DOCSLIB.ORG

Nominalism and Casuistry in Scotus, Ockham and Mair

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Nominalism and Casuistry in Scotus, Ockham and Mair chapter 5 Nominalism and Casuistry in Scotus, Ockham and Mair 1 The Rise of Nominalism By the end of the thirteenth century Aquinas’ analysis of a moral act had be- come dominant and accepted as definitive in moral theology. But his balance between subjectivity and objectivity was challenged. Did things have natures? Aquinas had argued that they did, but Augustine himself had denied that na- tures could be defined by the necessary law of essences. Natures were what God wanted things to be, or the objects of God’s good pleasure. The dominance of Thomist scholasticism, associated with the Dominican order, would not last long. By the start of the fourteenth century a new era had begun: under the influence of philosophical nominalism, or the via moderna, only individual problems were there to be investigated. Almost immediately after the death of Aquinas, Duns Scotus, as a Franciscan, challenged Aquinas’ objectivity. Aquinas died in 1274, Scotus in 1308. The world of moral theology was chang- ing, and the new emphasis on the will—voluntarism—was pronounced. This is an echo of Abelard’s nominalism, which we have encountered before in his commentary on Romans, but now Scotus offered a degree of philosophical and theological rigour not seen in Abelard. The clash between Dominicans and Franciscans went deep.1 The development of moral theology after Aquinas is the story of the rise of nominalism. Before we examine the specific contribution of the Franciscan theologians, in particular Duns Scotus and Ockham, it is important also to hear the criticism of nominalism. We come to the primarily French debate known as nouvelle théologie from the 1930s onwards about medieval theology and what they saw as its corruption. This group of scholars led to the major re- newal of the Roman Catholic Church known as the Second Vatican Council in the early 1960s. In the 1930s a series of Roman Catholic theologians, especially in France, delineated the fissures in the medieval synthesis which led to the Reformation. These theologians saw the Reformation as merely the inexorable culmination of the breakdown of theology in the medieval and early modern 1 Siedentop, Larry, Inventing the Individual: The Origins of Western Liberalism, describes the tension between the two orders, especially on pp. 299–300. © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2019 | doi:10.1163/9789004384927_006 Nominalism and Casuistry in Scotus, Ockham and Mair 121 period. Their argument was that the medieval synthesis (itself a contested term) had been severely weakened by the beginning of the sixteenth century to the point where some dramatic changes were bound to happen: the change that we now know as the Reformation was, in one sense, bound to take place in one form or another. These mainly French scholars were primarily concerned to criticize nominalism, although nominalism also gave rise to casuistry, which was of great importance in the Reformation and early moral reasoning in the Church of England. The nouvelle théologie theologians nevertheless saw nomi- nalism as responsible for breaking up the sacramental world of the patristic and early medieval period.2 Hans Boersma gives a helpful account of this school. He describes the un- derstanding of these theologians, not always agreeing with one another, on the breakdown of what he calls ‘sacramental ontology’, which is the key to medi- eval theology. The nouvelle théologie school felt that the late Middle Ages saw the end of the Platonic–Christian synthesis. The theologians did not entirely agree with one another, but there was a broad consistency to their thought. In particular they challenged the dominant school of Neo-Thomism, which en- trenched Thomist philosophy in a very formal and intellectual manner. Henri de Lubac and his student Jean Daniélou published extensively from the late 1930s a series of studies of the Eucharist, nature and grace, and the exegesis of Scripture. A second group of Dominicans, including Marie-Dominique Chenu and Yves Congar, wrote on the tradition, and especially on Thomas Aquinas. This school sought to bring a unity of contemplative prayer, action and study by renewing the great patristic and medieval tradition which had declined so much in the late Middle Ages. Nouvelle théologie was an effort to reintegrate faith and theology; it was an effort to go back to Scripture itself; and it was an endeavour to allow theology to speak to people’s everyday lives. In particular the ressourcement movement tried to reweave the sacramental tapestry of the Great Tradition by reinte- grating nature and the supernatural, the two realms that the Neo-Thomist scholastics, with their much-debated appeal to Thomas Aquinas, had kept her- metically sealed and separated from one another.3 Five decisive changes led to the school of theology known as nominalism which was prevalent on the eve of the Reformation. We have seen earlier that 2 Boersma, Hans, Heavenly Participation: The Weaving of a Sacramental Tapestry, pp. 15–16. There is also his much more detailed account in Nouvelle Théologie and Sacramental Ontology: A Return to Mystery. He describes the breakdown of the medieval synthesis in the latter work on p. 29. 3 Boersma, Heavenly Participation, p. 16..
Load more

Recommended publications
  • One Hundred Years of Thomism Aeterni Patris and Afterwards a Symposium
    One Hundred Years of Thomism Aeterni Patris and Afterwards A Symposium Edited By Victor B. Brezik, C.S.B, CENTER FOR THOMISTIC STUDIES University of St. Thomas Houston, Texas 77006 ~ NIHIL OBSTAT: ReverendJamesK. Contents Farge, C.S.B. Censor Deputatus INTRODUCTION . 1 IMPRIMATUR: LOOKING AT THE PAST . 5 Most Reverend John L. Morkovsky, S.T.D. A Remembrance Of Pope Leo XIII: The Encyclical Aeterni Patris, Leonard E. Boyle,O.P. 7 Bishop of Galveston-Houston Commentary, James A. Weisheipl, O.P. ..23 January 6, 1981 The Legacy Of Etienne Gilson, Armand A. Maurer,C.S.B . .28 The Legacy Of Jacques Maritain, Christian Philosopher, First Printing: April 1981 Donald A. Gallagher. .45 LOOKING AT THE PRESENT. .61 Copyright©1981 by The Center For Thomistic Studies Reflections On Christian Philosophy, All rights reserved. No part of this book may be used or Ralph McInerny . .63 reproduced in any manner whatsoever without written Thomism And Today's Crisis In Moral Values, Michael permission, except in the case of brief quotations embodied in Bertram Crowe . .74 critical articles and reviews. For information, write to The Transcendental Thomism, A Critical Assessment, Center For Thomistic Studies, 3812 Montrose Boulevard, Robert J. Henle, S.J. 90 Houston, Texas 77006. LOOKING AT THE FUTURE. .117 Library of Congress catalog card number: 80-70377 Can St. Thomas Speak To The Modem World?, Leo Sweeney, S.J. .119 The Future Of Thomistic Metaphysics, ISBN 0-9605456-0-3 Joseph Owens, C.Ss.R. .142 EPILOGUE. .163 The New Center And The Intellectualism Of St. Thomas, Printed in the United States of America Vernon J.
    [Show full text]
  • St. Augustine and the Doctrine of the Mystical Body of Christ Stanislaus J
    ST. AUGUSTINE AND THE DOCTRINE OF THE MYSTICAL BODY OF CHRIST STANISLAUS J. GRABOWSKI, S.T.D., S.T.M. Catholic University of America N THE present article a study will be made of Saint Augustine's doc­ I trine of the Mystical Body of Christ. This subject is, as it will be later pointed out, timely and fruitful. It is of unutterable importance for the proper and full conception of the Church. This study may be conveniently divided into four parts: (I) A fuller consideration of the doctrine of the Mystical Body of Christ, as it is found in the works of the great Bishop of Hippo; (II) a brief study of that same doctrine, as it is found in the sources which the Saint utilized; (III) a scrutiny of the place that this doctrine holds in the whole system of his religious thought and of some of its peculiarities; (IV) some consideration of the influence that Saint Augustine exercised on the development of this particular doctrine in theologians and doctrinal systems. THE DOCTRINE St. Augustine gives utterance in many passages, as the occasion de­ mands, to words, expressions, and sentences from which we are able to infer that the Church of his time was a Church of sacramental rites and a hierarchical order. Further, writing especially against Donatism, he is led Xo portray the Church concretely in its historical, geographical, visible form, characterized by manifest traits through which she may be recognized and discerned from false chuiches. The aspect, however, of the concept of the Church which he cherished most fondly and which he never seems tired of teaching, repeating, emphasizing, and expound­ ing to his listeners is the Church considered as the Body of Christ.1 1 On St.
    [Show full text]
  • Antoine De Chandieu (1534-1591): One of the Fathers Of
    CALVIN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY ANTOINE DE CHANDIEU (1534-1591): ONE OF THE FATHERS OF REFORMED SCHOLASTICISM? A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF CALVIN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY THEODORE GERARD VAN RAALTE GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN MAY 2013 CALVIN THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY 3233 Burton SE • Grand Rapids, Michigan • 49546-4301 800388-6034 fax: 616 957-8621 [email protected] www. calvinseminary. edu. This dissertation entitled ANTOINE DE CHANDIEU (1534-1591): L'UN DES PERES DE LA SCHOLASTIQUE REFORMEE? written by THEODORE GERARD VAN RAALTE and submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy has been accepted by the faculty of Calvin Theological Seminary upon the recommendation of the undersigned readers: Richard A. Muller, Ph.D. I Date ~ 4 ,,?tJ/3 Dean of Academic Programs Copyright © 2013 by Theodore G. (Ted) Van Raalte All rights reserved For Christine CONTENTS Preface .................................................................................................................. viii Abstract ................................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1 Introduction: Historiography and Scholastic Method Introduction .............................................................................................................1 State of Research on Chandieu ...............................................................................6 Published Research on Chandieu’s Contemporary
    [Show full text]
  • Life with Augustine
    Life with Augustine ...a course in his spirit and guidance for daily living By Edmond A. Maher ii Life with Augustine © 2002 Augustinian Press Australia Sydney, Australia. Acknowledgements: The author wishes to acknowledge and thank the following people: ► the Augustinian Province of Our Mother of Good Counsel, Australia, for support- ing this project, with special mention of Pat Fahey osa, Kevin Burman osa, Pat Codd osa and Peter Jones osa ► Laurence Mooney osa for assistance in editing ► Michael Morahan osa for formatting this 2nd Edition ► John Coles, Peter Gagan, Dr. Frank McGrath fms (Brisbane CEO), Benet Fonck ofm, Peter Keogh sfo for sharing their vast experience in adult education ► John Rotelle osa, for granting us permission to use his English translation of Tarcisius van Bavel’s work Augustine (full bibliography within) and for his scholarly advice Megan Atkins for her formatting suggestions in the 1st Edition, that have carried over into this the 2nd ► those generous people who have completed the 1st Edition and suggested valuable improvements, especially Kath Neehouse and friends at Villanova College, Brisbane Foreword 1 Dear Participant Saint Augustine of Hippo is a figure in our history who has appealed to the curiosity and imagination of many generations. He is well known for being both sinner and saint, for being a bishop yet also a fellow pilgrim on the journey to God. One of the most popular and attractive persons across many centuries, his influence on the church has continued to our current day. He is also renowned for his influ- ence in philosophy and psychology and even (in an indirect way) art, music and architecture.
    [Show full text]
  • THE SCHOLASTIC PERIOD Beatus Rhenanus, a Close Friend Of
    CHAPTER THREE MEDIEVAL HISTORY: THE SCHOLASTIC PERIOD Beatus Rhenanus, a close friend of Erasmus and the most famous humanist historian of Germany, dated the rise of scholasticism (and hence the decay of theology) at “around the year of grace 1140”, when men like Peter Lombard (1095/1100–1160), Peter Abelard (1079–1142), and Gratian († c. 1150) were active.1 Erasmus, who cared relatively little about chronology, never gave such a precise indication, but one may assume that he did not disagree with Beatus, whose views may have directly influenced him. As we have seen, he believed that the fervour of the gospel had grown cold among most Christians during the previous four hundred years.2 Although his statement pertained to public morality rather than to theology,3 other passages from his work confirm that in Erasmus’ eyes those four centuries represented the age of scholasticism. In his biography of Jerome, he complained that for the scholastics nobody “who had lived before the last four hundred years” was a theologian,4 and in a work against Noël Bédier he pointed to a tradition of “four hun- dred years during which scholastic theology, gravely burdened by the decrees of the philosophers and the contrivances of the sophists, has wielded its reign”.5 In one other case he assigned to scholasti- cism a tradition of three centuries.6 Thus by the second half of the twelfth century, Western Christendom, in Erasmus’ conception, had entered the most distressing phase of its history, even though the 1 See John F. D’Amico, “Beatus Rhenanus, Tertullian and the Reformation: A Humanist’s Critique of Scholasticism”, Archiv für Reformationsgeschichte 71 (1980), 37–63 esp.
    [Show full text]
  • Three Early Biblical Translations
    * * * * * * * Three Early Biblical Translations We do not have any of the original manuscripts of the books that have been included in the Bible. All we have is copies of copies. Most of the original manuscripts of the Old Testament were written in Hebrew, although a few chapters of Ezra and Daniel were recorded in Aramaic, the language of Jesus. The books of the New Testament were first written in Greek. The first translations of the Bible were of the Hebrew Bible. The Septuagint (SEP-too-a-jint) was a Greek translation written about three centuries before the birth of Christ. Two other early translations, composed after the birth of Christ, were the Peshitta in Syriac and the Vulgate in Latin. These three translations, the Septuagint, Peshitta, and Vulgate became the official translations of the Old Testament for the Greek-, Syriac-, and Latin-speaking churches respectively. Each also became the basis for other translations of the Bible. The Septuagint The Septuagint (from the Latin word septuaginta meaning seventy) was a Greek version of the Bible created during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (ca. 285-246 BCE) in Alexandria, Egypt for Diaspora Jews. Most of Jews living outside of Palestine were Greek-speaking as a result of Alexander the Great's (357-323 BCE) campaign to Hellenize his empire. First verses of Genesis (click for larger picture) At first, the Septuagint (LXX) consisted only of the Pentateuch (Torah, first five books of the Bible). Different books were translated from the Hebrew over a span of two centuries, including the books of the Apocrypha, and were added to the LXX.
    [Show full text]
  • The Etienne Gilson Series 21
    The Etienne Gilson Series 21 Remapping Scholasticism by MARCIA L. COLISH 3 March 2000 Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies This lecture and its publication was made possible through the generous bequest of the late Charles J. Sullivan (1914-1999) Note: the author may be contacted at: Department of History Oberlin College Oberlin OH USA 44074 ISSN 0-708-319X ISBN 0-88844-721-3 © 2000 by Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies 59 Queen’s Park Crescent East Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 2C4 Printed in Canada nce upon a time there were two competing story-lines for medieval intellectual history, each writing a major role for scholasticism into its script. Although these story-lines were O created independently and reflected different concerns, they sometimes overlapped and gave each other aid and comfort. Both exerted considerable influence on the way historians of medieval speculative thought conceptualized their subject in the first half of the twentieth cen- tury. Both versions of the map drawn by these two sets of cartographers illustrated what Wallace K. Ferguson later described as “the revolt of the medievalists.”1 One was confined largely to the academy and appealed to a wide variety of medievalists, while the other had a somewhat narrower draw and reflected political and confessional, as well as academic, concerns. The first was the anti-Burckhardtian effort to push Renaissance humanism, understood as combining a knowledge and love of the classics with “the discovery of the world and of man,” back into the Middle Ages. The second was inspired by the neo-Thomist revival launched by Pope Leo XIII, and was inhabited almost exclusively by Roman Catholic scholars.
    [Show full text]
  • John Duns Scotus's Metaphysics of Goodness
    University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 11-16-2015 John Duns Scotus’s Metaphysics of Goodness: Adventures in 13th-Century Metaethics Jeffrey W. Steele University of South Florida, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the Medieval History Commons, Philosophy Commons, and the Religious Thought, Theology and Philosophy of Religion Commons Scholar Commons Citation Steele, Jeffrey W., "John Duns Scotus’s Metaphysics of Goodness: Adventures in 13th-Century Metaethics" (2015). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/6029 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. John Duns Scotus’s Metaphysics of Goodness: Adventures in 13 th -Century Metaethics by Jeffrey Steele A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Philosophy College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Major Professor: Thomas Williams, Ph.D. Roger Ariew, Ph.D. Colin Heydt, Ph.D. Joanne Waugh, Ph.D Date of Approval: November 12, 2015 Keywords: Medieval Philosophy, Transcendentals, Being, Aquinas Copyright © 2015, Jeffrey Steele DEDICATION To the wife of my youth, who with patience and long-suffering endured much so that I might gain a little knowledge. And to God, fons de bonitatis . She encouraged me; he sustained me. Both have blessed me. “O taste and see that the LORD is good; How blessed is the man who takes refuge in Him!!” --Psalm 34:8 “You are the boundless good, communicating your rays of goodness so generously, and as the most lovable being of all, every single being in its own way returns to you as its ultimate end.” –John Duns Scotus, De Primo Principio Soli Deo Gloria .
    [Show full text]
  • MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY NEO-THOMIST APPROACHES to MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Dissertation Submitted to the College of Arts and Sciences Of
    MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY NEO-THOMIST APPROACHES TO MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Dissertation Submitted to The College of Arts and Sciences of the UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Theology By Matthew Glen Minix UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON Dayton, Ohio December 2016 MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY NEO-THOMIST APPROACHES TO MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Name: Minix, Matthew G. APPROVED BY: _____________________________________ Sandra A. Yocum, Ph.D. Dissertation Director _____________________________________ William L. Portier, Ph.D. Dissertation Reader. _____________________________________ Anthony Burke Smith, Ph.D. Dissertation Reader _____________________________________ John A. Inglis, Ph.D. Dissertation Reader _____________________________________ Jack J. Bauer, Ph.D. _____________________________________ Daniel Speed Thompson, Ph.D. Chair, Department of Religious Studies ii © Copyright by Matthew Glen Minix All rights reserved 2016 iii ABSTRACT MID-TWENTIETH CENTURY NEO-THOMIST APPROACHES TO MODERN PSYCHOLOGY Name: Minix, Matthew Glen University of Dayton Advisor: Dr. Sandra A. Yocum This dissertation considers a spectrum of five distinct approaches that mid-twentieth century neo-Thomist Catholic thinkers utilized when engaging with the tradition of modern scientific psychology: a critical approach, a reformulation approach, a synthetic approach, a particular [Jungian] approach, and a personalist approach. This work argues that mid-twentieth century neo-Thomists were essentially united in their concerns about the metaphysical principles of many modern psychologists as well as in their worries that these same modern psychologists had a tendency to overlook the transcendent dimension of human existence. This work shows that the first four neo-Thomist thinkers failed to bring the traditions of neo-Thomism and modern psychology together to the extent that they suggested purely theoretical ways of reconciling them.
    [Show full text]
  • Doctrine of Purgatory 1208 1244 Aquinas & Indulgences Patriarchate
    Doctrine of Patriarchate Constantinople Palestine lostPope Clement Bubonic Emperor’s Reformer Council of Spanish purgatory of Kiev retaken 1291 V plague submission John Hus 3 popes! Florence Inquisition 1208 1248 1261 1305 1347 1355 1412 1409 1439 1479 1244 ~1250 1274 1302 1335 1330-1368 1378 1418 1453 Aquinas & Scholasticism Council of Pope Boniface Hundred Barlaam & Popes, antipopes & Council of Fall of indulgences Lyons III Years’ War Palamas schism Constance Constantinople SESSION 23: CRUSADES TO THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE – CONTENT 1. Pope Urban’s vision of a unified Church quickly turned into an effort to Latinize the East through the Crusades. Although Pope Innocent III had instructed crusaders to not go to Constantinople (4th, 1204), they took mules into the sanctuary of Hagia Sophia to carry away plunder. And Innocent then said that the crusade was a “just judgement of God”. He began the rebaptizing and reordination of Eastern clergy who converted, and inconsiderately installed a Venetian nobleman as the Latin Patriarch of Constantinople. Later, the West began blaming the East for the crusades’ failures. The following years were devastation in both East and West. The East was under constant Turkish attack as the Byzantine Empire diminished. In the West nationalism gave rise to independent countries and kings, who sought to control Rome. Two events brought great devastation to all of Europe – the Hundred Years’ War between England and France, and the Bubonic Plague. The historian S.E. Ozmont said, “As never before, not even during the century of the Roman Empire’s collapse, Western people walked through the valley of the shadow of death”.
    [Show full text]
  • The Problematic of the Augustinian Doctrine of Grace for Contemporary Theology D
    Journal for Christian Theological Research Volume 5 Article 2 2000 Nature Dis-Graced and Grace De-Natured: The Problematic of the Augustinian Doctrine of Grace for Contemporary Theology D. Lyle Dabney Marquette University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.luthersem.edu/jctr Part of the Religious Thought, Theology and Philosophy of Religion Commons Recommended Citation Dabney, D. Lyle (2000) "Nature Dis-Graced and Grace De-Natured: The rP oblematic of the Augustinian Doctrine of Grace for Contemporary Theology," Journal for Christian Theological Research: Vol. 5 , Article 2. Available at: http://digitalcommons.luthersem.edu/jctr/vol5/iss2000/2 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Digital Commons @ Luther Seminary. It has been accepted for inclusion in Journal for Christian Theological Research by an authorized editor of Digital Commons @ Luther Seminary. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 12/18/2017 Nature Dis-Graced and Grace De-Natured: The Problematic of the Augustinian Doctrie of Grace for Contemporary Theology D. Lyle Dabney, "Nature Dis­Graced and Grace De­Natured: The Problematic of the Augustinian Doctrine of Grace for Contemporary Theology," Journal for Christian Theological Research [http://apu.edu/~CTRF/articles/2000_articles/dabney.html] 5:3 (2000). Nature Dis­Graced and Grace De­Natured: The Problematic of the Augustinian Doctrine of Grace for Contemporary Theology D. Lyle Dabney Marquette University , Milwaukee, Wisconsin 1. "Contemporary theology" Kilian McDonnell writes, "has turned from a theology of the Word to a theology of the world".(1) That statement, it seems to me, neatly sums up the current situation in theology.
    [Show full text]
  • Scholasticism and Biblical Humanism in Early Modern Europe
    INTRODUCTION SCHOLASTICISM AND BIBLICAL HUMANISM IN EARLY MODERN EUROPE Erika Rummel Throughout the Middle Ages dialectical disputation was the domi- nant academic method of inquiry. Built on Aristotelian logic and the summaries and commentaries of medieval exegetes, dialectic was the mainstay of the scholastic system. This habit of mind was challenged in quattrocento Italy by scholars using philological and historical meth- ods in the study of classical texts. For some time the two approaches existed side by side. The dialectic method and its scholastic practitioners continued to dominate the universities, while humanists (as the enthu- siasts of classical literature came to be called) operated mainly outside academic institutions and eventually began to exert infl uence through the new medium of the printing press. The humanistic method was advocated in prefaces accompanying editions of classical texts and discussed in that quintessential humanistic expedient, the personal letter. Letters served as links among members of the humanistic republic of letters and allowed them to form a network of communication. Published in collections, these missives reached an even broader audience. Programmatic pieces advancing the cause of humanism and the New Learning included Petrarch’s prototype attack on the Aristotelians in his epistle On His Own Ignorance (1368); Salutati’s defence of classical pagan literature in his letter to Giovanni da Sam- miniato (1405); the epistolary exchange between Giovanni Pico della Mirandola and Ermolao Barbaro on the respective merits of rhetoric and philosophy (1485); Erasmus’ Ratio theologiae, which fi rst appeared among the prefatory material to his New Testament edition (1516); and Philip Melanchthon’s inaugural speech at the University of Wittenberg (1518).
    [Show full text]