’un panache mantelique.´ Les datations par la methode´ de K-Ar indiquent que la part emerg´ ee´ de l’ˆıle a et´ eg´ en´ er´ ee´ Resumen La Isla de Madeira tuvo origen en un punto caliente proveniente de una pluma del manto. Las data- Received: 13 May 2003 / Accepted: 25 January 2005 ciones K – Ar, indican que la parte emergida de la isla se Published online: 9 April 2005 formo´ durante en Post—Mioceno, hace unos 6000–7000 C Springer-Verlag 2005 anos.˜ El agua subterranea´ se encuentra en acu´ıferos colga- ´ S. N. Prada () dos, cuya descarga a traves de manantiales es alta, alrededor Departamento de Biologia e Centro de Estudos da Macaronesia´ de 3650 l/s; tambien´ como agua retenida en diques o bien da, Universidade da Madeira, como agua subterranea´ propiamente dicha. Esta ultima´ es Campus Universitario,´ explotada por tuneles´ (1100 l/s) y pozos (1100 l/s). Los gra- 9000-390 Funchal dientes hidraulicos´ var´ıan desde 10–4 hasta 10–2 y la trans- e-mail: [email protected] × −2 × −1 2 Tel.: +291-705380 misividad var´ıa desde 1.16 10 hasta 2.89 10 m /s, Fax: +291-705399 indicando la heterogeneidad de los acu´ıferos volcanicos.´ La mineralizacion´ de agua es variable y la conductividad M. O. da Silva electrica´ var´ıa desde 50 mS/cm hasta 3300 mS/cm. Hay Departamento de Geologia da FCUL, Edif´ıcio C2-5◦ piso, una diferencia entre el agua subterranea´ proveniente de 1700 Lisboa acu´ıferos colgados (43–201 mS/cm) y aquella del acu´ıfero e-mail: [email protected] principal (109–3300 mS/cm). El pH promedio para el agua subterranea´ es 7.37; con variacion´ desde acida´ hasta lig- J. V. Cruz eramente alcalina (6.13–8.4), y es generalmente fr´ıa. Sin Departamento de Geocienciasˆ da Universidade dos Ac¸ores, Rua Mae˜ de Deus, 9501 801 Ponta Delgada embargo unos pocos ejemplos asociados con zonas de falla, e-mail: [email protected] pueden ser clasificados como agua termal. Hydrogeology Journal (2005) 13: 800–812 DOI 10.1007/s10040-005-0448-3 801 Keywords Madeira Island . Basal groundwater . result of local climates owing to its perpendicular position Dike-impounded groundwater . Perched groundwater in relation to predominant winds which result in different temperatures and precipitation rates on the different slopes (Prada 2000). Introduction The hydrographic network is still in a young phase and is characterized by deep narrow valleys with a typical U Situated at 32◦45 N and 17◦ W, Madeira is a within-plate transverse profile due to the high resistance of the lava volcanic island, approximately 600 km northwest of the flow materials. Most of the rivers on the island have a western African coast (Fig. 1). The island is the exposed torrential character with high flow rates. They transport part (corresponds to 4% of the total volume; Schminke large quantities of solid material during the rainy season. 1982) of a huge stratovolcano about 6 km high, resting However, the rivers facing the northern part of the island on a 130-Ma-old oceanic crust. It is considered a hot-spot have a perennial character as they are permanently supplied originating from a mantle plume (Mata 1996). K-Ar age by groundwater, while in the southern part of the island the determinations indicate that the emerged part of the island streams have an ephemeral character. was generated during Post-Miocene times (<5.2 My; Madeira’s climate is influenced by subtropical anticy- Ferreira et al. 1988) until 6,000–7,000 years B.P. clone winds from the Azores. The predominant winds are (Geldmacher et al. 2000). from the northeast (trade winds) (Ferreira 1955). Precipita- The island, almost completely formed by volcanic ma- tion increases with altitude, and is higher on the north- terials, has an approximately E–W-elongated form (58 km ern slopes than on the southern slopes at the same al- long and 23 km wide) with the topographic axis running in titude. The highest rates of precipitation are at Bica da the same direction. Madeira has an area of 737 km2, a max- Cana (Fig. 2), at an altitude of 1,560 m, with a maximum imum altitude of 1,861 m at Pico Ruivo (Fig. 2) and about value of 2,966.5 mm/year providing an aquifer recharge of 90% of its area is higher than 500 m above sea level (Ribeiro 1,955.6 mm/year (Prada 2000). 1985). Madeira is renowned for its spectacular relief with An important aspect of Madeira Island’s climate is its impressive valleys and rugged sea-cliffs. The relief is the persistent nebulous covering of fog, which normally exists Fig. 1 Location of Madeira Island and Madeira archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean (Ramalho 2004) Hydrogeology Journal (2005) 13: 800–812 DOI 10.1007/s10040-005-0448-3 802 Fig. 2 Map of Madeira Island with the major localities between the 800–1,600 m altitude, during 235 days/year. also along the coast from Faial, Porto da Cruz to Canic¸al The average fog precipitation rates, measured under the (Fig. 2). abundant vegetation (Erica arborea L.) at Bica da Cana, Resulting from both effusive and explosive subaereal ac- is 45 mm of water per day (45 mm × 235 days = tivity and frequently cut by dikes, the CA is formed by lava 10,500 mm/year), three and a half times greater than the an- flows, scoria cones and pyroclastic layers. In the Central nual precipitation (rain-water) in the area (Prada and Silva Massif, there is a clear predominance of explosive activity 2001). These values illustrate the importance of fog-water represented by coarse thick pyroclastic deposits, marking as a source of groundwater recharge. the location of the main volcanic centres. The strongly weathered areas have a morphological char- acter close to that corresponding to clayey formations, pre- Geology senting smooth interfluves. At the lower part of some val- Basic volcanic rocks form the near totality of the emerged leys cut in highly weathered CA, the cross profile is V- part of the island, both in surface and in volume, reaching shaped with gently sloping margins. Where weathered, it values of more than 98% of the outcropping material (Mata is almost impermeable. 1996). Sedimentary formations are scarce. Terrestrial sedi- ments are represented by alluvium and stream terrace sed- iments, fossiliferous fossil sand dunes, sedimentary fajas˜ Lameiros-S. Vicente marine limestone (CM) (Portuguese word for littoral platforms formed by the ac- Presently, the limestone forms an outcrop of very reduced cumulation of slope deposits or by lava deltas), landslides, dimension, located on the right bank of the S.Vicente stream slope deposits, mud flows, while those of marine facies are at approximately 2.5 km from its mouth, and at an altitude represented by fossiliferous conglomerates, limestones and of 380 m. The outcrop is essentially made up of conglom- calcarenites, beach gravel and sand.
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