Volume IV 2009 Explorations The Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities for the State of North Carolina

www.explorationsjournal.com

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Center for the Support of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships UNCW Honors Scholars Program Randall Library, room 2007 University of North Carolina Wilmington Wilmington, NC 28403 copyright © 2009 by the University of North Carolina Wilmington

Cover photographs: “Cold Mountain, North Carolina” © Afterneath’s Storm via flickr “Downtown Raleigh Skyline” © Dtraleigh via flickr “Surf City Pier” © Andrew Odom via flickr

ISBN: 978-0-9823382-3-0

Produced in The Publishing Laboratory Department of Creative Writing 601 South College Road Wilmington, North Carolina 28403 www.uncw.edu/writers Staff

Editor-in-Chief Katherine E. Bruce, PhD Director, Honors Scholars Program and Center for the Support of Undergraduate Research and Fellowships Professor, Pyschology University of North Carolina Wilmington Graduate Assistants Amanda Cosgrove Department of English University of North Carolina Wilmington Derick Poku Department of Mathematics University of North Carolina Wilmington Copy Editor Tom Dunn Department of Creative Writing University of North Carolina Wilmington Layout Designer Sarah Brehm Department of Creative Writing University of North Carolina Wilmington Cover Designer Sarah Andrew Department of Creative Writing University of North Carolina Wilmington Publishing Laboratory Assistants Latacheé Howard Department of Creative Writing University of North Carolina Wilmington Mike Blair Department of Creative Writing University of North Carolina Wilmington Editorial Board

William Atwill, PhD Associate Director of Honors Associate Professor of English University of North Carolina Wilmington

Michael Benedetti, PhD Associate Professor of Geography University of North Carolina Wilmington Blake Hobby, PhD Director, Honors Program Lecturer in Literature and Language University of North Carolina Asheville Jesse Peters, PhD Dean, Honors College, Director, Undergraduate Research Center Associate Professor of English University of North Carolina Pembroke

Granetta Richardson, PhD Senior Lecturer in Film Studies University of North Carolina Wilmington Stephanie Richardson, PhD Lecturer in English University of North Carolina Wilmington Steven Singletary, PhD Assistant Professor of Geology and Chemistry Fayetteville State University Margaret Young, PhD Assistant Professor of Biology Elizabeth City State University

With special thanks and appreciation to the faculty mentors and volunteer blind reviewers. Table of Contents

1 Letter from the Editor

Humanities

3 Tess of the d’Urbervilles: The Modern Date Rape Case Ashley Gedraitis

18 Composition 2.0 in the Classroom: Studying the Integration of New Media and Multimodal Composition Sarah McKone

35 Subcreation as Synthesis of Language and Myth: The Power and Purpose of Names and Naming in Tolkien’s The Children of Húrin Stephanie Ricker

62 The Twilight Zone: Rod Serling’s Stage for Social Criticism Michael Tildsley

Social Sciences

85 List Linking as a Tool to Test Transitive Inference in Rats Leah Jordan

108 Intimate Advertising: A Study of Female Emotional Responses Using ZMET Evelyn Siergiej

121 About the Authors 123 Submissions

Letter from the Editor

t was with pleasure that UNC Wilm- Several people helped make the transi- I ington assumed editorial responsibility tion from ECU to UNCW a smooth one. this year for the on-line and print journal Former Explorations editor Dr. Michael Explorations. Explorations is a unique publi- Bassman and his team at ECU were quick cation: many universities have their own to lend support and guidance—especially undergraduate research publications, but Ms. Kendra Harris, Ms. Sue Chapman, I believe this is the only state-wide under- and Mr. Aaron Mickelson who responded graduate journal. Truly this is due to the so quickly to emails requesting help for the state-wide commitment to enhancing the webpage. Thanks to several folks at UNCW undergraduate experience—evident from for their support: Dr. Cathy Barlow, Interim the several years of well-attended State of Provost, Dr. Johnson Akinleye, Associate North Carolina Undergraduate Research Vice Chancellor for Academic Programs, and Creativity Symposia (SNCURCS). Ms. Emily Smith and her wonderful team In this transition year, we moved the at the UNCW Publishing Laboratory, Ms. editorial “home” for Explorations from East Amanda Cosgrove, Explorations web page Carolina University to UNCW, and sub- designer, Mr. Derick Poku, graduate assis- mission rates suffered a bit because of the tant for CSURF, the Center for the Sup- loss of continuity; however, the quality of port of Undergraduate Research and Fel- the articles remains quite strong. Three of lowships, and Mr. Bo Dean, Ms. Carole the four articles in the Humanities section Reynolds, and Dr. Bill Atwill for unflagging are thought-provoking essays on topics or support day-to-day in the Honors Scholars books as diverse as The Twilight Zone, Tess Program office. Dr. Courtney Thornton, of the d’Urbervilles, andThe Children of Hurin. UNC General Administration, has pro- The fourth article in that section highlights moted undergraduate research at the state empirical research on the use of technology level and lobbied for both SNCURCS and in the English curriculum. The topics of the Explorations. Finally, Dr. George Barthalmus two articles describing empirical research at NCSU, an ardent advocate of under- in the Social Sciences range from learning graduate research statewide, has kept the in rats to emotional reactions to magazine mission of Explorations and SNCURCS ads. We look forward to increased submis- strong. sions for volume V. Enjoy volume IV! All the articles published in Explorations have been through several levels of review. Not only were faculty mentors reviewers for the articles, but the mentors obtained two “blind” reviews from colleagues in the field before the papers were even submit- ted. Further the members of the editorial Katherine Bruce, PhD board reviewed the submissions over the summer. I thank all of these mentors and reviewers for their time and dedication.

vii

Humanities

Tess of the d’Urbervilles: The Modern Date Rape Case Study

Ashley Gedraitis Wake Forest University Faculty Mentor: Melissa Jenkins, PhD Department of English Wake Forest University

a p e : a l t h o u g h a d i r t y four-letter conversation with the legal writings and R word in most cultures, unspoken out- court cases of the nineteenth century, side of courtrooms and hospitals, many William Davis, Jr. argues that The Chase people still maintain a cogent idea of what scene in Tess of the d’Urbervilles was indeed it is—what it means “to rape” and “to be criminal rape. The legal definition of rape raped,” what it means to be the aggres- in nineteenth-century England was “the sor and to be the victim. From the infa- offence of having an unlawful and- car mous rape of Lucrece to the plague of nal knowledge of a woman by force, and date rapes on college campuses today, the against her will” (Davis 223). A further ex- legal definition of rape has been written amination of the law would yield the fol- and rewritten and its societal definition lowing disclaimer: “to constitute rape, it continuously altered and refined. Because is not necessary that the connection with of the capricious nature of rape’s defini- the woman should be had against her will; tion, it becomes difficult to pinpoint rape it is sufficient if it is without her consent” in historical contexts; literature is no excep- (Davis 223). Strikingly similar to various le- tion. From the beginning of its publication gal definitions of rape today, under English process, Thomas Hardy’s Victorian classic law, Tess’s rape was an actual criminal Tess of the d’Urbervilles functions as the per- act. While the text does not include her fect example of rape’s complexity. “The protests, it is also absent of her consent. Chase scene,” the marked moment of the Because Tess was obviously asleep at the main character’s fall, has been scrutinized time when consent was needed, she physi- for any evidence of rape. Yet the question cally could not give consent, tantamount remains: was Tess Durbeyville raped? to rape. However, despite the scene’s clear By assessing the text of Tess’s rape in alignment with rape’s definition, Hardy’s

3 Explorations | Humanities readers still debate Tess’s role in The consent, the rape victim still descends into Chase. In fact, this rape pattern contin- immorality and impurity. ues to soundly manifest itself in several of Yet by examining “The Chase” as a cur- Hardy’s revisions to the original edition, rent case study of rape victims, one can which further echo his own opinion on draw precise parallels between Alec’s sadis- Tess’s rape. These revisions, once affirming tic pursuit and violation of Tess and current Tess’s pure state, were removed to appease theory on sexual aggression and date rape. Hardy’s readers, who were unreceptive to Proving that the institution of rape has Tess’s original depiction of purity even af- remained unvaried for at least a century, ter her rape. The existence of the rape law, these parallel constructions can also silence coupled with Hardy’s forced revisions, ges- those who argue that Tess may have played ture to a culture that similarly viewed rape a willing role in her own fall. Through the as a dirty word, and thus, a dirty act. It ap- lens of an objective case study, Hardy’s cur- pears to have been easier to write Tess off rent audience can now clearly discern that as yet another Victorian fallen woman. Alec not only raped Tess, but they can also Acclaimed Hardy biographer Michael pinpoint the exact causal moments leading Millgate asserts that the call for the revisions up to The Chase. Together with the call “constituted a rude reminder of [Hardy’s] for revisions, readers can begin to realize dependence” on his audience and their the truly problematic nature of Tess of the own views (Millgate 281). Millgate contin- d’Urbervilles as a “feminist text.” ues to observe that it “seems extraordinary Interestingly, in Western culture today, that Hardy’s awareness of the contempo- Tess’s rape would not simply be thought of rary cultural climate should not have made as rape, but also as incest. Even while Alec him more attentive” to this discrepancy in counterfeits his connection to Tess and the his original text (Millgate 281). While many d’Urbervilles, his rape of Tess would at like Millgate speculate over Hardy’s disre- least be deemed “emotional incest,” usu- gard for his audience and for the literary ally considered to be rape by a step-parent marketplace, it becomes duly important to or a good family friend—an individual to note that, despite his “cultural awareness,” whom the victim felt a close, emotional Hardy originally adhered to his own belief attachment (Toufexis et al 57). However, that Tess remained pure. Thus, if Hardy— because historically marriage and procre- the puppet master of The Chase scene— ation were accepted between kinsmen—if maintained that Tess was a pure woman, not encouraged—Alec’s act would be con- she did not concede to any sexual acts. As strued as date rape, not incest. When ap- author Jane Thomas observes, “Hardy’s plying Tess’s rape to modern rape theory, writings display antagonism towards the particularly theory on date rape, one can necessity of particular codes of social mo- begin to draw many intersections between rality” (Thomas 23). Nevertheless, Hardy current rape models and Tess’s own rape, bowed to public and editorial pressure by set over a century ago. acquiescing to “social morality,” possibly In modern theory, a common precursor indicating reservation in his own charac- to sexual aggression includes sexual harass- ter construction. Like his own character ment. While, in the United Kingdom, “sex- of Angel, Hardy too “was yet the slave to ual harassment constitutes any unwelcome custom and conventionality,” even within behaviour of a sexual nature,” it is further his own novel (Hardy 208). This call for defined by the U.S. Supreme Court as “any revision denotes the contemporary cultural sexually oriented speech or behavior that interpretation of rape: regardless of her makes it more difficult for one gender than

4 Ashley Gedraitis the other to perform in the work environ- pro quo. To constitute quid pro quo, “the ment” (“Sexual Harassment at Work,” woman is coerced into having sex with her Bargh et al. 256). This analysis will use the supervisor or coworker under the threat of more detailed definition set by the United job-related reprisals” (Bargh et al. 256). As States, which directs the law’s jurisdiction the son of her matron, Alec would likewise specifically to the workplace; while the be considered an employer of Tess. After United Kingdom’s definition is very similar, Tess rejects a kiss from Alec, he threat- it is more broadly articulated. Thus, most ens, “you shall be made sorry for [your modern rape theory also utilizes the United refusal] . . . Unless, that is, you agree will- States’ definition. Because Tess works for ingly to let me do it again” (Hardy 41). Alec’s mother tending her fowls, all con- While some may argue that demanding versations and transactions taking place a kiss is very different from coercing sex, between Tess and Alec would take place in one must account for the increasing lax- context of “the work environment.” While ity in sexual norms; it is permissible to as- some theorists may maintain that consider- certain that a kiss to the devout Victorian ing Alec to be Tess’s employer stretches the woman may be comparable to sexual acts text too far, several remarks made later in to the average twenty-first century woman. the text refer to Alec’s authority over her in As Foucault argues the repression of sex in the workplace. First, as Tess reflects on her the Victorian era, a kiss is really the only current employer—a cruel farmer—she sign of affection rooted in sexual desire a decides that “to have as a master this man man was socially allowed to show a woman of stone, who would have cuffed her if he (Foucault 3). Thus, the stolen kiss functions had dared, was almost a relief, after her for- as the ultimate disregard of a woman’s mer experience [with Alec]” (Hardy 250). conceding to sexual access; today’s equiva- Referring to her former experience with lent to this disregard would be forced sex. Alec in an analogy of her masters and cur- Regardless, Alec threatens Tess, purporting rent job position, this statement reveals that her regret of the incident unless she grants the text itself argues for Alec’s role as her him this minimal sexual access. Also, as her master and employer. However, even if this employer, his threats dually carry a tacit job example cannot sway current readers, for security undertone. the purposes of rape theory, it is most im- Moreover, sexual harassment can include portant that Alec and Tess at least perceive the existence of a “hostile environment,” Alec to be her employer. This understand- where “female employees are subjected to ing is communicated in the statement made repeated offensive and denigrating sexual by Alec to Tess near the end of the novel: comments and behavior” (Bargh et al. “Remember, my lady, I was your master 256). For example, when Alec calls her a once; I will be your master again” (Hardy “young witch” and an “artful hussy,” Tess 261). When dealing with theories on sexual becomes very disconcerted; in the work harassment, the veritable relationship is environment, distress is considered an im- not as important as the perceived authority peding factor on job performance (Hardy in the understood relationship. Although 40–41). Furthermore, literally in her place some may still contend that Alec was not of work—the fowl house—Alec exacerbates her employer, both Alec and Tess acknowl- his harassment, saying “There was never edge the relationship, forcing Tess to react before such a beautiful thing in nature or accordingly. art as you look, ‘cousin’ Tess” (Hardy 45). In addition, sexual harassment consists While masked as a compliment, many physi- of two general forms, the first being quid cal accolades are considered to be explicitly

5 Explorations | Humanities inappropriate in the work environment. In addition, Tess’s manipulability of Not only does he breach the separation of character reveals itself in the opening public and private realms with a gesture to- lines of Chapter XXVII, when the narra- ward romance in the workplace, but he also tor asserts that “[Tess’s refusal to Angel’s aims to further fluster Tess, again inhibiting proposal], though unexpected, did not her job performance. Through his enjoin- permanently daunt Clare” (Hardy 136). ment for a kiss, defamation of her reputa- Now two separate men have commented tion through pejorative sexual terms, and and acted on Tess’s yielding personality. his unsolicited flattery in the workplace, Because both are conditioned to remain Alec’s behavior perfectly fits into the sexual steadfast in their different pursuits of her, harassment paradigm. the reader can reason that Tess’s reactions Another important aspect leading up to to grooming and her subsequent condition- sexual aggression is grooming. Sexual ag- ing of both men are not coincidental—they gressors do not immediately begin their are stagnant constructions of her character. abuse; rather, they begin to desensitize the However, as this atrophied will is solidified victim through smaller acts—testing the in her character, the reader must assume limits while simultaneously desensitizing it to be a product of parenting, home en- the victim to their increasing advances. vironment, or most importantly, society, One researcher describes it as the pro- still rendering her faultless for the rape. cess when the victim is “befriended by a As author Jane Thomas asserts, “Hardy would-be abuser in an attempt to gain… recognized women’s physical, mental, and confidence and trust, enabling them to get emotional susceptibility to convention” the [victim] to acquiesce to abusive activ- (Thomas 48). Because she is not aware of ity (Craven et al 288). Once the aggressor her conditioning and simply adheres to the realizes that he can obtain what he desires “angel in the house” convention of being as long as he continues to push the victim agreeable and accommodating, society and persistently, he is conditioned to become its expectations of women become partially more aggressive and violating to the victim. accountable—not Tess. He observes that with constant pressure, Yet as Alec attempts to entice Tess roman- he can get his victim to acquiesce. Prior tically and sexually, Alec’s act of aggression to threatening Tess, Alec had somewhat becomes aligned with today’s conception civilly requested a kiss from his ‘cousin.’ of date rape. Hardy himself defines the act Taken aback, Tess initially agrees to the of dating as “the country custom of unre- request, saying, “Oh, I don’t know—very served comradeship out-of-doors” (Hardy well; I don’t mind” (Hardy 40). While she 151). Although only Alec acts “unreserv- throws up a handkerchief between his kiss edly,” Tess is compelled to spend time with and her cheek, she still initially granted him Alec and appease him due to his status as this sexual access. From the very beginning her employer, still generally conforming to of their acquaintance, Alec detects a mal- Hardy’s own definition of dating; thus, by leability in Tess’s person, conditioning him meeting Hardy’s definition of “courtship” to recognize that with increased force and and the nineteenth-century definition of persistence, he can obtain what he wants. “rape,” The Chase scene indeed becomes Through his persistence, Alec grooms Tess date rape. The existence of rape in the for further sexual advances. In response to nineteenth century, not to mention its de- Alec’s grooming, Tess teaches Alec that he notative meaning, is validated through the can gain sexual favors through violence and OED definition: “To ravish, commit rape coercion—two methods used with rape. on (a woman),” cited in both 1861 and

6 Ashley Gedraitis

1885. The OED thus confirms the ahistori- but from “some of the younger women” cal conception of rape from the nineteenth about the town as well. This description, century to current theory. arguing that Trantridge condones or even Again, there are various precursors to the encourages loose behavior, reveals impor- actual act. For example, in a recent college tant information about Alec’s character. He study on self-identified date rapists, “every has lived in a place where sexual dissipation case of rape followed a fairly intense bout and drinking are not only common but nor- of sex play” (Kanin 237). In the novel, at mal; of course, he is bound to adopt some the neighborhood dance, “the movement of these attitudes. Interestingly, later in the grew more passionate…the panting shapes novel, Angel comments on the morality of spun onwards” (Hardy 49). As Kaye asserts small towns versus larger cities. When Tess in The Flirt’s Tragedy, “it is through the ritu- suggests that they can stay together because als of dance that Hardy’s characters locate several women her mother knew were able the symbolic distillation of flirtatious de- to overcome similar situations, Angel re- sires” (Kaye 144). Although Tess does not torts, “Different societies different- man necessarily participate in this sensualized ners. You almost make me say you are an dancing, she is still present for the scene unapprehending peasant woman, who have itself, as is Alec, who witnesses her there never been initiated into the proportions of in this sexualized context. Her presence social things” (Hardy 182). Coupled with at a dance, to a sexual aggressor already the above passage on Trantridge, Hardy primed for the act, can easily position her infers that not only are these smaller rural as a “flirt.” While no sexual foreplay had towns more prone to both immoral activ- actually taken place, Alec’s ability to associ- ity and the acceptance of said activity, but ate Tess with this sexual scene provides him these environments are what conditioned with enough heightened arousal to justify Alec’s behavior for his pursuit of Tess and this connection. This scene, focusing on the night of The Chase. the corporeal, arguably provides Alec with Moreover, in many instances of sexual a physical, more aggressive motivation for coercion, there is a power imbalance in that particular evening; he unconsciously place, favoring the aggressor (Murnen et al connects Tess with the sensual movement. 279).This power imbalance helps to engage Consequently, the town of Trantridge vulnerable victims, playing on their weak- too emits a general immoral tone. At the nesses, framing the aggressor as a necessary beginning of Chapter X, the narrator de- figure. In Tess’s rape, Alec benefits from scribes its defining characteristics: two distinct power imbalances, the first be- ing her emotional vulnerability. Upon rec- Every village has its idiosyncrasy, its constitution, ognizing they are lost in the woods, tears often its own code of morality. The levity of some slowly began to creep down Tess’s cheeks, of the younger women in and about Trantridge and eventually she “wept outright” (Hardy was marked, and was perhaps symptomatic of the 57). Tears and affliction feed into vulner- choice spirit which ruled The Slopes in the vicinity. ability and the want of a protector, a po- The place had also a more abiding defect; it drank sition which Alec immediately retains. An hard. (Hardy 46) even more significant power imbalance de- rives from Tess’s exhaustion: Again, a heightened sexualized environ- ment provides an ideal context for Alec to She was inexpressively weary. She had risen at be conditioned for sexual aggression; he re- five o’clock every morning of that week, had ceives encouragement not only from Tess been on foot the whole of each day, and on this

7 Explorations | Humanities evening had, in addition, walked the three miles to yes or no—when” (Hardy 55). While the Chaseborough, waited three hours for her neigh- conclusion of this sentence may have pro- bors without eating or drinking, her impatience to vided telling insight into her justification start them preventing either; she had then walked for her uncertainty—possibly in quid pro a mile of the way home, and had undergone the quo, reflecting on how she cannot say yes excitement of the quarrel till, with slow progress or no when “[Alec] is [her] employer”— of their steed, it was now nearly one o’clock. the reader does not need her to even finish (Hardy 54) the sentence. Tess does not object outright, giving Alec another glimmer of hope. Similar to sleep, alcohol—a reoccurring Through her ambiguous answer, Alec dis- factor in date rape—provides a drugged, cerns that tonight—unlike other nights— alternative consciousness, causing another may be his chance. power imbalance. These similarities be- Further into the night at the rape inci- tween alcohol and sleep are reaffirmed by dent itself, the reader can clearly detect a Tess’s thought process after Angel’s sleep- threatening environment developing as na- walking episode. She cannot reveal the ture lends its own endowment to the scene, events of the past night to him, asserting “it providing a cosmic power imbalance. With was too much like laughing at a man when “the webs of vapour which by this time sober for his erratic deeds during intoxi- formed veils between the trees,” Tess lay cation” (Hardy 197). With this statement, hidden and alone, waiting for Alec to re- Tess further illustrates the congruence turn to her—her safety solely dependent between an alcoholic stupor and an ex- on him now (Hardy 56). “With the setting hausted state. Thus, the tired victim is not of the moon the pale light lessened, and in full possession of her faculties, rendering Tess became invisible,” allowing herself to her situationally inferior to her aggressor. become more vulnerable to physical intru- Like alcohol, sleep left Tess drifting in and sion (Hardy 56). Additionally, when Alec out of an alert state, with little agency to returns to The Chase, “the obscurity was effectively defend herself. now so great that he could see absolutely More importantly, Hardy continues this nothing but a pale nebulousness at his feet, narration: “Only once, however, was she which represented the white muslin figure overcome by actual drowsiness…In that he had left upon the dead leaves” (Hardy moment of oblivion she sank her head 57). Nature heavily helps to construct a gently against [Alec]” (Hardy 54). This hostile scene for Tess, providing the ideal action—though remote and slight—acts milieu for the already-advantaged Alec. as further training for Alec. Not only does The simple description of Tess as “the he realize her drowsiness and subsequent white muslin figure” further develops the physical vulnerability, but he observes that typical rape scene. One significant char- in this drowsy state, he becomes appeal- acteristic studied sexual aggressors have in ing to Tess. Through placing her head on common is a candid lack of empathy for his shoulder, Tess gestures that she desires the victim (Bushman et al 1029). This lack his help and protection. He reads this ges- of empathy can be transcribed in various ture as the key to unlocking Tess’s sexual ways, including the lack of acknowledge- acquiescence. Furthermore, Alec’s groom- ment of the victim as a real person—a liv- ing continues when he asks Tess if he may ing, breathing human being. By describing “treat [her] as a lover” (Hardy 55). Instead Tess by the clothes she is wearing and not of overtly negating him, Tess murmurs, by her actual person, Hardy situates Alec “I don’t know—I wish—how can I say into a prime sexual aggressor position. He

8 Ashley Gedraitis now only views her as a pile of clothes, not her to a more vulnerable identity as a child a real person, and there is little guilt impli- before The Chase. cated by violating a pile of clothes. In continuation, the “course pattern” Possibly the most well-known character- traced upon her and “the possibility of istic of sexual aggression, violence plays retribution lurking in the present catastro- some sort of a role in the majority of rape. phe” further impart an ominous, sadistic Through a close reading of the one para- tone in the scene (Hardy 57). Finally, the graph where the literal act is mentioned, idea that Tess’s “mailed ancestors…had one can discern from the language that dealt the same measure even more ruth- not only is Tess an unwilling participant lessly towards peasant girls of their time” in the rape but also that the rape was of explicitly infers that the act was both ruth- a very violent nature (Hardy 57). The pas- less and indisposed. With these quotes pro- sage begins by reflecting on Tess’s current viding the only true context the reader has need for a “guardian angel” to protect her for the rape itself, one is left to reconstruct from ensuing harm. Hardy would not call the scene as a violent struggle, so harmful on the soldiers of heaven unless the situ- she needed her guardian angel. ation is detrimental to Tess’s well-being; The environment after The Chase moreover, if she had agreed to Alec’s sexual scene—also laced with violent under- solicitations, few would determine the act tones—further presents Tess as a victim to be harmful. In a study on child sexual and not a participant in her misfortune. As abuse, the researchers found that there was Alec and Tess exchange their good-byes, he little immediate or long-term harm done demands one last kiss from Tess. Acting out to a victim who readily consented (Rind of his grooming, she turns her cheek and 46). While some may argue that Tess was remarks, “See how you’ve mastered me!” no longer a child, Hardy makes several (Hardy 60). This language of ownership gestures toward her youthful, child-like constructs a master-to-servant relation- state. Before the rape, he remarks that Tess ship, rather fitting after Alec has unjustly has “a luxuriance of aspect, a fullness of seized control of Tess’s body and sexuality. growth, which made her appear more of After raping her, he now owns part of her; a woman than she really was” (Hardy 30). Tess’s comment helps to reveal his juris- This observation indicates that while Tess diction over her physical being after The may be physically perceived as an adult, Chase. As this scene continues, Alec com- she is still very much a child. Interestingly, ments on her obstinacy and reluctance to this adult-like appearance may position her kissing him, declaring to Tess, “You don’t as a more vulnerable rape victim—it is eas- give me your mouth and kiss me back. You ier to justify sexual acts on a woman than a never willingly do that” (Hardy 61). In this child. Hardy also notes that after the rape, statement, Alec openly admits that Tess “almost at a leap Tess thus changed from a has never willingly kissed him. This obser- simple girl to complex woman” (Hardy 77). vation—possibly a clue left for the readers While many other factors may contribute by Hardy himself—can also be applied to to this leap, it can be argued that the rape other sexual acts. Tess has never “willingly” forced maturity upon Tess much sooner given Alec her cheek to kiss; why should than it would have naturally occurred. Both one ascertain that she willingly gave him statements speak to her newfound adult- her entire body instead? hood post-rape, placing her in congruence Tess’s final comment of Chapter XII di- with the study that a lack of consent has rectly speaks to Alec’s coercion and unjust a greater negative impact and consigning advances. As she explains to her mother

9 Explorations | Humanities why she returned home, Tess rebukes her Employing language of “innocence ver- mother’s lack of teaching: sus guilt,” Alec admits his wrongdoing “to foul [Tess’s] innocent life” (Hardy 247). He Oh mother, my mother! [ . . . ] How could I be ex- later confesses to Tess that he “saw [her] pected to know? I was a child when I left this house innocent, and [he] deceived [her]” (Hardy four months ago. Why didn’t you tell me there was 259). Alec goes a step further and assumes danger in men-folk? Why didn’t you warn me? responsibility for the situation, stating “the Ladies know what to fend hands against, because whole blame was mine” (Hardy 247). This they read novels that tell them of these tricks; but I dialogue clearly places Tess in the role of a never had the chance o’ learning in that way, and victim; she was not only an innocent life, but you did not help me. (Hardy 64) Alec deceived her and assumes “the whole blame.” If Tess had consented to Alec’s The first striking use of diction surfaces advances, then Alec could not call her in- with Tess’s identification as a “child” before nocent. Furthermore, he attempts to make she journeyed to Trantridge, inferring that amends with Tess, remarking, “I owe you a mere four months later, she is no longer something for the past, you know” (Hardy a child but an adult. This accelerated ma- 280). Again, if Tess had been a willing and turity suggests that an event in her stay at consensual partner in The Chase, then Alec Trantridge forced her to let go of her child- would owe her nothing. He would not have hood. Furthermore, this event included taken anything which she had not willingly “danger in men-folk.” If she had willingly given. However, by maintaining that there consented to Alec, Tess might have chosen is an unsettled debt which he owes her, the words “seduction” or “temptation” in Alec infers that he stole something from men, but not danger. Danger again ges- Tess—and she never received appropriate tures toward Tess’s role as a victim, particu- retribution. larly when applying “these tricks.” Put into However, some will maintain that Tess’s the context of The Chase scene, Tess lost language acts to contradict her innocence, her childhood to a dangerous man, full of such as when she calls Alec her “seducer.” tricks; this constructed scene does not sup- Yet it can be argued that Tess’s diction can port the notion of consensual intercourse. still function within the framework of her Consequently, afterTess reproves her moth- rape. While she did not acquiesce to Alec’s er’s lack of “warning,” the reader can now sexual advances—she was not even con- confidently infer that Tess was raped. Later scious to do so—she still willingly accepted in the novel, Alec too comments on Tess’s his offer to drive her home, placing her- ignorance, observing “that it is a shame for self in the rape environment. Therefore, parents to bring up their girls in such dan- he “seduces” her into The Chase, not into gerous ignorance of the gins and nets that consensual sexual relations. Additionally, the wicked may set for them” (Hardy 247). if Hardy must mask her rape for his read- Not only does he place the responsibility of ers, calling Alec her “rapist” or “aggressor” Tess’s unawareness on her parents and not would blatantly assert her rape; therefore, Tess, Alec also suggests he, “the wicked,” her violation remains carefully nuanced be- had set a trap for the naïve girl. Exploiting hind selective language. this obvious disadvantage, Alec continues Redirecting the focus of the case study to affirm Tess’s innocence. through another lens, one can study Tess’s Further in the text, Alec’s language ex- rape by examining the paradigmatic roles poses more evidence to Tess’s victimization which Tess and Alec fulfill in the act. and not participation in The Chase scene. As the rapist, Alec portrays a common

10 Ashley Gedraitis characteristic of displacing responsibility “most of the time,” and they all have had for his behavior. He dilutes his own ac- “considerably more heterosexual experi- countability, saying, “I suppose I am a bad ence [and] have engaged in a more per- fellow—a damn bad fellow. I was born bad, sistent quest for heterosexual encounters” and I have lived bad, and I shall die bad” (Kanin 238). Similar to the date-rapists in (Hardy 60). By allocating the responsibil- this study, Car Darch’s outburst and Alec’s ity to not his own nature or actions, but personal revelation reveal his own height- to genetics and birth, Alec distances his ened sexual experience. person from his actions. In addition to this Equally important to an examination of disconnect, Alec’s history also aligns itself the rapist is the assessment of the victim. In with the typical sexual aggressor identity. the novel, Tess displays the quintessential The majority of men who identified as rape-victim persona. Her first exhibition of date-rapists “report[ed] that they had ex- post-rape characteristics is in her internal- erted greater efforts on dates with other ization for most of the blame, which can be women [previous to the rape]” (Kanin detected by her reluctance and obstinacy to 237). Similarly, fragments of Alec’s sexual explain the incident to Angel, four whole past manifest themselves in the confronta- years after the incident. When she finally tion between Car Darch and Tess. Car, ob- builds up the courage to confess her past to viously referring to her own intimate past him, she panics and confesses her lineage with Alec, becomes defensive and jealous, instead: “She had not told. At the last mo- telling Tess “th’st think th’ beest everybody, ment her courage had failed her” (Hardy dostn’t—because th’ beest first favourite 148). When Angel presses her, she simply with He just now . . . I’m as good as two tells him that she is“not good enough—not of such!” (Hardy 52). Indicating her own worthy enough” (Hardy 137). Furthermore, sexual knowledge of Alec, Car grants the in her letter to Angel after their separation, reader access to her sexual history with Tess writes that “the punishment [he has] Alec; as a result, the reader discovers that measured out to [her] is deserved” (Hardy Tess is not the first woman Alec has actively 264). Yet legally, Tess has done absolutely pursued. Later in the novel, Alec himself nothing wrong. These feelings of inferiority alludes to his extensive sexual past, telling and depravity are societal constructs—not Tess that her rape “was the very worst case legal sanctions. Unlike the centuries before, [he] ever was concerned in” (Hardy 247). rape law in the nineteenth-century func- Through Car Darch’s rejoinder and Alec’s tioned as an empowering tool for women, own confession, the reader becomes privy not a death sentence. Women could take to Alec’s increasing sexual resumé, further men to court on the basis of rape and espousing his violation of Tess, “the worst” actually win; they now had rights (Davis he has committed. 224). However, “working-class women Furthermore, as the chapter closes with were almost wholly beyond the reach of Alec “rescuing” Tess from the angry Car civil law. With their lack of resources and Darch, Car’s mother exclaims, “Out of the legal ‘know-how,’ women were effectively frying pan into the fire!” (Hardy 53). This outside the scope of the law” (Davis 227). statement too supports Alec’s promiscuous, Unfortunately for Tess, her internalized possibly even violent history with women. self-blame may be partially derived from This particular scene molds perfectly two her position, in both the gender and socio- separate findings from a current study: 62 economic hierarchies. percent of self-identified rapists reported Regardless, by both law and religion, Tess that they attempt to seduce a new date remained a pure being; the guilt she felt was

11 Explorations | Humanities reflexively inflicted and not from external May, between two and three years after the sources. Her internalized self-blame is like- return from Trantridge—silent reconstruc- wise demonstrated when she fails to report tive years for Tess Durbeyfield—she left her the incident. The narrator purports that home for the second time” (Hardy 79). Not when Tess leaves home to work at the dairy, only does this opening negotiate a new be- she can look at her great family vaults and ginning for the protagonist, but its language reminisce “that the individual innocence of of “thyme-scented” and “bird-hatching” a humble descendant could lapse as silently infer that sunshine lies ahead, as if the [as Babylon]” (Hardy 78). Not only does novel itself foresees this coping pattern to Tess abstain from testifying against her rap- be effective. Moreover, “big life changes” ist, this statement argues that her silence is are one of two strategies reported by Meyer premeditated, reflecting on the nature of and Taylor to cause less sexual dissatisfac- her silence, not that it is problematic. Her tion after rape (244). It is only after Tess silence is planned and accepted, further il- makes this life change that she can move on lustrating her self-blame. and meet her new romantic interest, Angel. In addition to blame and report, adjust- Tess overtly states the consequences of her ment patterns can be very telling in an as- life changes in her long letter to Angel, sessment of the rape victim. As aforemen- claiming that “the past [to Tess] as soon as tioned, Tess utilizes the coping mechanism [she] met [Angel] . . . was a dead thing al- of self-blame; in a study on rape adjust- together,” again illustrating how moving to ment, the researchers found that “both be- the dairy helped her to overcome her rape; havioral and characterological self-blame it became dead to her (Hardy 265). Tess’s were associated with poor adjustment” life—now rejuvenated—could start anew (Meyer 244). Another pattern Tess demon- with Angel. Dually functioning as both a strates is remaining in her house and with- literary device for the form of the novel drawing from her community, both also and a catalyst for the function of Tess as a associated with poor adjustment (Meyer character, this “big life change” is undeni- 244). While some may contend that Tess ably necessary to the plot. Although Hardy does leave the house to work in the fields, refuses to ultimately allow Tess true happi- there she still pulled “her bonnet…so far ness with his character of Angel, he does over her brow that none of her face is dis- offer her a temporary opportunity to move closed” (Hardy 69). Even while outside, she on with transitory happiness. continues to remain hidden. The narrator Yet Angel equally presents an interest- also notes that“one reason why she seduces ing pattern found in many individuals’ lives casual attention is that she never courts it,” post-trauma. A key turning point for rape maintaining that while people notice her, theorists happens when Angel divulges his she goes out of her way to eschew others’ own unscrupulous secret to Tess: “He then consideration (Hardy 69). told her of that time of his life to which al- Yet after her baby dies—the only hard lusion has been made when, tossed about evidence of the rape—Tess makes a “big by doubts and difficulties in London, like life change.” One of the only successful a cork on the waves, he plunged into eight- coping patterns found in the study, “big and-forty hours’ dissipation with a stranger” life changes” such as moving or switching (Hardy 177). After this revelation, the jobs have been found to promote healthy reader learns that both Tess and Angel have adjustment after a rape (Meyer 244). In the a socially unaccepted sexual past—pasts of novel, Phase the Third opens with, “On a which neither individual was aware. One thyme-scented, bird-hatching morning in marriage counselor observes that humans

12 Ashley Gedraitis

“have a tendency to get into repetitive pat- disconnect can be traced throughout many terns of relationships” unknowingly, such rape victims, blaming their body or physi- “as when a woman whose childhood was cal appearance for their selection as targets. damaged by her father’s alcoholism finds In Tess’s case, she too no longer associates herself marrying a man who turns out to a connection between her body and soul, be an alcoholic” (Scarf 46-47). Similarly, particularly after her pregnancy and birth Tess—a female rape victim—finds herself of her late child, Sorrow: “ . . . Tess had “unconsciously stud[ying]” Angel—a man spiritually ceased to recognize the body who potentially brought a similar fall to an- before [Angel] as hers—allowing it to drift, other woman (Hardy 101). Scarf continues like a corpse upon a current, in a direction this relationship phenomenon: disassociated with its living will” (Hardy 299). As the statement suggests, her body So often such similar issues—alcoholism, or the no longer served a purpose once it was vio- early loss of a parent, or even time spent in an or- lated; her spirit could not even recognize phanage early in life—pop out on both sides of the its corresponding physical sanctuary. The [partners’] family tree! We humans must . . . have act of rape can mutilate and permanently powerful ways of knowing about each other and it sever the connection between one’s self is this knowledge which draws us, in an inexorable and one’s body, as Tess’s is nothing more and almost hypnotic way, to the person who is to than “a corpse upon a current.” become the mate. It is the recognition, somehow, Interestingly, Hardy initially made Tess’s of what is familiar. (Scarf 68) rape more strongly correlate with date rape in the 1891 publication. In this edition, Not a coincidence, both Angel and Tess Alec gives Tess a drink of a cordial from “unaffectedly sought each other’s- com “a druggist’s bottle” which he “held . . . to pany” (Hardy 151). Indeed, Angel and Tess her mouth unawares” (Davis 226). The ex- upheld this unexplainable occurrence: just istence of this plot twist implies that Hardy as the daughter of an alcoholic married an too desired to frame the The Chase scene alcoholic, the rape victim fell in love with as a rape; he originally had Alec go to the and married a sexual aggressor. extent of drugging Tess in order to gain Furthermore, Tess portrays the bodily sexual access. Moreover, this addition to the disconnect many women who are victims story would have construed Alec’s actions of both physical and sexual abuse experi- as even more solidly premeditated, rather ence. In a study on sexual abuse and per- than a reaction to the moment created by ception of one’s body, “for [one woman,] quid pro quo, hostile environment, and her body was the physical entity that sig- grooming. Another revision—the removal nified her outside status. When the sexual of the original subtitle—lends itself to the abuse occurred, [she] felt she had lost her argument that Tess was a victim of rape body” (Thompson 357). Unlike Hester and not a participant in consensual inter- Prynne’s large “A” to denote her isolated course:“In 1891,Tess of the d’Urbervilles first status, many women view their physical appeared with the subtitle ‘A Pure Woman, bodies as indications of their sexual abuse. Faithfully Presented’” (Heffernan). The As Thompson states, “As is true for many text originally, before receiving any criti- women who have been abused, the split cism from the literary audience, positioned that [one participant] described between Tess as “a pure woman,” again contending her body and soul was an attempt to protect that the scene was not seduction or even herself from the pain she believed her body consensual—it was rape. This subtitle fur- caused her” (Thompson 357). This bodily ther elucidates Hardy’s own views on rape;

13 Explorations | Humanities the victim, though losing her chastity, was arguably, her subsequent murder of Alec forced into the act and can still remain avenges her rape, Tess still is equally pun- pure. ished with a similar fate for her self-induced A final revision, involving the length justice. Moreover, Angel’s reaction to Tess of Tess’s stay after the incident, endorses illustrates another view of rape through a Tess’s purity. The original text situates her gendered perspective. After Tess divulges leave of Trantridge the morning after The the details of her past, Angel tells her she is Chase scene. In the 1891 edition, Hardy “not deceitful . . . but not the same” (Hardy states that “it was a Sunday morning in 182). An incredibly problematic statement late October, about four months after Tess coming from a sexual aggressor, Angel can- Durbeyfield’s arrival at Trantridge. The not view Tess as “the same,” while Tess can time was not long past daybreak” (145). and assumedly must accept Angel’s sexual However, the revised edition states that “it decadence, which, ironically, was of a con- was a Sunday morning in late October, science nature. Angel is described as“a cork about four months after Tess Durbeyfield’s on the waves,” somehow unaccountable for arrival at Trantridge, and some few weeks his own actions, while Tess—asleep at the subsequent to the night ride in The Chase” time of her proposed dissipation—receives (Hardy 58). Positioning Tess in the role of full blame for her actions. the frightened victim, in the original text With this gendered lens, a contempo- she leaves Trantridge directly after her rary feminist audience can perceive why rape. This immediate flight infers that she the book’s acceptance after revision can be either felt too threatened or too frightened viewed as problematic. While the Victorian to stay; she had to remove herself from a audience would not suffer through overt de- dangerous situation. Yet Hardy again con- tails attesting to Tess’s purity, they received cedes to the contemporary public, with the and even welcomed the text with Hardy’s revision delaying Tess’s departure “some depictions of a sexual aggression double few weeks.” Yet this prolonged stay can still standard. This tolerance of male-initiated be conducive to the argument of her rape. violence can also be explained with mod- For example, her mother had not taught her ern rape theory. As Emily Martin avers in the appropriate behavior and protocol and Evolution, Gender, and Rape,Victorian science she was thus confused. Correspondingly, became heavily dominated by Darwinian Alec comments at a future meeting that theory, particularly with a strong empha- Tess “took [herself] from [him] so quickly sis on inheritance (Martin 364). From an and resolutely when [she] saw the situa- evolutionary psychology standpoint, sexual tion; [she] did not remain at [his] pleasure” aggression is an inherited trait in the male (Hardy 253). Possibly, Tess required time gene pool. Those men who successfully to fully comprehend what had happened “spread their seed” remain represented to her; three weeks later, she finally under- in the gene pool; hence, the more seeds stood and left. However, the original text’s spread, the more seeds sown. Off that urgency greater supports her position as a point, sexual aggressors who gain increased victim and not a willing participant. sexual access to a large number of women, With the current information on rape even through force, are more likely to be today, the task no longer becomes de- widely represented in the gene pool, pass- termining whether The Chase was rape ing on their own tendencies toward sexual or seduction; rather, the next step would aggression. In other words, sexual aggres- be to analyze Tess’s rape in conversation sors will engage in intercourse with more with rape as a gendered institution. While, women and father more children while

14 Ashley Gedraitis simultaneously passing on the inclination crime and an unjust institution, never lived toward sexual aggression. to see her reflection as “a pure woman.” By applying Darwinian theory to sexual Both she and Hardy needed at least a few aggression, male sexual aggression and more years, maybe even a few more de- even the possible consequential violence cades, for society to catch up. j toward women are natural proclivities for survival. While Darwinian theory does not address a male’s morality, it does address a biological drive towards prodigious pro- creative acts—without boundaries. Thus, an interpretation of the theory may call for an objective acceptance of male sexual aggression, assuming sexual coercion is a key to survival. Therefore, in a society that so readily accepts evolutionary theory, the blame rests not on the man but on the woman. Women like Tess are somehow supposed to ward off more powerful men as well as biology while also sleep. An analysis of Tess’s rape in accordance with modern rape theory yields several results. First, Tess’s rape—in the context of Alec’s pursuit of her framed as date rape—perfectly adheres to the modern rape paradigm. With the addition of the cordial, her immediate leave of Trantridge, and Hardy’s original subtitle, the reader can begin to piece together Hardy’s own view of Tess: she remained, as the subtitle clearly states, “a pure woman.” However, because his Victorian audience reacted so negatively to Tess retaining that title, Hardy erased several details that could explicitly attest to Alec’s rape and negate the act as consensual. Furthermore, readers’ accep- tance and approval of the text once revised provides today’s audience with a view of Victorian rape as a gendered institution. Alec and Angel are excused through an in- terpretation of evolutionary biology, while Tess is still held accountable for her rape, defined so by the legal system then and now as well as by the author himself. By con- forming to his audience, Hardy elucidates the Victorian view on rape as well as his own, functioning in this volatile gendered institution. Poor Tess, the victim of both a

15 Explorations | Humanities

Wo r k s Ci t e d

Bargh, John A., et al. “Attractiveness of the Underling: An Automatic Power to Sex Association and Its Consequences for Sexual Harassment and Aggression.” Social Psychology and Human Sexuality. Ed. Roy F. Baumeister. Ann Arbor, MI: Sheridan Books, 2001.

Bushman, Brad J., Angelica M. Bonacci, Mirjam Van Dijk, and Roy F. Baumeister. “Narcissism, Sexual Refusal, and Aggression: Testing a Narcissistic Reactance Model of Sexual Coercion.” Journal of Personality & Social Psychology. 84(2003): 1027­–1040.

Craven, Samantha, Sarah Brown, and Elizabeth Gilchrist. “Sexual grooming of children: Review of literature and theoretical considerations.” Journal of Sexual Aggression. 12 (2006): 287–299.

Davis, Jr., William A. “The Rape of Tess: Hardy, English Law, and the Case for Sexual Assault.” Nineteenth-Century Literature. 52(2)(1997): 221–231.

Foucault, Michel. The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction. New York: Vintage, 1990.

Hardy, Thomas. Tess of the d’Urbervilles. New York: W.W. Norton & Co, Inc., 1991.

Hardy,Thomas. Tess of the d’Urbervilles: A PureWoman Faithfully Presented byThomas Hardy: In Three Volumes. 1891 edition. Accessed from Nineteenth Century Fiction data base. http://collections.chadwyck.com.go.libproxy.wfubmc.edu/searchFulltext.d o?id=Z100038033&divLevel=1&queryId=../session/1227576186_11197&trailI d=11D36BF4CE2&area=ncf&forward=textsFT&warn=Yes&size=932Kb.

Heffernan, James A. W. “Cruel Persuasion: Seduction, Temptation, and Agency in Hardy’s Tess.” The Victorian Web. 2005. 22 Nov 2008 .

Kanin, Eugene J. “Date Rapists: Differential Sexual Socialization and Relative Deprivation.” Social Psychology and Human Sexuality. Ed. Roy F. Baumeister. Ann Arbor, MI: Sheridan Books, 2001.

Kaye, Richard. The Flirt’s Tragedy: Desire without End in Victorian and Edwardian Fiction. Charlottesville, VA: UP of Virginia, 2002.

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Martin, Emily. “What is ‘Rape’?” Evolution, Gender, and Rape. Cheryl Brown Travis. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2003.

Meyer, C Buf and Shelley E. Taylor. “Adjustment to Rape.” Social Psychology and Human Sexuality. Ed. Roy F. Baumeister. Ann Arbor, MI: Sheridan Books, 2001.

Millgate, Michael . Thomas Hardy: A Biography Revisited. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2006.

Murnen, Sarah K., Donn Byrne, and “Hyperfemininity: Measurement and Initial Validation of the Construct.” Journal of Sex Research 28 (1991): 479-489. “Rape.” Oxford English Dictionary Online, 2nd ed. 1989. Oxford UP. 25 Nov 2008 .

Rind, Bruce, Robert Bauserman, and Philip Tromovitch. “A Meta-Analytic Examination of Assumed Properties of Child Sexual Abuse Using College Samples.” Psychological Bulletin. 124 (1) (1998): 22-53.

Scarf, Maggie. Intimate Partners. New York: Random House, 1987.

“Sexual Harassment at Work.” Experts Advice to Stay Safe at Work. Safe Workers UK. 24 Nov 2008 .

Thomas, Jane. Thomas Hardy, Femininity and Dissent. London: MacMillan Press, 1999.

Thompson Becky Wangsgaard. “A Way Outa No Way: Eating Problems among African- American, Latina, and White Women.” Feminist Frontiers. Comp. Laurel Richardson, Verta Taylor, and Nancy Whitter. New York: MrGraw-Hill, 2004.

Toufexis, Anastasia, and Andrea Sachs. “What is Incest?” Time 31 Aug 1992: 57.

17 Composition 2.0 in the Classroom: Studying the Integration of New Media and Multimodal Composition

Sarah McKone University of North Carolina Wilmington Faculty Mentor: Anthony Arkins, PhD Department of English University of North Carolina Wilmington

e c h n o l o g y h a s a l l o w e d writers to analyzed in this study include new media T change the ways in which they com- and multimodal composition. pose texts. Because composition is such a fundamental part of human history and Pi c t u r e Th i s : Ne w To o l s f o r culture, this change is both important and Writing interesting. The integration of technology In “Writing in Multimodal Texts: A Social to writing introduces not only new com- Semiotic Account of Designs for Learning,” position techniques, but also new methods composition researchers Jeff Bezemer and for instructors to use in basic composition Gunther Kress make the argument that courses. writing is “no longer the central mode of In this study, I collected data from the representation in learning materials,” and University of North Carolina Wilmington’s that instead, learning resources are evolv- English Department to assess the integra- ing through implementation of images and tion of new technologies into the com- other forms of digital media (166). An argu- position classes’ curriculum. The data, ment, by composition researchers no less, collected through an online survey and a that writing is being “displaced” by image series of in-person focus groups, provide a may sound strange—almost like a math- sample of student perceptions about com- ematician arguing that numbers are be- position classes to analyze whether students ing displaced by graphs. How can words feel these technologies have been integrated be replaced by imagery? Are the two even into their curriculum and how effective stu- similar? dents believe these new technologies are for In order to understand this idea readers composition instruction. The technologies have to look at the argument in a different

18 Sarah McKone light: that images are not replacing text, composer’s background knowledge, ac- but are changing, or even updating, text. cess to computer, availability of software). Bezemer and Kress are not arguing that AnneWysocki, in Writing New Media:Theory authors of textbooks have abandoned the and Applications for Expanding theTeaching of written word for pictorial representations; Composition, says that“new media texts” are instead, they are arguing that it is increas- “those that have been made by composers ingly common for arguments to be commu- who are aware of the range of materiali- nicated through the use of an image that can ties of text and who then highlight the ma- employ the same meaning and purpose as teriality: such composers design texts that text but uses visual representation instead help readers/consumers/viewers stay alert of the written word. to how any text—like its composers and Some researchers argue that it is not only readers—doesn’t function independently acceptable but also beneficial to employ of how it is made and in what contexts. other mediums to represent text. In Effective Such composers design texts that make as Learning andTeaching ofWriting: A Handbook overtly visible as possible the values they of Writing in Education Gisella Paoletti ex- embody”(15). plores this debate in her chapter “Writing- As Wysocki explains, composers can cre- To-Learn and Graph-Drawing as Aids of ate new media texts by using a range of the Integration of Text and Graphics.” She the available materialities. For example, a argues that when learners are required to writer may be aware of his or her material- “analyze verbal, as well as iconic, informa- ity by recognizing access to graphic design tion,” their comprehension increases. She software and using it to convey messages, is arguing that, because readers use differ- by placing ideas into the public sphere with ent cognitive processes to interpret images the Internet, by employing the assistance of and text, readers may find that it is easier a colleague during the peer-review stage or to both understand and remember con- by using media such as a video clip in order cepts when the explanatory text is paired to make familiar his or her argument. with other media, such as images (588). There are examples of new media texts These types of media are not replacing text, that highlight this use of available materi- but are representing text through a differ- alities. In “Media Convergence: Creating ent medium. Technological advancements Content, Questioning Relationships,” re- allow text to be represented by not only im- searcher Jonathan Alexander examines ages, but also through other mediums such one particular example: a widely used as video, sound, web text and more. but extremely controversial “encyclopedia project” called Wikipedia. Wikipedia is an De f i n i n g Ne w Me d i a online encyclopedia that is free to use for When discussing compositions that inte- those with Internet access. The Web site is grate images, video, and sound into com- unique because users can be both readers position, it is important to understand the and authors, as they may also create a new writer’s tools, defined in the composition article or edit the existing articles. Wikipedia process as the materialities. Materialities provides some moderation over the site can be very encompassing, including not but the project truly offers the authorship only specific tools for writing (pen, - key of the articles to the public. Alexander board) but also the conditions under which defines Wikipedia as a “platform of mul- the composer is designing (public or pri- timodality,” arguing that Wikipedia is an vate space in which composer is writing, example of “converging media” (4). Using

19 Explorations | Humanities

Wysocki’s idea about new media texts, we relates to their research topic and then inte- can explore with Alexander the many dif- grate some of the auditory source into their ferent materialities involved in Wikipedia. composition. Wikipedia obviously integrates technology, New media can be found through a va- but more importantly it integrates collabo- riety of Web 2.0 technologies. Videos and ration and shared authorship into its web images are constantly uploaded through text. Wikipedia is not only a new media text social-networking sites like Facebook.com, because of its use of technology; Wikipedia where students can also post notes, docu- is an example of how texts can be manipu- ments or ideas. Videos can also be shared lated, using technology, to form new mean- through blogs, which easily link to video ings (4). Wikipedia houses materialities (the platforms such as YouTube.com. Images Internet, a wide range of participants) to are similarly shared through wikis, blogs, construct its text (documents that employ or a variety of other mediums. If students collaboration, shared authorship). simply find a Web 2.0 that is geared toward their subject of interest, they can find many Fi n d i n g a n d Us i n g Ne w Me d i a types of new media that specifically relate New media includes, but is not limited to, to their topic. In the words of Professor television or movie clippings, sound files, of Writing Arts Diane Penrod, “We are cartoons, animations, comic strips, pic- no longer bound to the constraints of the tures, graphics, graphs, video files, music print medium. This point is important as files, and web text. These kinds of new computers increasingly affect the teaching media can be found through a wide range of writing and the call to assess e-texts be- of Internet mediums, including podcasts, comes greater” (29). This process of form- blogs, wikis, social-networking platforms ing new media texts by using a range of and RSS feeds. These tools are catego- available materialities can be defined as rized as “Web 2.0 technologies.” This term multimodal composition. was coined because the technologies allow users to move beyond conventional tech- De f i n i n g Mu l t i m o d a l Co m p o s i t i o n nologies such as Web sites and e-mail. Web With the introduction of new media to 2.0 technologies are accessible materialities writing, it is natural to assume that there through which students can gain access to may be changes to the writing process. new media. Alexander argues that “Students fluent For example, a podcast is a Web 2.0 with digital and new media communication technology. Podcasts are auditory files technologies are often ‘mixing and match- that can integrate not only speech but also ing’ media to produce complex ‘multime- music or recorded noises. These auditory dia texts’” (2). The process is a multimodal files can be downloaded and then listened composition process. As students use different to using mp3 players or computers. They materialities and new media to design their may focus on topics such as politics, music, texts, tools that are becoming available due sports, entertainment, cooking, and more. to more advanced technology, they are not Podcasts can be a great way for students to only changing their documents but also the find sounds, in this case a relevant auditory process used to construct the documents. argument, to integrate into their composi- As multimodal composition becomes more tion. Therefore, the Web 2.0 technology, integrated into composition, students need in this case a podcast, may be used as a to be educated on how to write using a mul- platform from which to collect new media. timodal composition process. Students could find a weekly podcast which Fortunately or unfortunately, depending

20 Sarah McKone on one’s vantage point, the integration of of arguments, a new group of mediums a multimodal composition process into the through which writers can communicate, composition curriculum also means the and new designs with which writers can integration of technology. For example, if create arguments, is more than the inte- students want to integrate images into their gration of an additional step to the writing composition, they need to learn what con- process; this is a new process altogether—a stitutes a visual representation, how to best multimodal composition process. create or edit visuals to suit their message, After learning more about the many kinds and how to integrate those images into text. of technologies students were using to com- Daniel Anderson argues this point in “The plete assignments, I decided I wanted to Low Bridge to High Benefits: Entry-Level know more about the relationship students Multimedia, Literacies, and Motivation,” perceived between English courses and explaining that the evolution from “alpha- technology, or more specifically, whether betic literacies” to other mediums in the or not UNCW composition courses were composition classroom justifies the idea employing new media and multimodal that composition professors use more tech- composition. With this research question in nologies (his example being a digital im- mind, the study also seeks to respond to the age editor) in the composition classroom question/s: How much instruction do stu- (48). Anderson’s point supports the idea dents receive on writing with new media in that professors who integrate multimodal English classes? Do students perceive learn- composition into their instruction may also ing about the integration of technology in need to integrate the instruction of certain their writing as imperative to their educa- technologies. tion in English? Are students familiar with An example of this complication can be technologies, such as Web 2.0 technologies, seen through this article’s previous example that allow them to create new media texts? of a podcast as a materiality through which Do students expect to learn these tech- students can find new media. In order for nologies from their English professors? Do a professor to encourage the use of that students perceive a change in their writing Web 2.0 technology as a materiality, the process? These research questions helped professor would first have to understand me understand student perceptions about podcasts, how they are created, what they the ways in which new media, multimodal provide, where they can be found, and how composition, and new technologies are to integrate them into the composition it- changing the environment of the English self. However, there are other variables, class. such as whether or not students and pro- fessors have access to similar technologies Co l l e c t i n g Da t a and whether or not professors have access In order to assess the current percep- to technologies in classrooms where they tions of UNCW English students, I used are attempting to integrate new media and a sampling survey as a mode of quantita- writing, that may influence a professors’ tive research and focus groups to collect ability, despite awareness or desire, to in- supplementary qualitative data. To ensure struct students about these new technolo- the research project fit both ethical and gies and how to integrate the technologies university required standards, I submitted into their compositions. the research methods and project to the The integration of new media provides a Institutional Review Board. I received my new way for students to engage the writing IRB Certification for Human Research on process. This integration of a new system August 28, 2008. After one week of review,

21 Explorations | Humanities

IRB approved the survey model on October media, and technology. Each session lasted 16, 2008. no shorter than 20 minutes but no longer The project used SurveyNet, an online than 25 minutes. survey tool created by UNCW’s Information By recording the focus groups on video Technology Department, in order to tar- I was allowed to focus on the students and get the sampling. The sampling included their responses during the discussion, in- the following classes, which are courses in stead of focusing on recording responses. UNCW’s English Department with a cur- The video footage was used as a means to riculum that focuses significantly on com- quote student statements accurately. Video position: College Writing and Reading I footage will not be used outside of this proj- (ENG 101), College Writing and Reading ect, and if shown, will only be shown in ref- II (ENG 201) College Writing and Reading erence to this project. The qualitative data Advanced (ENG 103), Introduction to generated by these two focus groups greatly Literature (ENG 110), and Introduction to impacted the analysis of the quantitative Professional Writing (ENG 204). Professors data; in analysis, the two types of evidence received the link to the survey on October are heavily intertwined. 16, 2008 and 470 respondents completed By using a research design that enabled the survey. The survey was closed on collection of both quantitative and qualita- November 12, 2008. tive data, this project was able to describe In this research design, qualitative data the perceived prevalence of multimodal were also necessary because not all the re- composition in specific composition classes search questions could be analyzed with as well as describe the individual reac- statistics. For example, quantitative research tions of students to the use of multimodal can tell us how many students perceive a re- composition. lationship between English and technology. Qualitative evidence was needed to docu- Re s u l t s ment why students feel this way or how they How much instruction do students receive came to feel this way. “qualitative methods on writing with new media in English can be used to obtain the intricate details courses? about phenomena such as feelings, thought The survey was designed to assess processes, and emotions that are difficult to whether or not students perceive that they extract or learn about through more con- are receiving instruction on how to inte- ventional research methods” (Strauss 11). grate new media into their composition at Focus group sessions were conducted dur- UNCW. The first question on the survey ing Ms. Aimee Wilson’s College Writing I asked students to respond to the statement class and during Mr. Drew Virtue’s College “I often include digital technologies, such Writing I class. The sessions were con- as sound, movie clips, slideshows, videos, ducted during class time. Students were or animation, to complete homework or informed that there was no incentive for classroom assignments for English classes.” them to participate in the focus group, Survey responses to this question indicated that their participation was purely vol- whether or not there is new media instruc- untary, and that they were allowed to opt tion in the classroom because only students out of the focus group at any time. After who have integrated new media into their the consent forms were signed I created a assignments would answer agree or strongly seminar-style atmosphere using broad dis- agree. cussion questions to prompt the students to These data demonstrate that a large discuss English, writing, composition, new majority of students are not using digital

22 Sarah McKone technologies to complete English assign- these videos were useful, describing them ments, and also that only a very small mi- as “visual learning that relates to what we nority of students integrate digital technol- are writing about.” When asked if these ogies into their English assignments often. videos helped students learn or if these vid- One concern with this item, however, was eos helped to make class interesting, both that it could not account for students who, questions received a chorus of yeses. The despite their professors’ use of technology, students’ excitement about the digital tech- are not using technology themselves. nology in the classroom did not translate Survey question #2, “My English teach- well into a discussion about digital technol- ers often use digital technologies in the ogies in assignments, though, and in both classroom,” provided additional evidence sessions students had little to say about their to assess the research question, since the re- own use of digital technologies to complete sults showed students to perceive their use coursework. of technologies for English assignments as Students in another session said that their less common than their professor’s use of professors used Microsoft Word’s Track technologies in the classroom. Change and Comment tools, that allow ed- The data from these two survey items re- itors to insert noticeable comments within veal that more students perceive their pro- a document, to review and revise their pa- fessors as using digital technologies while pers. Also, Ms. Wilson’s students said that fewer students assert that they themselves their professors e-mailed their papers to are using digital technologies. Also, it shows them so that the digital copies, which in- that only about half of students (51 percent) clude the track changes and comments, perceive that they are exposed to digital were available. The students assessed that technologies in the composition classroom this was an effective process. Many of them at UNCW. The data supports the idea that admitted that they had never used Track a majority of students do not consider their Changes before, but they were fond of the use of digital technologies in their English process and did want their professor to con- assignments as frequent. However, it also tinue using Track Changes. However, when shows that the students perceive the tech- asked if the students themselves used Track nologies as more frequently used in English Changes to edit their own documents or by the professors, not by the students. peer-review documents with classmates, In the focus groups, students were asked the majority of the students said no. This to discuss how they perceived their profes- response is an example of how, despite sors to be using technology in the class- their professors’ use of a technology, stu- room. Some students in one focus group dents themselves may not be using the classroom said that their professors often technology. This discrepancy illustrates the used online YouTube videos to represent finding that professors and students simply visual arguments. One student stated that use technologies for different reasons on a daily basis.

Do s t u d e n t s p e r c e i v e l e a r n i n g a b o u t t h e integration o f t e c h ­ n o l o g y in t h e i r writing a s i m p e r a ­ t i v e t o t h e i r e d u c a t i o n in En g l i s h ? Researchers may observe a change in writ- ing due to the integration of digital tech- nologies, new media, and a multimodal

23 Explorations | Humanities composition process—but do students? students if they felt technology was related Students were asked to respond to the sur- to their future profession. In both focus vey question #11, “I see technology and group sessions, the students answered with English studies as closely related.” Most a chorus of yeses. When asked in what students (59 percent) saw a relationship ways they felt it would be related, the first between technology and English; however, student to speak in the first focus group ses- many students did not see a relationship sion simply answered, “Every way.” Clearly, and either disagreed or strongly disagreed. students feel that technology will be an in- Importantly, more students felt that there tegral part of their future profession. was a relationship between technology The qualitative data indicated that stu- and their future professions. In response dents might observe a relationship between to question #8, “I see technology and my English and technology because they are future profession as closely related,” more aware that technology affects communica- students saw a relationship between tech- tion and that communication skills are nec- nology and their future profession than essary in the professional world. saw a relationship between technology and English. Do s t u d e n t s e x p e c t t o l e a r n t h e s e t e c h n o l o g i e s f r o m t h e i r En g l i s h p r o f e s s o r s ? When asked, “Do students expect to learn these technologies from their English pro- fessors?” the students in the focus groups seemed divided. Most students argued that technology would be related to their future professions and that, therefore, stu- dents need to be educated about technol- ogy through English courses. However, Students explained this relationship fur- many students argued that technology is ther in the focus groups, emphasizing that not directly related to English courses, so English relates to technology because of students should not expect English profes- the relationship between technology and sors to teach about technology. Other stu- communication. Students recognized that dents argued that technology does relate to communication skills were an imperative English and that professors should integrate part of their English curriculum, and that technology into their curriculum; however, the effect of technology upon the system even those students were divided, as differ- of communication, in turn, affects their ent individuals had different ideas about English classes. When asked, “Do you feel what kinds of technology they felt students that there is or is not a relationship between should learn about in English. English and technology?” the students in If a majority of students feel that they the first focus group responded “yes” in will need technology for their future profes- near-perfect unison. One student argued sion, then is technology something they are that all students needed to learn about hoping to learn at UNCW, or something technology in English classes so that they about which they already know? When can “communicate . . . and get your point asked if students felt they needed to learn across in a personal format . . . but also in a more technology or if they felt they already professional format.” knew about technology, one student an- One focus group question asked the swered, “Kinda a little bit of both . . . you

24 Sarah McKone learn the basics of, like, social commu- you should have to use everyday . . . like nication on your own, just, like, the edit- Microsoft Office, the whole Office suite.” ing online and all that stuff . . . you have to One student simply said, “They’re teach- learn here.” Another student followed that ing us English. It’s not a computer class.” statement with, “We know how to use com- Not all the students agreed with this state- puters more than our parents do so . . . we ment. One student pointed out, “You need are going to have to learn more—but we to learn about technology . . . It should be already know a lot.” The focus group re- more integrated, just so we’re prepared, ev- sponses show that, although students rec- erything’s continuously getting more tech- ognize that they need to have a good un- nological so the more you use this stuff the derstanding of technology for their future better.” Another student said, “[The pro- profession, most students are confident that fessor’s] job is not really to teach us tech- they already have a knowledge base. nology. Their job is to teach us whatever In order to collect data to show who stu- the subject is, but if they feel comfortable dents felt should be responsible for technol- teaching [about technology] I don’t see ogy instruction, the focus groups were also why they shouldn’t . . . If the technology is asked if they felt that technology should be going to help them teach English, then they taught in the “basic studies,” or the courses should teach it; if not, English should take that all UNCW students are required to precedent.” take in order to earn their degree. One A majority of students did not seem student responded that she felt basic stud- comfortable asking English professors to ies should have required computer classes. teach about technology. They argued that Another student agreed, but took the ar- technology was not a part of the professors’ gument a step further. “I don’t think we jobs but that they should have a knowl- should learn [about technology] from our edge base in case students have questions. English professors . . . if you want to learn Some students did argue that a required about computers, go to a computer class.” computer class for basic studies might be a As students discussed this topic, they also good idea. Other students stated that, if the began to debate whether or not English technology relates to the topic or helps the professors should be concerned with inte- professor teach, then it should be taught, grating technology into their curriculum. but that the course’s subject matter takes One student stated, “I think if you ask a precedent. However, all students did seem professor for help [with technology] they to agree that if the technology was appli- should know how to do it . . . but an entire cable to the coursework then it should be class period shouldn’t be devoted to tech- taught—so if students knew more about nology. That’s not their job.” new media and multimodal composition, These statements promoted a dialogue would they encourage more technology in within the focus group. Students began English courses? arguing about different levels of techno- logical education in the English classroom. Ar e s t u d e n t s f a m i l i a r w i t h t e c h ­ One student stated, “I think it’s necessary n o l o g i e s , s u c h a s We b 2.0 t e c h n o l ­ to keep a balance in the classroom . . . if we o g i e s , t h a t a l l o w t h e m t o c r e a t e start getting too into technology we’re going n e w m e d i a t e x t s ? to lose some of our writing skills.” Another Web 2.0 technologies are mediums through followed this response with his own idea, which students can collect new media tech- arguing “I think . . . basics. The teachers nologies, such as images, sound or video, to should tell you about technologies, things use with their writing. The data from survey

25 Explorations | Humanities question #18, “I am proficient with blogs, home use would not be distracting. wikis, or other Web 2.0 technologies,” The survey data demonstrate that only a demonstrate that a majority of students do minority of students is proficient with these not feel that they are proficient with blogs Web 2.0 technologies. The focus group or wikis, and only a small majority of stu- data showed that most students are aware dents feel that they are very proficient. The of these Web 2.0 technologies, as we dis- results of this question are comparable to cussed them freely, but a majority of stu- survey question #1, “I often include digital dents simply did not seem to use them on a technologies, such as sound, movie clips, regular basis. Also, when referring to Web slideshows, videos, or animation, to com- 2.0 technologies, the majority of students plete homework or classroom assignments seemed to perceive the only useful applica- for English classes.” In both questions, a tion of these technologies in the classroom majority of students answered strongly dis- as communicative tools, and did not view agree or disagree and only a small percent- Web 2.0 technologies as mediums through age of students answered strongly agree. which to collect new media or conduct These data demonstrate that students who fruitful research for academic courses. use Web 2.0 technologies may be more There is one exception to this analy- likely, willing, or able to integrate digital sis: social-networking tools. Although so- technologies into their English assignments, cial networks are similar to most Web 2.0 and that students who do not integrate technologies in their interactive elements technologies into their assignments may and novelty, the survey included a sepa- not be doing so because they are not aware rate question about social networks such as of how to use these technologies. Facebook and MySpace because, as an un- In both classes, the focus group sessions dergraduate, I hypothesized that students turned to the topic of digital technologies. may be much more proficient with social When students were discussing the possibil- networks than other Web 2.0 technologies. ities for technologies in the classroom they The evidence did demonstrate this point, began to discuss certain Internet technolo- as an overwhelming majority of students gies that they felt professors could utilize in answered strongly agree when asked to re- order to make class more interesting or ac- spond to the survey question #17, “I am cessible. A majority of the students referred proficient with social-networking sites like to Instant Messaging technologies, such Facebook or Myspace.” as AOL Instant Messenger (AIM) or chat Clearly, there is a very high level of pro- rooms. Some students argued that these ficiency for social network use especially technologies would allow a class to col- compared to the lower levels of proficiency laborate; other students argued that these students demonstrated toward Web 2.0 technologies would make professors more technologies in general. accessible when students needed them to answer questions. Other students brought up blogs, but only referred to this Web 2.0 technology as a useful tool for the profes- sor to communicate to students, not as a tool which students could use to complete research or obtain materials for a paper. Other students argued that the introduc- tion of these technologies into the class- room would be too distracting, but that

26 Sarah McKone

While students are proficient with these students were shown various applications social-network technologies, are they us- for using Facebook in the classroom they ing them to complete their assignments? would be receptive. However, there will still When asked to respond to survey question be a few students who would see these les- #5 “I often use social-networking sites, like sons as an infringement upon their personal Facebook or Myspace, when completing space, because Facebook can contain very English assignments,” more than three- personal content and not all students are fourths disagreed or strongly disagreed (78 aware of how to change the privacy setting percent). Previous evidence demonstrates on their page to make the content private. that this low usage rate is not due to stu- dents’ proficiency; in fact, students seem to Do s t u d e n t s p e r c e i v e a c h a n g e in be overwhelmingly proficient with social t h e i r writing p r o c e s s ? networks. There must be another reason Overall, students do not perceive a change for why these technologies are not being in their writing process due to technolo- used in the classroom. gies or new media. Due to the interactive In the focus group sessions, students dis- nature of some of these technologies, it cussed the use of Facebook for classroom seemed logical that students would be will- assignments. Many students admitted that, ing, if not excited, to use them in the class- when they are asked to complete group room and in their assignments. However, work with other students, the most com- evidence did not support this hypothesis. mon form of communication is actually Instead, students do not perceive digital Facebook. However, they did not seem re- technologies as commonly used in English ceptive to the idea of using Facebook for assignments. Only about half of the stu- assignments. Students argued that they did dents polled perceived their professors as not want all of their professors on their commonly using digital technologies. Most Facebook page because their social network students do not believe that they are profi- was for personal use. In one focus group cient with Web 2.0 technologies. Students session, when I asked the students if they did recognize, however, that there is a re- would talk to professors on Facebook, one lationship between English and technol- student stated quickly, “That’d be creepy.” ogy, and that technology affects common The focus groups demonstrated that, al- communication. though students are comfortable and pro- One of the reasons students do not per- ficient with social networks, they are not ceive a change in their writing process comfortable using social networks for could be because of the way in which stu- coursework, because they believe that us- dents have been exposed to technology. In ing Facebook with professors would be an the Demographics section of the survey infringement upon their personal space. students were asked in question #23, “At Despite student proficiency with social what age did you begin to have access to networks, a majority of students are not a household computer?” The question in- proficient with Web 2.0 technologies. Also, cluded instructions which read, “Choose despite student proficiency with social net- the age at which you began to have regular works, students may use Facebook to com- access to a computer in your home, or ac- municate with other students but are not cess to a personal or family computer. Do using Facebook for classroom assignments. not include access to a school, library or As an individual who used Facebook as an public computer when answering this ques- undergraduate and continues to use social tion.” Of the 425 students who answered networking tools today, I believe that if this question, the majority of students (60

27 Explorations | Humanities percent) answered age 5–10 and only two that students who were not using new me- students answered that they have never had dia in the classroom had simply not been access to a household computer. exposed to those technologies by their pro- Access may be an important factor to fessors. Certain composition researchers consider when responding to this question. and some of their statements about new If a majority of students has had access to a media and technology instruction greatly computer since they were 10 years old, they influenced my initial research. For exam- may not perceive technology as changing ple, researcher Craig Stroupe wrote “In the writing process because technology has teaching New Media Writing at the univer- always been an integral part of their writing sity… the necessity of using, and therefore process. teaching and learning, various information technologies foregrounds the instrumental mechanics of producing satisfactory texts” (244). Originally, when researching the use of new media in the classroom, I did not consider many factors outside of professors’ instruction. I viewed a professor’s introduc- tion of new media as the sole factor respon- sible for the integration of new media in the classroom. I am aware that many pro- fessors may not be focusing their curricu- Co n c l u s i o n s lums on new media or multimodal compo- Initial research about multimodal composi- sition, may not be using digital or Internet tion made different technological advance- technologies in the classroom, or may not ments in composition sound interesting be requiring that new media be used in and applicable. That research promoted their students’ assignments. However, after a hypothesis that students and professors collecting data in the focus group sessions, at UNCW would be integrating new me- analyzing the survey data, and continuing dia and multimodal composition in their my research, I think that the minimal use writing and classrooms. However, the data of multimodal composition at UNCW may collected in this survey demonstrated that be due to many factors. this usage is not widespread in composition Students, who do not seem aware of the courses, and that the majority of students ways in which new media can be used in are not integrating new media into their the classroom, are not asking that new me- writing, are not familiar with Web 2.0 tech- dia be taught in their composition classes. nologies, and are not sure that professors In turn, they do not expect for technology should be required to teach about these to be taught in their composition classes as technologies in the classroom. they do not see technology as directly relat- After reviewing both quantitative and ing to the subject matter. If this is true, then qualitative data, I do not think that students composition instructors may not be given are using a multimodal composition pro- the tools they need to teach technology in cess at UNCW. However, throughout the a composition class, because students are course of this research, I have developed not expecting or demanding to learn about different conclusions aboutwhy students those technologies. From an administrative are not utilizing multimodal composition. perspective, there may seem to be no need During the beginning of this research proj- for composition instructors to have access ect, I believed that at the center of new to expensive classroom technology. media use was the use of technology, and If students were more aware of the effect

28 Sarah McKone that new media can have on their writing not have computers at all. Without access and communication skills, they might ask to technology, it will be extremely difficult for technology in all of their humanities- for students to learn how to integrate tech- based classes. Students demonstrated in nology into their writing. It will be difficult both their survey responses and focus group for professors to demonstrate the usefulness responses that they are willing to learn of new media, the correct usage of new about technology and to use technology if media in composition, or the ways in which it is related to the subject matter. Further, students use Internet technologies to find students overwhelmingly felt that technol- new media. ogy would relate to their future professions. If I were to continue this project, I would I think that as technology continues to investigate these research questions further develop and becomes more central to our by looking at the integration of multimodal daily lives, it will continue to become more composition at other programs in other integrated into writing and other forms of schools. I would like to investigate the ways communication. While writing skills will in which new media is incorporated into always be crucial, other elements, such as composition classes by finding examples of understanding technologies that can en- specific assignments and lectures. I would hance compositions, an awareness of ma- like to research whether or not English pro- terialities as a way to increase a reader’s fessors feel that digital technologies should comprehension, or even the ability to com- be included in instruction, how they feel it municate messages through modes other should be included, and also what types of than text, may also become important to access are needed from administrations in the writing process and students will need order to teach with a multimodal composi- to learn how to incorporate these elements tion process. I would also like to research into their writing if they hope to succeed in current trends in composition instruction the future. to see how multimodal composition is be- In order to ask students to complete tasks ing employed in the classroom and whether using software, web editing programs, or or not both students and professors feel it other Internet technologies, professors will is successful. After researching Web 2.0 need a working knowledge of the technol- technologies, I would like to learn more ogy so that they may field questions or about how these technologies can be used demonstrate usage to students who are not not only to find new media but also to inte- proficient with the technology. However, grate collaboration into the writing process. knowledge alone is not enough for pro- Finally, I would like to study the levels of fessors to teach applicable technologies. access most composition instructors have Professors also need access to technology to computers, projectors, and other tech- in the classroom. In the UNCW aca- nologies in the classroom, as this research demic building which houses the English project has shown me how important that Department, there is only one computer factor may be to the relationship between classroom with computers available to all English and technology. j students in the class. Also only a portion of the classrooms even have a computer and projector so that professors can demon- strate technology. This means that students will not be likely to have access to a com- puter in the classroom to practice or famil- iarize themselves with the technology. Some classrooms in the English Department do

29 Explorations | Humanities

Wo r k s Ci t e d

Anderson, Daniel, Anthony Atkins, Cheryl Ball, Krista Homicz Millar, Cynthia Selfe and Richard Selfe. “Integrating Multimodality into Composition Curricula: Survey Methodolgy and Results from a CCCC Research Grant” Composition Studies Fall 34.2 (Fall 2006).

Anderson, Daniel. “The Low Bridge to High Benefits: Entry-Level Multimedia, Literacies, and Motivation” Computers and Composition: 2008 Vol. 25: 40–60.

Alexander, Jonathan. “Media Convergence: Creating Content, Questioning Relationships” Computers and Composition: 25 (2008) 1–8.

Barlow, Tim. “Web 2.0: Creating a classroom without walls” Teaching Science: The Journal of the Australian Science Teachers Association: 54.1 (2008): 46–48.

Bezemer, Jeff and Gunther Kress. “Writing in Multimodal Texts: A Social Semiotic Account of Designs for Learning” Written Communication: 25.2 (April 2008): 166–195.

Kiefer, Kate and Mike Palmquist. “Adapting to the Classroom Setting: New Research on Teachers Moving Between Traditional and Computer Classrooms.” Effective Learning and Teaching of Writing: A Handbook of Writing in Education, Ed.

Gert Rijlaarsdam, Huub van den Bergh, Michel Couzijn. NY: Kluwer Academic, 2004. 417–426.

Kirsch, Gesa. “Methodological Pluralism: Epistemological Issues.” Methods and Methodology in Composition Research. Ed. Gesa Kirsch and Patricia A. Sullivan. Carbondale: Southern Illinois UP, 1992. 247–269.

Kress, Gunter. “Visual and verbal modes of representation in electronically mediated communication: the potentials of new forms of text.” Page to Screen: Taking Literacy into the Electronic Era. Ed. Ilana Snyder and Michael Joyce. NY: Routledge, 1998. 53–79.

Marsh, Jackie. Popular Culture, New Media and Digital Literacy in Early Childhood. NY: Routledge, 2004. 240.

Mason, Robin and Frank Rennie. The E-Learning Handbook: Designing Distributed Learning. NY: Routeledge, 2008. 194.

30 Sarah McKone

Merchant, Guy. “Writing the Future in the Digital Age.” Literacy: 41.3 (Nov. 2007): 118–128.

Nelson, Mark Evan, Glynda A. Hull and Jeeva Roche-Smith. “Challenges of Multimedia Self-Preservation: Taking, and Mistaking, the Show on the Road.” Written Communication: 25.4 (Oct. 2008): 415–440. O’Reilly, Tim. “What Is Web 2.0: Design Patterns and Business Models for the Next Generation of Software.” Oct. 6th, 2008. http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/a/or eilly/tim/news/2005/09/30/what-is-web-20.html

Penrod, Diane. Composition in Convergence: The Impact of New Media on Writing Assessment, NY: Routledge, 2005. 448.

Strauss, Anselm and Juliet Corbin. Basis of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, 1998.

Stroupe, Craig. “The Rhetoric of Irritation: Inappropriateness as Visual / Literate Practice.” Defining Visual Rhetorics. Ed. Charles A. Hill and Marguerite H. Helmers. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004. 243–258.

Walsh, Maureen. “Worlds Have Collided and Modes have Merged: Classroom Evidence of Changed Literary Practices.” Literacy: 42.2 (July 2008): 101–108.

31 Explorations | Humanities

Ap p e n d i x A: Su r v e y Qu e s t i o n s 6. I often use blogs, wikis, or other Web 2.0 technologies when completing English as- Usage signments. 1- Strongly Disagree 1. I often include digital technologies, such 2- Disagree as sound, movie clips, slideshows, videos, or 3- Agree animation, to complete homework or class- 4- Strongly Agree room assignments for English classes. 1- Strongly Disagree 2- Disagree Technology Relationships 3- Agree 4- Strongly Agree 7. It is likely that I will visit my professors’ Web sites. 2. My English teachers often use digital 1- Strongly Disagree technologies in the classroom. 2- Disagree 1- Strongly Disagree 3- Agree 2- Disagree 4- Strongly Agree 3- Agree 4- Strongly Agree 8. I see technology and my future profes- sion as closely related. 3. My English Professors often ask me to 1- Strongly Disagree read or post assignments that are saved 2- Disagree to a digital source, like SeaPort, WebCT, 3- Agree Blackboard or Randall Library’s electronic 4- Strongly Agree reserve. 1- Strongly Disagree 9. I see technology and basic studies classes 2- Disagree as closely related. 3- Agree 1- Strongly Disagree 4- Strongly Agree 2- Disagree 3- Agree 4. I often use my English professors’ per- 4- Strongly Agree sonal Web sites to access course materials. 1- Strongly Disagree 10. I see technology and literacy as closely 2- Disagree related. 3- Agree 1- Strongly Disagree 4- Strongly Agree 2- Disagree 3- Agree 5. I often use social-networking sites, like 4- Strongly Agree Facebook or MySpace, when completing English assignments. 11. I see technology and English studies as 1- Strongly Disagree closely related. 2- Disagree 1- Strongly Disagree 3- Agree 2- Disagree 4- Strongly Agree 3- Agree 4- Strongly Agree

32 Sarah McKone

Proficiency 18. I am proficient with blogs, wikis, or other Web 2.0 technologies. 12. I am proficient with Microsoft Word. 1- Strongly Disagree 1- Strongly Disagree 2- Disagree 2- Disagree 3- Agree 3- Agree 4- Strongly Agree 4- Strongly Agree

13. I am proficient with Microsoft Demographics PowerPoint. 1- Strongly Disagree 19. What is your gender? 2- Disagree Male 3- Agree Female 4- Strongly Agree 20. What is your class rank? 14. I am proficient with Graphics Creation First-year, Sophomore or Image and Photo Editing software, Junior, Senior such as Adobe Photoshop and Adobe Fireworks. 21. In which of the following English 1- Strongly Disagree classes are you currently enrolled? Check 2- Disagree all that apply. 3- Agree English 101 4- Strongly Agree English 201 English 110 15. I am proficient with Web site design English 103 software such as Adobe Dreamweaver and English 204 Microsoft FrontPage. 1- Strongly Disagree 22. What is your estimated GPA? 2- Disagree 3.5 - 4.0 3- Agree 3.0 - 3.4 4- Strongly Agree 2.5 - 2.9 2.0 - 2.4 16. I am proficient with video editing soft- Lower than a 2.0 ware like Adobe Premier or Final Cut Pro. 1- Strongly Disagree 23. At what age did you begin to have ac- 2- Disagree cess to a household computer? 3- Agree Choose the age at which you began to 4- Strongly Agree have regular access to a computer in your home, or access to a personal or fam- 17. I am proficient with social-networking ily computer. Do not include access to a sites like Facebook or MySpace. school, library or public computer when 1- Strongly Disagree answering this question. 2- Disagree 0-5 3- Agree 5-10 4- Strongly Agree 10-15 15-20 I have never had access to a household computer

33 Explorations | Humanities

Ap p e n d i x B: Fo c u s Gr o u p Qu e s t i o n s

1. What kinds of technologies do you use the most in your English courses?

2. How comfortable do you feel using digital technologies when completing assignments for your English courses?

3. What kind of technologies do you want to learn more about in your English courses?

4. What kinds of technologies do you feel like you need to learn about before graduating in order to be marketable to your career field?

34 Subcreation as Synthesis of Language and Myth: The Power and Purpose of Names and Naming in Tolkien’s The Children of Húrin

Stephanie Ricker Campbell University Faculty Mentor: Frank Vaughan, PhD English Department Campbell University

h e Ch i l d r e n o f Hú r i n can be consid- Tolkien’s mythopoeic texts, including The T ered the genesis as well as the culmina- Children of Húrin, were written initially from tion of all of J.R.R. Tolkien’s works. While a linguistic background; thus an analysis of The Children of Húrin is among the most re- these texts first requires an understanding cently published of Tolkien’s writings, the of language, myth, and the interconnec- various texts drawn together to form this tivity between these two. For the purposes tale are among his earliest written. The of this analysis, mythology is defined as tale epitomizes the synthesis of ideas that creative narrative which expresses a deep, Tolkien strove to express in the vast body universal truth; myth is fundamentally of his mythopoeic literature. With his ex- true, even if the literal events in it never tensive knowledge of linguistics, mythol- happened. Quoted in Cassirer’s Language ogy, and religion, Tolkien was well aware and Myth, Max Müller states, “Mythology of the implications and the power behind is inevitable, it is natural, it is an inher- names and naming. In The Children of Húrin, ent necessity of language, if we recognize he utilizes archetypal principles of naming in language the outward form and mani- drawn from a variety of sources, and he festation of thought; it is in fact the dark uses the biblical Old Testament concepts shadow which language throws upon of naming and the power of names them- thought, and which can never disappear till selves, forging the story into one of great language becomes entirely commensurate mythological and linguistic significance by with thought, which it never will” (5). For tying it to these religious traditions. In so Müller, mythology is the natural outcome doing, this story as myth becomes a form of language, which is itself insufficient to of subcreation, brought into being by the express thought. However, mythology is not power inherent within the names of the subordinate to language; on the contrary, characters in the myth. it is “the power exercised by language on

35 Explorations | Humanities thought in every possible sphere of mental written by Tolkien, one must bear in mind activity” (qtd. in Cassirer 5). Cassirer ce- “that for a medieval philologist the natural ments the connections between thought, confluence of history, language, and per- language, and myth. He believes that both sonal thinking comes at the point of name” language and myth emanate from the same (Jeffrey 107). Jeffrey further argues that, point, from “metaphorical thinking; the na- from this perspective, language becomes ture and meaning of metaphor is what we the mediator of mankind’s view of history must start with if we want to find, on the and that “the very closest and most faithful one hand, the unity of the verbal and myth- mediation of language” is “made possible ical worlds, and, on the other, their differ- by the meaning of names” (111). Names are ence” (84). The culmination of metaphori- the links in the chain binding language and cal thinking is naming: an object is called myth together, the most vital part of the by a word, and the word equals the object. connection between the two. Thus the power of metaphorical thinking While Tolkien was undeniably in love is the power of both myth and language, with mythology and history, he viewed these and both myth and language rely on this things through the lens of Christianity. metaphorical thinking in naming. Though Tolkien’s Christianity is not explicit Tolkien’s approach to the connection in his works, the strong moral undercurrent between myth and language is balanced and underlying themes of his stories lend by his love for both of these concepts. As a decidedly Christian flavor to his created a philologist, he was fascinated not only by mythology. For Tolkien, naming in mythol- language, words, and their origins, but also ogy does not carry the same weight as nam- by their effect in the past, as demonstrated ing in the religious tradition; mythology by his love of history and his attempt to can never be more true or more important create a mythic history in such works as The than the true Myth, that of the Bible. Thus, Children of Húrin. His in Tolkien’s view, naming in mythology is a reflection of biblical naming. Tolkien’s unparalleled mastery of ancient tongues convinced created myths fall into the same category, him that words are rooted in reality because speech as The Silmarillion and related texts mirror arises out of experience . . . For him, language and naming principles specifically from the Old myth were inextricably linked and equally valid. Testament, to which they are closest in tone Against the reductionist view that “language is a and scope. (The New Testament, while con- disease of mythology,” therefore, Tolkien argued taining ample naming principles as well, that in myth lies the real origin and continuing opens up different concepts of naming power of language. (Wood 33) which are beyond the scope of this analy- sis.) To understand the reflection (naming Tolkien’s mythopoeic works illustrate this in The Children of Húrin), one must first un- equal and vitalizing bond between lan- derstand what Tolkien saw as the original guage and myth. Language is the paint- image (naming in the Old Testament). brush Tolkien uses to create his myth. It is To begin quite literally at the beginning, a powerful tool, and “for Tolkien, language naming in the Old Testament is first intro- is never neutral. As our most precious gift, duced in terms of creation. In Genesis 1, as it is always loaded with implication, always God creates the world, He “[calls] the light employed for either good or ill” (Wood Day, and the darkness He call[s] night” 36). In mythology, the most important (The New King James Version, Gen. 1:5). part of language is the name, whether of He names Heaven, Earth, and the Seas a god or a person or a thing, as is shown as He creates, equating the power of cre- in The Children of Húrin. In studying myth ation with the power of naming (Gen. 1:8,

36 Stephanie Ricker

10). In this instance, the word translated power over the named is one that appears “called” literally means in the Hebrew “to throughout mythology andTolkien’s works. call out,” calling something or someone by However, far from being merely an exercise its proper name (Strong’s #7121). God, by in power over another,“Naming introduces knowing the name of the thing to be cre- distinction into chaos . . . On this principle, ated, actually calls the thing into being. Adam names animals to define the world This concept of naming is shared by both of creatures; Elohim (Genesis 1) designates religion and mythology, and in both the the irreducible elements (day/night) of Word “becomes a sort of primary force, in creation . . . Nomenclature establishes the which all being and doing originate. In all place of the named, its right relationship mythical cosmogonies, as far back as they to all about it” (Halpern 627). Naming thus can be traced, this supreme position of the becomes a form of moral order, a way to Word is found” (Cassirer 45). Cassirer ar- establish the true place of a thing within gues that “in the creation accounts of al- the universe. most all great cultural religions, the Word The power of subcreation, the gift given appears in league with the highest Lord of to us by God to expand upon his creation, creation . . . Thought and its verbal utter- is the driving force behind Tolkien’s works ance are usually taken directly as one; for as mythology. Wood states, “As Tolkien re- the mind that thinks and the tongue that iterates endlessly, we ourselves are makers speaks belong essentially together” (45–46). because we have been made” (13). Tolkien Therefore, creation through naming is a desired to use his subcreative ability to part of metaphoric thought, the connec- make a new mythology, one that he thought tion between language and myth. his country lacked. In a letter he states, “I With this perspective, God’s creation had in mind to make a body of more or less of thinking, speaking man takes on new connected legend, ranging from the large significance, for the newly-created man and cosmogonic, to the level of roman- is also a namer. According to the biblical tic fairy-story—the larger founded on the account, one of the first things God does lesser in contact with the earth, the lesser after creating Adam is to bring all of the drawing splendour from the vast back- animals before him “to see what he would cloths” (qtd. in Wood 19). While Tolkien call them. And whatever Adam called each called this dream “absurd,” feeling that he living creature, that was its name. So Adam could never achieve such a creation, many gave names to all cattle, to the birds of the would argue that he has indeed done so air, and to every beast of the field” (Gen. (Wood 19). Jeffrey posits that naming is the 2:19-20). In these verses, the Hebrew word vehicle which has allowed this to come to translated “name” means “an appella- pass, for “in the making of his subcreation tion, as a mark or memorial of individu- and in the response it evokes, Tolkien in- ality; by impl. honor, authority, character” vites us to see subcreation in Adam’s terms, (Strong’s #8034). God allowed Adam to as naming” (115). For Tolkien, naming is participate in subcreation, mankind’s cre- the root of all creation. “Names [are] also ative action within the larger creation of a source of inspiration and [provide] cre- God, as Adam was given authority to call ative impulse” (Lee and Solopova 50). The the animals by their proper name for the name is the spark of all that is to come, as first time. Cassirer argues that by “this act Tolkien explained in one of his letters: “To of appellation, man takes possession of the me a name comes first and the story fol- world both physically and intellectually— lows” (qtd. in Lee and Solopova 50). subjects it to his knowledge and his rule” One of the building blocks of this foun- (83). The concept of the namer having dation of naming is the idea that the name

37 Explorations | Humanities of a thing and the essence of a thing are the civilized individual, his observation is entwined. Cassirer argues that this con- valid as it relates to the cultures he studied. cept is connected to the creation of myths: Cassirer comments that “the notion that name and essence bear a necessary and internal relation to each [e]ven in far more advanced cultures this con- other, that the name does not merely de- nection between name and personality continues note but actually is the essence of the ob- to be felt. When, in Roman Law, the concept of ject, that the potency of the real thing is the “legal person” was formally articulated, and contained in the name—that is one of the this status was denied to certain physical subjects, fundamental associations of the mythmak- those subjects were also denied official possession ing consciousness itself” (3). This concept of a proper name. Under Roman law a slave had is consistent with Adamic naming, as the no legal name, because he could not function as a name defines and imposes order and thus legal person. (50–51) is closely linked to its referent. In mythol- ogy, the link is strengthened nearly to the Possessing a name is vital to one’s freedom point of the name becoming inseparable and individuality; in this context, the name- from the referent, as “even a person’s ego, less are less than people, as they are missing his very self and personality, is indissolubly an essential part of their being. linked, in mythic thinking, with his name” The idea of a name being, at the very (Cassirer 49-50). The person literally is his least, a personal possession and, at the own name. The name may become “an in- most, the very essence of one’s being tegral part of its bearer… As such it is in means that the name of an individual must the same category as his body or soul. It be protected at all times. If indeed “the is said of the Eskimos that for them man name is what first makes man an individ- consists of three elements – body, soul, and ual,” then no less than the individuality of name . . . And of all these three elements it the person is at stake if the name were to is just the last-mentioned which becomes be misused (Cassirer 50). Frazer’s analysis more and more the expression of a man’s shows that many tribal peoples believe that ‘self,’ of his ‘personality’” (Cassirer 50). In an individual could be harmed if someone other words, a person’s individuality and with evil intent gained the knowledge of his personal expression are also embodied by name. Nicknames become a way to fend the name, the one aspect of being that the off those who would do harm to a person’s person has the ability to create. true name, as “these secondary names are This idea is ubiquitous throughout apparently held to be no part of the man nearly all mythologies and many cultural himself, so that they may be freely used and beliefs as well. In his analysis of the origins divulged to everybody without endanger- of mythology in relatively undeveloped ing his safety thereby” (Frazer 288). On cultures, Frazer states, “Unable to discrimi- the other side of the spectrum, loved ones nate clearly between words and things, remembering the name of an individual the savage commonly fancies that the link preserve that individual even after death between a name and the person or thing because “the being and life of a person denominated by it is not a mere arbitrary is so intimately connected with his name and ideal association, but a real and sub- that, as long as the name is preserved and stantial bond which unites the two” (284). spoken, its bearer is still felt to be present While Frazer misunderstands the deeper and directly active. The dead may, at any purposes behind mythology and consid- moment, be literally ‘invoked,’ the moment ers such concepts of naming to be beneath those who survive him speak his name”

38 Stephanie Ricker

(Cassirer 52). This knowledge of another’s name because the name establishes his or name grants the deceased a measure of im- her place in the order of the world. All mortality; if the name survives in memory, other considerations of naming must bow so also does a portion of the person. before this one. This belief is extant in The power of names in mythology as Middle-earth, for “the fact that naming by illustrated by these concepts is also pres- ‘true names’ is common in Middle-earth is ent in the Bible, and Tolkien’s mythology clear not only by the number of instances draws heavily from both mythological and of such naming, but also by the characters’ biblical sources to form a cohesive principle attitudes towards the practice” (Zimmer of naming. Dietrich, quoted in Cassirer’s 55). In The Lord of the Rings, “Gandalf ex- Language and Myth, states: presses the ancient belief that the relation- ship between names and what they signify The fact that the name functions as proxy for its ought to be one of ‘right reasoning’ rather bearer . . . that a name is feared because it is a real than ‘idle fancy.’ The relationship between power; that knowledge of it is sought because be- a word and its referent is based on ‘right ing able to speak it bestows control of that power reasoning’ if one is able to reason from the on the knower – all these facts indicate clearly word to that which it denotes” (Zimmer what the early Christians were still feeling and try- 55). The giving of the true name illustrates ing to express when they said “In God’s name” in- wisdom on the part of the namer, establish- stead of “in God,” or “In Christ’s name” for “In ing the position of the thing to be named. Christ.” (53-54) This true name is of such importance to the inhabitants of Middle-earth that they Mary Zimmer expands upon this idea in will go to great lengths to protect it and keep her analysis of “word magic” and “name it sacred; it is the true expression of who magic” in Tolkien’s works: Middle-earth is they are. The true names of Dwarves and subject to the same “conclusion advanced Elves are in their own languages and are by Cassirer with regard to this earth, pri- kept secret. Dwarves never reveal their true marily that ‘all word magic and name names to anyone of a different race and, magic is based on the assumption that the according to Zimmer, do not even record world of things and the world of names their true names on their tombs (56). As in form a single undifferentiated chain of cau- the mythologies noted earlier, the inhabit- sality and hence a single reality’” (50). This ants of Tolkien’s world practice “two forms hearkens back to Adamic naming and its of ‘name magic’: the tabooing of proper establishment of the correct order of being. names and the changing of a person’s The single reality is uncovered by knowing name to signify a substantial change in the the true name of the object or person. person” (Zimmer 50). The Dwarves hide The concept of the “right” or “true” their names, for in order “to protect oneself name is a vital one to Tolkien’s works in from the effects of magic, one must protect light of biblical and mythological under- one’s true name, preventing its use and em- standing of naming. Zimmer goes so far ploying false names instead” (Zimmer 56). as to say that “the true name is to human As in myth, names in Tolkien’s world must language what the divine idea is to the change as the person changes. In The Lord Word: both the true name and the divine of the Rings, the names of the Ents “‘tell idea express the intelligible form of the you the story of the things they belong to’ thing whose name or idea it is” (53). It then (LR 3.4, 454). Because these names intel- becomes exceedingly important to give a ligibly resemble the things they denote, as person, particularly a child, the right, true those things grow and change, so too do

39 Explorations | Humanities their names” (Zimmer 56). Renaming “is in a geographical and cultural context” the taking on of a new name to signify a (Turner 32). The depth behind them al- change in being,” as will be clearly shown lows Tolkien to use “names as witnesses to with the names in The Children of Húrin the history and customs of different lands, (Zimmer 57). This takes the concept back races and peoples: names give evidence of to that of biblical naming, where renaming ethnic and family origin of characters, posi- “implies a new or renewed conformity of tion in society and personal qualities. Most essence with nomenclature, a return to the names invented by Tolkien are meaning- magical precision of divine or Adamic lan- ful and motivated by what is known about guage” (Halpern 627). The name may be their owners” (Lee and Solopova 50). In changed to better reflect the person’s place older mythologies, “names were words of in the order of the world. ordinary vocabulary and had the same re- If creation, and certainly subcreation, lationship with their referents as any other proceed through naming, then the lack words: their function was to describe a per- of a name becomes a sort of uncreation, son or an object” (Lee and Solopova 50). a destruction of the unnamed thing. The Just as “names found in Old English poetry name of the mouth of Sauron in The Lord are usually meaningful and reflect the per- of the Rings “is remembered in no story” sonality of the bearers,” so too are Tolkien’s and he himself has forgotten it, an example names (Lee and Solopova 51). The Children of the ultimate “loss of being concomitant of Húrin, a tale reconstructed from various with a loss in name” as he now has no indi- finished and unfinished Tolkien texts, is vidual identity (Zimmer 58). He is “absent the culmination of Tolkien’s principles of from the divine mind,” having become the naming. Tolkien wrote it as a true legend, product of uncreation rather than creation following the principles of naming pres- (Zimmer 58). With this concept in mind, ent in mythology, not out of an attempt to “it is not surprising, then, that Sauron is turn a carefully crafted story into a pseudo- referred to as the ‘Nameless Enemy’ (LR myth, but instead as the natural outcome 2.2, 239); banished from the divine mind, of a story that contained within it all the evil things become nameless” (Zimmer power of a genuine mythology. 58). By not speaking his name aloud, the The story of Túrin can be seen as the inhabitants of Middle-earth relegate him beginning of Tolkien’s creation of Middle- to an uncreated thing, diminishing his earth; he began it before he began any power. If “the practice of naming and re- of his other, more famous works. Tolkien naming continually reaffirms the existence found inspiration for the story of Túrin of the good, and in that sense, continually in the Kalevala, a book of Finnish mythol- re-creates it,” then not naming evil is a de- ogy he read while a soldier in World War fense against it, “for to name is to create” I. As early as 1914, he wrote to his future (Crabbe 160). Naming, inherently power- wife on the subject of the Kalevala, stating ful, easily becomes dangerous if right rea- “Amongst other work I am trying to turn son is not exercised. one of the stories—which is really a very Tolkien’s works encompass these mytho- great story and most tragic—into a short logical and biblical principles of naming story somewhat on the lines of [William] and combine them to form a synthesis of Morris’s romances with chunks of poetry the conceptual power of names. The many in between” (Letters 7). Fifty years later, names in Tolkien’s cohesive body of work Tolkien wrote to Christopher Bretherton (there are over 800 names listed in the index that “the germ of my attempt to write leg- toThe Silmarillion alone)“foster the essential ends of my own to fit my private languages verisimilitude by grounding the story firmly was the tragic tale of the hapless Kullervo

40 Stephanie Ricker in the Finnish Kalevala” (Letters 345). The father, and Húrin’s names give insight into Finnish influence on names can be seen in his character and show how his influence the original draft notes for the poem that will be felt throughout the story. Húrin is a he composed that would later become The powerful warrior of Dor-lómin, a land often Children of Húrin. Tiranne, Vainoni, and plagued by Morgoth’s evil forces. He and Kuruki, all names that are Finnish in sound other Men go with the Elves to war against and meaning, would later become Morwen, Morgoth in an attempt to defeat him. The Niënor, and Glaurung, names constructed battle is an utter disaster: Húrin manages to from Tolkien’s languages as his mythology survive, but he is captured by Morgoth. In developed (Lost Tales 138). Sindarin Elvish, Húrin (Úrin in the earliest To understand the importance of names manuscripts) means “mind of vigor,” and in The Children of Húrin, some background this name describes his character exactly information is required on the names them- (Salo 353). Though Húrin is captured, he selves within the created, mythological will not bend to Morgoth’s will; and he world of Middle-earth. The names in the never gives in throughout the long years of tale are primarily derived from Tolkien’s his captivity. He is a lord of the House of Elvish languages, but some also draw from Hador, a noble race of Men, and is some- Old English. The Elves “and others who times called Hadorion (“son of Hador”) as took names in the Elvish languages, cus- one of his nicknames. He is often referred tomarily used several different kinds of to as Húrin the Steadfast, Thalion or names” (Salo 339). The first of these was Erithámrod in the Elvish tongue. “Thalion” the “Father-name, a name chosen for the is a Sindarin word translated “strong, stead- child at birth by his or her father and whose fast, dauntless,” a “hero, dauntless man,” owner could not alter it. It often resembled and such is Húrin, who does not allow him- the father’s name” (Salo 339). The second self to be daunted by Morgoth, a being im- was the “Chosen Name, a name chosen measurably more powerful than he is (Salo (usually newly invented) by a child at about 358). He rejects Morgoth’s offer to become the age of ten, expressing his or her own one of his captains, and he refuses to give preferences in the language. Other chosen Morgoth the information he seeks, though names might be added later in life” (Salo Morgoth promises to free Húrin if he will 339). After these, a variety of given or added do so. Living up to his name, “Húrin the names might be used, such as the “Mother- Steadfast [mocks] him, saying: ‘Blind you name . . . a special name given by a mother are, Morgoth Bauglir, and blind shall ever to her child, often expressing a special in- be, seeing only the dark. You know not sight into the child’s nature or foresight of what rules the hearts of Men, and if you its fate,” or nicknames, “names by which a knew you could not give it. But a fool is he person was commonly known, but not his who accepts what Morgoth offers’” Húrin( or her true name,” including “names given 62-63). By remaining true to the meaning by others, like Mormegil Blacksword,” and of his name, Húrin sets a standard of brav- “names of personal choice…chosen by a ery and hope for his son to emulate later. person either as a disguise or in reference to Heroism and the power of his name be- his or her own history” (Salo 339). The vast come tools to overcome Morgoth. array of names within The Children of Húrin Unfortunately, Húrin’s actions, however alone necessitates that this analysis limit it- brave, do not negate Morgoth’s power. self to these types of personal names, ex- Morgoth vows, “Yet I may come at you, cluding place and object names. and all your accursed house; and you shall The first personal name of significance be broken on my will, though you all were within the tale is that of Húrin, Túrin’s made of steel” (Húrin 63). In The Lost Tales

41 Explorations | Humanities version, Morgoth tells Húrin that “the Thus, through the power of name, Húrin life of Túrin thy son shall be accounted becomes the heroic ideal in this myth. a matter for tears wherever Elves or Men Húrin’s deeds in life had won a name for are gathered for the telling of tales” (Lost him; his defiance in what he thought was Tales 71). Húrin does not quail before such his death made him truly heroic, a thalion. a curse, and he speaks some of the most Had his son followed in his footsteps in important words in the tale when he an- belief as well as in mighty deeds, Túrin’s swers Morgoth: “You speak in vain. For you life might have been a happier one. As a cannot see them, nor govern them from young boy, he is told that he possesses the afar” (Húrin 63). Húrin retains his hope seed of his father’s greatness: “‘For though and his belief in free will, even in the face you are yet small you have the makings of of Morgoth’s curse. He holds to his right a valiant man, worthy to be a son of Húrin name, Steadfast, and refuses to doubt. At the Steadfast, if that were possible.’ For the the same time, he believes that heroism can name of Húrin was held in honor in all the alter the course of events, and when Melko lands of the Elves” (Húrin 76). Túrin feels (Morgoth) curses his son in The Lost Tales a fierce love and admiration for both of version, Úrin (Húrin) answers, “At least his parents and defends their names, par- none shall pity him for this, that he had a ticularly that of his father. He shows that craven for a father” (Lost Tales 71). Thus he understands his father’s philosophy, de- Húrin speaks the doctrine of indomitable fending his father’s hopeless fight against will that Tolkien analyzes in his scholarship Morgoth when he says, “The defiance of of Old English poetry: the idea of perse- Húrin Thalion is a great deed; and though vering in the face of inevitable defeat as the Morgoth slay the doer he cannot make the true definition of heroism. deed not to have been. Even the Lords of Húrin is physically defeated but refuses the West will honor it; and is it not writ- to acknowledge it; he still retains his in- ten into the history of Arda, which neither ner freedom. Though Morgoth can kill Morgoth nor Manwë can unwrite?” (Húrin or torture him, he cannot break his spirit. 161). Túrin recognizes within himself the Morgoth expands upon the curse he has ability to emulate his father’s decision to placed on Húrin’s family as he claims that make the honorable decision in the face of all will eventually bend to his will: “upon all his own death. whom you love my thought shall weigh as Húrin placed a name upon his son that a cloud of Doom, and it shall bring them gave him the power to do what was right. down into darkness and despair. Wherever Húrin bestowed on his son the name of they go, evil shall arise. Whenever they Túrin, his Father-name and his true, right speak, their words shall bring ill coun- name. Túrin means “having a mind (suit- sel. Whatsoever they do shall turn against able) for victory” and is remarkably simi- them. They shall die without hope, cursing lar to Húrin’s name in sound as well as both life and death” (Húrin 64). He con- meaning (Salo 358). Túrin son of Húrin is demns Húrin to see all that Morgoth sees how he is named when he is most himself. and to hear all that Morgoth hears, forc- Húrin calls him the Heir of the House of ing him to watch helplessly from Morgoth’s Hador, passing on his noble lineage (Húrin perspective all that occurs in the world. 45). Húrin is a light-hearted, hopeful man, Nevertheless, Húrin clings to the philoso- while his wife Morwen, the mother of phy of his name, believing that “Aurë entu- Túrin, is of a graver and prouder disposi- luva! Day shall come again!” (Húrin 59-60). tion. Morwen’s name (Mavwin or Mavoinë

42 Stephanie Ricker in The Lost Tales) means “dark maiden,” so pain” (I Chron. 4:9). When he was older, called for her dark hair, but perhaps for “Jabez called on the God of Israel saying, the dark, unyielding side of her character ‘Oh, that You would bless me indeed, and as well (Salo 356). She is also known as enlarge my territory, that Your hand would Eledhwen (“maiden like an Elf”) for her be with me, and that You would keep me great, distant beauty (Salo 347). Together from evil, that I may not cause pain!’ So Húrin and Morwen would have balanced God granted him what he requested” (I out one another’s influence; but with Húrin Chron. 4:10). Jabez felt that his name was in captivity, Túrin only has his mother’s indicative of his fate, and he wished to influence, one of pride and vengeance, change that fate. That he was successful though she loves her son deeply. She ad- with God’s help is significant, showing that dresses him as “son of Morwen” instead of free will is not negated by one’s name. This “son of Húrin” when urging him to seek is an important concept to note; Tolkien’s revenge against Morgoth for his crimes Christianity deeply impacts his writing, against their family (Húrin 40). In so do- and finding the balance between fate (often ing, she calls Túrin after her vengeful side connected to name) and free will is one of rather than his father’s calmer personality. the central issues in The Children of Húrin. The giving of Túrin’s rightful, true name One of the most significant incidences establishes his place in the world, just as in of naming in The Children of Húrin is that biblical naming. The naming of children is of Túrin’s younger sister. She is named an extremely important concept in terms Urwen at birth, meaning “maiden of heat” of how the child will live his life because the (Salo 359); however, she is called Lalaith, name chosen by the parents expresses the meaning “laughter,” by all who know her child’s purpose. Sometimes the name of (Húrin 34). So merry is she that the spring the child is an attempt to name the future near her home is known as Nen Lalaith, and to shape it. Mirroring this concept, the the spring of laughter (Unfinished Tales name of Túrin expresses the purpose that 58). Both Túrin and Lalaith fall ill when a Húrin hoped his son would achieve. In the plague, sent by Morgoth, sweeps the land. Old Testament, the child’s name is often Urwen dies, but Túrin recovers. When associated with important or emotionally- he asks after Lalaith, his nurse tells him, charged events happening near the child’s “Speak no more of Lalaith, son of Húrin; birth. While in Egypt, far from his kin, but of your sister Urwen you must ask tid- Joseph named his sons Manasseh (“Making ings from your mother,” showing the dif- Forgetful”) and Ephraim (“Fruitfulness”), ference in significance of the two names saying, “God has made me forget all my the child had been called (Húrin 40). Túrin toil and all my father’s house,” and “God asks his mother about Urwen and why he has caused me to be fruitful in the land of must “not say Lalaith any more” (Húrin 40). my affliction” (Gen. 41:51-52). Túrin was Morwen replies, “Because Urwen is dead, also born during a dark time for Húrin and and laughter is stilled in this house” (Húrin Morwen, but his name expresses the hope 40). The death of the bearer of the name that he will surmount the challenges of his brings about the death of the named char- era. Clearly, names in mythological and bib- acteristic, both literally and figuratively. In lical tradition, even when improperly given, her grief, Morwen gives no comfort to her still carry a good deal of power, as shown in son, who “[weeps] bitterly at night alone, the story of Jabez (“He Will Cause Pain”), though to Morwen he never again [speaks] so named because his mother “bore him in the name of his sister” (Húrin 40). The

43 Explorations | Humanities power of this disappearance of Lalaith Túrin, “‘It may be that we fled from the from Túrin’s life cannot be underestimated: fear of the Dark, only to find it here be- after her death, laughter is stilled; the name fore us, and nowhere else to fly but the Sea.’ and the named disappear. Morwen did ‘We are not afraid any longer,’ said Túrin, wrong to banish the name of her daughter; ‘not all of us. My father is not afraid, and I destroying or forgetting a name is always will not be; or at least, as my mother, I will a terrible fate in biblical and mythological be afraid and not show it’” (Húrin 43). With naming. In her sorrow, Morwen cannot that, “it seemed then to Sador that Túrin’s bear to hear the name of her child spoken eyes were not the eyes of a child, and he and thus does not preserve the name, yet thought: ‘Grief is a hone to a hard mind’” in so doing she harms both her deceased (Húrin 43). Early on, Túrin equates fear daughter’s memory and also her living son. with namelessness and those of weak will, Forever afterwards, Túrin seeks “in all faces viewing these qualities with contempt. He of women the face of Lalaith,” a search knows himself to be brave, and he becomes that would come to haunt him (Unfinished prideful in this knowledge, thinking it alone Tales 147, note 7). will be enough to overcome anything he After Lalaith’s death, Túrin’s only friend might face. is Sador, a crippled vassal of Húrin. He The hardening of Túrin’s character be- brings a touch of kindness to Túrin’s life, comes clearer when he is forced to flee his and Túrin in turn names him, calling “him home. In her pride, Morwen is reluctant Labadal, which is ‘Hopafoot,’ though the to ask the Elves of the hidden kingdom of name [does] not displease Sador, for it [is] Gondolin for help, as her husband had ad- given in pity and not in scorn” (Húrin 41). vised her to do before his capture. Finally, This marks the first of Túrin’s naming of however, she sees no other way to keep her others, and it is a point in his favor that the son from thralldom. She herself refuses to name is given in love. As with the differ- go, being close to delivering her next child ence between Urwen and Lalaith, so is the and not wishing to lower herself before difference between Sador and Labadal; King Thingol, ruler of Gondolin. Túrin the names almost seem to reflect different leaves his mother, but “this [is] the first of people. One denotes the vassal who has the sorrows of Túrin” that will harden him pledged to do his duty by his lord, and the (Húrin 75). Thingol and his wife Melian other denotes the friend of a young boy. hospitably send word to Morwen to join When Túrin is preparing to leave home to her son, but she still refuses; and “Melian escape the predations of invaders, Sador [is] moved with pity, perceiving [Morwen’s] tells him, “Labadal does not want you to mind; and she [sees] that the fate which she go; but Sador servant of Húrin will be hap- foreboded could not lightly be set aside” pier when Húrin’s son is out of the reach of (Húrin 78). This becomes “the second sor- the Easterlings” (Húrin 74). The change in row of Túrin,” and the example of his name refers to two different sides of Sador’s mother’s pride and unbending will is one personality. that would affect the rest of his life, as The hardness of Túrin’s character, a Melian, with powers of her own, foresaw quality that will shape his fate, is forged and tried to avert through kindness (Húrin early in his young life. One day when Túrin 78). asks Sador why Men fled here from over As soon as he is old enough, Túrin goes the Mountains, Sador is unable to give forth with the Elves in skirmishes and bat- account of their coming, for “even their tles against Orcs, earning himself a reputa- names are forgotten” (Húrin 43). He tells tion as a warrior and preferring the wilds

44 Stephanie Ricker and a life of battle to the gentle halls of the story, Saeros is either grievously hurt Thingol and Melian. He wears the famous or accidentally killed by the force of the Helm of Hador, a Dragon-helm passed blow. In The Children of Húrin, Saeros, only down from his father’s line; so fiercely does wounded, cries, “How long shall we har- he defend the lands surrounding Gondolin bour this woodwose? Who rules here to- that Orcs shun that region and flee at night? The King’s law is heavy upon those the very sight of the helm. He becomes who hurt his lieges in the hall; and for those known as Gorthol, the Dread Helm; and who draw blades there outlawry is the least “one only [is] mightier in arms among the doom. Outside the hall I could answer you, march-wardens of Thingol at that time Woodwose!” (78). than Túrin, and that [is] Beleg Strongbow,” Thus Túrin is given his second nick- Túrin’s best friend among the Elves (Húrin name, a word derived from the Old English 86). “Beleg and Túrin [are] companions word wasa meaning a forlorn or abandoned in every peril, and [walk] far and wide in person, similar to “orphan” in German the wild woods together” (Húrin 86). Many and Dutch (waise and wees) (Guide 175). In saw in Túrin the characteristics of his fa- a way, this name fits Túrin, as he is all but ther, as “word [runs] through the woods” orphaned. In the finale version, he is later that “the Dragon-helm of Dor-lómin was attacked by Saeros in the woods; when he seen again,” “saying: ‘Can the spirit of retaliates, Saeros flees in fear and is acci- any man return from death; or has Húrin dentally killed as he attempts to leap across of Hithlum escaped indeed from the pits a ravine. Túrin is greatly saddened by of Hell?’” (Húrin 85-86). By taking on the Saeros’ death but refuses to defend himself helm of his father and gaining his first nick- to those who find Saeros’ body; in his pride, name by it, Túrin links his name to that of he is offended that it even occurs to Thingol Húrin. He becomes a fearsome warrior, that he killed Saeros intentionally or that yet he has little of his Húrin’s lightness of the King might dare to pass judgment on heart or eternal, unquenchable hope, and him for the crime, and he tells no one that his bonds with the peaceful things of this Saeros first tried to kill him. Thingol’s men earth are being dissolved. try to convince Túrin to return and seek When Túrin returns to Gondolin from justice and the King’s favor, but Túrin re- campaigning in the wilds, an incident oc- fuses and flees into the wild, convinced the curs that marks the beginning of his re- King will attempt to capture him. naming of himself, as well as one of the Túrin will not return to be judged be- first steps towards the fate which is linked cause of his pride; yet if he had done so, his to his name. Though Túrin is well-liked by judgment would have been light. Thingol most, Saeros, the counselor to the king, is opens court on Túrin’s case, hearing all contemptuous of him and sees his position the information “before [he] [speaks] [his] as a foster-son of Thingol as a dishonor to doom” (Húrin 92). The importance of Thingol and to the Elves. In the earlier ver- doom or fate in The Children of Húrin can- sions, Saeros’ name is Orgof or Orgol, re- not be overemphasized; Túrin sees it as an lated to the Old English word orgol or orgel implacable force set in motion by Morgoth, meaning pride, the characteristic that will seeking his ruin, but Thingol sees the idea later become, quite literally, the bane of of doom as justice. Had Túrin returned to Túrin (Húrin 95). Saeros taunts Túrin and seek that justice, all would have yet been makes the mistake of insulting Morwen. well. Instead, his pride leads him astray In a rage, Túrin throws his drinking cup into the very curse that he seeks to avoid. at Saeros. Depending upon the version of The Elves who witnessed the event tell

45 Explorations | Humanities

Thingol the true story. Though Thingol and friendship to Túrin do not outweigh believes that Túrin’s actions show “a his feelings of duty to his own people and heart hard and proud,” he gives him a fair repugnance at the outlaws Túrin leads. doom; he proclaims, “Such fault as can be Interestingly, the name Cúthalion contains found in Túrin I now pardon, holding him within it the same word, thalion, as in one of wronged and provoked . . . he shall not seek Húrin’s names. Like Húrin, Beleg is stead- for this pardon, but I will send it to him, fast in doing what is right. Túrin, however, wherever he may be found; and I will recall will not give up his name Neithan, holding him in honour to my halls” (Húrin 93, 95). tightly to his grievances. Messengers are sent to find Túrin and give Name changing or renaming is an expres- him this pardon, but he remains hidden, sion of a change in a person’s life. Cassirer though his friend Beleg continues to search states that “the mythic consciousness does for him tirelessly. not see human personality as something Here Túrin renames himself for the first fixed and unchanging, but conceives of ev- of many times. He falls in with a band of ery phase of a man’s life as a new personality, outlaws roaming the woods.When asked his a new self; and this metamorphosis is first of name, he replies, “‘Neithan, the Wronged, all made manifest in the changes which his I call myself’ . . . and Neithan he was after- name undergoes” (51). Renaming oneself wards called by the outlaws; but though he is common in biblical naming as well, often claimed to have suffered injustice (and to any the result of a traumatic or life-changing in- who claimed the like he ever lent too ready cident, as in Túrin’s case. For instance, after an ear), no more would he reveal concern- the death of her sons, Naomi (“Pleasant”) ing his life or his home” (Húrin 101). Túrin refuses to be called by that name any lon- abides “long among the outlaws,” becom- ger: “Do not call me Naomi; call me Mara ing their captain (Silmarillion 239). A vari- [“Bitter”], for the Almighty has dealt very ant of the story inThe Unfinished Tales posits bitterly with me” (Ruth 1:20). She feels that that the knowledge that Neithan was really her name is no longer an accurate repre- Túrin son of Húrin led those outlaws to ac- sentation of who she is, just as Túrin no cept him as leader of the band: Túrin can- longer feels that his name is representative not escape his true name. At last his friend of who he is. Beleg Cúthalion (Beleg meaning “Mighty” During his time with the outlaws, Túrin and Cúthalion meaning “Strongbow,” so hides himself from Morgoth under the named for his skill as an archer) finds him guise of his new name; however, events are at his camp and tells him he has named soon set in motion which reveal what Túrin himself wrongly: “Now at last I can tell my would rather keep hidden. Though against tidings. You are no outlaw, and Neithan is his better judgment, Beleg returns, using his a name unfit. Such fault as was found in great skill to find Túrin in his hiding place you is pardoned. For a year you have been at Amon Rúdh. Túrin is overjoyed to see sought, to recall you to honour and to the his good friend again and regrets their pre- service of the King. The Dragon-helm vious unfriendly parting. Beleg brings with has been missed too long” (Húrin 114). Yet him the Dragon-helm and offers it and gifts Túrin’s pride still will not allow him return from Melian and Thingol. Túrin kindly ac- to Thingol. Beleg calls Túrin a stubborn cepts the helm, but tells Beleg, “I will not man and departs, leaving Túrin with the receive gifts out of Doriath” (Húrin 140). injunction, “If you wish indeed to have In exasperation with Túrin’s pride, Beleg the Strongbow beside you, look for me in retorts, “Then send back your sword and Dimbar” (Húrin 118). Beleg’s strong loyalty your arms…Send back also the teaching

46 Stephanie Ricker and fostering of your youth. And let your makes this portion of the story tragic. Both men, who (you say) have been faithful, die Gwindor and Beleg, being in a weakened in the desert, to please your mood!” (Húrin state, can carry Túrin only part of the dis- 140). Túrin’s ever-ready ire is aroused, but tance away from the camp. Beleg draws his he humbles himself for the first time and sword Anglachel (meaning “Iron of the Star answers, “I wonder, friend, that you deign of Flame,” given to him by Thingol) to cut to come back to such a churl. From you I Túrin’s bonds, and in so doing accidentally will take whatever you give, even rebuke. nicks Túrin’s foot in the darkness. When Henceforward you shall counsel me in all the pain wakes Túrin from his haze of ex- ways, save the road to Doriath only” (Húrin haustion, he sees a figure bending over him 140). The two friends once more go to war with a naked blade. Leaping up, he seizes against the forces of Morgoth as Beleg Anglachel and slays “Beleg Cúthalion draws Túrin back to a nobler, more hopeful thinking him a foe” (Silmarillion 248). path: “Túrin [puts] on again the Helm of Lightning flares, revealing to him his mis- Hador; and far and wide in Beleriand the take, and Túrin is horror-stricken, for “thus whisper went, under wood and over stream ended Beleg Strongbow, truest of friends, and through the passes of the hills, saying greatest in skill of all that harboured in the that the Helm and Bow that had fallen in woods of Beleriand in the Elder days, at the Dimbar had arisen again beyond hope” hand of him whom he most loved; and that (Silmarillion 245). The region becomes grief was graven on the face of Túrin and known as Dor-Cúarthol, the Land of Bow never faded” (Silmarillion 249). Gwindor and Helm, where Túrin at last is happy buries Beleg and leads Túrin, lost in dark- again for a brief time (Silmarillion 245). ness of sorrow, away towards Nargothrond, The whisper of the Dragon-helm resur- Gwindor’s home. Túrin is consumed by rects Túrin’s old name, and he can no lon- sorrow and self-loathing at the slaying of ger hide from Morgoth’s curse. All across his friend; the death of Beleg Cúthalion is the land, “the fame of the deeds of the also the death of all hope of reconciliation Two Captains [is] heard; and in Angband with the Elves of Gondolin. also they [are] known. Then Morgoth The grief of this event prompts Túrin [laughs], for now by the Dragon-helm [is] to take up his next name. Gwindor trav- Húrin’s son revealed to him again; and ere els with him to Eithel Ivrin, the Crystal long Amon Rúdh [is] ringed with spies” Springs. Gwindor tries to pull Túrin from (Silmarillion 246). The outlaws are betrayed his grief by calling him by his true name by one in their midst, and the Orcs capture and reminding him of his father’s steadfast- Túrin alive to take to Angband, leaving ness: “Awake, Túrin son of Húrin Thalion! Beleg for dead. However, Beleg recovers On Ivrin’s lake is endless laughter. She is from his wounds to hunt the Orcs who have fed from crystal fountains unfailing, and taken Túrin. He comes across Gwindor, an guarded from defilement by Ulmo, Lord of Elf of Nargothrond who was captured in Waters, who wrought her beauty in ancient the great battle in which Húrin also fought d a y s ” ( Silmarillion 250). Perhaps the endless and was captured. Gwindor had managed laughter Gwindor speaks of reminds Túrin to escape his captivity; he helps Beleg sneak of his long-dead sister Lalaith, or the purity into the Orc camp and carry Túrin, un- of the springs drives the shadow from his conscious from exhaustion and pain, from mind, for he recovers. When the two reach their camp. Nargothrond and Gwindor begins to in- Circumstance and Túrin’s own hasty ac- troduce Túrin, Túrin stops him, saying in- tions, not the curse of Morgoth, are what stead, “‘I am Agarwaen, the son of Úmarth

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(which is the Bloodstained, son of Ill-fate), is your name, nor is it fit for you, Adaned- a hunter in the woods.’ But though the hel. I call you Thurin, the Secret” (Húrin Elves guessed that he took these names (not 165). Thus Finduilas, while also recogniz- knowing other reasons), they questioned ing the mystery in his personality, gives him no more” (Húrin 159-160). Agarwaen Túrin yet another name, one more positive (Iarwaeth in earlier versions) now expresses than Agarwaen and one very similar to his Túrin’s true nature as he sees it, stained by right name. the blood of his friend, but he also seeks Túrin is startled that she has come so close to conceal his name to hide from his ill- to his true name, but tells her nothing, living fortune. up to his close-mouthed new title. Finduilas Túrin bears many new names in Nargo- finds herself falling for Túrin against her thrond, each illustrating a different facet will. Gwindor is sadly changed from his of his personality. He becomes known as time in captivity, but nonetheless she will Adanedhel, Elf-Man, for his Elven speech, not renounce her word to him, nor will she a trait carried over from his days in Gon- speak of her love to Túrin. Gwindor, know- dolin. This name also illustrates the dichot- ing the truth about Túrin’s identity and the omy within Túrin’s character; though he calamity brought down on him by Morgoth is a Man, he has grown up with the Elves, and by himself at every turn, warns her a being caught between the two worlds. against him: “A doom lies on him; a dark Though Túrin mourns for Beleg, he soon doom. Enter not into it! And if you will, grows accustomed to living in Nargothrond your love shall betray you to bitterness and and gains position and power in that city, death. . . . Though he be indeed agarwaen son befriending Orodreth the King. As he has of úmarth, his right name is Túrin son of work to do that he enjoys and as his life Húrin, whom Morgoth holds in Angband, runs more smoothly, Túrin is “courteous and has cursed all his kin. Doubt not the to all, and less grim than of old, so that power of Morgoth Bauglir! Is it not written well nigh all hearts [turn] to him” (Húrin in me?” (Húrin 168). Gwindor seeks to pro- 164). Finduilas, a beautiful Elf maid who tect Finduilas from Túrin’s destructiveness; had been betrothed to Gwindor before he influenced by his own misery at the hands was captured, aids in the recovery of the of the Evil One, he sees these qualities in two men; and she and Túrin become fast Túrin as a result of Morgoth’s curse. friends. Finduilas personifies the laughter Thus Túrin’s true name is named in and hope that has been gone from Túrin’s Nargothrond for the first time, an event life for so long. Gwindor had “named her that Túrin sees as a betrayal that will bring Faelivrin, which is the gleam of the sun on him to the attention of Morgoth. Seeing the pools of Ivrin,” the place where Túrin himself as a danger to those around him if was healed of his shadow, and she brings his identity were known, he names himself light again into his life (Silmarillion 251). He Thuringud, “the hidden foe” (Salo 358). refuses to divulge his true name, though This name may also mean that he is a se- he does tell her, “I had a sister, Lalaith, or cret danger to himself; in the past, his own so I named her; and of her you put me in actions have been the cause of his misery. mind”; and he says, “I would I had a sister Finduilas, though knowing that her love for so fair” (Húrin 164, 165). Finduilas rekindles Túrin is unrequited, refuses to believe that a bit of happiness in Túrin’s life which has his curse or his fate is unavoidable. She re- not been present since Lalaith’s death. Fin- plies to Gwindor, arguing that “Adanedhel duilas replies, “I would I had a brother so is mighty in the tale of the World, and his valiant. And I do not think that Agarwaen stature shall reach yet to Morgoth in some

48 Stephanie Ricker far day to come” (Húrin 169). She believes thinking to send troops across it to quell that he possesses the qualities needed to Morgoth’s forces (Húrin 173). Túrin does overcome his own fate, just as his true name, not take kindly to the implied rebuke of Túrin, means that he has a mind suitable his authority. The occasion gives rise to an- for victory. At last she confronts Túrin other incidence of renaming, in which one about his true name: “Thurin Adanedhel, of Túrin’s most well-known names is cre- why did you hide your name from me? ated. One of the messengers asks if Túrin Had I known who you were I should not is of the House of Hador, to which Túrin have honoured you less, but I should better replies, “Here I am named Agarwaen, the have understood your grief” (Húrin 169). Black Sword of Nargothrond,” naming In puzzlement, Túrin asks, “Whom do you himself after the black sword Gurthang, make me?” and she answers, “Túrin son the reforged Anglachel (Húrin 174). Thus of Húrin Thalion, captain of the North” Túrin seeks to deflect evil from himself by (Húrin 169). Túrin fears that speaking his yet another change in name, angrily say- true name will bring the curse down upon ing, “A man’s name is his own, and should Finduilas as well as himself, and in wrath he the son of Húrin learn that you have be- tells Gwindor, “In love I hold you for rescue trayed him when he would be hid, then and safe-keeping. But now you have done ill may Morgoth take you and burn out your to me, friend, to betray my right name, and tongue!” (Húrin 174). Seeing the seeds of call down my doom upon me, from which Túrin’s doom within him, the messenger I would lie hid” (Húrin 169–170). Gwindor answers, “You, it seems, will take counsel answers, “The doom lies in yourself, not in with your own wisdom, or with your sword your name” (Húrin 169–170). This state- only; and you speak haughtily. And I say ment is key to understanding Túrin as a to you, Agarwaen Mormegil [Bloodstained character; the choices he makes are the Black Sword], that if you do so, other shall cause of his downfall, not his fate or the be your doom than one of the Houses of curse of Morgoth. Hador or Bëor might look for” (Húrin 175). As Túrin grows in status in Nargothrond, Here Túrin’s ill-fate is proclaimed to be his he takes on yet another name. He soon own fault, the side effect of his own charac- becomes an advisor to Orodreth on the ter rather than the curse of Morgoth. question of whether to wage open or se- The taking of the name Mormegil (also cret warfare on Morgoth. Advocating open called Mormael, Mormaglir, Mormagli, fighting, Túrin builds a bridge over the Mormakil), the Black Sword, is signifi- river leading to the city to facilitate the pas- cant because prior to this point, Túrin sage of arms, a deed that Gwindor coun- refused to bear the sword Anglachel in sels against. Messengers sent by Cirdan token of his grief over his friend’s death. warn of the dangers to Nargothrond if Túrin names the blade Gurthang (also the city persists in this course of action, known as Gurtholfn, the Blacksword of the but “Túrin now [commands] all the forces Rodothlim), Iron of Death. “So great [is] of Nargothrond, and [rules] all matters his prowess and skill in warfare on the con- of war; indeed he [is] become stern and fines of the Guarded Plain that he himself proud, and would order all things as he [becomes] known as Mormegil, the Black wished or thought good” (Húrin 171). The Sword; and the Elves [say], ‘The Mormegil messengers advise the King to “[cast] the cannot be slain, save by mischance, or an stones of your pride into the loud river, that evil arrow from afar’” (Silmarillion 251). the creeping evil may not find the gate,” re- He puts the grief of Beleg behind him in ferring to the bridge that Túrin had built, renaming himself and takes up the sword

49 Explorations | Humanities again in defense of Nargothrond, his new For this image was made in scorn of thee; home. Unfortunately, Túrin’s counsel of and while there is one to bear it doubt shall open war again proves ill, as the fame of ever assail thee, lest the bearer deal thee thy the Black Sword, well known and feared by doom.’ ‘Then it must await a master of an- Orcs, spreads; “thus Nargothrond was re- other name,’ said Glaurung; ‘for Túrin son vealed to the wrath and malice of Morgoth, of Húrin I do not fear’” (Unfinished 155). but still at Túrin’s prayer his true name Glaurung knows Túrin’s true name and was not spoken, and rumour only spoke calls it insufficiently powerful to master him, of Mormegil of Nargothrond” (Jewels 84). saying that “a fate of evil is woven about Morgoth sends Glaurung the fire drake, thee, and thou mayst not untangle thy foot- one of the dragons of old, to Nargothrond steps from it whitherever thou goest” (Lost to wreak his vengeance. Glaurung becomes Tales 86). In The Lost Tales version, Túrin the touchstone for Túrin’s fate, the embodi- shrugs off Glaurung’s evil glance and cries, ment of the curse of Morgoth and Túrin’s “Nay, from this hour shall none name me difficulty in overcoming it. Túrin if I live. Behold, I will name me a Túrin’s warlike name Agarwaen becomes new name and it shall be Turambar!” (86). more accurate than he had foreseen when This time Túrin seeks not to hide from he first named himself thus. The sack of Morgoth’s curse but to create a new fate by Nargothrond makes Túrin rue his counsel renaming himself; as Turambar, Master of to Orodreth. Morgoth sends innumerable Fate, he comes closest to this goal. So strong forces against the city; during the battle is Túrin’s will that he is able to strive with Orodreth is killed, and Gwindor is fatally the dragon’s insidious power longer than wounded. Glaurung plunders the city, slay- any other man has done, though he finally ing or capturing those left behind in the succumbs to the dragon’s spell. Glaurung city while the warriors are kept busy by the holds him immobile as the prisoners, in- Orcs. Grief-stricken by the plight of the cluding Finduilas, are marched past Túrin. Elves and feeling that he has their blood on They depart along the very bridge that his head as a result of his ill-given advice, he himself ordered built, one that led to Túrin manages to draw Gwindor from Nargothrond’s downfall as it was too sturdy the fight, who urges him to find Finduilas. to be destroyed quickly when the enemy Speaking with the foresight brought on by had drawn too near to fend off. Truly, his near death, he tells him, “And this last I say pride was in those stones, and now they are to you; she alone stands between you and a torment to him as he hears Finduilas cry- your doom. If you fail her, it shall not fail ing his name. Yet “not until her cries and to find you. Farewell!” (Húrin 177). By sav- the wailing of the captives [are] lost upon ing Finduilas, Túrin can redeem his past the northward road [does] Glaurung re- actions, keeping light and laughter alive in lease Túrin, and he might not stop his ears spite of his curse. against that voice that haunted him after” Túrin’s true name plays an important (Húrin 179). The sound of Finduilas calling role in the confrontation with the dragon. his true name and urging him to do what is Túrin races back to Nargothrond, fight- right rings forever in his ears. ing his way through until he reaches the The dragon cunningly withholds death great beast. Glaurung mocks him, saying from Túrin, giving him what is even more that he wears the Dragon-helm in honor damaging: false names with enough of of him. Túrin bravely defies him, and an truth in them to cause him to despair. unused note in one of the versions records Glaurung releases Túrin, and the war- that he says, “‘Thou liest, and knowest it. rior tries to slay his foe; Glaurung admires

50 Stephanie Ricker his courage, but laughs at his attempts. for the safety of Gondolin several years be- Though Túrin now believes himself free of fore. Finally, Túrin sees the truth as the last the dragon’s spell, it is not so; the dragon of the dragon’s spell falls from him, and he twists the truth to bend Túrin to his will. goes immediately to seek Finduilas, though He names him, “Thankless fosterling, by now all trails are cold. He reaches the outlaw, slayer of thy friend, thief of love, Eithel Ivrin, the crystal pools which laughed usurper of Nargothrond, captain fool- like his long-dead sister Lalaith and served hardy, and deserter of thy kin” (Silmarillion as inspiration for Finduilas’ name, but they 256). He spins a lie of Morwen and Niënor, have been defiled by Glaurung in his ram- the sister Túrin never met, claiming that page across the lands, and Túrin can drink he has abandoned them, “and Túrin being and be refreshed there no more. When under the spell of Glaurung [hearkens] to he rescues a group of men from Orcs, he his words, and he [sees] himself as in a mir- names himself again, saying, “I do but fol- ror misshapen by malice, and [loathes] that low my trade, which is Orc-slaying . . . and which he [sees]” (Silmarillion 256). Túrin I dwell where my trade is. I am Wildman thinks himself strong enough to see the of the Woods” (Húrin 194). He disavows all truth; and, though in anguish because of lineage and all purpose in life beyond blind his desire to rescue Finduilas, he sees “ever vengeance; his is the mechanical revenge in his mind the Orcs burning the house of a nameless predator. of Húrin or putting Morwen and Niënor Túrin bitterly regrets his previous, pride- to torment” (Húrin 181). Glaurung allows ful decision, falling into despair when the Túrin to go, doing more evil to him by re- men tell him of the end of Finduilas. They leasing him than by killing him. He throws say that, on the edge of death, “she looked a last taunt at Túrin: “if Elf or Man be left upon us as though seeking one whom she to make tale of these days, then surely in had expected; and she said: ‘Mormegil. scorn they will name thee, if thou spurnest Tell the Mormegil that Finduilas is here.’ this gift” of freedom (Silmarillion 257). She said no more. But because of her latest Túrin cannot bear to be held in scorn; words we laid her where she died” (Húrin his pride will not allow it. He feels he must 197). She does not call Túrin by his true seek his mother and sister, even if it means name, or by her name for him, but by his doing the dragon’s will. As Gwindor had war name, the only one of his old names warned, his decision to do so and to aban- that he will retain after her death. Gwindor don Finduilas seals his fate, “for of his warned Túrin that Finduilas stood between abandoning of Failivrin in danger that he him and his doom; with her death, Thurin himself could see [comes] the very direst (the Secret) dies, and there is no hid- evil upon him and all he loved; and indeed ing from Morgoth. Just as Lalaith’s death his heart [is] confounded and wavered, and meant the end of laughter in Túrin’s life, he [leaves] those places in uttermost shame so Finduilas’ death means the end of the and weariness” (Lost Tales 87). In his heart, possibility of overcoming his fate. Brought Túrin knows that he is doing wrong; in be- down by grief and contempt at his own lieving he has overpowered the dragon he failings and bereft of will to live, Túrin is overestimating himself, when in reality goes to Haudh-en-Elleth, Mound of the the dragon is manipulating him through Elf-maid, burial place of Finduilas. Now he his own pride into abandoning the right knows the answer to the question Glaurung course of action. Túrin reaches the home asked him,“Wonderest thou not wherefore of his mother, only to find that Morwen I have withheld death from thee, O Túrin and Niënor are long gone, having left at last Mormakil, who wast once named brave?”

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(Lost Tales 86). He was kept alive to suffer a him and will not be dissuaded by Thingol more fearsome fate than a simple death by and Melian. Niënor refuses to be left behind, dragon fire. and together they go with Thingol’s men Túrin, however, cannot be held down to seek word of Túrin near the sacked city for long; he finally concludes that he must of Nargothrond, now become Glaurung’s put the past and its names behind him if lair. The Elves think this a dangerous er- he is to survive. At last, “the courage of the rand, but admire the women’s bravery, say- House of Hador [awakes] in him,” and ing: “Truly, it is by lack of counsel not of he says “in his heart: ‘All my deeds and courage that Húrin’s kin bring woe to oth- past days were dark and full of evil. But a ers! Even so with Túrin; yet not so with his new day is come. Here I will stay at peace, fathers” (Húrin 203). Like Túrin, Morwen and renounce name and kin; and so will I and Niënor possess the reckless courage put my shadow behind me, or at the least and pride in their own abilities that make not lay it upon those that I love’” (Húrin them heroic but also lead them to much of 196). With this new approach, he takes their misery. Niënor’s naming, like Túrin’s, “a new name, calling himself Turambar, is indicative of her situation in life. In the which in the High-elven speech signified days of blackness during which she was Master of Doom; and he [dwells] among born, some time after Túrin’s departure for the woodmen, and [is] loved by them, Gondolin, Morwen “named her Niënor, and he [charges] them to forget his name which is Mourning” (Húrin 75). Yet Niënor of old” (Húrin 196). In The Lost Tales, he will not be ruled by this name, and when her calls himself Turambar son of the weary mother attempts to dissuade her from com- forest (Turumart go-Dhruathodauros or ing to seek Túrin, she tells her, “‘Mourning Turambar Rusitaurion), giving himself no you named me, but I will not mourn alone, parentage other than the wilds (89). But the for father, brother, and mother. But of these individual cannot be changed by the name; you only have I known, and above all do the name changes to suit the individual, I love. And nothing that you fear not do and “with the change of a name he could I fear’” (Húrin 202). When Morwen and not change wholly his temper” (Húrin 196). Niënor reach the hills near Nargothrond, The old warrior spirit arises again in Túrin, Glaurung approaches, scattering the and he goes to war against the servants of searchers’ party as their horses panic. He Morgoth again, though Brandir, the leader catches Niënor alone; as she comes over of the men of Brethil, hopes “rather to the top of the hill, she comes eye to eye preserve his people by silence and secrecy. with Glaurung. Because Niënor’s will is as ‘The Mormegil is no more,’ [says] he, ‘yet strong as her brother’s, she is able to with- have a care lest the valour of Turambar stand Glaurung for a time. In the Lost Tales bring a like vengeance on Brethil!’” (Húrin version, Morwen (there called Mavwin) is 197). So Túrin puts down Gurthang, using caught by Glaurung as well, and she asks if bow and spear only; yet he will allow no he knows anything of Túrin. Orcs near Haudh-en-Elleth out of respect Glaurung’s answer is as twisted and de- for Finduilas’ memory, and the Orcs learn ceitful as his character, and his words are to shun the place. fraught with the hidden power of naming. Meanwhile, the notoriety of Túrin’s war He replies, name leads his mother and sister to seek Túrin. Word of the Black Sword comes to “Lo! the names of all who dwelt here before the Morwen; not having heard definite word of taking of the caves of my wisdom I know, and I say her son in years, Morwen wishes to go seek to thee that none who named himself Túrin went

52 Stephanie Ricker hence alive.” And even so was Túrin’s boast subtly you a name, and call you Níniel, Maid of turned against him, for these beasts love ever to Tears.’ And at that name she [looks] up, speak thus, doubly playing with cunning words. and she [shakes] her head, but [says]: “Then was Túrin slain in this evil place,” [says] ‘Níniel,’” the first word she speaks “after Mavwin, but the dragon [answers]: “Here did the her darkness, and it [is] her name among name of Túrin fade for ever from the earth—but the woodmen ever after” (Húrin 215-216). weep not, woman, for it was the name of a craven As when Finduilas came near to Túrin’s that betrayed his friends.” (Lost Tales 98) true name when she named him Thurin, Túrin comes close to Niënor’s true name Whatever names Túrin might be called, by calling her Níniel. Níniel quickly relearns coward was not one of them; Niënor re- speech and often asks, “What is the name plies, “‘You lie…The children of Húrin of this thing? For in my darkness I lost it” at least are not craven. We fear you not.’ (Húrin 217). Above all, she seeks to learn the Then Glaurung [laughs], for so [is] Húrin’s names of things once more, re-establishing daughter revealed to his malice. ‘Then you their place in her world. Like Túrin, she are fools, both you and your brother,’ [says] has the feeling that she has been dogged by he. ‘And your boast shall be made vain. a shadow, a nameless fate she has escaped For I am Glaurung!’” (Húrin 208-209). The only with difficulty. She and Túrin become dragon knows Túrin’s true name and is able friends, and one day Níniel says, to use it against him, catching his family in the same web of power. Glaurung places a “Of all things I have now asked the name, save spell of forgetfulness on Niënor, causing her you. What are you called?” “Turambar,” he [an- to forget speech: the names for everything, swers]. Then she [pauses] as if listening for some including her own. In blind panic, she flees echo; but she [says]: “And what does that say, or into the wilds, unaware of what she is do- is it just the name for you alone?” “It means… ing and separated from all of her friends. In Master of the Dark Shadow. For I also, Níniel, had her namelessness she is as one that does not my darkness, in which dear things were lost; but exist; she has no memory and no personal- now I have overcome it, I deem.” (Húrin 217-218) ity. The courage and strength of character that she possessed flee with her name. Just Turambar echoes Túrin’s true name, and as the animals were nameless before Adam Túrin hopes the name is powerful enough named them, so she has no words to name to overcome the curse of Morgoth. Thus the things of her surroundings. Finally, she Túrin, by naming himself the master of his comes into the land of Brethil, hungry and fate, hopes to master it in reality as well; cold. Exhausted by her long wandering, she and while his humble attitude lasts, he in- collapses on Haudh-en-Elleth, Finduilas’ deed seems to do so, or at least to achieve a burial place. brief happiness. In keeping with the concept that the Brief indeed, for before too long a time, name is equated with the personality, her each unaware of the other’s true name renaming and relearning of the names of and identity, Níniel and Túrin begin to fall the world almost literally makes Niënor in love. Brandir, the leader of Brethil, re- into a different person. Túrin still defends veals to Níniel “that Turambar was Túrin Haudh-en-Elleth in memory of Finduilas, son of Húrin, and though she knew not and there he finds Niënor. He comforts the name a shadow fell on her heart” her and questions her concerning her ori- (Jewels 96). Something about the name still gins, but she cannot remember and weeps strikes a chord within the blank space of in frustration. Túrin tells her, “‘I will give her memory, but Túrin asks for her hand

53 Explorations | Humanities in marriage, and she gives it in spite of her judgment. As destiny, it signifies that every sense of foreboding. Then Túrin “[says] living thing has its own peculiar mortality; in his heart: ‘’Twas well that I did name as calamity it means that many things end myself Turambar, for lo! I have overcome ill; but also as judgment it betokens every- the doom of evil that was woven about my one’s final state as determined by the just feet’” (Lost Tales 102). Túrin promises not to and merciful verdict of Iluvatar” (Wood go to war unless their home is threatened, 15). Morgoth’s curse is fate in the sense of for Níniel is gentle and fears to see him go calamity, but the overarching definition of to battle. Feeling he has found victory in fate as judgment, consistent with Thingol’s his new name, he thinks “to put his fate for- view of fate but not with Túrin’s, ensures ever from him and live out his life there in that the end will be well. This is the fate the woodland homes with children about that Húrin trusted, and he believed that him” (Húrin 101-102). Yet Túrin muses Morgoth’s curse could be overcome. Húrin to himself, “Haudh-en-Elleth! From the does not fear death because he does not green mound she came. Is that a sign, and view it as a defeat. Though man’s fate is to how shall I read it?” (Húrin 218). Gwindor’s die, he is free to choose the manner of his words about Finduilas standing between life, and even his death can be seen in terms Túrin and his fate ring throughout Túrin’s of eucatastrophe, the positive end. Fate and life, but not until the end will their meaning death can be a victory, as Húrin recognizes become completely clear. but Túrin does not. Túrin is not permitted to live for long Tolkien leaves hints that Túrin possessed with his fate left unconfronted; by hiding everything required within himself and his true name, he is hiding his true self, within his true name to choose a different which cannot long remain covered. Soon destiny, though Tolkien does imply that it the lands of Brethil are threatened again would be difficult for Túrin to overcome his by Glaurung, and the Black Sword must circumstances. Nevertheless, the possibility go to war once more. Then Túrin says to remains; there is always a chance that he himself, “Now comes the test, in which my could have chosen differently. As he wa- boast shall be made good, or fail utterly. I vered between seeking Finduilas and seek- will flee no more. Turambar indeed I will ing his mother and sister, The Lost Tales sug- be, and by my own will and prowess I will gests that, had he chosen to seek Finduilas, surmount my doom—or fall. But falling or “maybe in that desperate venture he had riding, Glaurung at least I will slay” (Húrin found a kindly and swift death or perchance 223). Killing Glaurung becomes the test for an ill one, and maybe he had rescued Túrin’s ability to overcome the curse by re- Failivrin and found happiness yet not thus naming himself. He will overcome his fate was he fated to earn the name he had taken once and for all, or he will die. Fate plays anew, and the drake reading his mind suf- an exceedingly important role in naming fered him not thus lightly to escape his tide in The Children of Húrin, and Tolkien has of ill” (87). Túrin blames the circumstances strong views upon the subjects of fate and of his life for how he turned out, saying he free will. A name can be seen as a fate, a has been made “a hard man by [his] fate’” destiny to achieve. At the same time, “as (Húrin 115). Melian gives great insight into a Christian writer, Tolkien also modifies Túrin’s character when she warns, “great- the pagan conception of fate to imply its ness is in you, and your fate is twined with providential direction” (Wood 15). Doom that of the Elven-folk, for good or for ill. in Tolkien’s works (in the sense of fate, Beware of yourself, lest it be ill” (Húrin 85). not necessarily a negative sense) has “the Melian is able to see that the cause of his triple meaning of destiny, calamity, and downfall lies within himself, not in his fate

54 Stephanie Ricker or within his name. The curse makes his those “who argue that real freedom is the life difficult, but it does not control his life; liberty to choose and do the good, and that he still retains responsibility. to do evil is to act unfreely, to exercise an Túrin’s pride holds him back from enslaved will” (70). Free will and the ability changing his fate. Renaming himself, while to choose our own fate is the greatest gift a powerful event, is not enough; he must of God. Interestingly, one of the versions change his character and overcome his of Turambar’s name (Master of Fate) is faults, as Thingol warns, “If in days to Turúmarth, Master of Evil Fate (Salo 358). come you remember the words of Melian, Túrin’s renaming gives himself a name it will be for your good: fear both the heat that should give him the mastery to choose and the cold of your heart, and strive for good over evil. In The Lays of Beleriand, he patience, if you can” (Húrin 85). Over and is called Túrin Thaliodrin (son of Thalion) over again, Túrin’s pride and his temper and even Túrin Thalion (Steadfast), just as are what cause the misery in his life, not his father was called. Húrin Thaliodrin, the curse of Morgoth, as he is warned by possessing the same name and given the many. Yet Túrin will not humble himself, same curse, manages to choose rightly re- saying there is “a curse upon me, for all I do gardless of the cost. By contrast, Túrin, is ill” (Lost Tales 76). Before Saeros attempts with the same name and under the same to kill Túrin, Thingol warns him, “Indeed curse, feels he cannot do so. I feel that some shadow of the North has Túrin consistently overestimates his reached out to touch us tonight. Take heed, strength, and when it is found to be insuf- Saeros, lest you do the will of Morgoth in ficient, succumbs to despair. Despair itself your pride” (Húrin 88). Thingol wisely sees is a form of pride, for only one with the that these men, in their pride, are work- power to know all ends would know when ing not against but rather for Morgoth, for there is cause to give up hope. Túrin’s brav- pride is of Morgoth. They are not choosing ery is undeniable, yet that is not enough for right over wrong, and thus are enslaving true heroism. He must also have hope—not their own wills. This is true thralldom, the hope that he will survive, for that under- servitude that Túrin so fears, not under- mines bravery, but hope that what is good standing that he is forging his own chains will prevail over what is evil. The tale of through his decisions. Túrin is undeniably sad with a very un- Túrin blames his problems on Morgoth’s happy ending, but a happy ending is not curse, feeling it to be inescapable; he the goal of true heroism. The true Quest changes his name often to avert the requires real heroism, requires the char- curse, but each time Morgoth finds him. acter “to struggle with hope, yet without Undeniably, “the malice of that Vala does the assurance of victory. Good endings create hard circumstances that blight his may signal a too-easy victory that does not life,” but it is also undeniable that Túrin, deepen our souls, while an unhappy con- like most people, plays a large part in creat- clusion reached nobly may be the mark of ing his own misery (West 242). In The Lost real character” (Wood 147). Húrin’s story Tales version, Glaurung warns Túrin, “Nay, is undoubtedly tragic, but it is a triumph get thee gone, O Turambar Conqueror of regardless; Túrin’s story is more difficult to Fate! First thou must meet thy doom an evaluate. thou wouldst o’ercome it” (86). In this the Túrin finally attempts to overcome his deceitful dragon speaks truth for a change. fate by his own strength through defeating Túrin’s constant renaming is hiding from, Glaurung. He hides in a crevasse called not confronting through free will, his doom. Cabed-en-Aras, waiting for the dragon to Wood ties Tolkien to Paul and Augustine, cross it. As he does so, Túrin stabs upwards

55 Explorations | Humanities with Gurthang, piercing Glaurung’s vulner- Mourning daughter of Morwen! Take me able belly. As the worm lashes in his death and bear me down to the Sea!” (Húrin 244). throes, the sword is pulled from Túrin’s She will not strive against her name any- hand. At last Glaurung lies still, and Túrin more. Before those who followed her can climbs out of the ravine. He speaks to stop her, she casts herself into the deadly Glaurung who watches him balefully, using ravine, and “Cabed-en-Aras was no more: his true name to proclaim the victory: “Die Cabed Naeramarth, the Leap of Dreadful now and the darkness have thee! Thus is Doom, thereafter it was named by men; for Túrin son of Húrin avenged” (Silmarillion no deer would ever leap there again, and 267). With that, he pulls Gurthang from all living things shunned it, and no man Glaurung, but the black blood pouring would walk upon its shore” (Húrin 244). forth burns his hand, and the evil breath of Níniel returns to her true name, Niënor, Glaurung causes him to faint. Mourning; there is no hope or joy for her Níniel too must confront Glaurung, the left in this world, and she cannot reside in personification of the curse of Morgoth. it any longer. She refuses to wait for news of her husband The truth of the children of Húrin must and begins to journey towards Cabed-en- yet be revealed to Túrin. Túrin wakes, finds Aras, for she says, “The Master of Doom is his hand bandaged, and thinks that the gone to challenge his doom far hence, and people of Brethil cared for him. Brandir, how shall I stay here and wait for the slow who saw all that had passed but was too late coming of tidings, good or ill?” (Húrin 231). to stop it, tells him the truth about Níniel. Running ahead of Brandir, Níniel finds her Túrin refuses to believe him. In anger and husband unconscious next to the dragon. pain, “Yes, I am Túrin son of Húrin,” As she bandages Túrin’s burned hand, Túrin cries, and “so long ago you guessed. Glaurung opens his eyes for the last time But nothing do you know of Niënor my and speaks “with his last breath, saying: sister” (Húrin 251). Brandir cries “out upon ‘Hail, Niënor, daughter of Húrin. We meet Turambar with the last words of Glaurung, again ere the end. I give thee joy that thou that he was a curse to his kin and to all hast found thy brother at last. And now that harboured him” (Silmarillion 269). In a thou shalt know him: a stabber in the dark, blind rage, Túrin kills Brandir and runs to treacherous to foes, faithless to friends, and Haudh-en-Elleth, not knowing where else a curse unto his kin, Túrin son of Húrin! to go. One of Thingol’s men, who has been But the worse of all his deeds thou shalt searching for Niënor ever since she fled un- feel in thyself’” (Silmarillion 268). With that, der the spell of the dragon, finds him there the foul beast dies having revealed the truth to warn him against Glaurung. Túrin re- about the names of the children of Húrin. plies bitterly that it is too late to warn him The last of his spell falls from Níniel, and of that, but he asks news of Morwen and she remembers all the days of her life Niënor. When he hears the story of how and her true name. She cannot live with they were lost, “Then Túrin’s heart [stands] this truth, however; in horror at what she still, hearing the feet of doom that would and Túrin have inadvertently done, she pursue him to the end. ‘Say on!’ he [cries]. cries, “Farewell, O twice beloved! A Túrin ‘And be swift!’” (Húrin 254). Túrin still sees Turambar turun ambartanen: master of doom fate as the curse of Morgoth, and he dreads by doom mastered!” (Silmarillion 268). Níniel what he will hear. When he hears the de- runs swiftly to the brink of Cabed-en-Aras, scription of Niënor, Túrin knows there is crying, “Water, water! Take now Níniel no mistaking it: she was indeed Níniel. In Niënor daughter of Húrin; Mourning, agony, Túrin cries “I am blind! Did you

56 Stephanie Ricker not know? Blind, blind, groping since child- of flame . . . and so were all their sorrows hood in a dark mist of Morgoth!” (Húrin and stains washed away, and they dwelt 255). With what Túrin sees as his doom as shining Valar among the blessed ones” fulfilled and all chance at happiness gone, (Lost Tales 115–116). At last these two of he has no desire to live. He runs to Cabed- the sorrowful names have peace; and it is en-Aras, now Cabed Naeramarth, but he said, at the ends of the world, “Turambar will not soil the waters where Niënor has indeed shall stand beside Fionwe in the cast herself. He draws Gurthang and asks Great Wrack, and Melko and his drakes the sword if it will kill him. Then, “from shall curse the sword of Mormakil” (Lost the blade rang a cold voice in answer: ‘Yea, Tales 116). Morgoth will ultimately be de- I will drink thy blood gladly, that so I may feated, and the “redeemed Túrin is fated forget the blood of Beleg my master, and to cast down Melko-Melkor-Morgoth with the blood of Brandir slain unjustly. I will his great sword” (West 244). Truly, Túrin slay thee swiftly’” (Silmarillion 261). Túrin will become Master of the Shadow, play- dies, following Niënor beyond where their ing a vital role in the defeat of Morgoth, curse can follow them. the Enemy, the shadowy evil. There is hope So end the children of Húrin, and so even for the hapless one. ended “the name most tearful / Of Niënor This created myth, full of the power of the sorrowful, and the name most sad / naming, awakens something long left to Of Thalion’s son Túrin o’erthrown by slumber in the modern world. Quoting fate” (Lays of Beleriand lines 5-7). Yet Túrin Philip Wheelwright, Hopper argues that was given one last name: on his grave- the “loss of myth-consciousness” is “the stone was written Túrin Turambar Dagnir most devastating loss that humanity can Glaurunga, or Túrin Master of Fate Slayer suffer; . . . myth-consciousness is the bond of Glaurung. Dagnir Glaurunga (Bane of that unites men both with one another and Glaurung) becomes Túrin’s final name; and with the unplumbed Mystery from which insofar that Glaurung embodied the curse mankind is sprung and without reference that shadowed his short life, Túrin did mas- to which the radical significance of things ter his fate and win a new, true name for goes to pot’” (114–115). Myth is essential himself. In the end, Túrin wins fame by to meaning in our lives because it opens us slaying Glaurung, the embodiment of his up to the true meaning to be found within wrong choices and his curse; thus he did spiritual belief. Kelsey agrees, stating that, right by atoning for his previous wrongs, “Lacking any use of myth, man becomes even as he was unable to overcome his own only a partial human being, because he has pride, the true bane of his existence. lost his principal means of dealing with Though The Children of Húrin is a tragic spiritual reality” (5). In the imbalance of an tale, there is still hope within its pages. In age where the historic, the mythic, and the the early versions of the story of Túrin, the religious are considered inferior to the tech- storyteller adds some information about nological and scientific, “there are heights the ultimate fate of the children of Húrin. and depths to man and the world around After death, Húrin and Morwen (Úrin him that twentieth century men have over- and Mavwin in this version) request that looked, and it is these reaches that may be Túrin and Niënor be allowed to enter the experienced and expressed in myths which blessed realm. Their prayers are answered, can give meaning and reaction to our lost- and “the Gods had mercy on their un- ness and confusion” (Kelsey 5). For Tolkien, happy fate, so that those twain Túrin and myth creation and naming bring us closer Nienori entered into Fos’ Almir, the bath to God through subcreation, the God-given

57 Explorations | Humanities right and gift of mankind made in the im- one like her in all women that he meets, age of God. finding aspects of her character in both Thus the thread of connections unwinds, Finduilas and Niënor and ultimately losing from the foundation built upon language all three women. and myth to the culmination of Tolkien’s Túrin’s names exhibit the changes in vision. Language and myth are inseparable, personality that he experiences. As the being connected by metaphoric thinking Dragon-helm, he possesses one half of which finds its purest expression in name. what he needs to overcome the curse; he Tolkien views this expression through the has bravery (like his mother Morwen), but lens of Christianity; name in myth is sub- no hopeful outlook, nor belief in his inher- creation, a reflection of biblical naming. ent freedom (unlike his father Húrin). As the Names themselves are the source of subcre- Woodwose, he is a forlorn outcast from soci- ation for Tolkien. Creation itself is naming, ety. As Neithan (the Wronged), he is pride- further expression of metaphoric thought ful and refuses to accept Thingol’s doom, linking language and myth to the creation one of merciful judgment. The name is un- process. Man is also a namer, having been fit for him because his pride blinds him to created in God’s image, and naming brings his own flaws, leading him to blame his fail- order, establishing the place of a thing in ures on the curse. When Túrin slays Beleg the universe. When we name ourselves, we Cúthalion, he slays thalion within his own define our own place in the universe. The name (son of Húrin), the steadfast, hopeful name of a person is linked to the essence legacy of his father. The endless laughter of the person; we are our names, the one of the pools of Ivrin heals him of the grief aspect of being that we can create. A right of this friend-slaying; the pools remind him or true name is one that correctly expresses of his sister Lalaith and are the origins of the established place of our essence in the Finduilas’ name, who is symbolic of hope universe. A new name signifies a change in and joy in Túrin’s life. Had he embraced personality; one must be renamed to renew all that Finduilas represented, she would conformity of essence with name. have stood between him and his curse; the Tolkien takes these principles and com- choices that lay along that path would have bines them in a synthesis of ideas, illus- changed his character so that he might have trated by the names in The Children of Húrin. overcome his flaws. As Thurin (the Secret), Húrin’s name is indicative of his inherent he might have lived peacefully and hum- heroism and hope by which he is able to bly with her. Instead, as Agarwaen son of overcome in mind the curse of Morgoth. Úmarth (Bloodstained son of Ill-fate), his He does not hide from it, as Túrin does pride and violent actions continually lead from what he perceives as his fate. Húrin to sorrowful outcomes. As Thuringud (the believes in free will and the power of the Hidden Foe), he believes that, under the indomitable will to overcome the curse on curse, he is a secret danger both to himself the family. He gives Túrin his Father-name, and to those around him. As the Mormegil the right and true name which should give (Black Sword), Túrin is the bane of evil Túrin the power to overcome the curse as but is also trapped in a world of war, never well. Morwen gives Túrin a different view of peace. As the Wildman of the woods, on life through the Mother-name, one of nothing is left to him but the slaughter of not only pride and vengeance but also of evil. As Turambar (Master of Fate), Túrin unconquerable bravery. Lalaith’s death is ceases renaming himself with the purpose also the death of the named characteristic, of hiding from the curse and instead re- laughter, and this lack causes Túrin to seek names himself to create a new fate, one in

58 Stephanie Ricker which he conquers his ill-fate through sheer and to our future. Language is the power strength of will. by which we can create wonders or hor- Yet is bravery, force of will, and renaming rors, and names are the most powerful to reflect these qualities enough for Túrin to words in language because they give us the prevail? Glaurung, as the curse of Morgoth power to recreate ourselves. Mythology is personified, hides the truth by his use of lies the vessel we are given to express timeless and false names. He causes Niënor to forget ideas of great meaning, and names are the her name, making her lose a part of her- most important part of mythology because self. By renaming her Níniel, Túrin seeks they shape the meaning of those ideas. to establish a new place for her in the order Subcreation is the ability we are given as a of the world, but he does so with incom- gift from God; created mythology, the story plete knowledge, leading to tragedy. Thus that we tell, is the gift that we can bestow she shares in the curse, but she also is part upon all who come after us. j of Túrin’s fate in terms of judgment. Her life is inextricably bound to his; by being together, they feel that they have overcome the shadow, but until they are aware of the truth of their own names, this is untrue. By killing Glaurung, Túrin overthrows the curse, though it is too late for him to re- deem his life. He had the qualities within himself, the “mind suitable for victory,” to overcome the curse, but not himself. Pride is his true bane, not Glaurung. Both children of Húrin find the truth about their names to be unbearable in this life; their true names show them where they should be in the order of the world, but they cannot make their way back to that place. Túrin’s return to the burial mound of Finduilas, the place of truth that has played such a vital role throughout the events of the story, ties the narrative of naming together, back to Lalaith and Finduilas and the endless search in his life for lost hope and what he would have needed to be truly the Master of Fate. Yet Túrin and Níniel both found hope beyond the circles of this world, un- der the merciful judgment, the true fate, of Iluvatar. From the many names of Túrin to the role names play in our fate to the reasons why we bestow names on anything at all, Tolkien’s vision of the power of names resonates through our lives today. The im- portance of naming cannot be underesti- mated, both to our past with its mythologies

59 Explorations | Humanities

Wo r k s Ci t e d

Campbell, Joseph. The Hero with a Thousand Faces. Princeton: Princeton UP, 1949.

Cassirer, Ernst. Language and Myth. Trans. Susanne Langer. New York: Dover, 1946

Crabbe, Katharyn W. “The Quest as Legend: The Lord of the Rings.” Modern Critical Interpretations: J.R.R. Tolkien’s The Lord of the Rings. Ed. Harold Bloom. Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2000.

Frazer, James George. The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion, Abr. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1951.

Halpern, Baruch. “The New Names of Isaiah 62:4: Jeremiah’s Reception in the Restoration and Politics of ‘Third Isaiah.’” Journal of Biblical Literature, 117.4: 623-644. EBSCOhost. Carrie Rich Memorial Lib, Campbell U, Buies Creek. 12 Dec 2008. .

The Holy Bible. New King James Version. Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 1996.

Hopper, Stanley Romaine. “Myth, Dream, and Imagination.” Myths, Dreams, and Religion. Ed. Joseph Campbell. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1970.

Jeffrey, David L. “Recovery: Name in ‘The Lord of the Rings.’”Tolkien: New Critical Perspectives. Lexington: UP of Kentucky, 1981.

Kelsey, Morton T. Myth, History, and Faith: The Remythologizing of Christianity. New York: Paulist Press, 1974.

Lee, Stuart D., and Elizabeth Solopova. The Keys of Middle Earth: Discovering Medieval Literature though the Fiction of J.R.R. Tolkien. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.

Salo, David. A Gateway to Sindarin: A Grammar of an Elvish Language from J.R.R. Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings. Salt Lake City: U of Utah P, 2004.

Strong, James. Strong’s Exhaustive Concordance of the Bible. Peabody: Hendrickson, 1986.

Tolkien, J.R.R. The Book of Lost Tales, vols. 1 and 2. Ed. Christopher Tolkien. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1984.

60 Stephanie Ricker

———. The Children of Húrin. Ed. Christopher Tolkien. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2007.

———. “Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings.” A Tolkien Compass. Ed. Jared Lobdell. La Salle: Open Court, 1975.

———. The Lays of Beleriand. Ed.Christopher Tolkien. New York: Ballantine, 1985. ———. The Letters of J.R.R. Tolkien. Ed. Humphrey Carter. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1981.

———. The Silmarillion, 2nd ed. Ed. Christopher Tolkien. New York: Ballantine, 1999.

———. Unfinished Tales of Numenore and Middle-earth. Ed. Christopher Tolkien. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980.

———. The War of the Jewels: The Later Silmarillion, Part Two: The Legends of Beleriand. Ed. Christopher Tolkien. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994.

Turner, Allan. Translating Tolkien: Philological Elements in The Lord of the Rings. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2005.

West, Richard C. “Túrin’s Ofermod: An Old English Theme in the Development of the Story of Túrin.” Tolkien’s Legendarium: Essays on The History of Middle-Earth. Ed. Verlyn Flieger and Carl F. Hostetter. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 2000.

Wood, Ralph. The Gospel According to Tolkien: Visions of the Kingdom in Middle-earth. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2003.

Zimmer, Mary E. “Creating and Recreating Worlds with Words.” Tolkien and the Invention of Myth: A Reader. Ed. Jane Chance. Lexington: UP of Kentucky, 2004.

61 The Twilight Zone: Rod Serling’s Stage for Social Criticism

Michael Tildsley Campbell University Faculty Mentor: Donna Waldron, PhD English Department Campbell University

e a r l y f i f t y y e a r s a f t e r its television Serling emerged as a writing talent for N premiere, Rod Serling’s The Twilight television and achieved a fair amount of Zone remains pertinent, groundbreaking success in that realm. In fact, by the time television. When it arrived on the CBS “Rod Serling created The Twilight Zone, he network in 1959, Serling’s show was only was one of television’s hottest writers. He one of two science fiction or fantasy pro- had already won Emmy awards for his grams to premiere on television that year. dramatic teleplays for Patterns (1955) and This same year saw the production of eight Requiem for a Heavyweight (1956),” two tele- new private detective shows and a massive plays he wrote to be performed in this live twelve new programs from the Western format (Phillips and Garcia 467). However, genre. Facing these staggering numbers, a Serling and other writers were faced with show presenting science fiction and fantasy a similar plight: not with a lack of cre- elements stood out in a crowd of otherwise ative source material for their writing, but uniform television programs. In addition, with pressures by networks and sponsors besides their thematic connection, the ma- to alter their scripts prior to airing in the jority of shows featured on television were economic interest of the products being joined by another common thread: com- advertised. Laurence Venuti, Professor of mercial-driven censorship. English at Temple University describes this Television in the mid 1950s primarily phenomenon: consisted of realistic television dramas per- formed live. Such programs as The United Since the networks were dedicated to pursuing States Steel Hour and Playhouse 90 domi- the most profitable course with this new mass me- nated the prime time airwaves. It was to- dium, the sponsors and ad agencies exerted a dic- ward the end of this movement that Rod tatorial control over programming . . . their power

62 Michael Tildsley in television was comparable to that in radio, serious writers, another reason surfaced for where not only did they decide where and when wanting to disallow or at least veil the issues a commercial would be run, but agencies actually presented. Bringing current social issues created many programs as vehicles for their com- literally in front of the eyes of millions of mercials. (360) Americans, though undeniably an effective way of transmitting a message, was thought The fact that some shows were created by by sponsors to have the potential for contro- product companies specifically for the pur- versy and unpleasantness among consum- pose of advertising speaks to the cheap- ers. No agency or sponsor of a product line ness and lack of depth in a portion of the wanted potential offensiveness, or a prob- medium. lem of any kind connected to their product By and large, television was still relatively in the minds of their consumers. Making young as a medium and lacked the iden- people realize that they were unhappy with tity that both radio and film had attained. the state of the world around them would As a halfway house between the two medi- not positively influence consumer buying. ums, having the mass availability of radio It would stand to reason that the televi- and the visual elements of film, television sion writer and the sponsor would want to struggled to find its own middle ground be- work together, considering that they have tween the purposes of its parent presenta- a common goal. Success for both parties tion methods. Whereas radio had primar- meant achieving and keeping an audience, ily placed advertising in the forefront of because “[television] is both an art and a its business, major motion pictures usually popular industry. Whereas the stage dra- had entertainment as the primary focus, matist writes for an audience measuring with ticket sales being the market commod- in the hundreds, the TV playwright has to ity. As of the mid-1950s, the commercial please millions. His very career depends purpose of television dictated the content on his ability to win mass appeal” (Wolfe of the medium, as “[the] TV studio execu- 17). It can be argued that the same is true tives of the time saw themselves primarily for commercial sponsors. Should they fail as promoters of their advertisers’ products. to present their product to the consumers Entertainment was a second criterion, with in an enticing manner, the company would public service lagging behind as a distant fail. However, rather than create camara- third” (Wolfe 17). derie, these difficulties set writers against With television in this deplorable state, it the advertising agencies and sponsors. was considerably challenging for a writer This struggle between a group determined to discuss current political or social issues. to appeal to the status quo versus another Put simply, the view of most “sponsors and group attempting to write criticism about ad agencies [was to] regard a program not the dire state of society was much too large as a work of art or a vehicle of responsible to recount here; suffice to say that the spon- social criticism, but primarily as another sors of television shows had the upper hand device which could be useful in selling a with monetary backing, such that “[writ- product. To the sponsors and ad agencies, ers] were torn between the desire to present a program is merely another commer- compelling and timely plays and the fear cial” (Venuti 361). Most companies were of incurring the wrath of sponsors and net- so fixated on pushing a product or series work executives” (Cochran 196). of products in their formulaic shows that Television sponsors gained additional they did not even consider contemporary leverage when live teleplays began to be issues. However, for the shows that featured replaced by serial situational comedies

63 Explorations | Humanities and anthology shows. The reason for this Serling’s Twilight Zone was its difference is that the writing on a sit-com or anthol- from contemporary and past shows. Most ogy show generally consisted of formulaic notably, “[in] a TV era where the most writing, to which most self-respecting writ- popular shows were westerns, The Twilight ers would decline to commit because of the Zone offered a refreshing switch” (Phillips lack of creative and artistic freedoms. Part and Garcia 470). Rather than maintaining of the reason for this shift from live drama focus on the past, antiquated and untouch- to pre-recorded TV was due to significant able as it was, Serling chose to study the network management changes. Specifically, present and future. This shift would mark the vice presidency of CBS changed, as the beginning of the end for the idolization James Aubrey took the position, a man de- of the American past and the declaration scribed as “an executive firmly dedicated to of pressing issues that needed addressing the bottom line [ . . . ] one who at once set in the present. By selecting a genre not about canceling everything that was not the typical of mainstream television audiences, sort of light, sitcom amusement he thought Serling was taking a risk in order to receive the viewers wanted” (Rabinowitz par. 4). attention. Luckily for him, this risk paid off. Not only were television shows being re- Another dangerous decision that Serling duced to mere parodies of each other, but made in creating The Twilight Zone was to the network staff from the top purposefully make it an anthology show. This means that made the effort to make viewing TV as un- each episode is an independent story from sophisticated as possible, perhaps pander- other episodes, and generally there are no ing to the lowest common denominator of recurring characters. In a TV era in which society. the conservative and realistic were cele- The push away from live TV dramas brated, this was another huge risk that paid took with it a good deal of the writing tal- unseen dividends, making “[the] series was ent of the era. Rather than abandon the one of the few successful anthology shows, medium, Rod Serling decided to stay in with no common character, writer, or plot the arena in which he had gained his ac- running through the episodes” (Bertonneau clamation and fame. However, because and Paffenroth 132). of writer’s limitations, this proved to be Just as the switch from live TV drama challenging: “when those live plays disap- to pre-recorded shows had run off a good peared from television, a writer like Serling number of the talented writers or the era, soon became subservient to everyone else so too did a good number of the famous on the production line. The programming actors and actresses begin to refuse to do a became less ambitious—and, with the em- television series. The result, of course, was phasis on crime shows, Westerns, and par- two-fold: poorer overall acting and the rise able sitcoms, it soon became far less depen- of previously unknown stars. Since the show dent on words” (Stark 88). Whereas the live was created as an anthology series,“ Twilight dramas displayed the abilities of both the Zone […] attracted a wide range of top stars, actors and the writers, the networks viewed including Ida Lupino, Ed Wynn, Robert pre-recorded TV programs as a means of Cummings and Mickey Rooney,” because further watering down entertainment, in being featured in one episode required far an attempt to highlight the sponsors. Also, less acting commitment than signing on with only a few cliché genres dominating for a full series (Phillips and Garcia 468). the broadcast time, writing became even The appearance of such stars undoubtedly more mediocre. would have attracted audiences to watch Perhaps one reason for the success of The Twilight Zone, as they could view film

64 Michael Tildsley quality acting at no additional cost from explore their own gifts in a nurturing envi- the comfort of their own homes. Because ronment. The result was an overall notice- of the decrease in quality parts in televi- able increase in quality and effectiveness of sion, many actors and actresses feared that set usage for the series. accepting a television role would be the Although all of the preceding differences equivalent of being demoted. However, the were important in making Serling’s series quality of Serling’s Twilight Zone proved to stand out from amongst its competition, ar- be such that celebrity actors and actresses guably its great thematic difference proved gladly accepted the invitations to be part of most problematic to sponsors and network a show. The anthology format of the show executives. Rather than shying away from also “benefited from offering such a wide contemporary issues, “many Twilight Zone variety of premises and experiences to its [ . . . ] episodes exude the dominant po- viewers,” unlike the ceaseless Westerns and litical ideals and broad social anxieties of crime dramas, which featured clichéd plot their time” (Worland 104). While he could lines (Bertonneau and Paffenroth 132). have chosen to create a unique anthology In addition, the cinematography of series of speculative fiction that dealt with Serling’s Twilight Zone drastically differed otherworldly or nonsensical subject matter, from its contemporaries, while differing Serling intentionally chose to address con- even from itself in every week’s episode. temporary issues, albeit under the veil of The show used a wide variety of camera fiction. In many ways, while being artisti- techniques for filming, taking many artistic cally deceptive, Serling’s show did not hide risks for the goal of achieving a series of the truth from or talk down to his audience, quality and rising above the sea of medi- but engaged them in the themes and mo- ocrity that television had been allowed to tifs that other shows and networks compul- become. Also, the set design can only be sively avoided. Though this may seem like described as radically different from most a diminutive accomplishment, virtually no other shows on television at that time. The other television programs of the era were series as a whole incorporated set designs willing to address, either directly or indi- from multiple genres, including: contem- rectly, contemporary social and political porary urban environments, crime show issues. Sponsors and network executives film noir, Western fantasy, and science fic- were extremely hesitant to delve too deeply tion. As the show’s set differed from week into the existing problems for various rea- to week, a wide range of resources, as well sons, including a network belief that people as a creative staff, were a necessity. In com- watched television merely for simple and parison, “[hammering] together a set for a light-hearted entertainment. Also at risk by crime show is simple: Go to the studio’s stor- discussing these issues were the reputations age lockers and pull out a used table, desk of the sponsoring companies and prod- and chair. In The Twilight Zone, set‘between uct sales. Sponsors simply wanted to offer the pit of man’s fears and the summit of a mildly entertaining commercial to their his knowledge,’ the crew had to make not consumers, with bland and often repetitive only their own props, but often their own programming. Rod Serling saw two prob- worlds” (Phillips and Garcia 467). This re- lems with this: members of the audience quired that the set designers understand were not being personally engaged by the the storyline that Serling was creating in current television programming and, there- order to accurately portray the episode’s fore, they were not being entertained. message. In doing so, these designers were So how was it that The Twilight Zone given a fair amount of creative freedom to was able to break the sponsor barrier in

65 Explorations | Humanities conveying social and political messages to and have been heavily documented. For in- the audience? The answer to this question stance, in Serling’s teleplay, “Requiem for rests in the experience of the show’s cre- a Heavyweight,” which consequently won ator. Rod Serling had had several negative an Emmy, the line, “Got a match?” was re- encounters with sponsors and network ex- moved from the final cut of the show be- ecutives in the years of live, realistic televi- cause the sponsor happened to be Ronson sion dramas, prior to Zone. In fact, Serling lighters (Zicree 14). Though the line does found that sponsors held little regard for reflect a preference for matches over light- him “[as] a television playwright,” and be- ers, the reference seems minute enough cause their primary concern was not for not to have warranted censorship from the quality of the show but rather for their the sponsor. When the press leaked that products, “he was constantly forced to run Serling’s “Noon on Doomsday” was to be the gauntlet of corporate sponsors, who loosely based on the Emmett Till case, the directly financed the show and, concerned sponsor, the United States Steel company, that no segment of the buying public be ordered heavy revisions to be made due to alienated, took a close interest in the con- the delivery of thousands of letters threat- tent of the programs” (Cochran 196). That ening to boycott. When Serling questioned his scripts retained any quality at all is a tes- the company, he was told that United tament to Serling’s constant defense of his States Steel was not concerned about the work. His two Emmy awards, while bring- possibility of boycott, but rather a strain on ing in more writing opportunities, also gar- their public relations (Zicree 14). Extensive nered interest from network executives and changes were made to the teleplay, includ- sponsorship, who knew that Serling’s talent ing the change of setting from nonspecific would draw a large audience. As a result of to New England, as well as changing the this gratuitous sponsor interest, Serling was personality of the murderer in the story often forced into alterations of his scripts. from a “vicious” and “neurotic killer” into These alterations could range from the “a good, decent, American boy momen- immense, which changed the entire mes- tarily gone wrong” (Zicree 14). However, sage of the story, to the most insignificant with these monumental changes, the spon- miniscule details, which to all appearances sor also chose to alter ridiculously obscure were benevolent. What bothered Serling references to the South, such as removing was that the censorship he was forced to all Coca-Cola bottles from the set. The al- work under “was not based on morality terations were so extensive that when the and did not involve deletions of objection- show “was finally aired in April of 1956 [it] able material like obscenity and sensational was so watered down as to be meaningless” violence. Rather, the grounds for complaint (Zicree 14). were purely economic: network executives, Altering the personality of a show’s advertising agencies and sponsors often characters would certainly seem like more forced him to alter scripts they thought than enough hassle, but the sponsors con- would offend American consumers and de- tinued to meddle. Serling also became the crease the sale of products” (Venuti 354). victim of sponsor interference of the very This would later prove an important dis- actions his characters were scripted to do. tinction, as sponsors, being so interested For instance, in perhaps the most fantas- in maintaining economic integrity, would tic stretch of reasoning for alteration thus overlook the deeper messages in Serling’s far recounted, the sheriff of Serling’s 1958 Twilight Zone episodes. script, “A Town Has Turned to Dust,” was Several examples of this flagrant censor- not allowed to commit suicide. The reason ing of Serling’s early television writing exist, for this was that one of the sponsors, an

66 Michael Tildsley insurance company, claimed that suicides Wallace Interview, which proved to be a very led to complications in settling their policy telling meeting. Wallace assumes the role claims (Zicree 15). Though this may very of critic, appraising Serling’s decision to well be true, the relevance of the sponsor’s work with science fiction and fantasy as a problem in relation to the show’s usage of step down from the quality of writing that the incident is so far removed as to be laugh- had won him three Emmy awards. After able. Serling was infuriated with this degree discussing the censorship and position of of needless censorship. As Pulitzer Prize sponsors in television, Wallace asks, con- winning American Journalist, Dorothy cerning Serling’s new project, The Twilight Rabinowitz, states, “There had always Zone, “Who controls the final product, you been trouble with sponsors worried about or the sponsor?” to which Serling replies, controversial subject matter, trouble that “We have [ . . . ] a good working relation- ended with Serling in a fury over enforced ship, where, in questions of taste, in ques- revisions that mangled the entire point of tions of the art form itself, in questions of his script. Sponsors, Serling learned, did drama, I’m the judge, because this is my not want scripts to have any point in the medium and I understand it. I’m a drama- first place, and they certainly wanted none tist for television [ . . . ] the sponsor knows that dealt with political or similarly delicate his product, but he doesn’t know mine” matters” (par. 5). His frustrations mounted (Serling). This stern answer by Serling indi- with each mutilated script, and it was not cates both his previous stresses of working unforeseeable that he would search for an with sponsors and his determination to be alternative to the ludicrous demands of victorious in his newest writing endeavor. network executives and sponsors. By stating that the medium belongs to the With the pressures from sponsors and television writers and not sponsors, Serling network executives to revise his scripts con- is indicating a power shift that he aims to tinually, as well as pressure by companies accomplish with the quality of his new se- offering him writing work on shallow and ries. Also, by calling himself a television ultimately unfulfilling shows, Rod defied dramatist, Serling reiterates that he holds both parties, by creating and producing his his position in high regard and would not own show. However, because other great damage his reputation on a show he did television writers had retreated to film and not believe would help his career. Broadway,“Serling’s decision to begin work- Later in the interview, Serling states, ing on his own series in 1959 was widely “I don’t want to have to battle sponsors. I derided as a sellout” and a concession to don’t want to have to push for something the television medium (Cochran 204). Even that I want and have to settle for second beforeThe Twilight Zone premiered, Serling best. I don’t want to have to compromise was questioned and doubted about his dar- all the time, which, in essence, is what a ing decision to step away from mainstream television writer does if he wants to put television and realistic fiction in order to on controversial themes” (Serling). Here, write a science fiction and fantasy based Serling’s stress over sponsorship confronta- anthology show. Most major critics felt that tions is brilliantly illustrated with the tone this new series would be much weaker in of a man who has become weary of his theme and quality than Serling’s earlier failure at achieving greatness because of work and that Twilight Zone may even have the mistakes of others. To this emotional been his sign of giving in to the mediocrity diatribe, Wallace poses the question, “Why surrounding television. do you stay in television?” which Serling re- To answer these growing concerns, sponds to as soon as the words have left the Serling agreed to be featured on the Mike interviewer’s mouth, “I stay in television

67 Explorations | Humanities because I think it’s very possible to perform for this project. Consequently, by stating a function. Of providing adult, meaningful, the amount of money he has given up in exciting, challenging drama without deal- order to pursue artistic freedom, Serling is ing in controversy necessarily. [ . . . ] I think demonstrating an immense degree of faith it’s criminal that we are not permitted to make in the quality of his work on the fledgling dramatic note of social evils as they exist, Twilight Zone. Add to this the risk of writing of controversial themes as they are inher- in an under-explored genre and it becomes ent in our society” (Serling). In a sense, this clear that Serling was staking his career, response highlights Serling’s artistic goals both his financial stability and his reputa- for his upcoming series, The Twilight Zone, tion, on the work he put into creating this as well as for his overall career. series. In the closing minutes of the interview, Rod Serling understood that, with three Wallace begins to discuss the issue of Emmy awards in his favor, he could have money with Serling. When he asks how lived comfortably off of his reputation, much money Rod anticipates making with coasting through the rest of his career with The Twilight Zone, Serling replies with the low-quality shows and films and thereby following explanation: maintaining a comfortable standard of living. However, Serling likely would have This sounds defensive and it probably sounds seen such actions as those of a tired sellout. phony, but I’m not nearly as concerned about the Serling’s decision to make his own show was money to be made on this show as I am with the so unprecedented that critics stumbled to quality of it and I can prove that. I have a contract understand his intentions, other than mon- with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer which guarantees etary, for leaving the realm of realistic fic- me something in the neighborhood of a quarter tion in favor of science fiction and fantasy. of a million dollars over a period of three years. Lawrence Venuti sheds further light on the This is a contract I’m trying to break and get out misunderstanding by critics in an article for of so I can devote time to a series which is very the Western Humanities Review: iffy, which is a very problematical thing. It’s only guaranteed twenty-six weeks and if it only goes What was so difficult for his critics to accept was his twenty-six weeks and stops I’ll have lost a great sudden and bewildering shift from realistic drama, deal of money. But I would rather take the chance in which social commentary and moral issues and do something I like, something I’m familiar were the writer’s main concern, to fantasy, which with, something that has a built-in challenge to it. seemed pure escapist entertainment devoid of se- (Serling) rious import. The fact is that The Twilight Zone was Serling’s calculated response to the growing op- These comments cement Serling in place pressiveness of television censorship, and in many as a writer who was driven by lack of ful- of his screenplays for this series he continued his fillment to create a show of quality, with critical examination of American society—but in depth and meaning beyond the reach of an oblique and perhaps more inventive way. (355) the shallow, financial, and career-oriented sponsors. In this statement, Serling illus- Before viewing The Twilight Zone, critics trates a deep understanding of the risks he were ready, because of thematic precedent, is undertaking by producing The Twilight to denigrate Serling’s work. Previous entries Zone. Throughout the interview, he makes in the science fiction and fantasy genres for it very clear to Wallace that as creator, television and radio had, indeed, been pri- writer, and executive producer Serling has marily escapist and commercial products, undertaken a tremendous amount of work lacking the thematic depth of live teleplays.

68 Michael Tildsley

ABC’s show, Alcoa Presents One Step Beyond, (355). By combining interesting and differ- aired nine months before and shared the ent dramatic and cinematographic meth- thirty minute anthology structure of The ods with meaningful storylines, Serling cre- Twilight Zone. Although the show presented ated a stylish show in an era of mediocrity. tales of the supernatural, it did so in a Truly, if Serling had not become “a master straightforward style and ultimately lacked hand at getting around sponsors” in order the character depth, audience connection, “[to] ward off [sponsor] leeriness about and relation to current social themes of its works dealing with the supernatural,” successor. Also, One Step Beyond shied away the series would have never been possible from presenting the science fiction motifs (Rabinowitz par. 6). However, even with an that had made a name for the genre, such economically acceptable vehicle to trans- as alien invasions and space travel. Its cre- port his social message, without believable ators chose instead to look at the past for performers for his scripts, Serling’s show mysteries and disasters to explain and ex- could have flopped. plore theatrically. As a result, the episodes In spite of the fictional genres employed became less science fiction and more like a in creating Twilight Zone, the depth and be- predecessor of Unsolved Mysteries. lievability of Serling’s characters allow the Lack of a successful precedent led crit- audience to become personally involved ics to misjudge The Twilight Zone in that, with each episode, a powerful effect of vi- before its creation, no other program of tal necessity in transmitting his subtle so- speculative fiction had been implemented cial commentaries. A factor paramount as a vehicle for contemporary social criti- to the show’s popularity was Serling’s de- cism. Serling’s earlier television dramas velopment of “characters firmly in the had relied on their realism and character everyday world—which tactic also served, development to convey social messages to of course, to produce a series of unique the audience. For The Twilight Zone, while power” (Rabinowitz par. 6). Serling’s politi- the importance of character development cal and social observations had a varying remained, “[instead] of relying on realism range: from small, seemingly insignificant to convey his message, Serling embodied it details to wide-ranging and daring social in fantasy and managed not only to avoid statements. the censorship which had plagued his ear- A detailed analysis of Serling’s episodes lier writing, but also to maintain his integ- reveals the specific social commentaries rity as a socially concerned writer” (Venuti intended. In “Walking Distance,” Serling 355). He managed to write a commercially introduces the audience to Martin Sloan, a acceptable product while clearly slipping middle-aged business man shown to be ex- moralistic elements and social commentary ceptionally stressed over the way his life has into his scripts. turned out. The first time the viewer sees That The Twilight Zone was allowed to be- Sloan he is violently backing into a gas sta- come a groundbreaking series for television tion and repetitively honking his horn for was primarily the effect of Rod Serling’s service, as if in an extreme hurry. Though tedious work to become a groundbreaking he immediately apologizes for his rude ac- television writer. Venuti goes so far as to tions, the audience has witnessed the pace claim that The Twilight Zone was “Serling’s and mannerism of the lifestyle from which greatest achievement,” stating that “its Sloan is fleeing. Sloan reveals that he is combination of sophisticated dramatic from the nearby town, Homewood, and techniques with social criticism has rarely that he has not been back in twenty-five been equaled in the history of television” years. When he learns that his oil change is

69 Explorations | Humanities going to take an hour or so, Sloan decides Though Sloan does not catch on to the to walk to Homewood in order to pass the hints, the audience is early and often in- time. It is at this moment that the creative vited to speculate that Sloan has indeed cinematographic technique, vital to this traveled into his childhood past. From his episode’s meaning, commences. Instead recollection of the soda jerk’s appearance of pointing toward Sloan, the camera is to the unchanged price of the ice cream focused on his reflection from the glass in soda, Sloan’s missed hints at his travel the cigarette vending machine, and it is through time build suspense. It is not un- from this vantage point that the viewers til Sloan departs from the soda shop that witness Martin’s trek up the road towards his travel through time is revealed. A com- Homewood. Though extremely subtle, this ment that Sloan makes about remembering cinematographic technique is implemented the deceased owner of the shop is given as to convey Sloan’s journey into his own past. evidence of his journey, as by “[violating] “Rather than using a time machine,” by the established point of view (Sloan’s) for “employing a visual allusion to Through the a single shot, the camera remains inside, Looking Glass,” the show becomes fantasy Charlie ascends rickety stairs and speaks to rather than science fiction (Zicree 43). This his elderly boss, fanning himself in a stuffy camera choice selection by Serling connects office. If we have guessed that Mr. Wilson the audience with the story and character to awaits before Charlie arrives at the dark a greater degree with simplicity. The view at the top of these stairs, our shared pre- from a mirror image “cuts to [another] monition adds to the impact” (Brode and reflection of Martin in a drugstore mirror Serling 3). Interestingly, though Serling’s in the past, just as he enters,” though this show often stunned its viewers with revela- is not immediately revealed to be a reflec- tions, in this case the revealed fact is posi- tion (Zicree 43). By these irresolute camera tive: someone thought to be dead is actually visuals, Serling seems to be indicating that alive. In a television series that generally appearances cannot always be trusted. hides information from the audience, this To be sure, though he seemed to be rare moment is provided by Serling to al- near the verge of a mental breakdown low viewers to know the truth far earlier as he pulled into the gas station, Sloan’s than the protagonist, thus endearing Sloan “mile-and-a-half walk to Homewood re- to the audience. juvenates” him so much that “[when] he’s Sloan’s moment of revelation comes next seen, downing a three-scoop choco- when he sees his younger self carving his late soda in a soda fountain he had recalled name into the bandstand, just as he has from his youth, he’s sharp and bright” described to a young woman in the park. (Wolfe 57). Serling shows a different side Though he chases his younger self in an of Sloan in this soda shop, a side that re- attempt to have a conversation, the mid- members and longs for the better days of dle-aged Sloan appears no match for the his youth. Rather than sympathizing with young Martin. After going through such his mistreatment the audience is encour- an amazing incident, “Sloan [is left] with aged to identify with Sloan in this episode. one option: to confront his parents. He ap- For instance, as Sloan enjoys a three-scoop proaches the house where he was raised ice cream soda, the camera is in extreme only to be rejected by his father and mother close-up of his face so that it dominates the (Brode and Serling 4). The screen door screen. In this way, the audience is invited which separates the two parties is shown by to share the moments of remembered joy the camera from both sides, another clever that Sloan is feeling. usage of cinematography. Serling shows

70 Michael Tildsley his knowledge of complex camera work in because she still believes him to be an im- this scene, because when Martin Sloan first poster, but because, on some unconscious rings the doorbell, the camera is pointed level, Mrs. Sloan senses that he speaks the facing him such that he appears blurred truth” (Brode and Serling 6). If she does by the screen door, while his parents, with sense truth in his words, Mrs. Sloan’s ac- their backs to the audience, appear clear. tion suggests a vulgarity in Martin’s return This texturing suggests that Sloan is an to his childhood past. Though he somehow unreal apparition from the future and that mysteriously was able to return to the past, his parents are rightful beings in their own Mrs. Sloan’s defense mechanism poses the present time. However, when the camera question from Serling,“Does he have a right is reversed the audience views Sloan’s par- to return?” Through the remainder of the ents “behind the screen door, its hazy sur- episode, the actions and consequences of face lending an other worldliness to their Sloan serve to answer this question. presence,” as if they are specters from After he recovers from the shock of being Sloan’s past (Brode and Serling 4). While slapped by his mother, Sloan hears the dis- remaining realistic, this technique provides tant music of a merry-go-round and decides another fantasy element to Serling’s story, to follow it, hoping to corner his younger maintaining its dream-like subtlety. self. Spotting himself on the ride, he boards “Walking Distance” also made hazy and a chase ensues. Here, again, the cin- some of the standard structural elements ematography shifts “from simple camera that comprised Twilight Zone episodes. Rod set-ups to oblique angles, turning a rela- Serling’s prologue and epilogue narrations tively realistic setting into something quite were standard to every episode of The surreal” (Brode and Serling 7). Each shot in Twilight Zone. In addition to these, Serling this sequence is at an off-balanced angle, as also provided a middle narration for this if Serling is commenting that Sloan’s desire episode, a rarity for the series. This narra- to converse with his younger self is crooked tion is implemented to advance the storyline and unjust. Certainly, should Sloan dis- from day to night and imply that Sloan has cuss his stress-filled, unhappy future with wandered around the town thinking before his childhood self it would likely taint the returning to his childhood home to con- boy’s existence. As it happens, Sloan is not front his parents for a second time. He does rewarded this chance, as the chase results so this time from the backyard rather than in young Martin falling off of the merry- a direct approach to the front door. Much go-round and injuring his leg. Both char- like his travel through time has allowed him acters’ agony upon this occurrence is con- access to the setting of his childhood, this veyed through screams of pain. When the change in approach gains Sloan direct ac- boy is being carried away by the merry-go- cess to his parents, removing the hazy bar- round attendant, the camera still tilted in rier. As he tries to convince his mother of an oblique angle, Sloan stands spot-lighted his identity with his identification cards, in the background as the shadowy figures she slaps him, which momentarily stupe- of children pass by him. This effectively fies Sloan. Critics have said a good deal highlights Sloan as the cause of the boy’s about this violent action, particularly that injuries. Sloan’s mere presence has caused it “happens so unexpectedly, yet seems so his younger self a considerable amount of right in its wrongness that it never fails to pain. Serling’s original script symbolizes shock a first-time viewer. [ . . . ] But this this injury further than the actual televised vaguely familiar stranger threatens the version, having young Martin’s leg caught fragile order of her world. She does so not in the machinery of the merry-go-round

71 Explorations | Humanities

(Walking 29). By attempting to warn his escape the stressful adult world. Serling’s young counterpart of the stresses he is to portrayal of Sloan’s past as realistic, rather face in the future from societal machines, than the idealistic one most people envision in this alternate script Sloan has succeeded when recalling their own past, adds power only in bringing those injuries on much to his story and conviction to his message. sooner. While both characters are punished for Arguably the most touching portion of their methods of escapism, Serling is less this nostalgic episode occurs when Sloan’s severe with Sloan’s penalty because of the father approaches his emotionally ex- all-too-human motivation behind it. hausted son, convincing him to return to his Unlike the previous episode featuring own time. His father, being the first person a character study of a singular protago- in the episode who admits knowing his son nist, Serling’s “The Monsters Are Due on is who he claims to be, warns Sloan that he Maple Street” features a collective protago- must leave the past behind him and look to nist, namely the residents of a street. These the future for his joy and relief. It is this les- residents are shown performing various son that Serling wants Sloan, and the audi- normal activities on a summer afternoon at ence, to take from his negative exploration the onset of the episode. When a flashing of his past. Bertonneau and Paffenroth ex- light passes in the sky over the street, the plain in describing this hard-earned lesson: residents of Maple Street take notice and stop their activities. They soon learn that Martin limps back into the present, but there is all of their machines and appliances requir- hope that the chance he’s been given to see the ing a power source have stopped working. past has done something more than just physically As Serling says in his opening narration to maim him: it has alerted him to the beauty that the episode, this is “Maple Street in the last has been all around him all along, but which a calm and reflective moment. . . . before the sick combination of cynicism and nostalgia have monsters came” (Monsters 3). Though the dulled or obscured. Our reveries about the past residents of Maple Street are at first only may not be as literal and physical as Martin’s, but mildly annoyed by the power failure, when if reminiscing about the past sensitizes us to the they learn that cars, telephones and porta- present’s beauty and the infinite possibilities for ble radios have stopped working as well, a happiness therein, then it is not too incredible to few decide they should go to other parts of call it a graced moment. (149) the neighborhood to search for the reason behind these events. One man in particu- The lesson to be taken from “Walking lar is shown departing the street to go one Distance” is to enjoy the present pleasures block over and see if Floral Street shares of existence around one self, understanding their dilemma. Serling provides a close-up that traveling to the past is futile in changing shot of a hammer on his belt loop, which the conditions of the present. Here Serling will later provide the audience with infor- punishes a likable protagonist in order to mation unknown to his cast of characters, teach the audience a lesson. Sloan has re- much like he did in “Walking Distance.” tained a slight limp to remind himself of Two characters, Steve and Charlie, de- the dangers of living in the past. A message cide to walk downtown to look for infor- the audience should understand with ease, mation. Before they can leave the street, as Martin Sloan was a character with which however, a young boy makes the insidious the viewers could sympathize and identify. suggestion that aliens were responsible for His desires are those of humanity: to return shutting all the power off and these aliens to an easier, more enjoyable existence and do not want the citizens of Maple Street to

72 Michael Tildsley leave. At first, this suggestion itself is taken the mob at this point, but the group’s sud- as ridiculous—one woman even comments, den magnetism to chaos will inevitably lead “He’s been reading too many comic books to destruction. or seeing too many movies or something”— When Les is unable to provide an ex- but when he continues his explanation by planation as to why his car starts by itself, stating that aliens always send human look- coupled with an accusation from the crowd alikes ahead of their invasion, the street’s that Goodman often stares anxiously at the occupants look uneasy (Monsters 8). The sky at night, the group becomes fearful and camera pan shows close-ups of each per- suspicious of him. Serling uses the com- son’s worried reaction to the boy’s outland- mercial break to indicate a lapse in time, ish claim. This camera movement works to as when next the viewer sees Maple Street, convey the overall sense of uneasiness set- darkness has fallen. Though Serling could ting in, but their expressions also make the have done this simply to add suspense to audience suspect that perhaps one or more the story, more than likely this darkness is of these people may indeed be an alien, symbolic of the light of truth leaving the human look-alike. Rather than creating an occupants to their own darkness. On a shot endearing protagonist, as in the previous of Mr. and Mrs. Goodman, low-key light- episode, here Serling invites the audience ing is used to make their appearances fright- of this episode to join in on the mystery ening and different than the well-lit figures and suspense created in the witch-hunt-like of their neighbors in the background. This atmosphere boiling over on Maple Street. suggests that the Goodman family is still When another of the street’s inhabitants, under suspicion by their neighbors, but also Les Goodman, has his car crank by itself, that Serling wants the audience to suspect the group of people goes through a quick this couple is different from the group as barrage of confusion, anger, and irratio- well. Instead of enlightened and rational nality in mere moments. Goodman has not individuals, the neighborhood has deterio- shown interest in the flying object, and af- rated into a status akin to “the dark ages,” ter hearing Charlie’s comment, “He always which Charlie inconsequentially invokes in was an odd ball. Him and his whole family,” a conversation with his wife (Monsters 16). the irrational insistence that Goodman and Without their technologies, the citizens of his family are outsiders has the group ready Maple Street have fallen back on suspicion to confront Les as a mob. The group’s hasty and the supernatural as a form of govern- decent into a mob is highlighted by camera ment, feeling that those who differ from the angles that show the group from the waist group must somehow be evil. When word down. This thematically represents the loss gets out that Steve has been working on a of personal identity and morality in the radio that no one else has seen, each per- chaotic mob structure, as no one’s face, son’s face is shown to be half lit and half arguably the identifying feature of a per- in darkness, suggesting that the residents son, is depicted. It is here that “‘Monsters’ of Maple Street are on the verge of fall- portrays most unforgettably the sudden- ing into violent chaos. Up until this point ness with which fear can lurch into hysteria of the episode, Steve has been the voice and violence” (Wolfe 128). The fact that it of rationality and reason on Maple Street, took such small accusations and bizarre oc- stifling the mob’s early outbreak. The fact currences to turn the group of people col- that Steve is under suspicion himself sug- lectively against an individual is shocking. gests a hint of misplaced trust to the au- Steve’s quick warning to calm the crowd is dience in understanding the motive of enough to stop the complete formation of Steve’s previous actions. If Steve were an

73 Explorations | Humanities alien invader it would stand to reason that convey a chaotic nightmare rendered with a calm neighborhood would make invasion madly tilted camera angles, rapid cut- easier. Steve’s angry, sarcastic rant that he ting, and distorted close-ups of screaming talks to aliens on the radio in his basement faces in a stampeding frenzy of violence” does nothing to help his case, only serving (Worland 107). Normalcy and everyday ac- to remove suspicion from the Goodman tivity, which began the episode, have now family. completely left the citizens of Maple Street. The flow of blame and doubt is about to At the mere suggestion of the presence of change again on Maple Street, as a shad- an outsider and the inexplicable flicker- owy figure approaches the group from the ing of lights and appliances, the people of other end of the street. His distance from Maple Street have degraded from rational- the group, as well as the darkness that cloaks ity to hateful distrust of their neighbors and all but his feet, identify this figure as an out- finally into chaos. By this slow and steady cast: the scapegoat for which the crowd decline, “Serling comments effectively has become hungry. One of the neighbors on the human condition here, saying that hands Steve a shotgun, which he refuses to man’s worst enemy is not necessarily bombs use, to repel what is perceived as an invad- and explosions, but himself” (Presnell and ing enemy. Charlie, arguably highlighted as McGee 54). Serling’s antagonist in this episode, grabs Whereas the previous episode dealt with the gun and aims it at the figure. It is at rather small issues, making comment about this point that Serling provides the viewer individual human behavior in relationship with a camera close-up shot of a hammer to society, this episode deals with the nature hanging from the figure’s pants. For the of society itself. Should this episode have first time in the episode, rather than hav- been created under a realistic premise of ing the viewer play along with the “blame a communist invasion, which no doubt game,” Serling reveals the horror and cha- Serling had in mind when writing the epi- otic power of the mob, as Charlie kills his sode, the sponsors and network executives returning neighbor, Pete Van Horn. Of would have heavily scrutinized and edited course, by killing an innocent man, Charlie its content. Therefore, on a larger scale, places the mob’s suspicion on himself. The Serling’s “The Monsters Are Due on Maple mob members think that Pete may have Street” illustrates an artistic freedom to dis- come back with information about the turn cuss social evils as he is able to construct of events and, knowing this, Charlie killed “a fantastic plot to communicate a theme him before they could receive it. that he would have treated realistically in Chaos dominates the episode from this the fifties; he uses a science-fiction device, point forward, as lights go on and off in the alien invasion, not as a source of pure various houses, and suspicion of being an excitement, but rather as a tool to reveal outsider is tossed about in rapid succes- the existence of blind hatred and cruelty sion to various members of the commu- where they might not be expected—in sub- nity. The audience, no longer preoccupied urbia” (Venuti 364). Not only are we the with solving the mystery is now subjected unexpected monster of our own nightmare to the chaotic outbreak that the rising sus- in this scenario, but the episode proves that picions have created, and “[while] the story once the seeds of suspicion and doubt have appeals for social reform by condemning planted, chaos will rule the day. irrational fears and intolerance, the pen- Serling’s epilogue to this episode fur- ultimate scene describes total social break- ther exemplifies that science fiction has down. Lit for night, the tale’s final minutes been implemented as a vehicle by which

74 Michael Tildsley to arrive at a real world social and political strong enough in their own convictions to lesson. In Serling’s script for this episode, deny Charlie’s method of handling situa- the epilogue reads as follows: tions. Rather, they join his illogical witch hunt out of “their common ‘fear of the The tools of conquest do not necessarily come unknown,’” and with “no firm political be- with bombs and explosions and fall-out. There liefs” they fall victim to “rabble rousers and are weapons that are simply thoughts, attitudes, [are] manipulated by demagogues with prejudices—to be found only in the minds of men. strong prejudices but weak minds” (Brode For the record, prejudices can kill and suspicion and Serling 169). The mob of Maple Street can destroy and a thoughtless, frightened search fails to see Serling’s message about people for a scapegoat has a fall-out all of its own for the like Charlie until it is too late, that some- children . . . and the children yet unborn. (a pause) times having no answer to a problem is And the pity of it is . . . that these things cannot be better than the consequences of choosing confined to . . . The Twilight Zone. (26) the wrong one. The date of the episode’s first airing comes a few years after the The fact that Serling admits his science fic- McCarthy trials, making an interpretation tion tale cannot contain the irrationality of this episode a tale of warning against a and prejudice that exists in the real world future “Red Scare.” Though this reading suggests an existing social problem. After does help to put a character like Charlie hearing this epilogue, it is hard not to imag- into social perspective, the chaos created ine Serling’s “intent to link domestic poli- on “Maple Street” need not have some- tics to the larger dangers of the Cold War thing as complex as political dogma as its through the explicit mention of bombs and primary cause. The chaos was created from fallout” (Worland 106). simple, common causes, with the smallest In connection with his shift from discuss- pieces of doubt and suspicion snowballing ing small social ills to large national issues, into an uncontrollable force. Serling also abandons the singular protago- Though a formula common to The nist formula he is known to be loyal to in Twilight Zone, Serling does not always seek order to provide an individual antagonist, to relate the audience to a single charac- Charlie. Douglas Brode, Professor of Film ter through shared emotions. In “The at Syracuse University, actually goes as far Obsolete Man,” Rod Serling places two as calling Charlie a “reactionary bigot,” individuals against one another in an intel- and claiming that he physically “looks like lectual quarrel, a rare one-on-one conflict Senator Joe McCarthy” (169). Charlie for The Twilight Zone. Serling does this in or- prompts others to follow his example be- der to display the two opposing ideologies cause he acts on impulses rather than cow- that each man symbolizes. The Chancellor, ering in fear. Everything about his charac- a character named only by his occupational ter makes Charlie the episode’s antagonist: role, symbolizes unforgiving fascism and “[his] stoutness, his loud, tasteless sport close-mindedness. Romney Wordsworth, a shirt worn as an emblem of defiance, and librarian by profession, symbolizes free will a voice that wavers between a simper and a and the individual human spirit. Also, with screech convey his zeal for quick, easy an- the religious undertones of the episode, swers; his melodrama and his loss of con- his self-sacrifice, and because his second- trol are both functions of his insecurity” ary occupation is revealed to be carpentry, (Wolfe 130). The truly sad part about this Romney Wordsworth can also be consid- episode is that the rest of the street’s popu- ered a Christ figure (Brode and Serling lation, with the exception of Steve, are not 197). In addition to these, the character’s

75 Explorations | Humanities connection to English Romantic poet, is nearly defenseless. The Chancellor sits William Wordsworth, should not be over- perched high above Wordsworth with a looked either. Both Romney and William microphone nearby to create an artificially show the poetic individualism and refusal loud voice. Wordsworth, on the other hand, of conformity which causes this episode’s stands roughly fifteen feet lower on ground conflict. level at the end of a long table. The way in The episode takes place on only two rela- which the table and podium are shot in this tively basic film sets, which are represen- scene creates an interesting parallel between tative of the two characters. For instance, the two characters: while visually maintain- the show’s opening scene is in a vast and ing the Chancellor as higher than his ad- exaggeratedly tall court room, where the versary, there are a few moments in which Chancellor’s state tries people on charges the podium and table look nearly identical of obsolescence. Marc Zicree describes this from the angular perspective given. room in hisTwilight Zone Companion, stating The camera angles featured in the men’s that it “is quite unlike anything seen before argument scenes are used by Serling to on The Twilight Zone. The walls are com- dictate their feelings and reactions toward pletely covered with black velvet. There is each other at that given moment. For in- a single, long, narrow table. At the end of stance, when Wordsworth is speaking in his it is an immensely tall, narrow lectern, be- own defense, the camera angle is gener- hind which the Chancellor stands elevated ally close-up at eye level, creating a sense and apart” (209). Serling defines the court of individualized humanity for his char- room in this way to coincide with the na- acter’s predicament. The Chancellor’s re- ture of the Chancellor himself. The state’s sponse to Wordsworth’s argument can be Chancellor is not accepting of lifestyles de- noted by the camera angle implemented viant from those socially accepted to be of in the given situation. When his response value. He is as oppressive and aloof as the to Wordsworth’s defense is a close-up and podium from which he addresses the court eye-level camera shot, the Chancellor is at- room. His socially high position is physi- tempting to explain rationally the fallacy cally manifested in the degree of height his of a part of Wordsworth’s defense that podium is above everyone else, and no one the Chancellor has taken personally. This below him, physically and socially, speaks sequence of camera angle dialogue oc- or moves without his consent. curs both when the two men are discussing The two settings featured in this episode books and the existence of God. are vital, as the man who is in his own cor- The more common sequence of cam- responding set has the upper hand in the era angle dialogue between the two char- intellectual battle between them. The cin- acters involves a close-up eye-level shot of ematography used in this opening scene to Wordsworth’s defense met with a low-angle express the dialogue between the two men shot of the Chancellor looking down on him. is so rich with meaning that it is challeng- By being physically above Wordsworth, the ing to recount every detail. The court room Chancellor creates a sense of his dominance scene “manipulates distance and perspec- over their mutual setting. In these shots, the tive to create the bleak and gloomy atmo- Chancellor is generally calling Wordsworth sphere,” for both Wordsworth and the audi- names to express worthlessness or denying ence (Presnell and McGee 98). For instance, the truth of his defense in order to make an while in the court room, the Chancellor is example of him. The distance between the a high-ranking state official with supreme two men indicates that his verbal abuse is power. In this setting, though, Wordsworth meant to be callous and impersonal. At the

76 Michael Tildsley end of this scene, the Chancellor feels that which the Chancellor replies, “That de- he has won the dispute, as the court finds pends on the individual, Mr. Wordsworth” Wordsworth to be obsolete with a pun- (Obsolete 24). The Chancellor’s response ishment of death forthcoming. However, reveals a costly betrayal to his chosen ide- the creative freedom allowed to the con- ology, as in the state’s totalitarian form of demned in method and location of his own government there should be no individual- execution will prove fatal to the state in the ized thought but rather a mechanized col- episode’s concluding scene. lective process of thinking. It is ironic that In the small apartment where he has cho- he should make such a statement illogical sen to be executed at midnight,Wordsworth to his ideology just before learning that he quickly gains the upper hand on the is to share in Wordsworth’s demise. Chancellor. Like the man, the apartment is Despite the fact that the door is locked, small in size but filled with knowledge and the Chancellor mistakenly believes that he creativity, physically manifested in the form retains the upper hand, calling for guards of shelves filled with books and artistic sculp- or anyone around to come to his aid. tures. Also, the haphazard placement of his Wordsworth explains that people sched- books indicates a free will not shown in the uled for termination are isolated from extremely structured courtroom. Besides others. The only ones that can hear his being smaller in square feet, Wordsworth’s pleas are the television audience tuning room is also much shorter, and he and the in for Wordsworth’s termination, which, Chancellor are on an even level with each Wordsworth is quick to point out, would other. Without his large podium to hide find it embarrassing to have to save a high- behind, the Chancellor is forced to share ranking state official from an obsolete librar- the same floor with Wordsworth. This lev- ian. Only now does it become clear to the elness coincides with Wordsworth’s system Chancellor that he “overreached himself of belief: all men are equal, and no man is by visiting the man he condemned to death obsolete. The high-ranking state official de- in order to make him grovel” (Wolfe 73). cides to comply with Wordsworth’s request The Chancellor had belittled Wordsworth to meet with him before the hour of his so much that he underestimated, in his own death is to occur. Here, as previously stated, mind, Wordsworth’s intellectual abilities. both men are literally on the same level and Perhaps if he had known of Wordsworth’s their intellectual argument continues. The resourcefulness, the Chancellor would not Chancellor continues his attempt to belittle have become trapped, or even declared Wordsworth, going as far as saying that the the man obsolete. It stands to reason that condemned man should cry to the camera “[the] reluctance of the Chancellor’s col- because some government official may take leagues to save him shows that his duping pity on him. Wordsworth reveals at this by the lowly Wordsworth has made him point that his chosen method of execution obsolete. The creed he serves demands his was to have a bomb go off in his room, a death. He has become the obsolete man of quick and rather sad ending for the only the teleplay’s title” (Wolfe 74). humane character in the episode. While the clock ticks toward midnight, Though it seems that all is lost for him, Wordsworth reads his Bible and the Wordsworth finally reveals his plot, asking Chancellor is shown to be a nervous wreck, the Chancellor the hypothetical question, smoking cigarettes and sweating. Finally, “And yet . . . knowing that you are going to a minute before midnight, the Chancellor be blown to smithereens in twenty minutes loses all composure and begs “in the name is not the happiest of thoughts, is it?” to of God, let me out” (Obsolete 29). By

77 Explorations | Humanities invoking the name of God, the Chancellor Chancellor’s all-powerful government can has gone against his ideology once again, be interpreted as Serling’s illustration of his this time affirming the existence in God he own triumph over his powerful and imper- had outright denied while in his court room. sonal enemies: network sponsors. When he gives the Chancellor the key, Rod Serling’s groundbreaking series, The Wordsworth becomes the ultimate victor. Twilight Zone, survived five seasons and 156 Peter Wolfe, Professor of English at Bowling episodes on CBS. Though he would even- Green University, describes this event as tually win two more Emmys for his series, the official statement of Wordsworth’s su- perhaps his greatest success with this show periority to the Chancellor, as he states: was his ability to succeed with the notion of quality writing that involves the television Enacting a perfect stroke of justice, Wordsworth audience mentally. Because the nature of his gives the desperate Chancellor his key, allowing his scripts were speculative and used elements foil to flee the room that will explode within sec- of science fiction and fantasy, Serling found onds. Wordsworth meanwhile stays put. He dies a artistic space in which to create memorable hero’s death, dignifying his last minutes by read- and quality works of television, something ing aloud from the 23rd Psalm. The Chancellor’s he had not had in his early television career. atheism, on the other hand, has made him Words- HisTwilight Zone scripts ran the gamut from worth’s inferior. Sweating and panicky, he shrinks in critique of too much individuality to too dignity as his death moment approaches, begging much conformity. To some extent, the epi- Wordsworth to spare his life and then grabbing sodes chosen for discussion are representa- Wordsworth’s door key so that he can flee. (74) tive of the early years of the series. They each deal with social and political themes But fleeing does not save the Chancellor. in a roundabout way in order to entertain When he returns to the court room, the the audience while educating them. For Chancellor discovers that he has been re- the first three seasons of the show, Serling moved from office and has been found ob- wrote the majority of the scripts and the solete. The Chancellor has become a victim quality was kept at a relatively constant of his own inhumane ideology. His system level; however, the fourth and fifth seasons of beliefs is so rigid and unforgiving that were much weaker than the previous years all people under its power find themselves of the show because Serling had much less equally dominated. involvement with each intricate part of the The Chancellor’s plea for his own life episodes, and he had actually gone back to in the name of God exemplifies Serling’s teaching at Antioch College. message in this episode: the strength of an Rod Serling made several creative choices individual is not based on their socially ac- in the series that were not genre-related, but cepted beliefs, but rather on their personal whose significance is worthy of discussion. ability to pursue truth and liberty. When Being not only a writer for the show, but both men are tested on the area of per- also its creator, 40 percent owner, and final sonal faith in something greater than their editing executive, Serling held power over individual lives, Wordsworth’s religious even the episodes he did not write. In the and social morality proves stronger than episode, “The Invaders,” Serling encour- the Chancellor’s belief in his domineering aged writer Richard Matheson’s selection tyrannical government. Although there are of a single woman cast for his script. In their strong political overtones in the episode, era of television, to have a woman as not Serling’s message can also be seen in a non- only the lead role but also the only role on a political manner. Metaphorically, his por- show was unheard of. Serling’s entire crew trayal of Wordsworth as victorious over the was comprised of these types of innovators

78 Michael Tildsley and risk takers, adding to the series’ overall the episodes in color with a new cast. If quality. In addition to the crew, the quality imitation is the greatest form of flattery, the of the acting also helped the series main- fact that imitators do exist gives the original tain its position in television history. While series additional merit. showcasing the big-name stars, like Mickey Rod Serling’s creation, The Twilight Zone, Rooney and Ed Wynn, the series would redefined the genre of science fiction, plac- also feature virtually unknown actors, such ing it in the conversation for meaningful as William Shatner, Leonard Nemoy, James television drama. His understanding of the Doohan, and George Takei. This group of human condition was far reaching and uni- men would continue their careers in science versal, as fifty years after its original broad- fiction, starring in the original and highly cast, The Twilight Zone retains its critical ac- influentialStar Trek series. In this way, not claim and can still be seen in syndication. only can the Twilight Zone be remembered Serling’s hard work and dedication to the for its outstanding merit as show of serious high quality and audience appeal of his drama, but it also retains its place in science series have ensured it a place among the fiction history for spawning consumer in- greatest television programs ever made. To terest in the genre and starting the careers this day, Serling’s series is shown in syndi- of those who would continue the evolution cation on various television stations and is of the genre. sold at roughly the same price as DVD box The Twilight Zone is far from dated, unlike sets for current television programs. The the majority of television programs that term, “Twilight Zone,” has seeped into its era produced. The issues and themes the popular culture to identify an odd or explored in Serling’s series continue to be creepy occurrence in an otherwise routine relevant to this day. Perhaps this is because, life. It is only one of two television shows unlike the writers of Westerns, Serling chose to have won both an Emmy Award and an a genre that was willing to erase the idoliza- Academy Award. Perhaps more telling is tion of the past. The majority of Twilight the Unity Award that Serling won in season Zone episodes are set either in the contempo- two of The Twilight Zone for “Outstanding rary present or the future. Because of this, Contributions to Better Race Relations.” the issues discussed were not those resolved It indicates that, although Serling was un- in the past, but those that Serling foresaw successful in illustrating the social ills that as being pertinent for the future of man- created the Emmett Till case in his early kind’s existence. When episodes were set in work for television, his science fiction se- the past, the past itself was not the focus of ries was recognized as attempting to better the episode, but rather the deeper human society, an achievement Serling was proud concerns. The human element has not be- to obtain. In addition, his series was not come outdated in Serling’s show, as two re- critically rejected as television garbage, or incarnations of the series, one in 1985 and even slighted for being science fiction. The the other in 2002, were created, indicating series won three Hugo Awards for “Best a continued fan base for the type of series Dramatic Presentation,” becoming the that Serling pioneered. The fact that they only three-time recipient in the award’s were less successful than the original series history. Though the show did have its share is a testament to Serling’s standard of qual- of gimmicky, strictly-for-entertainment ity and the readiness of his television audi- science fiction episodes,The Twilight Zone ence to see something new and different. shone brightest when Serling wrote about These reincarnations merely rehashed the contemporary social ills. j ideas that Serling and his crew had already breeched, going as far as redoing some of

79 Explorations | Humanities

Wo r k s Ci t e d

Bertonneau, Thomas and Kim Paffenroth.The Truth is Out There: Christian Faith and the Classics of TV Science Fiction. Grand Rapids: Brazos Press, 2006. 132, 149.

Brode, Douglas and Carol Serling. Rod Serling and The Twilight Zone: The 50th Anniversary Tribute. Fort Lee: Barricade Books Inc., 2009. 3, 4, 6, 7, 169, 197.

Cochran, David. “Another Dimension: Rod Serling, Consensus Liberalism, and The Twilight Zone.” American Noir: Underground Writers and Filmmakers of the Postwar Era. London: Smithsonian Institute Press, 2000. 196, 204.

Phillips, Mark and Frank Garcia. Science Fiction Television Series: Episode Guides, Histories, and Casts and Credits for 62 Prime Time Shows, 1959 through 1989. Jefferson: McFarland & Company Inc., 1996. 467-68. 470.

Presnell, Don and Marty McGee. A Critical History of Television’s “The Twilight Zone,” 1959 1964. Jefferson: McFarland & Company Inc., 1998. 54, 98.

Rabinowitz, Dorothy. “TV: From the Surreal to the Ridiculous.” The Wall Street Journal. 27 Nov. 1995: A16. ProQuest Newspapers. ProQuest. Campbell University, Buies Creek, Carrie Rich Memorial Lib. 17 Feb. 2009 . par. 4, 5, 6 . Serling, Rod. Interview. The Mike Wallace Interview. 20 Sept. 1959. Treasures of The Twilight Zone. Image Entertainment, 1999.

———. “The Monsters are Due on Maple Street.” As Timeless As Infinity: The Complete Twilight Zone Scripts of Rod Serling. Ed. Tony Albarella. 1st ed. Vol. 4. Colorado Springs: Gauntlet Publications, 2007. 3, 8, 16.

———. “The Obsolete Man.” As Timeless As Infinity: The Complete Twilight Zone Scripts of Rod Serling. Ed. Tony Albarella. 1st ed. Vol. 4. Colorado Springs: Gauntlet Publications, 2007. 24, 29.

———. “Walking Distance.” As Timeless As Infinity: The Complete Twilight Zone Scripts of Rod Serling. Ed. Tony Albarella. 1st ed. Vol. 2. Colorado Springs: Gauntlet Publications, 2005. 29.

80 Michael Tildsley

Stark, Steven D. “16. The Twilight Zone: Science Fiction as Realism.” Glued to the Set: The 60 Television Shows and Events that Made Us Who We Are Today. New York: The Free Press, 1997. 88.

Venuti, Lawrence. “Rod Serling, Television Censorship, The Twilight Zone.” Western Humanities Review. 35 (Winter 1981): 354-55, 360-61, 364.

Wolfe, Peter. In the Zone: The Twilight World of Rod Serling. Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1997. 17, 57, 73-4, 128, 130.

Worland, Rick. “Sign-Posts Up Ahead: The Twilight Zone, The Outer Limits, and TV Political Fantasy 1959-1965.” Science Fiction Studies. 23.1 (Mar. 1996): 103-122. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Campbell University, Buies Creek, Carrie Rich Memorial Lib. 17 Feb. 2009 . 104, 106.

Zicree, Marc Scott. The Twilight Zone Companion. 2nd ed. Los Angeles: Silman-James Press, 1989. 14-15, 43, 209.

81

Social Sciences

List Linking as a Tool to Test Transitive Inference in Rats

Leah Jordan University of North Carolina Wilmington Faculty Mentors: Katherine Bruce, PhD and Mark Galizio, PhD Department of Psychology University of North Carolina Wilmington

Abstract Transitiveinference, along with other abstract concepts, has been considered a characteristic unique to humans.Transitive inference is demonstrated when one learns that A is related to B and B is related to C,and then infers that A is related to C. Rats have been shown to demonstrate transitive inference after beingtrained on four overlapping simple odor discriminations; when trained only on odor pairs A>B, B>C, C>D, and D>E, they spontaneously show transitive inference (e.g., A>C and B>D; Davis 1992; Dusek & Eichenbaum 1997). In the present study, we extend these findings to a novel ap- paratus and add a list-linking procedure similar to that studied byTreichler et al. (1996) in monkeys. Rats are trained on two separate lists of odor pairs (A-E and F-J) and then the lists are linked through trainingon EF. Using two lists allows testing for transitive inference using many novel combinations of pairs across and within lists (for example B-H and G-I).Three rats have responded with transi- tiveinference consistently (over 90% of the time) when tested with novel combinations of pairs within listsand two rats have completed the final test after list linking, performing above 75% on between list novelcombinations and 70% or above on within list combinations. Transitive inference has been seen acrossseveral species and may be evidence of an adaptive process used in establishing social hierarchies among non-humans.

h a t cognitive abilities do non- thinking. Based on a comprehensive re- W humans possess? In what ways are view of the research, Lewis and Smith human and non-human cognition simi- (1993) proposed the following definition: lar and different? These questions are “Higher-order thinking occurs when [one] central to our understanding of the basic takes new information and information processes of learning and higher order stored in memory and interrelates and/or

85 Explorations | Social Sciences rearranges and extends this information to labeled A-E. Stimuli are trained in four achieve a purpose or find possible answers overlapping pairs: for example, AB+, BC+, in perplexing situations” (p. 136). Concept CD+, and DE+. The plus sign indicates learning is a type of higher-order learning the reinforced choice. Five items are used because it requires subjects to integrate the because in order for the test to be truly rule they have learned with the information transitive all other explanations for a choice being presented to solve the task (Lewis & must be eliminated. If only three items are Smith, 1993). A concept may be defined as used, the only transitive test would involve a cognitive process of classifying elements the stimuli on the end of the list which have into categories (Lazareva & Wasserman, absolute reinforcement histories (either 0% 2008). For example, identity is a concept or 100%). With five items, there is one pair in which the elements are classified based within the list (B-D) that is both novel and on their similarity in physical or functional the choice cannot be made based on abso- features. A concept becomes abstract when lute reinforcement histories since both have the subject is able to apply the rules learned been reinforced 50% of the time. in training to novel objects or tasks. Bryant and Trabasso (1971) presented One abstract concept is transitive infer- two sticks of different colors, stuck out from ence. Transitive inference (TI) is exhibited a box at equal heights, and the child was by using previous training of relationships asked which one was taller. After the choice between stimuli to determine a relation- was made the child was shown the actual ship between stimuli that have not been sizes of the two sticks. This feedback pro- presented together. This task is considered cess allowed the child to order the stimuli an abstract concept because the infer- along a physical dimension but still required ences that are made can only be deduced the child to identify the transitive relation- from the relations learned previously and ships from the memory of the hierarchy at applied to the novel situation. TI, accord- the test instead of comparing sizes. Once ing to some (Dusek & Eichenbaum, 1997; the child showed proficient performance at Lazareva & Wasserman, 2006; Ayalon & picking the longest stick for each pair dur- Even, 2008), requires deductive reasoning ing training, a probe (or test) was given to because it requires the subject to deduce or test for transitive inference. The child was determine a relationship between stimuli shown the stimuli labeled B and D and that is not explicitly presented. TI tasks asked which stick was longer. Children ages require the subject to accept the premises 4 and above were capable of solving the given and complete the task at hand given transitive test. The children’s inability to those premises. solve TI problems previously (as in Piaget, 1928) was in part due to forgetting the re- Research on Transitive Inference lationships between the elements (Bryant & Researchers initially believed that TI tasks Trabasso, 1971; Vasconcelos 2008). When could only be solved by humans. It was measures were taken to ensure that the argued that TI requires verbal feedback children could recall the premises prior to from subjects to determine if they indeed training, the children below age 7 could can solve the task (Vasconcelos, 2008). perform the transitive task. However, Bryant and Trabasso (1971) This finding led researchers to investi- showed that children below age 7 were ac- gate whether non-human animals were tually capable of the TI task. The stimuli capable of TI. The first study of TI in a used in Bryant and Trabasso’s (1971) study non-human subject was that performed by were five sticks of different colors and sizes, McGonigle and Chalmers (1977). Their

86 Leah Jordan study with squirrel monkeys was fashioned One way of studying TI in the lab is after the study of Bryant and Trabasso with preference conditioning (Russell, (1971) with children. Monkeys were trained McCormick, Robinson, & Lillis, 1996). on four overlapping simple discriminations Preference conditioning involves training that created a 5-item hierarchy (A-E) using a subject to prefer or choose one stimu- cylindrical tin containers that were either lus over another, through reinforcement, “heavy” or “light” and varied in color. thus creating a hierarchy of stimuli. These Once the monkeys had shown proficient tasks are also referred to as associative tasks learning of the premises, they were tested because they require the subject to find a on the BD pair. McGonigle and Chalmers relationship between stimuli (such as rein- (1977) found that the seven out of eight forcement) that is not apparent on physical monkeys were able to infer transitive rela- dimensions (for example, logical tasks used tionships (the eighth subject failed to com- frequently with humans). Ordered lists for plete training and did not get to testing of associative tasks are formed via trial and TI). A number of species have revealed TI error, when the subject determines in what abilities: macaque monkeys (Treichler & cases a stimuli is correct or incorrect. Tilburg, 1996), pigeons (Steirn, Weaver & Dusek and Eichenbaum (1997) trained Zentall, 1995; von Fersen, Wynne, Delius & a hierarchy of five scents in rats through Staddon, 1991), fish (Grosenick, Clement, a series of overlapping single discrimina- & Fernald, 2007), hooded crows (Lazareva, tions. Olfactory stimuli are often used in rat Smirnova, Bagozkaja, Zorina, Rayevsky, & studies and there is much evidence to show Wasserman, 2004), and rats (Davis, 1992, that rats can perform many cognitive tasks Dusek & Eichenbaum, 1997). One ques- better when using olfactory rather than tion that arises is why should non-humans visual cues (Slotnick, 2001). In Dusek and show TI? Eichenbaum’s (1997) study five scents were One reason may relate to living in social randomly ordered into a hierarchy (labeled groups. Rats living in social groups set up A-E), with the one scent at the top of the dominance hierarchies (Calhoun, 1963). hierarchy reinforced 100% of the time and These hierarchies are set up by interac- the one at the bottom never reinforced. tions with other individuals in the group. The stimuli were in no way orderable along When a new rat joins a colony it may not a physical dimension such as size. This list interact with every individual in a group was trained by pairing stimuli together that but rather with a few. If it were to interact are adjacent to each other in the list mak- with every individual, that would be ener- ing four training, or baseline, pairs (AB, BC, getically costly and could result in death. CD, DE). The list was trained by overlap- Instead the new rat may observe those rats’ ping simple discriminations composed of interactions with other individuals in the the elements in the list. The first element of group that the new rat has not been associ- each pair was reinforced and the pairs were ated. From these observations, the new rat presented in increasingly randomized or- could then determine his own social posi- der (i.e., A+B-, B+C-, C+D-, D+E-; where tion within the colony if he were capable + indicates reinforcement and – indicates of using TI. In other words, TI could be no reinforcement for a choice). Each ele- one way of determining a social hierarchy ment was presented equally in each ses- in a rat colony. Many other species that es- sion, referred to as intermixed training tablish dominances are capable of TI, such (Vasconcelos, 2008). as monkeys (Treichler & Tilburg, 1996) and After increasingly randomized phases of pigeons (Lazareva & Wasserman, 2006). baseline pairs to create the list, Dusek and

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Eichenbaum (1997) tested the rats on the tasks. This limitation led other researchers classic B vs. D transitive probe test. The pair to design experiments that extended the BD has been used with many species across list to include more stimuli and thus, more many studies involving a 5-item ordered ar- pairs to test transitivity. Many researchers ray. This pair is tested because B and D are simply added stimuli to the five-item list to the only stimuli that have not been paired make longer lists, such as that by Roberts together in training and have the same rein- and Phelps (1994) who extended the train- forcement history. Both B and D have been ing to six items (A-F). reinforced 50% of the time, compared to A novel approach was used by Treichler A and E which have 100% and 0% rein- and Tilburg (1996) who designed a study forcement histories, respectively. A and E for macaque monkeys that linked two are referred to as end-anchors because they five-item lists together. This procedure at- are on the end of the lists and any pairs tempted to solve two problems. The first containing A or E (e.g. CE or AC) could be was the problem mentioned above, that solved with reinforcement histories instead five-item lists only provide one single trial of learning a hierarchical list. Solving tests test of transitivity. Linking two lists together containing A or E are still transitive tests essentially gave researchers a ten-item list but could be solved with reinforcement his- and thus, many more tests of transitivity. tories instead of their sole relationship with With a ten-item list there are more than other elements, as in the BD example. The two stimuli that have both been reinforced elements B and D’s relationship can only 50% of the time and have not been trained be deduced if the subject has integrated the with the end anchors, thus not allowing re- elements of the list into a hierarchy. If the inforcement histories to be a way to solve rats were not able to form a hierarchy or in- the task. Treichler et al. (2007), extended fer transitive relationships, then they would list inking to three lists of five items, study- be expected to perform at chance on the ing macaque monkeys with visual stimuli. BD task. If they are able to infer a transitive This extended the testing pairs to those relation, then the rats would perform above combining 15 items (A-O). Three differ- chance on the BD task, that is chose B over ent five-item lists were linked by combining D since B is “higher up” in the hierarchy training of all the pairs in one session. (based on the associations with the differen- The second goal with linking the lists to- tially reinforced end-anchors). Dusek and gether was to allow an attempt to test the Eichenbaum found evidence that rats are value transfer theory. Value transfer theory capable of TI by performing above chance was proposed by von Fersen et al. (1991) on the BD comparison. to account for TI of the BD pair by rein- forcement history. The idea was that each Extending TI Studies: List Linking stimulus in the list received a certain value These studies, however, are limited in their and that value was the product of its pair- ability to test for TI. While more than one ing with another reinforced stimulus as well pair in a five-item list would qualify as a as its direct reinforcement. Thus, values transitivity task (e.g., AC, BE, etc.), only increase or decrease down a list. With two one, BD, can be used to truly test transitiv- different five-item lists, the values of stimuli ity. The BD task is the only transitive task in the same position across lists are theo- that can not be solved using reinforcement retically identical since stimuli in the same histories. In essence, there is only a single position in each list have been reinforced in trial that can reveal to a researcher if the the same manner and are paired with stim- subject is capable of solving transitivity uli in the same way. If value transfer were

88 Leah Jordan indeed in effect, then the subjects would again for transitivity. The subject was then perform at chance for stimuli that are in trained on the linking pair that contained the same position across the lists because the last stimulus of the first list and the first the stimuli would have the same value (e.g. stimulus of the second list. Following link- B and G). ing pair training, the subject went through Treichler and Tilburg (1996) trained review of the past lists to ensure good base- monkeys on two five-item lists separately by line performance on the first list. Rats were training each pair individually and tested then tested for TI using stimuli between for transitivity on both lists. He then linked lists. the five-item lists together by using the last List linking was done in this study for two stimulus of the first list (E) and the first reasons, similar to the rationale of Treichler stimulus of the second list (F). Following and Tilburg (1996). The first reason was to the transitive test on the individual lists, extend the five-item list to include more the subjects were trained on a single pair possibilities to test transitivity. The ability composed of the first and last stimuli from of rats to infer transitive relations among the lists, E and F, and thus changing their stimuli on a five-item list has been widely reinforcement histories to 50% rather than studied (Dusek & Eichenbaum, 1997; Davis, 100% or 0%. Following proficiency on the 1992; Roberts & Phelps, 1994). With more linking pair, subjects reviewed the first list combinations of stimuli to test transitivity, along with the linking pair to ensure that it could be determined whether the subject the rats could still perform accurately on is learning a few simple discriminations or the pairs prior to testing. He found that ma- if the stimuli have been organized into an caque monkeys were capable of linking the ordered array by the subject. Further, using two lists together and did above chance on list-linking allows for some tests of value transitive tasks on the ten-item list. The test transfer theory. of transitivity included all possible combi- During the final test of list-linking, the fo- nations of the ten-item list including stim- cus was on the pairs that contained stimuli uli that had not been presented together from both lists, or between list pairs (e.g., within and between lists. Interestingly, he BH, DI), and pairs that contained stimuli discovered that pairs that contained stimuli from only one list, or within list pairs (e.g., that had more stimuli in between them on AC, FH). If rats are capable of list linking, the hierarchy (e.g., BI, CH), yielded fewer percent correct between list pairs on the errors than those pairs containing adjacent final test of list linking should be equal to stimuli (e.g., AB, FG). or above that for within list pairs (Dusek & Eichenbaum, 1997; Davis, 1992). If the The Current Study rats are not capable of list linking, then per- The current study used Sprague-Dawley cent correct between list pairs should be at rats in a systematic replication of Dusek chance or below that of within list pairs. and Eichenbaum (1997) and Treichler and Tilburg’s (1996) work. Rats were trained Me t h o d on two separate five-item lists and then trained on a linking pair to link the two lists Subjects together to form a ten-item list (similar to Three naïve male Sprague-Dawley rats Dusek and Eichenbaum, 1997). After one were received at 60 days of age and initial list was trained to criterion, the subject training began at about 75 days of age. was tested for transitivity on that list and Rats were kept at 85-90% of their free- then trained on the second list and tested feeding body weight at the start of training

89 Explorations | Social Sciences and had free access to water. Subjects were touching the powder directly. Spices used in fed between 10-15 g of Purina® Rat Chow this study were: dill, clove, nutmeg, cumin, daily about 30 minutes after completion turmeric, ginger, beet, fennel, tomato, of the daily sessions. Rats were housed in- worchestershire, carob, bay, coriander, sa- dividually and kept on a 12 hour reverse vory, garlic, cinnamon, thyme, raspberry, light/dark cycle with testing done during paprika, onion, sage, anise, lime, allspice, the dark cycle. mustard, celery, marjoram, and caraway. Reinforcers were sucrose pellets weighing Apparatus .45 mg. The apparatus (see Figure 1) was a modi- fied operant chamber. The front wall had Procedure a gap, approximately 5.08 cm. high, which Each rat was eventually introduced to 10 was large enough for a Plexiglas tray to scents that were labeled stimuli A-J to make slide through. The stimuli were placed in a up a hierarchy. Each rat had his own scent Plexiglas tray with two holes cut out 1 cm list, so no two rats received the same scents apart. The holes were 5 cm in diameter, in the same order. The procedure used was a large enough for a 2 oz. condiment cup to combination of the procedures from Dusek fit. Two screws on both sides of each hole and Eichenbaum (1997) and Treichler and acted as a ledge for the Plexiglas lids to slide Tilburg (1996). Each stimulus was paired through and cover the cups in the holes. with the stimulus before it in the hierarchy Play sand was placed in clear plastic cups and after it to make up four training pairs to about 1-1.5 cm below the lip of the cup. or baseline pairs (BL). For example, stimu- Lids, Plexiglas sheets 2 mm thick, were cut lus B was paired with A, then in the next into rectangles 7 x 6 cm. set of trials with C. Each phase consisted of To scent the lids, they were placed in six trials of each of the pairs that made up Tupperware containers holding powdered the lists. All pairs were represented equally spice (two slides for each spice) for at least in each session and they appeared in order 24 hours between sessions. The containers for Phases 1-3 and randomly in Phase 4. held various powdered scents in full con- For example in Phase 1, the first set of trials centration in a thin layer covering the bot- was AB, the next set was BC, followed by tom with the lids positioned above but not CD, then DE. Training was completed for

Figure 1. (left) Photograph of the apparatus, or modified operant chamber, used for the procedure. (right) Photograph of a subject making a response inside the apparatus.

90 Leah Jordan first 5 stimuli before introducing the second rat chose the correct scent, the rat was al- 5 stimuli. The second stimulus in each pair lowed to dig for the pellet. However, if the was reinforced making the list of 10 stimuli rat chose the incorrect scent, the tray was a hierarchy, with J being reinforced 100% immediately removed from the chamber, of the time, therefore the “highest” in the minimizing the ability of the rat to dig in rank order. the sand, and not allowing the rat to move the other lid at all. If a rat did not make a Shaping choice within two minutes it timed out, the Rats were trained to first dig in the sand trial was terminated and the rat moved in the plastic comparison cups for a sugar onto the next trial. If the rat timed out three pellet buried below the surface of the times in a row, the session was terminated. sand. They were then trained to push the The intertrial interval was about 15 sec- Plexiglas lids back in order to expose the onds. The initial choice was recorded on a sand to dig for the pellet. data sheet. Two sets of lids and sand cups were alternated between trials. After each Acquiring the First Five-scent List: List 1 session the percent correct was calculated Phase 1 consisted of six trials of each pair for each pair. For Phase 1, the criterion for of odor stimuli starting with A and ending a rat to move onto Phase 2 was to reach with E for a total of 24 trials (Refer to Table 80% or better on each of the four training 1 for an outline of all the phases). There pairs on 2 consecutive days. were six trials of AB+, where B was rein- Phase 2 was similar to Phase 1, except forced with a sugar pellet, followed by six only blocks of 3 trials of each pair were trials of BC+, etc. The position of each given in sequenced blocks, then those 12 stimulus in a pair during a trial was ran- trials were repeated. For example, the first domly placed in right and left sides with the 3 trials were AB then trials 13-15 were constraint that the reinforced stimulus was also AB. The same randomization proce- never on the same side more than two tri- dures used in Phase 1 were used in Phase als in a row. Identical trials could not occur 2 throughout the entire 24 trials. The cri- more than twice in a row. terion for Phase 2 was 80% or better for 2 Sand cups were placed in the holes in consecutive days. the comparison tray and a sugar pellet was Phase 3 used the same pairs as in Phase buried in the correct comparison about 1 and 2, but pairs were presented in blocks .5-.8 cm below the surface of the sand. of four. The block of four consisted of The appropriate scented lid was then slid each type of pair in order. For example, tri- over the top of the cup of sand between the als 1-4 might be: 1)AB, 2)BC, 3)DC, 4)DE, two sets of screws. To begin the trial, the and then trials 5-8 might be: 5)DE, 6)CD, experimenter placed the edge of the tray 7)BC, 8)BA. The blocks were counterbal- only 1 in. inside the chamber and held for anced over six blocks (24 trials/six presen- 3 sec. After 3 sec, the tray was then pushed tations of each pair). Identical blocks could completely inside the chamber. Once the not appear more than twice in a row. The tray was placed in the chamber the rat was same criterion was used: 80% or better on allowed to make a choice. A choice was two consecutive days. defined as the rat using either the nose or Phase 4 consisted of six trials of each front paws to move the lid past the first set pair randomly mixed with no two identical of screws. trials appearing more than twice in a row. A non-correction procedure was used Reinforced side was also randomized with throughout the entire procedure. If the left or right not being reinforced more than

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Phase Criterion Trials (in order) 1 ≥80%; 2 consecutive days 6 AB+, 6 BC+, 6 CD+, 6 DE+

2 ≥80%; 2 consecutive days 3 AB+, 3 BC+, 3 CD+, 3 DE+ (repeat x1) 3 ≥80%; 2 consecutive days 1AB+, 1BC+, 1CD+, 1DE+ (counterbalanced, repeat x6)

4 ≥80%; 2 consecutive days 6 of each pair; randomly mixed

Probe 1. ≥80%; 2 consecutive days 1. 2 of each pair; random

2. none -continue session with phase 4 if does not reach criterion (24 trials total)

2. 2 of each: BD+, AE+, AC+, AD+, BE+, CE+, XY+ & 1 of each BL

5 2 days 2 of each baseline & 2 trials of each of AC+, AD+, AE+, BE+, CE+ (random) & 3 trials of BD+, XY+

2nd list Repeat Phases 1-5 with items F-J

List- Linking 1. ≥80%; 2 consecutive days 1. 24 EF+

2. Variation: 2. Variation of combination training: 4/5 on all pairs 5 trials of each pair of 1st list trained 2/3; 2 consecutive days or 2/3 & on plus EF+ (random) 1 1/3; 3 consecutive days

3 trials of all baseline pairs of both lists plus EF+ (random)

Test Three days 3 x 26 trials: every possible combination of items*

*3 trials of BI, CH, DG, QR every session

Table 1. Summary of the Procedural Steps to Complete the Training and Testing of the 10-Item List. twice in a row. Trials of the same pair could the series continued to be reinforced. That not occur more than twice in a row either. is, the stimuli that had been reinforced up till The criterion for Phase 4 was 80% or better this point continued to be reinforced. The on each training pair for two consecutive rat had to get at least 7/8 correct to move days. Once this criterion was reached, the on to the test of transitivity. If the rat did rat moved on to the test of the five-scent list not reach criterion, the rest of the session (probe session). consisted of Phase 4 trials, for a total of 24 In the probe session, the rat first had to trials with each training pair being repre- demonstrate reliable performance on the sented equally. The next session began with reinforced trials. Eight trials of baseline the test of reliable performance again. If pairs were presented; each pair was repre- the rat met criterion in the first eight trials, sented equally and the second stimulus in then the subject moved onto probe trials.

92 Leah Jordan

The probe trials consisted of two of every pairs in total) to make a 27 trial session. A new possible combination of the five-item noncorrectional procedure was used and list, an unfamiliar pair of scents to control criterion was 2 out of 3 on every pair, ex- for learning, and one of each baseline pair. cept one pair may be 1 out of 3, for 3 con- To maintain the hierarchy, reinforcement secutive days. However, if this condition histories were maintained. All trials during was not met and the subject completed 55 the probe were double-baited, but the non- sessions, then the subject moved on to the correctional procedure remained in place. final test. Altogether with the eight baseline trials Variation 2. During Variation 1 combina- and then the probe trials, there were 26 tri- tion training, we realized that the training als. The test for TI on the five-item list oc- was actually training a 10-item list instead curred over one session. The choice made of maintaining the two lists as two sepa- on the first novel presentation of BD+ was rate lists. So, Variation 2 was designed to recorded. The number of correct trials for keep the two lists separate by just reviewing BD+ as well as all probes was calculated. one list and not training all nine pairs at Further training (Phase 5) of the first once. The combination sessions combined scent list was introduced the day after the the EF+ pair with the first list that the rat probe test and was done for only 2 days. learned. For example, if the rat began with This training consisted of 24 trials: 2 trials the A-E list, then the rat would add the fifth of each baseline training pair and 3 trials of training pair of EF+ to the A-E list base- BD+ and XY+, and 2 trials each of AC+, line pairs. Five trials of each pair were ran- AD+, AE+, BE+, and CE+. All compari- domly mixed together with no two identi- sons were randomly mixed with no same cal trials appearing more than twice in a trial appearing more than twice in a row. A row. The initial choice was recorded and non-correction procedure was used. Once the non-correction procedure was used. the further training was completed, the rat Criterion was four out of five on each pair moved on to acquire the second list of five for 2 consecutive days or until 20 sessions scents to complete the 10 stimuli list. had been completed. Once criterion was Acquiring the Second Five-scent List: List 2 reached, the rat moved on to the test of list The acquisition of the second set of five linking. scents was done in exactly the same manner as the first, with no exceptions. Once the Test of List Linking rat completed the 2 days of further train- This test consisted of 45 trials of every ing, he moved on to linking the two lists. possible combination of the elements ran- domly mixed (e.g., AJ+, DG+, CH+, etc.). List Linking The 45 trials contained old training pairs Once criterion on List 2 was met, we trained as well as novel comparisons. The final the EF+ comparison that would link the test stretched over 3 consecutive days with lists. Twenty-four trials of EF+ comparison 26 trials in each session. Three compari- were given to a criterion of 80% or better sons of particular interest were presented for 2 consecutive days. A noncorrectional three times in each session: CH+, BI+, and procedure was used. Once that task was DG+. A novel comparison was also done completed, the rat moved on to one of two three times in a session to control for learn- types of EF+ combination sessions. ing of novel combinations. All other pos- Variation 1. The combination sessions sible combinations were only represented combined the EF+ pair with all other eight once throughout the 3-day test. Prior rein- baseline pairs trained previously. A ses- forcement histories were maintained and sion included three trials of each pair (nine the noncorrectional procedure was used.

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The initial choice was recorded. The test 1 and List 2 probes, one random session was then repeated once with a new random from either list training, the session prior to order for all pairs, but still keeping the same List 1 and List 2 probe session, and 1 of distribution of pairs. the 3 days of the final test by video taken during the sessions. Since S16 did not com- Simple Discrimination plete List 2 training, inter-rater reliability Once the subject had completed the 6 days was done for List 1 probe, the day before of final testing, the subject was trained on a List 1 probe, and 4 other days during List simple discrimination task to compare EF+ 1 training. This was a total of six sessions training performance to a simple discrimi- for each rat. Observed performances were nation task with unfamiliar scents. compared to the recorded video perfor- mances for percentage of agreement. Timing-Out For each trial, the rat had 2 minutes to make Data Analysis a choice. If the rat did not respond within Percent correct values were averaged across 2 minutes, or “timed out,” the trial was ter- phases for each training pair and each sub- minated and the rat moved onto the next ject. Binomials were completed to test for trial. If the rat timed out on 3 consecutive significance on probe trials and an alpha trials, the session was terminated. The fol- level of p < .05 was used, however, all p val- lowing session began with those trials that ues are identified within the results. were not given at all from the timed out session (trials after the 3 timed-out trials) Re s u l t s and then continued with the day’s normal session all in 1 day. When this occurred, Baseline pair training the percent correct for each pair and the Three subjects completed training of List total session were calculated with only the 1. Figure 2 (top) shows the number of ses- trials that were presented that day. Timed- sions to reach criterion on each phase for out trials were counted as incorrect. Such List 1 training. The average number of ses- instances are marked in the Appendix next sions to criterion for List 1 was 74.67 ses- to the session in which time-outs occurred. sions (1776 trials). Individual subject data are also presented in Figure 2 (bottom). Control Procedures Only two subjects completed the train- Double-bait days were done at least twice ing of the List 2. Again, the raw data for every week. A double-bait day consisted of each subject are located in Appendices 2 trials in the session that had both com- B-D. Figure 2 (bottom) shows the number parison cups baited to detect if the rat was of sessions to reach criterion on each phase tracking the pellet to make the choice. The for List 2 training. The average number of noncorrectional procedure was still used on sessions to criterion for List 2 was 82 ses- these trials. A dependent samples t-test was sions (1968 trials). Individual subject data conducted to see if trials with double-bait are presented in Figure 2. were significantly different from the perfor- mance on regular or non-baited trials. Five-item List Probe Testing The 3 subjects that completed the List 1 Reliability training received probe testing on all pos- Inter-rater reliability was done to ensure sible combinations within the five-item list. reliable scoring between experimenters. Table 2 shows the number correct out of Inter-rater reliability was performed on List the number of presentations of each pair

94 Leah Jordan for each subject for the List 1 probe test. on novel transitive pairs of List 1 includ- The total percent correct is out of 22 trials, ing BD revealed significance above chance which includes the 8 trials prior to the probe (11/12, p =.0032). S16’s performance on trials that established strong baseline per- the novel transitive pairs of the first list formance (excludes the 2 presentations of and BD revealed performance significantly the unfamiliar pair). All subjects achieved above chance (12/12, p=.0002). above 90% correct on the entire probe ses- Table 3 shows the number correct out of sion. A binomial test for P39’s performance the number of presentations on the probe on the novel transitive probes for List 1 in- for List 2 of each pair for P23 and P39. The cluding BD was significantly above chance only pairs that were missed were baseline (12/12, p = .0002). A binomial test for P23 pairs. Binomial tests for performance on

Li s t 1 Tr a i n i n g

Li s t 2 Tr a i n i n g

Figure 2. Number of sessions to reach criterion for each subject on each phase for List 1 training (top) and List 2 training (bottom). Data from subjects who went through therapy phases are all grouped with the corresponding phase.

95 Explorations | Social Sciences the novel transitive probes for List 2 includ- from chance (p = .3438), and 35/36 of the ing GI revealed performance significantly transitive pairs correct, which is signifi- above chance (12/12, p = .0002 for both cantly higher than chance (p < .0001). For P23 and P39). the List 2 transitive test, as seen in Table Rats performed better on the transitive 3, subjects correctly responded to 2/4 (not tests than on the unfamiliar scents used to significantly different from chance, p = control for learning of the transitive pairs. .6875) unfamiliar pairs and 24/24 transi- For the List 1 transitive test, as seen in tive pairs (significantly higher than chance, Table 2, subjects got 4/6 unfamiliar pairs p < .0001). correct, which is not significantly different

All novel transitive XY Subject BD+ AD+ AC+ BE+ AE+ CE+ BLa pairs (unfamiliar) Total P39 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 3/4 12/12** 2/2 90.91% P23 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 1/2 4/4 11/12** 1/2 90.91%

S16 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 4/4 12/12** 1/2 100.00%

Table 2. Results from the List 1 probe test for each subject.

Note. Table does not display the first 8 baseline trials, but values are included in the total percentage. + = hypothesized outcome if subject is solving the task transitively. aBL=Baseline/Training pairs

**p < .01

All novel transitive XY Subject GI+ FJ+ FH+ FI+ HJ+ GJ+ BLa pairs (unfamiliar) Total P39 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 3/4 12/12** 1/2 90.91% P23 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 2/2 4/4 12/12** 1/2 100%

Table 3. Results from List 2 probe test for each subject on each pair

Note. Table does not display the first 8 baseline trials, but values are included in the total percentage. + = hypothesized outcome if subject is solving the task transitively. aBL=Baseline/Training pairs.

**p < .01

96 Leah Jordan

List Linking but never all in one session. P23’s average Subject P39 met criterion on EF+ train- performance on the review was 67.31% ing in 5 sessions and P23 met criterion in correct. A binomial test for the overall per- 4 sessions. P39, who went through the first formance on AB, CD, and EF revealed sig- variation that reviewed all training pairs nificantly above chance performances (AB, (essentially creating a 10-item list) prior to 100/100, p<.0001; CD, 67/100, p=.0004; the final list-linking test, never reached cri- EF, 88/100, p<.0001). The pair BC also terion prior to the 55 session cutoff. P39 had performance different from chance did achieve 2/3 correct at least once on (32/100, p = .0020). Binomials conducted each pair, but never all in one session. The for DE revealed performance not signifi- average percent correct for P39 on the list cantly above chance (50/100, p=.5398). review was 68.62% correct. During the review training, overall performance on Final list-linking test pairs AB (157/165), CD (102/165), FG P39 and P23 made it to the final test of all (115/165), GH (123/165), HI (119/165), possible combinations of the 10-item list. and IJ (140/165) was significantly above The results of the 3-day test are displayed chance (p<.0001, for all pairs except CD, p in Table 4. Neither rat correctly responded =.0015). Overall performance on the EF+ to the DG pair on the first presentation but linking pair was also above chance, 97/165, did to the CH and BI pairs (Table 4). P39 p=.0145. Overall performance on BC and performed higher on the between list transi- DE were not significantly above chance, tive pairs, for example BH or EG (81.82%), p=.4382 for BC (81/165) and, p=.2668 for than the within list pairs (e.g., AE or FI), DE (87/165). which includes the baseline pairs (70.00%). P23 went through the second variation For P39, performance on the within list of the list review and he also did not reach transitive pairs only, was significantly above criterion prior to the cutoff of 20 sessions. chance (10/12, p=.0193). The between P23 also performed at criterion on each list performance for P39 was significantly pair at least once throughout the review, above chance with a binomial test (18/22,

Within list transitive Within Between Between QR+ (un- Subject CH+ DG+ BI+ pairs List % list pairs List % familiar) P39 1/1 0/1 1/1 10/12* 70.00% 18/22** 81.82% 0/1 P23 1/1 0/1 1/1 10/12* 85.00% 17/22** 77.27% 1/1

Table 4. Results from the final test of list linking and transitivity for each subject

Note. Number correct for CH, DG, and BI are based on the first presentation during the test EF pair con- sidered a between list pair. + = hypothesized outcome if subject is solving the task transitively. Within list percentages based on baseline/training pair and within list transitive pair results on final list-linking test.

**p < .01 *p < .05

97 Explorations | Social Sciences

Within List Within List Subject 1-Transitive Pairs Training Pairs-List 1 2-Transitive Pairs Training Pairs-List 2 P39 5/6 2/4 5/6 2/4 P23 6/6 3/4 4/6 3/4

Table 5. Results for within list transitive pairs and training pairs during the final list-linking test for each subject.

*p < .05

p=.0022). Subjects did not perform differ- A record was kept of every response ent from chance on the unfamiliar pairs made on every pair during the final test. on the final list-linking test (1/2,p = .7500) Binomials calculated for the BI and CH but did perform different from chance on pairs for all presentations revealed perfor- all transitive (within and between) pairs mance significantly above chance (8/9,p = (55/66, p < .0001). .0195, for both). P39’s performance on the Further evaluation of the different parts DG pair was not significantly above chance of the final test was done to evaluate the (7/9, p = .0898). P23’s performance on performance of P39 on each list (Table 5). the BI pair was significantly above chance Performance on within List 1 pairs (base- (9/9, p = .0020). Performance of P23 on line and transitive) was not significantly the DG pair was lower than chance (0/9, p above chance (7/10, p=.1719) and neither = .0020). Performance on CH was not sig- were the transitive pairs alone (5/6; p = nificantly above chance (7/9,p = .0898). .1094). Performance on List 2 pairs was not The post-study simple discrimination significantly above chance (seven out of test using unfamiliar scents revealed that ten, p=.1719) and neither were the transi- it took P39 one session to reach 80% and tive pairs alone (5/6, p=.1719). P23 two sessions to reach 80% correct. The P23 performed lower on the between EF training, in comparison, took P39 five list pairs (77.27%) than the within list sessions to meet criterion and P23 four ses- pairs (85%). A binomial test on within list sions to meet criterion. A t-test analysis of transitive pairs for P23 revealed signifi- dependent samples of the double-bait tri- cantly above chance performance (10/12, als versus non-double baited trials revealed p=.0193). Performance on between list no significant difference between - per pairs for P23 with a binomial test showed formances on either type of trial over 55 that performance was also significantly samples/sessions, t(88) = -0.31, p = .3786 above chance (17/22, p=.0085). (one-tailed). Table 5 shows that performance for P23 Inter-rater reliability with a sample of on within List 1 pairs was significantly 6 sessions each for P39, P23, and S16 re- above chance (10/10, p=.0010) as were the vealed 100% agreement with video of the within List 1 transitive pairs alone (6/6, p = sessions. .0156). Performance on within List 2 pairs (baseline and transitive) was not signifi- Di s c u s s i o n cantly above chance (7/10, p=.1719) and The results for TI on five-item lists ob- neither were the transitive pairs alone (4/6, tained in the current study are similar to p = .3438). those of previous studies performed with

98 Leah Jordan rats (Dusek & Eichenbaum, 1997; Davis, category of the final list-linking test was 1992). Transitivity was observed in all broken down into the two individual lists, three subjects for each individual list dur- calculations revealed that P23 performed ing the probe sessions (see Tables 2 & 3). significantly above chance only on pairs The choice of D over B was seen in all that were contained in List 1 (see Table 5). the subjects for List 1 and the choice of I This outcome could be due to the recent over G was seen in all subjects for List 2. review of only List 1 prior to the final test. Both P39 and P23 performed significantly In contrast, P39 reviewed every baseline above chance on both the between transi- pair before the final list-linking test. P39’s tive pairs and the within list pairs on the performance was not significant on either final list-linking test. This is true regardless of the lists during the final test. While both of the fact that P23 went through Variation P39 and P23’s percent correct for the list 2 of the list review, which only reviewed the linking review phase of training was com- first list. These results suggest that the hy- parable (68.62% and 67.31%, respectively), pothesis that rats are capable of list linking P23 only had to review and master four should be accepted. The fact that the unfa- pairs. Subject P39 had to review and mas- miliar pairs were not different from chance ter nine pairs which may have exceeded and the transitive pairs were suggests that memory capacity. P23’s poor performance the subjects were not learning the novel on the within list TI pairs for List 2 could transitive pairs. be attributed to the lack of review prior to The number of sessions to criterion the final test. Even though the review of for the current study proved to be much List 1 prior to the test was brief (to ensure higher than what has been observed in that the second list was not forgotten) List previous studies. Specifically, Dusek and 1 was more recent. So, the lack of signifi- Eichenbaum (1997) showed around 400 cant performance by P23 on the within list trials (or about 100 sessions) on average for transitive pairs for List 2 could be due to a the control subjects to reach criterion to more recent presentation of List 1 stimuli be tested for transitivity on a five-item list. (proactive interference). Subjects in the current study on average Serial Position and Symbolic Distance took over 1000 trials to reach criterion to Effects be tested on either of the five-item lists. In Vasconcelos (2008) presented two phe- Dusek and Eichenbaum’s study, there were nomena of TI tasks: the serial position ef- more trials per session (40 trials/session) fect (SPE) and the symbolic distance effect than in the current study (24 trials/session) (SDE). These two effects are found across which could have afforded more practice many studies and seem to be characteristics for subjects in the Dusek and Eichenbaum of any TI task. Beyond the classic evalua- study. tion of transitive inference itself, research- Results of the list linking final test re- ers have begun to look into the meaning be- vealed that both P39 and P23 were capable hind why these outcomes occur. Given the of inferring transitive relationships across results of my study, I chose to re-examine lists (see Table 4). However, the results for the data in light of the serial position effect the probe of list linking and transitivity and the symbolic distance effect. on the 10-item list did not yield quite as Instead of all baseline pairs having simi- high percentages as those of Treichler and lar average percent correct across the study, Tilburg (1996). there is a general “flat U” shape: Some pairs For example, only P23 achieved signifi- were mastered better than others. This cance on the within list pairs during the is the serial position effect (Vasconcelos, final list-linking test. When the within list 2008). Specifically, the pairs containing

99 Explorations | Social Sciences end-anchors (elements on the end of the The second phenomenon Vasconcelos list that are either always or never rein- (2008) discusses is the symbolic distance forced) have higher percent correct values effect. The symbolic distance effect is the than those pairs that lie within the list (see observation that novel transitive pairs given Figures 3 & 4). As seen in Figures 3 and 4, to the subject during testing that have more the serial position effect was observed for intervening items between them, have this study. higher percent correct than those with only

Figure 3. Percent correct on List 1 training for each baseline/training pair averaged across all the phases for each subject, demonstrating evidence of the serial position effect.

100 Leah Jordan a couple of intervening items. For example, final test, percent correct for pairs that con- the novel transitive pair given during test- tained fewer than four items had somewhat ing might be B and I. This pair has six in- variable, yet low, percent correct values (see tervening items between them: C, D, E, F, Figure 5). Pairs that had four or more inter- G, and H. The pair DG, however, only has vening items yielded better percent correct two intervening items: E and F. The hy- values. In fact, at the point at which there pothesis, based on review of past literature, were four intervening variables and above, would be that pairs with more items in be- both P39 and P23 had equal percent cor- tween them would yield higher percent cor- rect values. With five intervening items rect during the probe (Treichler & Tilburg, percent correct reached 100% correct. It 1996; Vasconcelos, 2008). In the current is interesting note that subjects performed study, I found these same results (see Figure poorly on the presentations of the train- 5). First, in the test of transitivity for each ing pairs during the final test of list-linking list, the novel transitive pairs had higher compared to the other test pairs. percent correct than the baseline pairs (see P23 and P39 both responded incorrectly Tables 2 & 3). Second, on evaluation of the to the first presentation of the DG pair

Figure 4. Percent correct on List 2 training for each baseline/training pair averaged across all the phases for each subject.

101 Explorations | Social Sciences

Figure 5. Percent correct for increasing number of intervening items between stimuli averaged for P39 and P23 on the final test of transitivity of the 10-item list.

during the final list-linking test (see Table and Phelps, 1994) argue that subjects men- 4). This could also be due to the symbolic tally arrange the items into a spatial “line” distance effect. Performance on the BI pair, that can be accessed at any point. Critics of or the pair with the most intervening items, this theory (Vasconcelos, 2008), however, was above 85% correct and performance claim that if a mental representation of the on the CH pair, while not significant for lists were available, it would be continuously P23, was still between 75% and 89%. This accessible and the subjects would perform shows a gradual decline in performance on near perfection. The symbolic distance ef- the specially selected pairs as the number fect could account for the lack of perfection of intervening objects decreased. However, on the transitive tests because items that are P23’s poor performance on the DG pair close together may be more complicated to was significantly different from chance . decipher, even if there is a mental model. That is, the chance of a subject missing Objects further apart in a spatial array are every presentation of that pair by chance easier to tell apart than those sitting next to alone is very low. Possible third variables each other. that would cause this significance could be Both P39 and P23 performed signifi- aversion to the G scent or the more recent cantly above chance on the between list review of List 1 containing the D stimulus. transitive pairs (see Table 4). These results Many have argued why the symbolic dis- could be due to the fact that the pairs con- tance effect and serial position effect occur. tain stimuli that are further apart from each To argue why they occur begs the question other in the hierarchy and have more stim- how animals integrate these baseline pairs uli between them. The within list transitive into accessible memory. Multiple theories pairs had lower performance, with P23 be- exist; these have roots in either cognitive or ing the only subject to perform significantly non-cognitive approaches, such as reinforce- above chance on List 1 within list transi- ment based theories. Cognitive accounts of tive pairs (see Table 5). These pairs have TI include the organization of the items fewer stimuli between them than most of into a mental spatial array (Vasconcelos, the between list pairs. Thus, the symbolic 2008). Supporters of this theory (Roberts distance effect could be the reason for the

102 Leah Jordan significant performance on the between The results of this study do not show list pairs and not on most of the within list overwhelming evidence for value-transfer transitive pairs. theory. The items across lists that are in the same position in the list were evaluated Application to Value Transfer Theory based on their first presentation: AF, BG, Non-cognitive theories are numerous and CH, DI, and EJ. If value-transfer theory some involve reinforcement theories while were at work, then these pairs would be at others involve values of each item. The chance levels because they have the same value transfer theory, which was briefly value and the subject would be unable to discussed earlier, predicts that the animal decipher which was greater. Both subjects solves the TI task by assessing the value P39 and P23 got 4/5 of the value-transfer of the items being presented (von Fersen pairs, incorrectly responding to the BG et al., 1991). These values are acquired pair. While there are not enough samples through training of the baseline pairs and of value-transfer pairs to test significance are a combination of the direct reinforce- statistically, it is evident by percent correct ment history of the item and the positive that both subjects performed well on these value of the item with which it is paired. pairs, showing that they were able to make The positive value of an item is transferred a choice and not confused about the similar to the other item with which it is being pre- values of the items. The choices made were sented (Cohen et al., 2001). For example, in the direction hypothesized by this study. in a hierarchical list in which A is always Secondly, value-transfer implies the ani- reinforced, A would have the highest value. mal is capable of cardinality. Cardinality is The stimulus B is essentially neutral until thought to be the second requirement for it is presented with A. When presented counting (Lazareva & Wasserman, 2008; with A, some of the positive value of A is Davis, 1992). Cardinality assumes that the “rubbed off” onto B but the value of B is animal assigns each stimulus with a value. still less than the value of A. This continues The stimulus gets its own value, indepen- on down the hierarchy with a little positive dent of the other stimuli. Cardinality comes value being transferred to each stimulus into play because value-transfer assumes until the fifth element has the lowest value that stimuli in the same position across lists of all the elements (von Fersen et al., 1991; will acquire the same value. For example, B Vasconcelos, 2008). This model does not and G should acquire the same value when require a mental model of spatial arrange- the lists are trained separately because they ments. While it might seem that the value are both second in the lists. So, regardless transfer theory is an organization of values of what the stimulus is or what it is labeled, across a hierarchy, much like the spatial any stimulus in that position should acquire model, instead the subject has learned a the same value. Performing above chance specific value for each element. When the on the pairs that, according to the value- subject is presented with a novel compari- transfer theory, should have equal values son, it references the specific value for each does not mean that they are not assigning individual element, independent of the values to stimuli. Perhaps with the review other elements of the list not present. With of lists, the values became altered from this model, the subject ends up following their original value during the training of a logical rule instead of using relations or the list that aided their choice making in associations as with spatial models (von the final test. Fersen et al., 1991; Lazareva et al., 2004; Initially, I hoped with the current study to Vasconcelos, 2008). find a possible way to test the value-transfer

103 Explorations | Social Sciences hypothesis. However, some changes in of the time. When these two stimuli were the current procedure would be neces- linked and the lists were reviewed in com- sary. Each stimulus in the list was not re- bination training, E and F were reinforced inforced equally during training due to a 50% of the time instead of 100% and 0%, non-correctional procedure. The results respectively. The lists are linked to create obtained could be due to uneven reinforce- a relation between the stimuli in the same ment histories across stimuli. In the pres- position. If the lists were not linked, chance ent study, noncorrectional procedures were performance would be expected because used throughout. Although measures were there is no relation between the two test- taken to ensure that each pair was repre- ing stimuli for the rat to assess. Thus in this sented equally throughout the study, the study, value-transfer could be assessed since noncorrection procedure prevented each there was some relation between elements; element from being reinforced equally. So, expecting chance performance for stimuli for example, some of the rats had difficulty with in the same position across lists. When learning the second pair, BC or GH, in List tested, though, P39 and P23 did not per- 1 and List 2. Since these pairs had higher form at chance levels. In fact, P39 and P23 errors than the other pairs, C or H would together performed correctly on 8 out of 10 have been reinforced less than, say, the al- value-transfer pairs (p = .0547). However, ways reinforced J stimulus (see Figures 3 value-transfer can not be ruled out com- & 4). Thus, a theory based solely on rein- pletely because, as stated above, the values forcement histories instead of value-trans- for E and F could have been altered with fer theory could not be ruled out. the linking procedure. Stimulus E’s value Another change that would be useful to may have decreased and F’s value increased test value-transfer theory was procedural: since the value of an item is directly af- the review of the entire list with P39. The fected by its reinforcement history, making, review of the 10-item list could have cre- for example, F and A no longer equal. With ated new values based on the 10-item list in- unequal values, value-transfer can not truly stead of two separate five-item lists. Values be tested with the current procedure. for stimuli in a 10-item list would decrease as the 10 stimuli decreased in the hierarchy. Limitations and Future Studies In two separate five-item lists, however, the There are many adjustments that could value of stimuli in the same location across be made to this design to improve its qual- lists would have the same value. So the pro- ity. One modification that could be made cedure was changed for P23 to only review would be to use correctional procedure in List 1. order for all of the stimuli to be reinforced At first glance, it may seem as though two with the same frequency. In order to speed stimuli in the same location in a list in this up the training process, more trials per ses- study would have the same value. However, sion might show quicker performance as it is possible that the linking of the two lists was observed by Dusek and Eichenbaum via the EF pair could have altered the val- (1997). More trials in a session would give ues of the stimuli adjacent to the stimuli E the subject more practice with the train- and F. In training the List 2, the stimulus F ing pairs. To keep List 1 and List 2 sepa- had a value equal to that of A, which was rate lists and prevent them from becom- the lowest of the stimuli because it was re- ing a 10-item list, I would suggest keeping inforced 0% of the time. The stimulus E Variation 2 of the procedure in which only had the highest value in List 1, equal to the first list was reviewed with the linking stimulus J, because it was reinforced 100% pair prior to the final list-linking test. One

104 Leah Jordan other element that would improve the qual- be a human ability. The fact that rats are ity of this study would be to have more sub- capable of solving TI tasks could imply a jects. More subjects would increase power strong evolutionary basis for TI since it has and provide more opportunities to rep- been found across so many species, many licate the results. This study did not have that are not evolutionarily related to the rat enough power in some cases to detect an (primates, Treichler & Tilburg, 1996; pi- effect. For example, on the first presenta- geons, Lazareva & Wasserman, 2006). The tions of the value-transfer pairs or the three fact that these animals tend to be social pairs singled out during the final list-linking creatures could imply a need for TI abili- test, there simply were not enough trials or ties in order to adapt in a new social situ- subjects to detect any effect. The appara- ation. However, it might be interesting to tus also posed some problems at times dur- investigate whether animals that do not set ing training. Sometimes the lids would get up dominance hierarchies are capable of stuck as the rat was trying to make a choice inferring transitive relations. In the field, in and would disrupt the session. An appara- animal societies that do set up hierarchies, tus that was more automated (such as the there may not be large differences in size olfactometer) or didn’t require the subject in individuals in which to determine the to move a lid might be more suitable for social hierarchy. The current study reveals smooth procedures. that rats are still able to transitively infer Finally, there were two pairs that had without the aid of a physical dimensional very low percent corrects during training difference but instead using relations, or as- and then during the final list-linking test for sociative methods. Currently there are no P23, yet, were significantly different from known studies that test whether rats are chance: BC and DG, respectively. These capable of using physical dimensions or a results suggest that a third variable is at logical method to infer transitively, but fur- work and further investigation into these ther studies on this might indicate that rats differences would be needed. Possibly, the are indeed capable of the logical processes location of the stimulus in the hierarchy is so attributed to humans. difficult for the subject to learn or the spe- The processes used by rats, or any species, cific scents are aversive to the subject. may be as intricate as value-transfer theory While this study is not the perfect evalua- but they could also be less complex, as with tion of the value-transfer theory for TI, it is a cognitive spatial array. It is important to a good pilot study for list linking abilities in point out that not all animals solve TI tasks rats. The results from the current study do in the same way (Premack, 2007; Batsell, show evidence for TI across lists which im- 1993) and that this adds to the amazing di- ply a linking of two separate lists. Subjects versity of cognitive strategies of the animal were able to infer transitive relations be- kingdom. j tween lists at significant values. Phylogenic trees once implied intelligence scales to cognitive scholars and that animals higher up on the tree were more intelligent and had more cognitive abilities (Healy et al., 2009). While some might argue that rats are not “high enough” on the tree, this study is additional evidence that rats are in- deed capable of a task referred to as higher order learning and once thought to only

105 Explorations | Social Sciences

Re f e r e n c e s

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107 Intimate Advertising: A Study of Female Emotional Responses Using ZMET

Evelyn Siergiej Mars Hill College Faculty Mentor: Kathryn Eason, PhD Department of Fashion and Interior Merchandising Mars Hill College

o r d e c a d e s , w o m e n o f all ages have responses of female college students to inti- F been targeted in intimate apparel ad- mate apparel advertising. vertising by means of erotic and racy im- ages (Reichert, 2003). Past studies have Dr e s s e d Id e n t i t y a n d Ad v e r t i s i n g focused primarily on consumer response When considering female emotional re- to specific advertisement techniques as well sponses to intimate apparel advertising, as advertisement responses to consumer it is important to begin with the issue of lifestyles (Buhl & Mick, 1992; Arnould & self-concept. Self-concept is a perception Thompson, 2005). The study of consumer of who a person is as a whole. People in- marketing in relation to human responses ternalize and integrate their own personal has distinct gaps in understanding a spe- qualities to define the self. An important cific target market’s emotional response to characteristic of self-concept is that it is selected imagery. This research investigates ever-changing. Kaiser (1997) found that the emotional reactions and responses of fe- people mold their self-concept through male college students towards erotic images both individual experience and social inter- of intimate apparel advertising. The study actions. When clothing has the power to is based on Coulter and Zaltman’s (1995) reveal something about one’s self-concept, research in which images presented in print- it is called “dress” (Kaiser, 1997). based advertising are emotion-laden meta- Individuals are influenced by experience phors for the products and brands offered or social norms as they associate with posi- for sale. The Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation tive and negative images. Sexual identity Technique (ZMET; Coulter, Coulter, and overlaps with elements of social norms Zaltman, 2001) was used because it offers and culture beliefs (Young, 2005). In addi- a creative format to examine the emotional tion, if an individual experiences a certain

108 Evelyn Siergiej positive or desired outcome in one situa- outward semblance of self (Manca, 1994). tion, he or she may be inclined to repeat The popular culture of consumer-driven certain factors of that environment to buying and spending choices relies largely produce another advantageous outcome on the consumers’ actual practice of free (Crane, 2000). Therefore, individuals react choice purchasing (Arnould & Thompson, to these factors and these reactions, and in 2005). Advertisements in the media are turn, shape self-identity. one specific form of an influencing fac- tor which can be perfected to persuade Co n s u m e r s a n d Ad v e r t i s i n g the consumers’ decision-making process Companies are able to meet the desired through research and analysis of consumer results of their consumers through different culture. The persuasive symbols, when forms of advertising, such as print media implemented into a specific form of ad- by addressing consumers’ identity needs vertising media, underpin the theme of a through dress. Advertisements largely rep- company’s “advertising platform” (Wolfe, resent what the product image can do for 2003, p.869), which defines a target mar- consumers and are one way that companies ket and expresses how a product can satisfy are able to lure their customers with prom- that target market. ises of positive results on self-perception Market-oriented symbols forge them- and appearance (Giuntini, 2007). selves into the awareness of consumers, and As in any advertisement campaign, there in turn, create a codependent environment may be the use of images in print media. wherein the two symbols draw information Changes in relation to how images are in- from the other, both cognitive and tangible. tended to be seen and then absorbed by Company-created symbols are represented consumers are subject to an “exterior re- through advertisements to suit the needs ality” of perception (Mirzoeff, 1999, p.7). and wants of a target market. When in Consumers may call on this exterior reality sync, the symbols frame consumer percep- from cultural and individual experiences. tions causing some actions and thought According to Weissberg, “Like a fetish, this patterns to be more likely constructed by element—the shoe or dress of the person the symbols influencing capacity (Arnould depicted—expresses and stands for the & Thompson, 2005). Traditional consumer viewer’s desire and, metonymically, for his theory suggests that these two symbols af- or her experience of the photograph itself” fect consumers’ representation of self-con- (1997, p.109). Companies strive to reach cept (Belk, 1988; McCracken, 1986). Thus a goal of creating an advertising platform products are bought from a specific retailer that influences the change of disposition or supplier who will fulfill the image of self towards a positive outlook of a product that was ultimately contrived by influenc- which will in turn achieve a positive out- ing businesses (Wolin, 2003). In the case look on the customer once that product has of apparel, specific retailers will use their been purchased and used (Lambiase, 2003; knowledge of their customers’ relationships Wolfe, 2003). with the market-oriented symbols to further Advertising has a social influence on encourage involvement in the brand. One those whom it aims to persuade through such example of this type of relationship is the message, purpose, and values that it with intimate apparel retailers advertising conveys (Olsen, 2003). Advertising should campaigns. serve the purpose of highlighting a prod- uct to provide the consumer with personal In t i m a t e Ap p a r e l Ad v e r t i s i n g satisfaction and a positive inward and Although there are numerous categories,

109 Explorations | Social Sciences sub-categories, classifications, and -mar research was to discover what the consum- kets of intimate apparel firms, one com- er’s emotional involvement in perceiving mon definition is “companies that design, and relaying the underlying symbols found manufacture, market, and/or license in intimate apparel advertising adds to their brands for underwear, intimate apparel, own image and psyche. Thus, the purpose and lingerie” (Intimate Apparel Overview, of this research was to explore female emo- 2008). Underwear, intimate apparel, and tional responses to intimate apparel adver- lingerie are all separate garment categories, tising. Specifically, how do these advertise- yet tend to overlap each other in form and ments connect consumer self-concept and use. Two popular intimate apparel com- market experience with intimate apparel? panies are Victoria’s Secret and La Senza, which are large subsidiaries of the Limited Me t h o d o l o g y Brand. Both have consistently top-selling products and launch numerous advertising Journaling campaigns each year (Chang, Lin & Mak, To conduct in-depth research, primary data 2004; Mui, 2008). For the past few years were collected from the selected group of Victoria’s Secret has been pushing toward participants in a research process utilizing a more risqué presentation of advertise- two distinct, yet complementary methods. ment campaigns. This has been achieved In the first method, participants were asked through the creation of product lines which to complete a series of journals. These fit their desire to generate a sexier store im- journals were prompted through a series of age, despite criticism from a multitude of four questions: quickly-growing conservative consumers. 1) When purchasing intimate apparel, Specifically, the Very Sexy and Sexy Little what do you expect out of the products (ex: Thing product lines are being forced into how it functions, how you expect to feel the spotlight (Mui, 2008). The Sexy Little when wearing the garments, etc.)? Thing product line depicts images not only 2) What was your last experience buy- of presumptuous intimate apparel like that ing intimate apparel? Where did you go of the Very Sexy line, but also depicts many and what did you buy? Describe, in as of the models in a childish light: with every- much detail as possible, the entire purchase thing from ringlet curls and bows in their experience. hair, to holding round mirrors that mimic 3) How do you emotionally respond lollipops. This leaves many asking what to wearing specific intimate apparel gar- visual messages are Victoria’s Secret really ments? Do you have intimate apparel trying to send, and what are people really wardrobes for separate occasions? Explain perceiving about these images emotionally why or why not. and mentally (Boteach, 2008)? 4) Free write (no specific topic) on your feelings toward intimate apparel. Th e o r e t i c a l Fr a m e w o r k Each question was open-ended with The study of practical semiotics explores ample room for reasonable interpretation the basic symbols and signs found in spe- (Zaltman, 1970). The purpose of ques- cific media for the purpose of discovering tion one was to discover the expectations what the particular piece(s) of media is try- of intimate apparel in relation to customer ing to evoke. A study of socio-semiotics thought, opinion, and previous experi- calls further for the investigation of sym- ences; question two explored emotional re- bols in coordination with material pro- sponse based on direct statement or implied cesses (Gottdiener, 1995). The goal of this through actions from the participants’ last

110 Evelyn Siergiej experience of purchasing intimate apparel; positive and negative consumer percep- questions three and four prompted answers tions of print advertising. ZMET bridges from the subject that were personal and the gap between concrete advertising and gave precedence for a qualitative exami- intangible emotional responses through the nation. The participants were given two use of imagery (Coulter & Zaltman, 1995). weeks to write in their journals, after which The research process consisted of the fol- a collection of the journals took place. lowing steps: Each journal was read, analyzed, and all 1) Images were selected from a current data were further examined in conjunc- Victoria’s Secret line that has been the sub- tion with the method described by Coulter ject of wide-ranged debate and criticism & Zaltman (1995). Subjects were given a (Boteach, 2003 ; Mui, 2008) regarding the chance to review the interpretations of the sexual nature of the products depicted. The research findings at a later focus group in Sexy Little Things line depicted four adver- order to provide internal validation for the tisements with the models featured being in findings. varying states of dress;the first two only had panties on while the second two were Za l t m a n Me t a p h o r Elicitation wearing both upper and lower garments. Te c h n i q u e 2) Intimate apparel advertisements from The method used was a review of print a specific Victoria’s Secret product line were advertisements chosen by the researcher presented to a target group of female col- as being representative of the particular lege students in order to evoke a response Victoria’s Secret advertising line discussed. (See Images 1-4). The review of print advertisements has 3) The subject group then selected im- traditionally been the media of choice for ages from physical sources (ex: magazines) consumer marketing research. Print me- that reflected emotional feelings aroused dia, already one of the earliest forms of from viewing the intimate apparel adver- advertisement, is readily accessible for eco- tisements (Images 1-4). nomic and technological reasons (Coulter 4) The pictures were arranged by the & Zaltman, 1995). ZMET, the Zaltman subject group to create a summary image, Metaphor Elicitation Technique, was used or contrived composite of total group emo- in this research as a focus group method tions towards the advertisement (Coulter, designed for the purpose of extracting both Coulter, & Zaltman, 2001). The composite

Image 1 Image 2 Image 3 Image 4

(Victoria’s Secret Sexy Little Things, 2008)

111 Explorations | Social Sciences images created by the focus group resulted group utilizing the Zaltman technique in in the selection of three response images in order to analyze for thematic similarities addition to the four images selected by the and differences to be used as prompts for researchers. leading discussion during the focus group 5) The ZMET was followed by a focus discussion, and to allow for future compari- group discussion to explore, in more depth, son of individual responses in journals and the emotional responses on an individual group responses in the focus group. Upon level, as well as connections found through the completion of the journals students met group consensus (Zaltman, 1997). during assigned class time to complete the The ZMET, in addition to the non- ZMET portion of the study. The students threatening environment of a focus group, were given a copy of the prompt images provided a basis for validity when address- (Images 1-4) to view and were provided ing the differences that were measurable with a variety of additional print images to only through qualitative examination of use while constructing an individual visual the images gathered (Coulter, Coulter, & response, in the form of a photo collage. Zaltman, 1995; Coulter & Zaltman, 2001). After completing their individual collages the participants were asked to come to- Pa r t i c i p a n t Se l e c t i o n gether as a focus group to discuss their in- After obtaining appropriate IRB approval dividual collages and how they interpreted from the Mars Hill College board, partici- the prompt images. The focus group was pants were solicited for participation in the then asked to come up with “group im- study. A total of twelve female participants ages” that represented the overall inter- were selected. Each of the twelve research pretation of the prompt images. The focus participants was a college student majoring group was videotaped throughout this dis- in Fashion and Interior Merchandising and cussion process and then transcribed by the enrolled in a visual merchandising course. researcher to further analyze, refine, and if The visual merchandising course was an necessary, expand upon the themes which upper-level course. Thus, most of these par- developed in the journaling process. Before ticipants had more advanced knowledge of interpreting any of the transcriptions or the use and marketing of apparel products journals, the participants were given cop- than their junior counterparts, and in fact, ies of the transcripts to verify the accuracy they were chosen because they had specific of the recordings. In addition, the reflective knowledge in marketing and were more at- process was completed as participants were tuned to the use of visual appeals in prac- asked to confirm the correct representation tice. The depth of knowledge among the of their journal and focus group comments participants allowed for an in-depth under- in the ultimate thematic interpretation of standing of the participants response to the findings. advertisements that complemented the de- scriptive nature of the Zaltman Metaphor Interpretations Elicitation Technique. Participants were di- After the collection and analysis of data, rected to complete the journal process for the results were grouped into three con- two weeks prior to the focus group meeting ceptual areas of attention: advertisements in order to allow the individuals to more as fantasy, perceptions of reality, and the fully reflect upon the research topic prior to emotional bridge between the two. These group discussion. The journals were then conceptual areas were selected based on collected by the research prior to the focus emergent concepts revealed the majority

112 Evelyn Siergiej of participants’ in their own journals and kid should be wearing. Plus the whole innocent focus group comments. housewife outfit. It looks like the age target of the 20-somes is really put out there for the age appeal Advertising as Fantasy of 8 year-olds. The two most commonly interpreted A.M.: It seems like they’re just for show. Could you variables expressed as fantasy roles in the really comfortably wear those under your clothes? Victoria’s Secret print images were sexual romanticism and innocent fantasy ideals. Perceptions of Reality Sexual romanticism is the use of warm, Discussion of individual view and group soothing colors and pictures for the pur- consensus yielded insight into the partici- pose of evoking sensual emotions. The pants’ particular expectations of intimate theme of innocent fantasy ideals is charac- apparel and what Victoria’s Secret’s inti- terized by the depiction of implied youth mate apparel actually does to meet their and quixotic imagery. expectations. The first issue, what the fe- male consumers expect intimate apparel A.W.: It’s like these first two [garments] have a to do for them, was separated into two more romantic, classic appeal, and the second two categories: to meet physical needs and to are trying to be baby-doll cutesy. satisfy emotional expectations. As stated by A.K.: Yeah, the second two are looking like out- numerous members of the subject group, fits that you wouldn’t wear on a regular basis. it must provide some tangible function. Probably only if someone would see them, you More specifically: know, you’re wearing them for someone. The last one really looks like an apron, maid role-play. I A.L.: When I go shopping for intimate apparel the don’t think older women wear those. expectations I expect out of the products I am pur- chasing is protection, comfort, appearance, and I Two main marketing themes presented also look for it being reliable. I do not want to buy by Victoria’s Secret are their two lines of things that are not going to last or are going to fall intimate apparel: Very Sexy and Sexy Little apart on me. Things. Very Sexy was described as warm in tone, more mature, and sensual in emo- A common notion was that intimate ap- tional expectations, as well as more calm parel should be able to stand up to regular and professional. In addition, the Very wear and laundering, though there was no Sexy line tended to be the norm for each specific point of distinction as to what nor- subject’s overall view of Victoria’s Secret’s mal wear and care would encompass. company theme. The Sexy Little Things line, which was Emotional Expectations the physical print media used for the ZMET, The third conceptual area of concern was employed responses that the specific line that intimate apparel needs to fulfill emo- was appealing to younger and more inno- tional expectations. For some, it was clear cent fantasy ideals. Innocent fantasy ide- that emotional expectations outweighed als were described as the sum of both the the needs of functionality, whereas others portrayal of what is viewed as symbols of simply stated that they would not purchase youth and what is viewed as apparel with a garment if they did not like the appear- no functional protection: ance. Upon further questioning, it was clear that there was a very strong connection be- A.W.: It took me awhile to notice, but the lollypop tween emotional satisfaction and garment and hair ringlets really look like something a little appearance:

113 Explorations | Social Sciences

A.K.: It is very important for it to be the right fit and often selected by the participants based on I often select them on their appearance as well. self-knowledge: K.D.: It must first appeal to me aesthetically, then it must meet my requirements when it comes to A.L.: For some people it is definitely their body comfort. Even though no one else sees the under- type and body image. Others think they can pull garments that I buy, they can affect my mood and that off, but for me I know that style doesn’t look my confidence. That self esteem boost is some- right. thing that I’ve come to expect out of the intimate apparel that I purchase. If I don’t feel that, then on Other participants indicated confusion an emotional basis, the product has failed me. about their own body image and what a garment would actually contribute to their When purchasing intimate apparel, the own image; this led to a discussion about participants agreed that, as with any other the external and internal forces of intimate purchase, there is the view that when ei- apparel advertisements. An image selected ther emotional or function expectations are from the ZMET collage created by the fo- missing, product satisfaction would be low. cus group displayed a vast array of fresh Statements implying how not only appear- vegetables, fruits, and grains (See Image 5). ance, but tangible attributes, can add to a It was selected to describe particular feel- products emotional value were given: ings towards each intimate apparel image:

A.W.: When you’re wearing something that feels C.D.: You see pictures like this in a magazine, good you definitely feel more confident. especially with food. The ad makes it look good but in reality it’s disgusting. I think everyone tries Victoria’s Secret appeals to many of the to make-pretend that there is some hope for their participants’ needs by providing functional own look whenever they see these (intimate ap- garments that look sexy or cute. Through parel) ads, but in reality it just doesn’t happen. this research, it was possible to explain bridges of connection between fantasies Participants responded to a variety of el- advertisers sell and how consumers emo- ements presented in the advertisements tionally react to specific advertisements including: the product, props, and mod- as a form of reality. Fantasy is generated els selected. When intimate apparel was through images of what is pleasurable and viewed through advertisements, interpre- desirable to consumers, whereas reality can tations shifted from a focus on what the be measured by looking at to what extent the product is actually capable of meeting the portrayed or implied fantasy for each consumer. For each individual participant, it was recognized that the different body types and different body images of participants correlated with their emotional reactions to both the physical garments and inti- mate apparel advertising. Throughout the journals, it was clear that each participant enjoyed wearing intimate apparel that was able to make their confidence and self-es- teem levels rise. Different garments were (Bon Appétit Test Kitchen, 2008)

114 Evelyn Siergiej actual garment would do for the individual A.M.: I do have harsh feelings towards advertise- to what the advertisement implied what the ments and huge posters in stores of girls with per- garment would do for the individual. fect bodies in the intimate apparel you are about to The photo in which models wore torso buy. I do not like walking into Victoria Secrets and and lower garments evoked negative emo- being bombarded with images of what I am not. I tional responses. Selection of imagery and always end up feeling a bit inadequate. group discussion uncovered feelings based on the use of props and bodily expression Co n c l u s i o n s that conveyed a sense of youth, to a point From a utilitarian perspective, an intimate of extremeness. The use of what was in- apparel garment is an article or collection terpreted by the participants as a lollypop, of clothing that serves the purpose of pro- though it was in actuality a mirror, in one viding basic, body coverage, traditionally of these images removed a sense of con- worn under an outfit. Yet these physical nection between the participants and the garments can greatly affect emotional ex- advertisements; the participants felt they pectancy. This research illustrated the im- could not relate to the image presented in portance of buying patterns and customer the advertisement. The major question self-image. It suggested that the psycholog- was what particular market the advertise- ical factor related to intimate apparel dress ment was geared for: may be more important than the physical requirements of the garment. The emo- A.L.: They’re appealing to guys; obviously it’s not tional affects on the consumers self-worth just for us. The lollypop won’t help us look like and confidence was determined by apparel that. generally viewed by only the wearer. K.D.: It’s like what’s happening in society: younger Many intimate apparel advertisements ages are trying to look sexier while older women depict unrealistic, yet desirable, body im- are starting to age down. ages that create negative emotional reac- N.D.: Is it right to be thinking that younger is tions which, especially for women, can sexier? cause consumers to focus on often unach- ievable image-related goals (Pollay, 2000). One image selected by the focus group Throughout the research it was shown that displayed a measuring tape around a human emotions can be greatly affected in nega- waist (See Image 6). It was determined that tive ways. That is why print media advertis- even though all four prompt images (See ing is a vital form of marketing; advertise- Images 1-4) images were designed to look ments are designed to increase consumer cute; only the first two appropriately con- buying by reinforcing product image in ac- nected with the participants. The explana- cordance to the demands of target markets tion of the measuring tape was a negative (Ambler & Vakratsas, 2006). response to the second two advertisements: Although ZMET is a fairly new concept, it has been used with increasing popular- A.W.: I don’t need to be a little girl. I am who I ity in other advertising studies; it serves as am: a woman. an extended measurement for emotional response and acts as a follow up to previ- Further discussion between the group ous research on consumer attitudes to- participants revealed that the measuring wards advertisements (Bauer & Greyser, tape showed how we are not all one size 1968; Coulter, Coulter, & Zaltman, 2001). and that the advertisements depicted ex- The research conducted provided two dis- tremely skinny models. tinct tests on emotional response, through

115 Explorations | Social Sciences which all were measured using a differ- to affect one’s self-concept, research on tar- ent medium (i.e., journaling and ZMET). get markets through ZMET can provide The use of different techniques increased greater insight into how the consumers feel, the possibility of discovering more aspects what they desire to feel, and what types of of specific advertisement study response advertising can achieve this goal. j than most other general techniques per- mit (Coulter, Coulter, & Zaltman, 2001). Through ZMET, companies can get an- swers through visual responses discussed further with participants during focus groups to issues which concern visual ideas. Ultimately, this can benefit market segmen- tation and research for companies.

Implications f o r Fu r t h e r Re s e a r c h The research findings provide implications regarding advertisers’ use of visual commu- nication in the form of print media, the use of the ZMET to explore responses to visual prompts, and, more specifically, the use of the ZMET in consumer research to explore the relationship between interpretation of visual stimuli and purchase motivation. In this research, it was noted that not all of the participants felt that each garment viewed as an image would have met their needs for emotional fulfillment. This research raised the question: Why, if intimate apparel im- ages may be viewed negatively, are they so often used by the companies to sell prod- ucts? In addition to the ZMET, quantita- tive research might provide insight into the number of companies, specific lines, or particular ads that are adequately bridg- ing the emotional gap between fantasy and reality. Due to correlations between cloth- ing and self-concept satisfaction, compa- nies can efficiently advertise products that positively affect the ways that identity is created through dress. Additionally, the ZMET can be used to further explore the use of different products (i.e., sportswear or formal wear), especially those that have strong emotional connections to their mar- kets (Coulter, Coulter, & Zaltman, 1995; Coulter & Zaltman, 2001). Since personal experience and social interaction are able

116 Evelyn Siergiej

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About the Authors

Ashley Gedraitis University of North Carolina Wilmington is currently an undergraduate at Wake in 2008 with a Bachelor of Arts in Forest University, where she is pursuing English and history. She is currently a double major in English and sociology seeking a Master of Science in technical with a minor in women and gender communication at North Carolina studies. In addition to earning dean’s State University and plans to graduate list while at Wake Forest, Ashley serves in May of 2011. She was awarded a as a presidential aide to the university’s teaching assistantship from NC State’s president, Dr. Hatch, and as an editor professional writing department and will for the student-run online magazine. She be teaching communication for business is currently studying abroad in London and management in the fall of 2010. where she is concentrating on expository Sarah plans to continue her research of writing, and looks forward to returning to technology in the classroom by focusing Wake Forest to begin work at its university her graduate capstone project on the press. Ashley hopes to pursue a career in development of teaching personas in publishing or in editorial work following online learning environments. completion of her BA. Stephanie Ricker Leah Jordan is a recent summa cum laude graduate of was born and raised in Cincinnati, Campbell University in Buies Creek, North Ohio, and has always been interested in Carolina, where she majored in English animal behavior. She graduated from the and minored in history. During her senior University of North Carolina Wilmington year, she was editor-in-chief of the Lyricist, with a BA in psychology and a minor the university’s creative writing publication, in biology in May 2009. The research and she was the president of the Mabel presented in this volume was completed Powell English Club. She is a member of as an honors thesis and was presented various honor societies, and her research at several research conferences. She is on the works of J.R.R. Tolkien was the currently completing an internship at result of her year-long honors senior thesis the Dolphin Conservation Center at project. Since graduating, she is working Marineland in Florida where she assists in the e-book editorial industry. Stephanie with dolphin care and training. She hopes enjoys reading, writing, and climbing trees to achieve a dolphin training or research in her spare time. Stephanie’s mentor, Dr. position in the near future. Frank Vaughan, is the chair of the English department at Campbell University, and he specializes in the romantic period, Sarah E. McKone particularly the poet and artist William graduated magna cum laude from the Blake.

121 About the Authors

Evelyn Siergiej graduated from Mars Hill College in 2008 with a Bachelor of Science in fashion and interior merchandising. Since graduating she has settled in the Pittsburgh area and is pursuing a career in business and retailing.

Michael S. Tildsley, Jr. was born in Goldsboro, North Carolina, but has many hometowns. He graduated magna mum laude in May 2009 from Campbell University with a BA in English. Michael presented an unabridged version of this research at the first annual Walter S. Barge Honors Colloquium in April 2009. He was vice president of Sigma Tau Delta, a Presidential Scholar, member of Phi Eta Sigma and Circle K, College of Arts and Sciences Honors Program graduate, and Lyricist staff member. Michael worked a great deal with Student Support Services in his time at Campbell University, serving as writing center coach and tutor for several subjects. He attributes his collegiate success and academic vigor to remarkable friendships, supportive family, and amazing faculty mentors. Michael is profoundly interested in creative writing, the evolution of speculative fiction, and its acceptance in society and the maturation of the human spirit.

122 Submissions Who is eligible? The primary author or authors must be undergraduates at a 2 or 4 year college or univer- sity in the state of North Carolina working on original research under the direction of a faculty mentor. Works may be co-authored. What to Submit? We are seeking research papers, critical essays (literature/research reviews, articles written on a particular topic), or media submissions of performing/fine art endeavors.

The Journal of Undergraduate Research and Creative Activities for the State of North Carolina will be published primarily online, providing opportunities for a variety of text and media submissions in the following disciplines:

Biological, Earth, and Physcial Sciences Business and Legal Creative Writing and Discourse Humanities Mathematics Performing Arts Social Sciences Technology and Engineering Visual Arts and Design

How to Submit? All submissions will be accepted electronically in the following formats: Word, PDF, JPG. Be sure your submission is rewriteable so the editorial staff can format accepted submis- sions for publication. Images, tables, and figures must be high resolution (300 dpi). Please attach your submissions and all additional forms in an email addresed to: [email protected]. Deadline: April 1, 2010 Suggestions for Success 1. Make sure your name is on everything you submit

2. Use your initials and submission title as the title of your paper and/or any other email attachments; this way everything can be easily identified.

3. Turn in your required forms with your submission. Submissions sent without all required forms will not be accepted. Detailed information at www.explorationsjournal.com.

4. Once your work has been blind reviewed, you may submit your work yourself or your faculty mentor may submit it. If you are a single author, we should be reviewing your work from you. If you are one of multiple authors, decide who will be the main contact and have him/her submit on behalf of all.

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